title: Jessabelle

text: During Leon's funeral, Jessie reunites with her high school friend, Preston Sanders (Mark Webber), but collapses after she sees a severely burned man (Vaughan Wilson). After Preston leaves from tending to Jessie, she watches the third tape, which was focused on Leon and Kate in an outing and their Christmas party with the announcement of the latter's pregnancy, and the fourth tape, in which it focused on the foretold tarot readings and Kate tearfully shouting "You're dead!" before the footage cut off. After watching the tape, Jessie notices the woman behind her in the mirror. The mirror then shatters, and Jessie discovers a small secret compartment holding a tape (that wasn't found in the box) with no label on it that she opts not to watch. The next day, Jessie and Preston head across a nearby bayou, which Jessie has been suspicious of since observing glittering light and flames appearing there. The two discover voodoo icons and effects, as well as a grave of "Jessabelle" with a baby's skeleton, dated on Jessie's birthday, which they turn over to Sheriff Pruitt (Chris Ellis) for DNA testing. Jessie and Preston then visit the house of Mrs. Davis (Fran Bennett), the mother of one of their friends and the Laurents' former family cook, who speaks about Moses Harper, Kate's aforementioned friend from her church mentioned in the second tape. Thinking that Moses may be involved in the supernatural occurrences, the two head to Moses' voodoo shrine in a ruined church, but are attacked by a group of men who force them to leave.


title: Jessabelle

text: The two return to Jessie's home where Preston confesses that, despite being married, he is in love with Jessie. Preston offers to let Jessie live with his mother, which she accepts. Just before Jessie can finish her packing; Preston is attacked by the ghostly woman and knocked unconscious.


title: Jessabelle

text: Now left alone, Jessie conducts a ritual to summon the woman. After the ritual, Jessie is called by Pruitt, who informs her that the baby was Kate's daughter, but not Leon's. She plays the blank tape where it presents Kate casting a voodoo enchantment on a newborn white girl and committing suicide by gunshot, not before tearfully shouting that Jessabelle and her father Moses are dead, attempting to suffocate the infant girl with a pillow, and changing her mind to conduct the incantation. Jessie is confronted by Kate's spirit and realizes the truth that her "father" was hiding from her: the video tapes filmed were for Jessabelle, who was the daughter of Kate and Moses as the product of an interracial affair at the same church mentioned in the second tape. Jessabelle was killed on the night of her birth, along with her father, by Leon. On that night, Leon scolded Kate for being unfaithful, picked up Jessabelle from her crib and snapped her spine in half. After Kate laments as she holds her daughter's now-lifeless body, Leon pushed a baby carriage carrying her lifeless body and a porcelain doll inside into the bayou, weighing it down with stones to prevent it from resurfacing. Leon then drove up to Kate and Moses' church where he shot Moses and set the building ablaze, leaving Moses for dead in the burning church. Jessie realizes that "she" is the unwanted presence, being the newborn white girl adopted by Leon on that same night to cover up the murders.


title: Jessabelle

text: Swearing revenge, Kate and Moses planned to transfer Jessabelle's spirit to Jessie. Jessie is pushed by Kate and Moses' spirits towards the bayou and into it, where the biracial spirit of Jessabelle swims up and takes her mother's bracelet, resurfacing back in the same white physical body of Jessie. Preston jumps in to save her and she kisses him and asks him to take her home. When Pruitt asks "Miss Laurent" if she is all right, she replies "It's Jessabelle".


title: Jessabelle

text: Greutert was approached to direct "Jessabelle" a year after the release of "Saw 3D" and, after reading through the script, agreed to direct. Filming was initially meant to take place in Louisiana, where the film is set, but was forced to move to Wilmington, North Carolina after no appropriate filming location could be located. in April 2012, it was reported Amber Stevens, Ana de la Reguera, Sarah Snook and Mark Webber had all been cast in the film.


title: Jessabelle

text: Greutert edited the film on his own and initially the film was slated to release on January 10, 2014,


title: Jessabelle

text: The film was later pushed back to an August 29 release date before it was given a limited release and video on demand release on November 7.


title: Jessabelle

text: Critical reception for "Jessabelle" has been mixed to negative, and the film holds a 28% "rotten" rating on "Rotten Tomatoes" (based on 36 reviews). The consensus reads, ""Jessabelle" hints at a bright future for star Sarah Snook, but clouds her performance with a clichéd—and tasteless—storyline."


title: Jessabelle

text: Justin Chang wrote in "Variety", "Making atmospheric use of the Louisiana locations, Michael Fimognari’s digital lensing alternates nicely between pleasingly sun-drenched exteriors and sewer-toned nighttime interiors," but concluded, "novel twists and effective scares prove few and far between in this ludicrous bayou gothic." Sheila O'Mally wrote, "Steeped in Southern Gothic melodrama, "Jessabelle" is interesting in some of the small details, and in its strong sense of the Louisiana bayou atmosphere, and then it completely falls apart when it starts being a horror film. In "The New York Post", Sarah Stewart called the film, " occasionally shivery, (but) overly familiar. "Slant Magazine" and "IGN" both panned the film, with "IGN" stating that ""Jessabelle's" familiar trickery and repetitive screams sucks the life out of a promising Southern bayou atmosphere." Jordan Hoffman wrote in "The New York Daily News", "There are few scares here, but plenty of mild grossness. The absurd ending ties up the mystery in a way that’s sure to annoy both supernaturalists and realists." Alan Scherstuhl wrote in "Village Voice", "There's a couple fine (but gratingly shriek-y) ghost scares, and some grandly ripe (and dopily predictable) VHS messages from beyond the grave. But the mystery drags, its clues never really registering — they just accumulate, along with hints of backstory, a laundry-like pile you would prefer not to deal with but will have to sort through eventually."


title: Jessabelle

text: "Fangoria" was somewhat more positive in their review, writing "If the buildup is more satisfying than the payoff, "Jessabelle" remains a creditable attempt to do something a little different and down-to-Earth on the paranormal scene."


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The Lake Shore Limited is an overnight Amtrak intercity passenger train that runs between Chicago and either New York City or Boston via two sections east of Albany. The train began service in 1975; its predecessor was Amtrak's Chicago–New York "Lake Shore", which operated during 1971–72. It is named for the New York Central (NYC) "Lake Shore Limited", which was discontinued in 1956, and uses the NYC's former main line, part of which is now the Empire Corridor.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: During fiscal year 2019, the "Lake Shore Limited" carried 357,682 passengers, an increase of 5.9% from FY2018. In FY2016, the train had a total revenue of $28,563,624, an increase of 0.2% over FY2015.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The "Lake Shore Limited" is named after one of its predecessors that ran on the famed Water Level Route of the NYC. Like the present day "Lake Shore Limited", the NYC edition offered service between New York and Boston and Chicago, although the New York Central used LaSalle Street Station. The New York Central annulled the "Lake Shore Limited" in 1956 as part of a system-wide reorganization. Service over the Water Level Route continued until the formation of Amtrak, with the last route being the "New England States" and an unnamed Penn Central successor.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: Amtrak did not include service west of Buffalo over the New York Central's Water Level Route in its original route plan; Chicago–New York traffic was handled by the "Broadway Limited" using the Pennsylvania Railroad's main line via Pittsburgh, while Albany–Boston did not have any train service"." Between May 1971 and January 1972, Amtrak operated the Chicago–New York "Lake Shore" with support from the state of Ohio. The present-day "Lake Shore Limited" began running October 31, 1975, with both New York and Boston sections.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The "Lake Shore Limited" was the last train to use the decaying Buffalo Central Terminal, departing on October 28, 1979. Since then it has used . Its New York terminus changed from Grand Central Terminal to Pennsylvania Station in 1991 following the opening of the Empire Connection.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: On the night of August 3, 1994, around 3:45 am, the westbound "Lake Shore Limited", with two locomotives and fifteen cars, and carrying roughly 320 passengers, and nineteen crew members, derailed on Conrail-owned tracks (now owned by CSX) near Batavia, New York. The initial derailment of the wheels of the third car on the train, occurred at milepost 403.7, and the train traveled for another three miles, until the general derailment of the train, at milepost 406.7. In all, fourteen cars derailed, with some sliding down an embankment, and 118 passengers and crew members were injured. However, there were no fatalities. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause were the wheels coming off a section of flattened rail.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: Service to Poughkeepsie began on November 8, 2010. In 2010–11, Amtrak studied restoring the Hammond–Whiting station stop just east of the Illinois-Indiana border (which had been dropped in 2003), but ultimately did not restore it due to the difficulty of routing trains to the station's single platform.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: Due to planned repair work on the Freedom Tunnel, Spuyten Duyvil Bridge, and Track 19 in New York's Penn Station, the New York section was discontinued from May 26 to September 3, 2018. Passengers traveling to New York City could transfer at Albany–Rensselaer to "Empire Service" trains, which operated into Grand Central Terminal during the outage.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: From October 1, 2020, to May 31, 2021, daily service was reduced to three trains per week due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In the January 2011 issue of "Trains" Magazine, the "Lake Shore Limited" was listed as one of five routes to undergo improvement evaluation by Amtrak in FY 2011, just as the previous five routes (the "Sunset Limited", "Texas Eagle", "California Zephyr", "Capitol Limited", and "Cardinal") had been examined in FY 2010.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: Amtrak published its Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) for the "Lake Shore Limited" in September 2011. One idea was to change the train's eastbound departure time from Chicago to be earlier. It currently departs at 9:30 PM, to facilitate connections from often-late West Coast trains. The improved departure time would add $2 million in yearly revenue.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: Amtrak considered more radical changes to the operations of the "Lake Shore Limited", including a re-route over the Chicago–Detroit Line, but rejected them. This would be the first full New York City to Chicago train via southwestern Ontario and Detroit since the New York Central's "Wolverine."


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In 2021, Amtrak proposed adding an infill station between Erie and Buffalo in Chautauqua County, New York, in either Westfield or Dunkirk. Plans moved forward in 2022 to study the exact placement of the stop.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The "Lake Shore Limited" consists of a New York section (train number 48 eastbound, 49 westbound) and a Boston section (448 eastbound, 449 westbound), which run combined between Chicago and Albany. As of February 2019, the train typically has two P42DC locomotives (or one P32AC-DM locomotive between New York and Albany), one Viewliner baggage car, three Amfleet II coaches, one Amfleet I split Business/Cafe car, one Viewliner II diner (exclusively accessible to sleeper passengers), and three Viewliner Sleepers.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In normal service, at Albany, the train splits into its Boston and New York sections. Low demand and cost-cutting led Amtrak to drop through service to Boston between 2003 and 2008; passengers made a cross-platform transfer to a shuttle train. The New York section uses a single dual-mode P32AC-DM for third-rail power in Pennsylvania Station. West of Albany, power is provided by two or three GE Genesis P42DC or P40DC diesel locomotives, which continue on to Boston.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In the late 1990s Amtrak considered adding Dunkirk, New York, as a stop between Buffalo and Erie. Dunkirk was listed as a stop with service "to commence on a date to be announced" on several timetables, but the stop was never added.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: During the 2000s and 2010s the "Lake Shore Limited" carried either a Horizon Fleet or Amfleet lounge car. Between November 2007 and December 2009, maintenance problems led Amtrak to withdraw the Heritage diners and substitute Amfleet Cafe-based diner-lites, a move that became a source of passenger displeasure and a liability for the route, as the Heritage cars could prepare fresh food on board. In July 2016, Amtrak once again replaced the Lake Shore's full-service dining car with an Amfleet II diner-lite. This was due to Heritage shortages, as well as a multi-year delay in delivery of the new CAF Viewliner II cars, including 25 diners.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In FY 2010, only fifteen percent of passengers traveled between endpoints (Chicago and Boston or New York), although those travelers contributed 27 percent of ticket revenue. The remainder traveled to and from intermediate stations. According to Amtrak, passengers making connections in Chicago accounted for "a significant portion" of the "Lake Shore Limited’s" ridership and revenues.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: In June 2018, Amtrak replaced the Amfleet II diner-lites with Viewliner II diners and adjusted the on board service by serving a selection of primarily-cold, exclusively pre-packaged boxed meals. The dining car is also now available as lounge space for sleeping car passengers even outside of meal times, but is closed to coach passengers. In January 2019, Amtrak significantly updated the boxed meal service to offer a full continental buffet at breakfast, and multiple hot entrées for lunch and dinner. Also in January 2019, Amtrak removed the baggage car from the Boston section of the train, thereby eliminating all checked baggage and bike service between Boston and Albany. The New York section retains its baggage car. In October 2019, Amtrak again modified the on board dining service for sleeping car passengers by serving the pre-prepared meals on new reusable trays instead of in single use boxes to improve the meal presentation along with a refresh of the entree choices.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The "Lake Shore Limited" between Chicago and New York City operates over the trackage of five railroad companies. The distance between Chicago and New York is , while the distance between Chicago and Boston is . From Chicago to Cleveland, the train rides the Chicago Line, which belongs to Norfolk Southern Railway, and is also used by Amtrak's Chicago-Washington, DC, train, the "Capitol Limited". From Cleveland to Hoffmans, the "Lake Shore" rides on trackage belonging to the following CSX Transportation subdivisions: Cleveland Terminal, Erie West, Buffalo Terminal, Rochester, Syracuse Terminal, Mohawk, Selkirk, and Hudson.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The New York section operates on Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line from to Spuyten Duyvil in the Bronx. Amtrak tracks are used twice: between Hoffmans and Poughkeepsie; and from the Bronx to Penn Station. The New York section only stops to discharge passengers southbound. Northbound trains only stop at Croton-Harmon and Poughkeepsie to receive passengers.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: The Boston section runs on the trackage of several companies as well. The train travels on Amtrak's Post Road Branch from Rensselaer to nearby Schodack, from Schodack to Worcester on CSX's Berkshire and Boston subdivisions, and from Worcester to South Station on the Framingham/Worcester Line track owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). This section only stops eastbound to discharge passengers from Worcester eastward, while westbound trains only stop to receive passengers at Back Bay and Framingham.


title: Lake Shore Limited

text: There is a short distance of trackage between Hudson and Schenectady that allows for operations. Delays to trains 448 and 449 have been common due to the high amount of freight traffic on the single-track railroad between Albany and Worcester.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: The 2021–22 I-League (also known as Hero I-League for sponsorship reasons) was the 15th season of I-League, last as the top tier of Indian football league system, since its establishment in 2007. All the matches were hosted in a bio-secure bubble in West Bengal due to COVID-19 pandemic in India.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: After the commencement of the first match-week of the league on 27 December 2021, the tournament got suspended on 29 December due to reports of numerous COVID-19 cases among the players and staff. All India Football Federation released new dates on 1 February 2022, with a revised schedule of the league resuming from 3 March.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: The AIFF allowed spectators in the second phase of the league. On final matchday, with only a draw needed, Gokulam Kerala defeated Mohammedan by 2–1 to successfully defend the title, becoming the first team to do so in I-League and first time in 14 years to do so in the Indian football league's history.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: The total number of clubs participating increased from 11 in the previous season to 13 in this season.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: In 2020 the AIFF issued an invitation to accept bids for new clubs from non I-League cities, like Delhi, Gangtok, Ranchi, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Mangalore, Bhopal, Lucknow, Kanpur, Ahmedabad and Calicut among many others, to join the league from 2020 onwards. The invitation mentioned that the entity which wins the bid will be granted the right to own and operate a new football club. On 12 August 2020, the AIFF announced that Sreenidi Deccan, which is based in Visakhapatnam would join from this season.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the tournament's format was shortened last season, and the same format is being followed. All teams will face each other once in the first leg of the league, then they will be divided into two different groups. According to points table from first leg, top seven teams will face each other once again in the Championship stage, where the team with most points (cumulative points collected from all seventeen matches) will be declared the winner of the league and qualify for the Playoffs for 2023–24 AFC Cup group stage. The other six teams will play against each other in a Relegation stage where the team with the lowest points (cumulative points collected from all sixteen matches) will be relegated to 2nd Division League.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: AIFF declared West Bengal as the venue for the second straight season on 26 June, with all matches being played at Kalyani Stadium in Kalyani and Naihati Stadium in Naihati. The final match of the league was later rescheduled to be hosted at Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: AIFF allowed maximum of six foreign players including one from AFC-affiliated country per team but only four can be part of matchday squad. Indian Arrows cannot sign any foreign player as they are part of AIFF's developmental program.


title: 2021–22 I-League

text: All matches were played at neutral venues. The "home" and "away" are designated to identify Team 1 and Team 2 respectively.


title: Texture (music)

text: In music, texture is how the tempo, melodic, and harmonic materials are combined in a musical composition, determining the overall quality of the sound in a piece. The texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see Common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section or another brass. The thickness also is changed by the amount and the richness of the instruments playing the piece. The thickness varies from light to thick. A piece's texture may be changed by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo, and rhythms used. The types categorized by number and relationship of parts are analyzed and determined through the labeling of primary textural elements: primary melody (PM), secondary melody (SM), parallel supporting melody (PSM), static support (SS), harmonic support (HS), rhythmic support (RS), and harmonic and rhythmic support (HRS).


title: Texture (music)

text: In musical terms, particularly in the fields of music history and music analysis, some common terms for different types of texture are:


title: Texture (music)

text: Many classical pieces feature different kinds of texture within a short space of time. An example is the Scherzo from Schubert’s piano sonata in B major, D575. The first four bars are monophonic, with both hands performing the same melody an octave apart:


title: Texture (music)

text: Bars 11–20 are polyphonic. There are three parts, the top two moving in parallel (interval of a tenth). The lowest part imitates the rhythm of the upper two at the distance of three beats. The passage climaxes abruptly with a bar’s silence:


title: Texture (music)

text: After the silence, the polyphonic texture expands from three to four independent parts moving simultaneously in bars 21–24. The upper two parts are imitative, the lowest part consists of a repeated note (pedal point) and the remaining part weaves an independent melodic line:


title: Texture (music)

text: The final four bars revert to homophony, bringing the section to a close; A complete performance can be heard by following this link: Listen


title: Texture (music)

text: Although in music instruction certain styles or repertoires of music are often identified with one of these descriptions this is basically added music (for example, Gregorian chant is described as monophonic, Bach Chorales are described as homophonic and fugues as polyphonic), many composers use more than one type of texture in the same piece of music.


title: Texture (music)

text: A simultaneity is more than one complete musical texture occurring at the same time, rather than in succession.


title: Texture (music)

text: A more recent type of texture first used by György Ligeti is micropolyphony. Other textures include polythematic, polyrhythmic, onomatopoeic, compound, and mixed or composite textures.


title: Vasu

text: In Hinduism, the Vasus (Sanskrit: वसु) are attendant deities of Indra, and later Vishnu. The Ashta Vasus are described in the Ramayana as the children of Kasyapa and Aditi and in the Mahabharata as the sons of Manu or Brahma Prajapati. They are eight elemental gods (called "Aṣṭa-vasu", 'Eight Vasus') representing aspects of nature (The Five Elements - Pancha Bhoothas) and also representing cosmic natural phenomenon (The Sun, The Moon and The Stars). The name Vasu means 'Brilliance' or 'Wealth Givers'. They are eight among the Thirty-three gods.


title: Vasu

text: There are varying lists of the eight Vasus in different texts, sometimes only because particular deities have varying names. The following are names and meanings according to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Manava Purana and according to the Mahabharata as normally equated:


title: Vasu

text: Though the "Shatapatha Brahmana" uses the "Brhad-Aranyaka" names, most later texts follow the "Mahabharata" names with the exception that Āpa 'water' usually appears in place of Aha. The "Vishnu Purana" equates Prabhāsa with the lights of the 27 Nakshatras (Constellations/Lunar Mansions) and Dhruva with Akash, that is "space", Dhruva seemingly taking over Aha's role when Aha is replaced by Āpa.


title: Vasu

text: The "Mahabharata" relates how the Vasus, led by "Prithu" (presumably here a male form of Prithvi), were enjoying themselves in the forest, when the wife of Prabhasa (also referred to as Dyaus) spotted an excellent cow and persuaded her husband Prabhasa to steal it, which Prabhasa did with the agreement and aid of Prithu and his other brothers. Unfortunately for the Vasus, the cow was owned by the sage Vashishta who learned through his ascetic powers that the Vasus had stolen it and immediately cursed them to be born on earth as mortals. Vashishta responded to pleading by the Vasus by promising that seven of them would be free of earthly life within a year of being born and that only Prabhasa would pay the full penalty. The Vasus then requested the river-goddess Ganga to be their mother. Ganga incarnated and became the wife of King Shantanu on condition that he never gainsaid her in any way. As seven children were born, one after the other, Ganga drowned them in her own waters, freeing them from their punishment and the king made no opposition. Only when the eighth was born did the king finally oppose his wife, who therefore left him. So the eighth son, Prabhasa incarnated, remained alive, imprisoned in mortal form, and later became known in his mortal incarnation as "Bhishma".


title: Vasu

text: "Vasu" is also the name of the eighth "chakra" (group) of "Melakarta" ragas in Carnatic music. The names of "chakras" are based on the numbers associated with each name. In this case, there are 8 "Vasus" and hence the eighth "chakra" is "Vasu".


title: Streamliner

text: A streamliner is a vehicle incorporating streamlining in a shape providing reduced air resistance. The term is applied to high-speed railway trainsets of the 1930s to 1950s, and to their successor "bullet trains". Less commonly, the term is applied to fully faired upright and recumbent bicycles. As part of the Streamline Moderne trend, the term was applied to passenger cars, trucks, and other types of light-, medium-, or heavy-duty vehicles, but now vehicle streamlining is so prevalent that it is not an outstanding characteristic. In land speed racing, it is a term applied to the long, slender, custom built, high-speed vehicles with enclosed wheels.


title: Streamliner

text: The first high-speed streamliner in Germany was the "Schienenzeppelin", an experimental propeller driven single car, built in 1930. On 21 June 1931, the car set a speed record of on a run between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1932 the propeller was removed and a hydraulic system installed. The Schienenzeppelin made in 1933.


title: Streamliner

text: The Schienenzeppelin led to the 1932 construction of the diesel-electric DRG Class SVT 877 "Flying Hamburger". This two-car train set had 98 seats and a top speed of . In regular service with the Deutsche Reichsbahn, starting on 15 May 1933, this train ran the between Hamburg and Berlin in 138 minutes with an average speed of .


title: Streamliner

text: The SVT 877 was the prototype for the DRG Class SVT 137, first built in 1934/1935 for use in the FDt express train service. In test drives, the SVT 137 "Bauart Leipzig" set a world speed record of in 1936. The fastest regular service with the SVT 137 was between Hannover and Hamm with an average speed of . This service lasted until 22 August 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1935, Henschel & Son, a major manufacturer of steam locomotives, introduced the 4-6-4 DRG Class 05 high speed streamliner locomotives for use on the "Deutsche Reichsbahn" Frankfurt am Main to Berlin route. Three examples were built in 1935–36.


title: Streamliner

text: Built for top speeds of over , the DRG Class 05 locomotives soon proved much faster in test runs. The DRG 05-002 made seven runs in 1935–36 during which it attained top speeds of more than with trains up to weight.


title: Streamliner

text: On 11 May 1936, the DRG 05-002 set the world speed record for steam locomotives after reaching on the Berlin–Hamburg line while hauling a train. The locomotive's engine power was more than .


title: Streamliner

text: On 30 May 1936, the DRG 05-002 set an unbroken start-stop speed record for steam locomotives. During the return run from a 190 km/h test on the Berlin-Hamburg route it did the ~ from Wittenberg to a signal stop before Berlin-Spandau in 48 min 32 s, meaning average between start and stop.


title: Streamliner

text: The DRG 05-002 was for a time the official holder of the world top speed record for steam locomotives. The British London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) Class A4 4468 "Mallard" locomotive broke that record two years later.


title: Streamliner

text: In the United Kingdom, development of streamlined passenger services began in 1934. The Great Western Railway introduced relatively low-speed streamlined railcars, while the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) introduced the "Silver Jubilee" service using streamlined A4 class steam locomotives and full length trains rather than railcars.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1938, the LNER locomotive "Mallard", which had been built for "Silver Jubilee" service, set on a test run a still unsurpassed official record for the highest top speed attained by a steam locomotive, . Soon afterwards, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway introduced the Princess Coronation Class streamlined locomotives shortly before World War II began in 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: Starting in 1934, the Italian State Railways (Ferrovie dello Stato (FS)) developed the FS Class ETR 200, a three-unit electric streamliner. The first of those trains entered revenue service in 1937.


title: Streamliner

text: On 6 December 1937, an ETR 200 made a top speed of between Campoleone and Cisterna on the run Rome-Naples. In 1939 the ETR 212 made . The journeys from Bologna to Milan were made in 77 minutes, meaning an average of .


title: Streamliner

text: In the Netherlands, Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) introduced in 1934 the (DE3), a three unit streamlined diesel-electric trainset. An electric version, , went into service in 1936.


title: Streamliner

text: The similar electric was first built in 1940. The NS also developed in the 1930s a streamlined version of the class 3700/3800 steam locomotive, nicknamed "potvis" (sperm whale).


title: Streamliner

text: The "Dieselvijf" (DE5), a top speed five unit diesel-electric trainset based on DE3, completed the Dutch streamliner fleet in 1940. In test runs, a DE5 ran


title: Streamliner

text: On the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of the October Revolution, the Soviet Kolomna Locomotive Factory produced two examples of the wind-tunnel designed (4-6-4 Whyte Notation) streamliner locomotive for Moscow-Leningrad service. In testing, it was shown capable of speeds greater than (170 km/h or 105 mph in test ride), and it entered service in 1938. Production of the series was canceled with the onset of World War II.


title: Streamliner

text: In the 1930s, streamlined Luxtorpeda diesel units that Austrian and later Polish manufacturers constructed were reaching speeds of up to in Poland. In 1937 the first Polish streamlined steam locomotive Pm36-1 (140 km/h) pulled the Nord Express between Poland and France (Paris). This locomotive was awarded golden medal in the World Expo in Paris in 1937.


title: Streamliner

text: In Czechoslovakia in 1934, Czechoslovak State Railways ordered two motor railcars with maximum speed . They were constructed by Tatra company, which was producing the first streamlined mass-produced automobile Tatra 77 at that time. The railcar project was led by Tatra chief designer Hans Ledwinka and received streamlined design by Paul Jaray. The railcars were unique thanks to the patented transmission system invented by Josef Sousedík – at lower speeds, it worked like petrol-electric transmission and at around it automatically switched to direct mechanical transmission without any gear. Thanks to this the railcars had good acceleration, low fuel consumption and were easy to drive.


title: Streamliner

text: Both ČSD Class M 290.0 were delivered in 1936, one of them reached during a test run. They were run on the Czechoslovak prominent route Bratislava-Prague under "Slovenská strela" (Slovak for "Slovak Arrow") brand.


title: Streamliner

text: The earliest known streamlined rail equipment in the United States were McKeen rail motorcars that the company built for the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific Railroads between 1905 and 1917. Most McKeen cars sported a pointed "wind splitter" front, a rounded rear and round porthole style windows in a style that was as much nautically as aerodynamically inspired.


title: Streamliner

text: The McKeen cars were unsuccessful because the internal combustion drive technology for that application was unreliable at the time. Further, the lightweight frames dictated by the cars' limited power tended to break. Streamlined rail motorcars would appear again in the early 1930s after the internal combustion-electric propulsion technology that General Electric developed and that the Electro-Motive Company (EMC) promoted became the accepted technology for use rail motorcars in the 1920s.


title: Streamliner

text: Streetcar builders sought to build electric cars with improved speed for interurban lines through the 1920s. In 1931, the J. G. Brill Company introduced the Bullet, a lightweight, wind-tunnel designed car with a rounded front that could run either singly or in multiple-unit sets, capable of speeds over . Although Depression-era economics cut into sales, the design was highly successful in service, lasting into the 1980s.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1925, the recently-formed Pullman Car & Manufacturing Corporation experimented with lightweight self-propelled railcars in co-operation with the Ford Motor Company concurrent with Ford's development of its Trimotor aircraft. In 1931, Pullman enlisted the services of the Trimotor design contributor William Bushnell Stout to apply airplane fuselage design concepts to railcars.


title: Streamliner

text: The result was the "Railplane" (not the "Bennie Railplane"), a streamlined self-propelled railcar with a tapered cross-section, lightweight tubular aluminum space frame and duralumin skin. In testing with the Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad in 1932, it reportedly reached .


title: Streamliner

text: The Union Pacific had been seeking improvements to self-propelled railcars based on European design ideas. The performance of the "Railplane" encouraged the railroad to increase its efforts in partnership with Pullman-Standard.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1931, the Budd Company reached an agreement with the French tire company Michelin to produce pneumatic-tired rail motorcars in the US, as an improvement on the heavy, underpowered and shimmy-prone "doodlebugs" that ran on American tracks. In that endeavor, Budd would produce lightweight rail equipment utilizing unibody construction and the high strength alloy stainless steel, enabled by shot welding, a breakthrough in electrical welding technique. The venture produced articulated power-trailer car sets with streamlined styling, which left the Budd Company just a (much) more powerful engine away from producing a history-making streamlined trainset.


title: Streamliner

text: The Great Depression caused a catastrophic loss of business for the rail industry as a whole and for manufacturers of motorized railcars whose primary markets, branch line services, were among the first to be cut. The interests of lightweight equipment manufacturers and rail operators therefore focused on the development of a new generation of lightweight, high speed, internal combustion-electric powered streamlined trainsets that were primarily designed for mainline service.


title: Streamliner

text: The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (Burlington) and the Union Pacific sought to increase the efficiency of their passenger services by looking to the lightweight, petroleum-powered technology that Budd and Pullman-Standard were developing. The Union Pacific named its project the "M-10000" (designated first as "The Streamliner" and later as the "City of Salina" when in revenue service from 1935 to 1941).


title: Streamliner

text: The Burlington initially named its first train the "Burlington Zephyr". The two railroads' trains each entered service as three-car articulated sets (including the power car).


title: Streamliner

text: The Winton Engine Corporation, a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), manufactured the engines for both locomotives. The prime mover for the "Burlington Zephyr"'s diesel-electric propulsion was a new 600 hp diesel engine. The Union Pacific's "M-10000" had a 600 hp spark-ignition engine that ran on "petroleum distillate", a fuel similar to kerosene.


title: Streamliner

text: The two trainsets were star attractions at the 1934 World's Fair ("A Century of Progress") in Chicago, Illinois. During its set's demonstration period, the Union Pacific named the "M-10000" as the "Streamliner", providing the first use of the term with respect to trains. The "Streamliner"s publicity tour in February–May 1934 attracted over a million visitors and gained attention in national media as the herald of a new era in rail transportation.


title: Streamliner

text: On 26 May 1934, the Burlington's "Zephyr" made a record-breaking "Dawn to Dusk" run from Denver, Colorado, to Chicago for its grand entry as a Century of Progress exhibit. The "Zephyr" covered the distance in 13 hours, reaching a top speed of and running an average speed of . The fuel for the run cost US$14.64 at 4¢ per U.S. gallon (equivalent to $ and $ per gallon respectively in after inflation).


title: Streamliner

text: The Burlington's event was covered live on radio and drew large, cheering crowds as the "silver streak" zipped by. Adding to the sensation of the "Zephyr" were the striking appearance of its fluted stainless steel bodywork and its raked, rounded, aerodynamic front end that symbolized its modernity. The train's design echoed in steam locomotive styling throughout the following years.


title: Streamliner

text: After its Worlds Fair display and a nationwide demonstration tour, the "Zephyr" entered revenue service between Kansas City, Missouri, and Lincoln, Nebraska, on 11 November 1934. A total of nine "Zephyr" trainsets were built for the Burlington between 1934 and 1939. Each ran as named trains on various Burlington midwestern routes.


title: Streamliner

text: The Burlington later renamed the "Burlington Zephyr" as the "Pioneer Zephyr" in honor of that train's status as the first of the fleet. In April 1935, two "Twin Cities Zephyrs" that bore the same three-car configuration entered service on the railroad's Chicago and Minneapolis-St. Paul route.


title: Streamliner

text: Larger trainsets with more powerful Winton engines were built for the Burlington and put into service over longer routes. Twin-engine power units and eventually booster power units met the trainsets' additional power requirements. The Burlington's four-car "Mark Twain Zephyr" entered revenue service in October 1935 on the railroad's Saint Louis – Burlington, Iowa, route.


title: Streamliner

text: Two partially-articulated six-car trainsets entered service in May 1936 on the Burlington's "Denver Zephyr" route, which connected Chicago and Denver. The Burlington then replaced those sets with a pair of partially-articulated ten-car trainsets in November 1936. The Burlington moved the "Denver Zephyr"s six-cat sets to the "Twin Cities Zephyr", transferring that train's original streamlined cars to other Burlington routes.


title: Streamliner

text: The last of the classic "Zephyrs" was built for the Burlington's Kansas City – Saint Louis "General Pershing Zephyr" route. That trainset, which contained GM's newest 1000 hp engine and conventional coupling, entered service in June 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: The Burlington's original "Zephyr" trainsets remained in service in the postwar era. The railroad retired the last of its six-car sets in 1968 after using it as the "Nebraska Zephyr".


title: Streamliner

text: On 31 January 1935, the Union Pacific's three-car "M-10000" went into service between Kansas City, Missouri, and Salina, Kansas, as "The Streamliner". The train subsequently became the "City of Salina" under the railroad's naming convention for its expanding fleet of diesel-powered streamliners.


title: Streamliner

text: The Union Pacific operated the "M-10000" as a three-car set until the railroad was retired the set in 1941. The trainset's 1942 scrapping provided Duralumin that was recycled for use in war-time military aircraft.


title: Streamliner

text: The Union Pacific also commissioned the construction of five modified trainsets that had evolved from the initial "M-10000" design. Those streamlined trains inaugurated the railroad's high-speed service out of Chicago while bearing the names "City of Portland" (June 1935), "City of Los Angeles" (May 1936), "City of San Francisco" (June 1936) and "City of Denver" (June 1936).


title: Streamliner

text: The "M-10001" set had a single power unit that contained a 1200 hp Winton diesel engine. The power unit pulled six tapered low-profile cars that had the form of the original three-car "M-10000" trainset. The "M-10002"s set consisted of a 1200+900 hp cab/booster locomotive pulling nine cars of the same form.


title: Streamliner

text: Automotive-styled cab/booster locomotive sets with 1200 hp engines powered the Union Pacific's "City of San Francisco" and "City of Denver" sets. The two "City of Denver" sets started service two cars shorter than the "M-10002" and "M-10004" sets, with roomier and heavier straight-sided cars.


title: Streamliner

text: The Union Pacific's initial streamliner service to the west coast consisted of five runs monthly for each route. The railroad maintained its daily overnight service on the Chicago – Denver run by assigning three locomotive sets for two trains. The railroad then augmented that stable with locomotive equipment taken from other runs.


title: Streamliner

text: Despite the breakthrough schedule times of the long-distance M-1000x "City" trains, the records of the Union Pacific's fleet reflected the limitations of the locomotives' technology when meeting the demands of long-distance and higher capacity service. The "M-10001" ran for only 32 months as the "City of Portland" before it was replaced, re-entered service on the Portland – Seattle run and retired in June 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: Similarly, the "M-10002" spent 19 months as the Union Pacific's "City of Los Angeles", 39 months as the "City of Portland" and ten months out of service starting in July 1941. The locomotive then served on the Portland – Seattle run until the railroad took it out of service again in March 1943. After running for 18 months as the "City of San Francisco M-10004", the locomotive spent six months being refurbished and then served from July 1938 as a second unit on the "City of Los Angeles". The Union Pacific retired the locomotive in March 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: The Union Pacific converted the "M-10001" and "M-10004" power units to additional boosters for the "City of Denver" trains. The train's cars then became spare equipment. The two "City of Denver" trainsets ("M–10005" and "M–10006), after cannibalizing power from the "M-10001" and "M-10004", remained in service until 1953.


title: Streamliner

text: Class GG1 electric locomotives brought streamlined styling to the Pennsylvania Railroad's fleet of electric locomotives in late 1934. Meanwhile, the Boston and Maine's "Flying Yankee", identical to the original "Zephyr," entered service between Boston and Portland, Maine, on 1 April 1935.


title: Streamliner

text: The Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad "Rebel" trainsets were similar to the "Zephyr" in form, but were not articulated. Designed by Otto Kuhler, the ALCO powered diesel-electrics that the American Car and Foundry Company constructed were placed into service on 10 July 1935.


title: Streamliner

text: While streamlining on steam locomotives was more about marketing than performance, newly designed locomotives with state-of-the-art steam technology were able to travel at high speeds. The Milwaukee Road class A Atlantics, built in 1935 to compete with the "Twin Cities Zephyr", were the first "steamliners" equipped to back up their styled claim to extra speed. In a 15 May 1935 run by locomotive #2 and a dynamometer car, the railroad documented a top speed of .


title: Streamliner

text: This was the fastest authenticated speed reached by a steam locomotive at the time, making #2 the rail speed record holder for steam and the first steam locomotive to top . That record lasted until a German DRG Class 05 locomotive exceeded it the following year.


title: Streamliner

text: The "Illinois Central 121" trainset was the first of the "Green Diamond" streamliners running between Chicago and St Louis. It was a five-unit (including power car) articulated trainset for day service. The Pullman-built set had the same power format and 1200 hp Winton diesel engine as "M-10001," with some style aspects that resembled the later M1000x trainsets.


title: Streamliner

text: The Illinois Central ran the 121 trainset on the "Green Diamond" from May 1936 to 1947. After an overhaul, the railroad placed the set on the Jackson Mississippi – New Orleans run until it retired and scrapped the set in 1950.


title: Streamliner

text: The visual styling of the new trainsets made the existing fleets of locomotives and railcars suddenly look obsolete. Rail lines soon responded by adding streamlined shrouding and varying degrees of mechanical improvement to older locomotives and re-styling heavyweight cars.


title: Streamliner

text: The first American steam locomotive to receive that treatment was one of the New York Central Railroad's (NYC's) J-1 Hudson class locomotives built in 1930, which was re-introduced with streamlined shrouding and named the "Commodore Vanderbilt" in December 1934. The "Vanderbilt" styling was a one-off design by Carl Kantola.


title: Streamliner

text: The NYC's next venture in streamlined styling was Henry Dreyfuss' 1936 full-length exterior and interior design of the railroad's "Mercury" trainsets. Raymond Loewy also designed in 1936 art-deco shrouding with a bullet-front scheme for the Pennsylvania Railroad's class K4 locomotives.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1937, Otto Kuhler used a variation of the bullet-front design on a 4-6-2 locomotive constructed for the Baltimore & Ohio's streamlined "Royal Blue". Henry Dreyfuss used a similar variation for the J-3a "Super Hudsons" that pulled the "20th Century Limited" and other NYC express trains.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1937, the Milwaukee Road introduced the class F7 Hudsons on the "Twin Cities Hiawatha" run. The Hudsons could cruise above and were said to exceed on occasion. Otto Kuehler designed the Milwaukee Road's speedsters with "shovel nose" styling. Some of the class 7's details were evocative of those of the "Zephyrs".


title: Streamliner

text: Also in 1937, the Electro-Motive Corporation (EMC) (later incorporated into GM's Electro-Motive Division (EMD)) started production of streamlined diesel-electric passenger locomotives, incorporating the lightweight carbody construction and raked, rounded front end introduced with the "Zephyr" and the high-mounted, behind-the-nose cab of the M-1000x locomotives. One of the first, EMC's TA, was a 1200-hp version produced for the Rock Island Rockets, a series of six lightweight, semi-articulated three and four-car trainsets.


title: Streamliner

text: EMC/EMD manufactured streamlined E-unit diesel-electric locomotives from 1937 to 1963. These incorporated two features of the earlier EMC 1800 hp B-B development design locomotives, the twin-engine format and multiple-unit control systems that facilitated cab/booster locomotive sets.


title: Streamliner

text: The E-units brought sufficient power for full-sized trains such as the B&O "Capitol Limited, the "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway's (AT&SF's) "Super Chief," and the Union Pacific's upgraded "City of Los Angeles" and "City of San Francisco," which challenged steam power in all aspects of passenger service. EMC introduced standardized production to the locomotive industry, with its attendant economies of scale and simplified processes for ordering, producing and servicing locomotives. As a result, EMC was able to offer a variety of support services that decreased technological and initial cost barriers that would otherwise deter conversions to diesel-electric power.


title: Streamliner

text: With power and reliability of new diesel-electric units improved with the 2000 hp EMC E3 locomotive in 1938, the advantages of diesel became compelling enough for a growing number of rail lines to select diesel over steam for new passenger equipment. The power and top speed advantages of state-of-the-art steam locomotives were more than offset by diesel's advantages in service flexibility, downtime, maintenance costs and economic efficiency for most operators.


title: Streamliner

text: The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), the builder of the Hiawatha speedsters, saw diesel as the future of passenger service and introduced streamlined locomotives influenced by the design of the E units in 1939. The replacement of steam with diesel power was interrupted by the US entry into World War II, with a military premium on diesel technology that stopped all production of diesel locomotives for passenger service between September 1942 and January 1945.


title: Streamliner

text: Streamlined steam locomotives continued to be produced into the early postwar era. Among the most distinctive were the Pennsylvania Railroad's duplex-drive 6-4-4-6 type S1 and 4-4-4-4 type T1 locomotives that Raymond Loewy styled.


title: Streamliner

text: In terms of service longevity, the most successful were the Southern Pacific GS-3 "Daylight" locomotives introduced in 1938 and the Norfolk and Western class J locomotives introduced in 1941. In contrast to designs that completely encased the boiler in shrouding, streamlining of the GS-3/GS-4 series locomotives consisted of skyline casing flush with the smokestack and smoke-lifting skirting along the boiler that left the silver-painted smokebox on full display.


title: Streamliner

text: The trend of streamliners also came to Japan. In 1934, the Ministry of Railways (Japanese Government Railways, JGR) decided to convert one of its 3-cylinder steam locomotives class C53 into a streamlined style. The selected locomotive was No.43 of class C53. However Hideo Shima, the chief engineer of the conversion, thought streamlining had no practical effect on reducing air resistance, because Japanese trains at that time did not exceed a speed of .


title: Streamliner

text: Shima therefore designed the locomotive to create airflow that lifted exhaust smoke away from the locomotive. He had expected no practical effect on reducing air resistance completely, therefore he never tried to test fuel consumption or tractive force of the converted locomotive. The Japanese government planned to use this one converted streamline locomotive on the passenger express route between Osaka and Nagoya.


title: Streamliner

text: The converted locomotive gained much popularity from the public. JGR therefore decided to build 21 new streamlined versions of the . Additionally, JGR built 3 streamlined class EF55 electric locomotives. Kiha-43000 diesel multiple units and Moha-52 electric multiple units also received a streamlined style.


title: Streamliner

text: The South Manchuria Railway, which was under Japanese control at that time, also designed the Pashina class streamlined locomotive. The Railway operated the Asia Express, whose style was coordinated with that of Pashina locomotives.


title: Streamliner

text: These streamlined steam locomotives took many man-hours to repair due to their casing. After the outbreak of World War II, the lack of an experienced labor force made the problems worse. As a result, many of the locomotives had their casings removed.


title: Streamliner

text: Streamliner locomotives arrived relatively late in Australia. In 1937 streamlined casings were fitted on four Victorian Railways S class locomotives for the Spirit of Progress service between Melbourne and Albury. Similar casings were then fitted on two Tasmanian Government Railways R class narrow-gauge locomotives for the Hobart to Launceston expresses.


title: Streamliner

text: Despite — or perhaps because of — the strategic priorities of World War II, some new streamliner locomotives were built in Australia during and immediately after the war. The first five New South Wales C38 class locomotives were modestly streamlined with distinctive conical noses, while the twelve South Australian Railways 520 class locomotives featured extravagant streamlining in the style of the Pennsylvania Railroad's T1.


title: Streamliner

text: In all cases, the streamlining on Australian steam locomotives were purely aesthetic, with negligible impacts on train speeds.


title: Streamliner

text: In Europe, the streamliner tradition gained new life after World War II. In Germany, DRG Class SVT 137 trains resumed service, but at slower speeds than before the war. Based on the Kruckenberg SVT 137, the Deutsche Bundesbahn's (DB's) streamlined diesel-electric Class VT 11.5 (later renamed to DB Class 601) built in 1957 was used as the "Trans Europ Express (TEE)" for international high-speed trains.


title: Streamliner

text: From 1965, the DB used the streamlined electric locomotives DB Class 103 with regular trains for high-speed service. From 1973, the DB used the DB Class ET 403, a fully streamlined four-unit electric train with tilting technology. In East Germany, the DR Class VT 18.16 was built for international express service.


title: Streamliner

text: The Swiss SBB and the Dutch NS developed five diesel-electric RAm TEE I (Swiss) and NS DE4 (Dutch) trainsets for their Zurich-Amsterdam and Amsterdam-Brussels-Paris routes. The SBB sold four of these trainsets to the Canadian Ontario Northland Railway (ONR) in 1997. The ONR then operated the trains on its Toronto–Moosonee line as the Northlander.


title: Streamliner

text: From 1961, the SBB used for TEE service the RAe TEE II, a set of five streamlined electric trains compatible with four different railway electrification systems. Italy used pre-war trains and new trains that the Italian State Railways (Ferrovie dello Stato (FS)) developed. The new trains included the FS Class ETR 250 ("Arlecchino"), the ETR 300 ("Settebello"), the ETR 401 ("Pendolino"), the ETR 450 ("Pendolino") and the ETR 500.


title: Streamliner

text: Streamliner service temporarily ended in the United Kingdom with the outbreak of WWII. During the war, the LNER and LMS streamlined locomotives had part of their streamlining removed to aid maintenance. By the late 1940s and early 1950s, the state of the railways was improving as deteriorated track conditions caused by delayed maintenance work were corrected. The repairs and new improvements enabled the railways to provide additional mainline trackage for high speed trains.


title: Streamliner

text: The first experiments with diesel streamliner services in the United Kingdom were the Blue Pullman trains introduced in 1960 and withdrawn in 1973. These provided luxury business services, but were marginally successful and ran only a little faster than mainstream services. The Blue Pullman was followed by research into streamlined trains and tilting trains which led to the iconic InterCity 125 (Class 43) offering train services across the United Kingdom.


title: Streamliner

text: High-speed service with the ICE 1 (Class 401) began in 1991. The train, which has traveled at speeds of up to in revenue service, broke a speed record that the first "Flying Hamburger" had set 60 years earlier when traveling between Hamburg and Berlin from 1933.


title: Streamliner

text: A TGV high-speed test train set a world record for the fastest wheeled train, reaching in 2007. Conventional TGV services operate at up to on the LGV Est, LGV Rhin-Rhône and LGV Méditerranée. The power cars of the TGV Euroduplex (2N2), which began commercial operations in 2011, have a more streamlined nose than do previous TGVs.


title: Streamliner

text: In 2015, "Eurostar" began to operate the electric multiple unit (EMU) British Rail Class 374, also known as the Eurostar e320, on its high-speed services through the Channel Tunnel. The train serves destinations beyond "Eurostar's" core routes to the Gare du Nord station in Paris and the Brussels-South railway station. Owned by Eurostar International Limited and capable of operating at , the aluminum trains are sixteen-unit versions of the Siemens Velaro.


title: Streamliner

text: High-speed steam service continued in the United States after World War II, but became increasingly uneconomical. The New York Central's Super Hudsons went out of service in 1948 as the line converted to diesel for passenger service. The Milwaukee Road retired its high speed Hiawatha steam locomotives between 1949 and 1951. The last of the Pennsylvania Railroad's short-lived T1 class locomotives went out of service in 1952. All of those iconic locomotives were scrapped. The last steam streamliners built were three Norfolk and Western class J locomotives in 1950, which operated until 1959.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1951, the Interstate Commerce Commission implemented regulations restricting most trains to speeds of or below unless automatic train stop, automatic train control, or cab signalling were installed. The new regulations minimized one of the key advantages of rail travel over the automobile, which became an increasingly attractive alternative as postwar construction of highway systems progressed. Rail operators marketed their services on the basis of luxurious sightseeing, as airlines increasingly competed with rail lines for long-distance travel.


title: Streamliner

text: In the mid-1950s, there were several attempts to revive the lightweight custom streamliner concept. None of these projects achieved any lasting impact on passenger service.


title: Streamliner

text: The "Train X" project, first promoted by Robert R. Young no later than 1948, resulted in low-profile Baldwin RP-210 locomotives paired with articulated aluminum cars from Pullman-Standard. Two trainsets were built in 1956 for the New York Central Railroad's "Ohio Xplorer" and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad's "Dan'l Webster". The pair were problematic and were withdrawn from service by 1960.


title: Streamliner

text: GM's project, originally called "Train Y", was marketed as the "Aerotrain". It featured a futuristic, automotive-styled EMD LWT12 diesel–electric locomotive pulling aluminum coaches adapted from GM's long-distance bus design. Two trainsets were produced in 1955 and were trialed by several railroads, but no orders were forthcoming. The two demonstration units were eventually sold to the Rock Island Line, which was already operating an EMD LWT12 paired with Talgo II cars from ACF Industries as the "Jet Rocket". Rock Island operated them in commuter service until 1966.


title: Streamliner

text: The "Speed Merchant" project also produced only two examples. They consisted of Fairbanks-Morse P-12-42 locomotives paired with Talgo II cars from ACF Industries, and were used by the Boston and Maine Railroad for commuter service and by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad's "John Quincy Adams". Both were retired by 1964.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1956, the Budd Company produced a single streamlined, lightweight, six car DMU trainset that the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad operated as the "Roger Williams". After a short period of time in high speed service, the train was split up and the cars were used in service with the New Haven's other RDCs.


title: Streamliner

text: The advent of jet air travel in the late 1950s brought forth a new round of price competition from airlines for long-distance travel, severely affecting the ridership and profitability of long-distance passenger rail service. Government regulations forced railroads to continue to operate passenger rail service, even on long routes where, the railroads argued, it was almost impossible to make a profit.


title: Streamliner

text: Unlike air and automotive infrastructure, which federal and state governments subsidize, operating revenues entirely support privately-owned rail infrastructure in the United States. By the late 1960s, most rail operators were therefore seeking to completely discontinue passenger service.


title: Streamliner

text: The lightweight custom streamliner concept was revived again in the 1960s with the UAC TurboTrain. These articulated trainsets used gas turbine engines instead of reciprocating diesel engines for traction power. They were operated by Penn Central and then Amtrak from 1969 to 1976, and in Canada by Canadian National and then Via Rail from 1969 to 1982.


title: Streamliner

text: Some GG1 electric locomotives that the Pennsylvania Railroad once operated remained in service until 1983. The last EMD E-units in regular service were retired in 1993.


title: Streamliner

text: Amtrak has operated nearly all long-distance passenger rail systems in the United States since 1971. The publicly-financed rail company's quest for greater fuel efficiency has led them to acquire and operate GE Genesis diesel-electric locomotives. In so doing, Amtrak reintroduced the lightweight, aerodynamic carbody construction that the "Zephyr" had pioneered in the 1930s.


title: Streamliner

text: Since 2000, Amtrak has operated high-speed "Acela" (named "Acela Express" until 2019) passenger trains that travel at speeds of up to in the Boston - Washington, D.C. Northeast Corridor. State governments and others in many areas throughout the United States have considered the construction of new high-speed lines, but rail travel is much less common in the U.S. than in Europe or Japan.


title: Streamliner

text: In 2008, California voters approved bonds to initiate construction of the California High-Speed Rail line, which would connect the San Francisco Bay Area, the Central Valley and Southern California. Construction of the first segment, between Bakersfield and Merced in the Central Valley, began in 2015.


title: Streamliner

text: After 26 years of service and traveling over , the "Pioneer Zephyr" went to Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry. The "Flying Yankee", the third streamliner to enter service, is undergoing restoration to operational condition. The "Silver Charger" locomotive of the "General Pershing Zephyr" trainset remained in service until 1966 and is also undergoing restoration.


title: Streamliner

text: In December 1974, the streamlined steam-powered Southern Pacific 4449 "Daylight" came off an outdoor public display to undergo a restoration and re-painting that enabled it pull the "American Freedom Train", which toured the 48 contiguous United States as part of the nation's 1976 Bicentennial celebration. With the exception of occasional interruptions for maintenance and inspections, the restored locomotive has operated in excursion service throughout that area since 1984.


title: Streamliner

text: The twice-restored streamlined Norfolk and Western Railway's steam-powered class J1 locomotive Number 611 operated in excursion service within the United States from 1982 to 1994 and from 2015 to 2017. The locomotive has traveled for display at special events.


title: Streamliner

text: Examples of the pre-World War II "slant nose" EMC EA, E3, E5, and E6 locomotives are on display at the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Museum, the North Carolina Transportation Museum, the Illinois Railway Museum, and the Kentucky Railway Museum. The stainless steel clad E5 is occasionally matched with one of the original "Denver Zephyr" car sets for excursion service. As of 2017, the Rock Island No. 630 E6 unit was under restoration for display in Iowa.


title: Streamliner

text: The EMD LWT12 locomotives and several passenger cars of GM's two "Aerotrains" are presently on display within the United States. The National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin now exhibits the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad's "Aerotrain" locomotive No. 2 and two passenger cars. The National Museum of Transportation in Kirkwood, Missouri (near St. Louis) exhibits the Rock Island's locomotive No. 3 and two passenger cars.


title: Streamliner

text: After World War II, Japanese railroads favored multiple unit trains, even on their mainlines. In 1949, the Japanese National Railways (JNR) released the 80 series EMUs for use on long-distance trains. Lead coaches of the 80 series built after 1950 incorporated a streamlined design.


title: Streamliner

text: In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway released the 3000 series EMUs. The exterior design was developed using a wind tunnel intended for aircraft.


title: Streamliner

text: An Odakyu 3000 set a world railway speed record of () for a narrow-gauge train. Multiple unit trains were thus shown to be suitable for long-distance trains by the JNR Series 80 and for high-speed trains by the Odakyu 3000.


title: Streamliner

text: These experiences led to the development of the first Shinkansen, the 0 Series. The Odakyu 3000 strongly influenced the 0 series, which was also developed using a wind tunnel.


title: Streamliner

text: The lead coaches of the 0 series were developed using a Douglas DC-8 for a reference. At a speed of , the aerodynamic style of the 0 series "bullet train" had a substantial effect on reducing air resistance.


title: Streamliner

text: In 2020, the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) began operating the N700S, the most recent addition to the N700 Series Shinkansen. The 16-car train reached its design speed of in trials conducted in 2019 on the Tokaido Shinkansen.


title: Streamliner

text: The JR Central is presently developing and testing the L0 series high-speed maglev train. The JR Central plans to use the streamlined train on the Chūō Shinkansen railway line between Tokyo and Nagoya, which is under construction. The railroad expects to open the line in 2027 and to later extend it to Osaka.


title: Streamliner

text: A seven-car L0 series train set a world railway speed record of 374 mph (603 km/h) in 2015. The railway plans to operate the train at a maximum speed of 310 mph (500 km/h) when in revenue service. The train's speed would exceed that of the world's fastest commercial electric train, the Chinese Shanghi maglev, whose cruising speed is 268 mph (431 km/h).


title: Streamliner

text: Worldwide many, if not most, high speed passenger trains are now streamlined. Speeds continue to rise as high-speed rail services become the normal long-distance rail service.


title: Streamliner

text: Early versions of the PCC (Presidents’ Conference Committee) streetcars were referred to as "Streamliners" in North America. However, aerodynamic research appeared much earlier on the interurban scene, i.e. among the forerunners of the recent light rail. In 1905, the Electric Railway Test Commission started a series of test runs to develop a carbody design that would reduce wind resistance at high speeds.


title: Streamliner

text: Vestibule sections of different shapes were suspended independent of the carbody, with a dynamometer to measure the resistance of each. Over 200 test runs were made at speeds up to 70 mph (c. 112 km/h) with parabolic, wedge, standard, and flat vestibule ends.


title: Streamliner

text: The test results indicated that a parabolic-shaped front end reduced wind resistance at high speeds below that of the conventional rounded profile. However, with that time's heavy railcars and moderate speeds, no significant operating economies were realized. Streamlining was discarded for another quarter-century.


title: Streamliner

text: From the 1920s, however, stronger alloys, lightweight metals, and better design were all used to reduce carbody weight – which in turn permitted the use of smaller bogies and motors with corresponding economies in power consumption. In 1922, the G. C. Kuhlman Car Company built ten lightweight cars for the Western Ohio Railway.


title: Streamliner

text: After an elaborate wind tunnel investigation, the first in the railway industry, the J. G. Brill Company made in 1931 its first Bullet railcars, capable to speeds above 90 mph (145 km/h). With 52 seats, they weighed only 26 tons. Some remained in use for almost 60 years.


title: Streamliner

text: Many buses adopted a stylish streamline look in the 1930s with tests showing that streamlined design reduced fuel costs.


title: Streamliner

text: Starting in 1934, Greyhound Lines worked with the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company for its Series 700 buses, first for "Series 719" prototypes in 1934, and from 1937 as the exclusive customer for Yellow's "Series 743" buses. Greyhound named these the "Super Coach" and purchased a total of 1,256 between 1937 and 1939.


title: Streamliner

text: General Motors also custom-built twelve streamlined Futurliners for its 1936 "Parade of Progress" and, later the 1939 New York World's Fair and traveling exhibits. The popular two-level GMC PD-4501 Scenicruiser, which GM manufactured for Greyhound Lines between 1954 and 1956, exemplified the further streamlining that occurred in the company's bus designs in the years that followed World War II.


title: Streamliner

text: Beginning in the 1910s, engineers tried to incorporate aerodynamics into the shape of automobiles. Some such cars entered production.


title: Streamliner

text: Many production automobiles have had streamlined bodies. Among these were, chronologically by first production year:


title: Streamliner

text: Many small trucks and tractor units for pulling semi-trailer trucks have streamlining to improve aerodynamics.


title: Streamliner

text: Camping (caravan) and animal trailer manufacturers use streamlining to make trailers easier to tow. Current and past manufacturers include Airstream, Avalon, Avion, Boles Aero, Bonair Oxygen, Curtis Wright, Knaus Tabbert, Silver Streak, Spartan, Streamline, and Vagabond.


title: Streamliner

text: Bicycle fairings help to streamline the vehicle and the rider. Human powered upright and recumbent bicycles and tricycles termed velomobiles that are partially or completely enclosed for aerodynamic advantage and weather protection take streamlining even further. Although many velomobiles are recreational, two-wheeled velomobiles have set a number of cycling speed records.


title: Streamliner

text: The Streamline Moderne–style automobile/passenger ferry "MV Kalakala" received its streamlining during a 1933–1935 reconstruction. The ship operated in Puget Sound near the northwestern coast of the U.S. state of Washington until 1967. It was scrapped in 2015.


title: Streamliner

text: Many American roadside diners built since the 1930s have had streamlined exteriors and interiors. In 1939, Roland Stickney designed a diner named the "Sterling Streamliner". Built by the John B. Judkins Company, a firm that also made custom car bodies, the prefabricated diner's production ceased in 1942 at the beginning of American involvement in World War II.


title: Streamliner

text: The rounded shapes of one or both ends of the "Sterling Streamliner" diners resembled the sloping curved nose of the "Burlington Zephyr"'s streamlined silver locomotive.


title: Streamliner

text: One such "Sterling Streamliner" with two rounded ends was built in 1940 and installed as the "Jimmy Evans Flyer" in New Bedford, Massachusetts. In the 1960s, the building was moved to the village of Pocasset in the town of Bourne, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, where it was named the "My Tin Diner".


title: Streamliner

text: In 2000, an arsonist severely damaged the "My Tin Diner" when he set it on fire. In 2003, the structure was moved into a field next to the "Handy Hill Creamery" near Hix Bridge Road in Westport, Massachusetts, while plans were being made to restore it to working condition. However, although restoration began, it was not completed. Visible from the Road, the derelict structure was the only "Sterling Streamliner" with two rounded ends known to still survive in 2019.


title: Streamliner

text: Only one "Sterling Streamliner" was open for business in 2020: the Modern Diner in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. That structure, which was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, has both a rounded sloped end and a flat vertical end. Although the building's roof was once silver, it is now maroon.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Daniele Rugani (; born 29 July 1994) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for club Juventus.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Rugani began his professional club career with Empoli in Serie B in 2013, where he immediately helped the club achieve Serie A promotion, and was named the 2014 Serie B Footballer of the Year. His defensive performances the following season saw him named to the 2015 Serie A Team of the Year, and earned him a transfer to Juventus, where he won five consecutive Serie A titles, two Coppa Italia titles, and two Supercoppa Italiana titles.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: At the international level, he has represented the Italy U21 team at the UEFA European Under-21 Championship in 2015 and 2017, and made his senior debut for Italy in 2016.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Born in Lucca, Italy, Rugani began his footballing career with Tuscan side Empoli in 2000, at the age of 6. He remained within the club's youth academy for twelve full seasons, before being transferred to Serie A giants Juventus on loan in August 2012, for €150,000 fee. After joining Juventus, Rugani was registered with the club's "Primavera" (under-19) youth squad where he was a regular starter within the side during the 2012–13 season, winning the Coppa Italia Primavera.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: After his successes during his first season with Juventus, Rugani was purchased by the club on 31 July 2013 in a co-ownership deal for €500,000 and then sent back to Empoli on a season-long loan deal ahead of their 2013–14 Serie B campaign.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: At age 20, Rugani was Empoli's star defender during their successful campaign, as he finished the season having made 40 appearances and scoring 2 goals for the club. He scored his first career goal from a header off of a corner on 22 March 2014, in a 4–0 home win over Reggina. The club finished the season in 2nd place, thus achieving automatic promotion to Serie A, alongside champions Palermo.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 18 June 2014, it was confirmed that the co-ownership agreement between the two clubs would be renewed, with the player remaining with newly promoted Empoli for the 2014–15 Serie A campaign on loan from Juventus. Rugani made his Serie A debut on 31 August 2014, at the age of 20, in a 2–0 away defeat to Udinese, later scoring his first goal in Serie A on 20 September, in a 2–2 away draw against Cesena. On 2 February 2015, Juventus bought out the remaining half of Daniele Rugani's registration rights from Empoli, for an additional €3.5 million. Rugani was a key player for Empoli that season, appearing in all 38 of Empoli's league matches that season without being substituted or booked, in addition to scoring 3 goals, as the club finished the league in 15th place.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: In the summer of 2015, Rugani officially returned to Juventus. He made his debut with the club on 30 September 2015, coming on as a substitute in a 2–0 home win over Sevilla in the UEFA Champions League group stage, also making his European debut in the process. He made his first start with the club on 16 December, in a 4–0 win over cross-city rivals Torino in the "Derby della Mole" in the round of 16 of the Coppa Italia. His league debut with the club came four days later, as he came on for veteran defender Andrea Barzagli in the 56th minute of a 3–2 away win over Carpi. He made his first league start for the club in a 2–1 away win over Sampdoria in Serie A, on 10 January 2016. On 24 April, Rugani was booked for the first time in his entire Serie A career in his 53rd Serie A appearance. He received a yellow card in the 72nd minute of a 2–1 away win over Fiorentina; he had last been carded at club level with Empoli, on 1 March 2014, in an away Serie B fixture against Siena. Following Napoli's loss to Roma the following day, Juventus clinched the league title with three games to spare.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 21 September 2016, Rugani made his first appearance of the season and scored his first goal for Juventus, in a 4–0 home win over Cagliari. On 7 December, Rugani scored his first ever UEFA Champions League goal on his third appearance in the competition, in a 2–0 home win over Dinamo Zagreb. On 14 December, Rugani extended his stay at Juventus, signing a new contract that would run until 2021.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Following the sale of Leonardo Bonucci to Milan in the summer of 2017, the 2017–18 season saw Rugani receive more playing time in central defence with Juventus. In total, he made 22 Serie A appearances for Juventus, and 26 in all competitions, scoring two goals, both of which came in the league, as Juventus once again finished the season by winning a domestic double of the Serie A and Coppa Italia titles.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 30 March 2019, Rugani extended his contract with Juventus, keeping him at the club until June 2023.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: He made his 100th appearance for Juventus on 29 July 2020, in a 2–0 away defeat to Cagliari, in Serie A.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 1 February 2021, Rugani joined Cagliari on a six-month loan. On 3 March 2021, Rugani scored his first goal for the club, in a home league match against Bologna that ended 1–0.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Rugani has represented Italy at various youth levels since 2010. His first cap for the under-21 team came on 5 March 2014 in a European qualifier against Northern Ireland, in which he scored the first goal for the "azzurini" in a 2–0 victory.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 9 November 2014, he was called up by Antonio Conte to the senior Italy squad ahead of a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Croatia and a friendly against Albania.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: With the Italy U-21 he took part at the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship under manager Luigi Di Biagio.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 31 May 2016, Rugani was named one of three reserves for Antonio Conte's senior side for Euro 2016.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Rugani made his senior international debut on 1 September 2016, with newly appointed coach Gian Piero Ventura, coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 friendly defeat to France.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: In June 2017, he was included in the Italy under-21 squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship by manager Di Biagio. Italy were eliminated in the semifinals following a 3–1 defeat to Spain on 27 June.


title: Daniele Rugani

text: Rugani is a tall, tactically versatile, and physically strong centre-back, who is good in the air, both defensively and offensively. He is known in particular for his anticipation, intelligence, and marking ability, despite his lack of notable pace or mobility. He is also considered to be a correct player, who often avoids committing to challenges, preferring to restrict his opponents through his positioning. Due to his confidence in possession, he is capable of playing the ball out from the back-line. Regarded as one of the most promising young Italian players of his generation, in 2015, he was named one of the best players in the world born after 1994, by "Don Balón".


title: Daniele Rugani

text: On 11 March 2020, it was announced that Rugani tested positive for COVID-19, while being asymptomatic, amid its pandemic in Italy. He became the first reported player in Serie A to have tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Scott McKenna

text: Scott Fraser McKenna (born 12 November 1996) is a Scottish professional footballer, who plays as a defender for Premier League club Nottingham Forest and the Scotland national team. McKenna has also previously played for Aberdeen as well as Ayr United and Alloa Athletic on loan.


title: Scott McKenna

text: McKenna began his career in the Aberdeen academy and was initially a left back before moving to the centre. The "Daily Record" called him "one of the most promising defenders in the country".


title: Scott McKenna

text: McKenna made his professional debut for Aberdeen as a substitute against St Johnstone on 6 February 2016. His first start came against Heart of Midlothian on 16 May 2016. On 22 May 2016, he signed a new two-year contract with Aberdeen, In November 2016, McKenna moved on loan to Scottish Championship side Ayr United for 28 days, his second time on loan with the club. His loan was subsequently extended until the end of the season.


title: Scott McKenna

text: In October 2017, McKenna extended his Aberdeen contract until 2021. The club rejected a bid from Hull City to buy him in January 2018. In January 2018, McKenna scored from more than 35 yards in Aberdeen's 3–1 win against Kilmarnock. He claimed in an interview after the match that Kilmarnock skipper Kris Boyd urged him to "shoot" so he obliged. On 7 March 2018, McKenna signed a new contract extension until 2023.


title: Scott McKenna

text: Aberdeen rejected an offer of £3.5 million for McKenna from Celtic in August 2018. Later in August, Aberdeen rejected a larger offer from Aston Villa. During the summer 2019 transfer window, Aberdeen rejected offers from Queens Park Rangers and Nottingham Forest for McKenna after he handed in a transfer request.


title: Scott McKenna

text: In December 2019 Aberdeen chairman Dave Cormack confirmed the club had received no offers or approaches from other clubs for McKenna or teammate Sam Cosgrove. McKenna suffered a torn hamstring during a Scottish Cup tie at St Mirren on 29 February 2020.


title: Scott McKenna

text: In August 2020 he was one of eight Aberdeen players who received a suspended three-match ban from the Scottish FA after they breached restrictions relating to the COVID-19 pandemic by visiting a bar earlier in the month. Aberdeen entered transfer negotiations with Nottingham Forest regarding McKenna in September 2020, which meant that he was left out of the Aberdeen team for a match with Motherwell.


title: Scott McKenna

text: On 23 September 2020, McKenna moved to EFL Championship side Nottingham Forest for an undisclosed fee. The fee was confirmed by Aberdeen as a "club-record fee" reported as a £3 million fee that could rise to £6 million. He made his Forest debut on 25 September 2020 in a 1–0 defeat to Huddersfield Town. He scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 win over Coventry City on 4 November 2020. He was crowned as Forest's Player of the Season for their promotion winning 2021–22 campaign.


title: Scott McKenna

text: McKenna captained the Scotland under-19s in a 2–2 draw with the Czech Republic in 2014. McKenna made his first appearance for the Scotland under-21s in September 2017.


title: Scott McKenna

text: McKenna was selected for the full national squad in March 2018, and made his full international debut in a 1–0 defeat against Costa Rica on 23 March. In his fourth game for Scotland, a 1–0 defeat to Mexico on 2 June 2018, McKenna was made team captain. On 11 October 2018, McKenna came on a second-half substitute in a 2–1 defeat against Israel, marking his competitive debut for Scotland.


title: Scott McKenna

text: A pupil at Webster's High School in Kirriemuir, McKenna supported Celtic as a boy. He is distantly related to the late Alan Gilzean, who was a cousin of McKenna's maternal grandmother. His father Ian played semi-professionally in the Scottish Football League for Forfar Athletic and Montrose in the 1990s.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Christian mortalism is the Christian belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal and may include the belief that the soul is “sleeping” after death until the Resurrection of the Dead and the Last Judgment, a time known as the intermediate state. "Soul sleep" is often used as a pejorative term, so the more neutral term "mortalism" was also used in the nineteenth century, and "Christian mortalism" since the 1970s.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Historically the term psychopannychism was also used, despite problems with the etymology and application. The term thnetopsychism has also been used; for example, Gordon Campbell (2008) identified John Milton as believing in the latter.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep stands in contrast with the traditional Christian belief that immortal souls immediately go to heaven, hell, or purgatory after death. Soul sleep has been taught by several theologians and church organizations throughout history while also facing opposition from aspects of Christian organized religion. The Catholic Church condemned such thinking in the Fifth Council of the Lateran as "erroneous assertions". Supporters include the sixteenth-century religious figure Martin Luther and the eighteenth-century religious figure Henry Layton, among many others.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Since the phrases "soul sleep" or "soul death" do not occur either in the Bible or in early Anabaptist materials, an explanation is required for the origin of the term. Additionally, several other terms have been introduced which relate to the view. Modern theologians have used the term "Christian mortalism" and related wordings from the 21st century onwards.


title: Christian mortalism

text: The phrase "soul sleep" appears to have been popularized by John Calvin in the subtitle to his Latin tract "Psychopannychia" (, , , ). The title of the booklet comes from Greek "psyche" (soul, mind) with "pan-nychis" (παν-νυχίς, all-night vigil, all-night banquet), so "Psychopannychia", originally, represents Calvin's view; that the soul was conscious, active.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Luther's use of similar language (but this time defending the view) appears in print only a few years after Calvin:


title: Christian mortalism

text: Historically, Christian mortalists have advanced theological, lexical, and scientific arguments in support of their position.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Some Christians use Bible verses such as Ecclesiastes 9:5, Psalm 6:5, 115:17, 146:3-4, and John 11:11-14 to argue for soul sleep. Theological arguments which contended that the continued existence of the soul was not taught in the Bible were made by mortalists such as Francis Blackburne, Joseph Priestley, and Samuel Bourne. Mortalists such as Richard Overton advanced a combination of theological and philosophical arguments in favor of soul sleep. Thomas Hobbes likewise made extensive use of theological argumentation. Some mortalists viewed their beliefs as a return to original Christian teaching. Mortalists’ theological arguments were also used to contest the Catholic doctrine of purgatory and masses for the dead.


title: Christian mortalism

text: The British Evangelical Alliance ACUTE report states the doctrine is a "significant minority evangelical view" that has "grown within evangelicalism in recent years". Although in modern times some have attempted to introduce the concept of soul sleep into Orthodox thought about life after death, it has never been a part of traditional Orthodox teaching, and it even contradicts the Orthodox understanding of the intercession of the Saints.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Mortalists point to Genesis 2 and Revelation 22, where the Tree of Life is mentioned. It is argued that these passages, along with Genesis 3:22–24 teach that human beings will naturally die without continued access to God's life-giving power.


title: Christian mortalism

text: As a general rule, soul sleep goes hand in hand with annihilationism; that is, the belief that the souls of the wicked will be destroyed in Gehenna (often translated "hell") fire rather than suffering eternal torment. The two ideas are not exactly equivalent, however, because in principle God may annihilate a soul which was previously created immortal. While annihilationism places emphasis on the active destruction of a person, soul sleep places emphasis on a person's dependence upon God for life; the extinction of the person is thus a passive consequence of separation from God, much like natural death is a consequence of prolonged separation from food, water, and air.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Mortalists writers, such as Thomas Hobbes in "Leviathan", have often argued that the doctrine of natural (or innate) immortality stems not from Hebrew thought as presented in the Bible, but rather from pagan influence, particularly Greek philosophy and the teachings of Plato, or Christian tradition. Bishop of Durham N.T. Wright noted that 1 Timothy 6:15–16 teaches "God… alone is immortal," while in 2 Timothy 1:10 it says that immortality only comes to human beings as a gift through the gospel. Immortality is something to be sought after (Romans 2:7) therefore it is not inherent to all humanity.


title: Christian mortalism

text: These groups may claim that the doctrine of soul sleep reconciles two seemingly conflicting traditions in the Bible: the ancient Hebrew concept that the human being is mortal with no meaningful existence after death (see שאול, Sheol and the Book of Ecclesiastes), and the later Jewish and Christian belief in the resurrection of the dead and personal immortality after Judgment Day.


title: Christian mortalism

text: In the late eighteenth century, the standard Hebrew lexicon and grammar of John Parkhurst expressed the view that the traditional rendering of the Hebrew word "nephesh" as reference to an immortal soul, had no lexical support. Mortalists in the nineteenth century used lexical arguments to deny the traditional doctrines of hell and the immortal soul.


title: Christian mortalism

text: The eighteenth-century mortalist Henry Layton presented arguments based on physiology. Scientific arguments became important to the nineteenth-century discussion of soul sleep and natural immortality, and mortalist Miles Grant cited extensively from a number of scientists who observed that the immortality of the soul was unsupported by scientific evidence.


title: Christian mortalism

text: The mortality of the soul has not been universally held throughout the history of both Judaism and Christianity.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Modern scholars believe the concept of an immortal soul going to bliss or torment after death entered mainstream Judaism after the Babylonian exile and existed throughout the Second Temple period, though both 'soul sleep' and 'soul death', were also held.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep is present in certain Second Temple period pseudepigraphal works, later rabbinical works, and among medieval era rabbis such as Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092–1167), Maimonides (1135–1204), and Joseph Albo (1380–1444).


title: Christian mortalism

text: Some authorities within Conservative Judaism, notably Neil Gillman, also support the notion that the souls of the dead are unconscious until the resurrection.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Traditional rabbinic Judaism, however, has always been of the opinion that belief in immortality of at least most souls, and punishment and reward after death, was a consistent belief back through the giving of the Torah at Mt. Sinai. Traditional Judaism reads the Torah accordingly. As an example, the punishment of kareth (excision) is understood to mean that soul is cut off from God in the afterlife.


title: Christian mortalism

text: The earliest unambiguous instance of soul sleep is found in Tatian's "Oratio ad Graecos" from the second half of the second century. Tatian writes: "The soul is not in itself immortal... If, indeed, it knows not the truth, it dies, and is dissolved with the body, but rises again at last at the end of the world with the body, receiving death by punishment in immortality. But, again, if it acquires the knowledge of God, it dies not, although for a time it be dissolved." Tatian's contemporary Athenagoras of Athens came close to soul sleep by teaching that souls sleep dreamlessly between death and resurrection: "[T]hose who are dead and those who sleep are subject to similar states, as regards at least the stillness and the absence of all sense of the present or the past, or rather of existence itself and their own life."


title: Christian mortalism

text: In Octavius, an account of a debate between a Pagan and a Christian by Marcus Minucius Felix, the Christian in the debate takes soul sleep to be a matter of common agreement:


title: Christian mortalism

text: This synod in Arabia would have been during the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab (244–249). Redepenning (1841) was of the opinion that Eusebius' terminology here, "the human soul dies" was probably that of their critics rather than the Arabian Christians' own expression and they were more likely simply "psychopannychists", believers in "soul sleep".


title: Christian mortalism

text: Some Syriac writers such as Aphrahat, Ephrem and Narsai believed in the "dormition", or "sleep", of the soul, in which "...souls of the dead...are largely inert, having lapsed into a state of sleep, in which they can only dream of their future reward or punishments." John of Damascus denounced the ideas of some Arab Christians as "thnetopsychism" ("soul death"). Eustratios of Constantinople (after 582) denounced this and what he called "hypnopsychism" ("soul sleep"). The issue was connected to that of the intercession of saints. The writings of Christian ascetic Isaac of Nineveh (d. 700), reflect several perspectives which include soul sleep.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep evidently persisted since various Byzantine writers had to defend the doctrine of the veneration of saints against those who said the saints sleep. John the Deacon (eleventh century) attacked those who "dare to say that praying to the saints is like shouting in the ears of the deaf, as if they had drunk from the mythical waters of Oblivion."


title: Christian mortalism

text: Pope John XXII inadvertently caused the beatific vision controversy (1331–34) by suggesting that the saved do not attain the Beatific Vision, or "see God" until Judgment Day (in Italian: "Visione beatifica differita", "deferred beatific vision"), which was a view possibly consistent with soul sleep. The Sacred College of Cardinals held a consistory on the problem in January 1334, and Pope John conceded to the more orthodox understanding. His successor, in that same year, Pope Benedict XII, declared that the righteous do see Heaven prior to the final judgement. In 1336, Pope Benedict XII issued the papal bull Benedictus Deus. This document defined the Church's belief that the souls of the departed go to their eternal reward immediately after death, as opposed to remaining in a state of unconscious existence until the Last Judgment.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep re-emerged in Christianity when it was promoted by some Reformation leaders, and it survives today mostly among Restorationist sects, such as Jehovah Witnesses and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Conti has argued that during the Reformation both psychosomnolence (the belief that the soul sleeps until the resurrection) and thnetopsychism (the belief that the body and soul both die and then both rise again) were quite common.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Morey suggests that John Wycliffe (1320–84) and Tyndale taught the doctrine of soul sleep "as the answer to the Catholic teachings of purgatory and masses for the dead."


title: Christian mortalism

text: However, the best-known advocate of soul sleep was Martin Luther (1483–1546). In writing on Ecclesiastes, Luther says


title: Christian mortalism

text: Jürgen Moltmann (2000) concludes from this that "Luther conceived the state of the dead as a deep, dreamless sleep, removed from time and space, without consciousness and without feeling." That Luther believed in soul sleep is also the view of . Some writers have claimed that Luther changed his view later in life.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Gottfried Fritschel (1867) argued that quotations from Luther's Latin works had occasionally been misread in Latin or in German translation to contradict or qualify specific statements and Luther's overall teaching, namely that the sleep of the dead was unconscious: These readings can still be found in some English sources.


title: Christian mortalism

text: As such, Lutheran Churches affirm that "The Confessions rule out the contemporary view that death is a pleasant and painless transition into a perfect world" and reject both the ideas that "the soul is by nature and by virtue of an inherent quality immortal" and that "the soul 'sleeps' between death and the resurrection in such a way that it is not conscious of bliss".


title: Christian mortalism

text: On the other hand, others believing in soul sleep included Camillo Renato (1540), Mátyás Dévai Bíró (1500–45), Michael Servetus (1511–53), Laelio Sozzini (1562), Fausto Sozzini (1563), the Polish Brethren (1565 onwards), Dirk Philips (1504–68), Gregory Paul of Brzezin (1568), the Socinians (1570–1800), John Frith (1573), George Schomann (1574) and Simon Budny (1576).


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep was a significant minority view from the eighth to the seventeenth centuries, and it became increasingly common from the Reformation onwards.


title: Christian mortalism

text: Soul sleep has been called a "major current of seventeenth century protestant ideology." John Milton wrote in his unpublished "De Doctrina Christiana",


title: Christian mortalism

text: Gordon Campbell (2008) identifies Milton's views as "thnetopsychism", a belief that the soul dies with the body but is resurrected at the last judgment. however Milton speaks also of the dead as "asleep".