title: Christian name

text: Socrates (Hist. Eccl., VII, xxi) wrote of Athenais who married the Emperor Theodosius the Younger, and who previously to marriage was baptized (AD 421) receiving the name Eudoxia.


title: Christian name

text: Bede wrote that King Caedwalla went to Rome and was baptized by the Pope Sergius who gave him the name of Peter. Dying soon afterwards he was buried in Rome and his epitaph beginning "Hic depositus est Caedwalla qui est Petrus" was pointed out (Bede, "Hist. Eccl.", V, vii).


title: Christian name

text: Later Guthrum the Danish leader in England after his long contest with King Alfred was eventually defeated, and consenting to accept Christianity was baptized in 878, taking the name Æthelstan.


title: Christian name

text: Various Fathers and spiritual writers and synodal decrees have exhorted Christians to give no names to their children in baptism but those of canonized saints or of the angels of God, but at no point in the history of the Church were these injunctions strictly attended to.


title: Christian name

text: They were not observed during the early or the later Middle Ages. In extensive lists of medieval names, such as those found in the indexes of legal proceedings which have been edited in modern times, while ordinary names without religious associations, such as William, Robert, Roger, Geoffrey, Hugh, etc. are common (around the year 1200, William was by far the most common Christian name in England), there are also a number of exceptional names which have apparently no religious associations at all. These include Ademar, Ailma, Ailward, Albreza, Alditha, Almaury, Ascelina, Avice, Aystorius (these come from the lists of those cured at the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury). A rubric in the official "Rituale Romanum" mandates that the priest ought to see that names of deities or of godless pagans are not given in baptism ("curet ne obscoena, fabulosa aut ridicula vel inanium deorum vel impiorum ethnicorum hominum nomina imponantur").


title: Christian name

text: A pronouncement from Bourges (1666) addressing parents and godparents urges: "Let them give to boys the names of male saints and to girls those of women saints as right order requires, and let them avoid the names of festivals like Easter ("Pâques"), Christmas ("Noël"), All Saints ("Toussaint") and others that are sometimes chosen." Despite such injunctions "Toussaint" has become a common French Christian name and "Noël" has also found popularity abroad. The addition of Marie, especially in the form Jean-Marie, for girls, and of Joseph for boys is common in present-day France.


title: Christian name

text: In Spain and Italy Marian festivals have also created names for girls: "Concepción", of which the diminutive is "Concha", as well as "Asunción, Encarnación, Mercedes, Dolores" etc. in Spanish, and in Italian "Assunta, Annunziata, Concetta", etc.


title: Christian name

text: The name Mary has not always been a favourite for girls. In England in the 12th century, Mary as a Christian name was rare. The name George, often given in recognition of the Saint George the patron saint of England, was not common in the 13th and 14th centuries, though it grew in popularity after the Protestant Reformation.


title: Christian name

text: In the registers of Oxford University from 1560 to 1621, the more common names used by the students in order of popularity were: John, 3826; Thomas, 2777; William, 2546; Richard, 1691; Robert, 1222; Edward, 957; Henry, 908; George, 647; Francis, 447; James, 424; Nicholas, 326; Edmund, 298. In Italy and Spain it has been common practice to call a child after the saint upon whose feast they are born.


title: Christian name

text: The practice of adopting a new name was not limited to baptism. Many medieval examples show that any notable change of condition, especially in the spiritual order, was often accompanied by the reception of a new name. In the 8th century, the two Englishmen Winfrith and Willibald going on different occasions to Rome received from the Pope, along with a new commission to preach, the names respectively of Boniface and Clement. Emma of Normandy when she married King Ethelred in 1002 took the name Ælfgifu; while the reception of a new, monastic name upon entering a religious order remains almost universal.


title: Christian name

text: At confirmation, in which the interposition of a godfather emphasizes the resemblance with baptism, it has been customary to take a new name, but usually, use made of it is infrequent. In the case of Henry III, King of France, godson of the English Edward VI had been christened Edouard Alexandre in 1551, the same French prince at confirmation received the name of Henri, and subsequently reigned under this name.


title: Christian name

text: In England after the Reformation, the practice of adopting a new name at confirmation was still used, as Sir Edward Coke wrote that a man might validly buy land by his "confirmation name", and he recalled the case of a Sir Francis Gawdye, late Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, whose name of baptism was Thomas and his name of confirmation Francis.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University (Alcorn State, ASU or Alcorn) is a public historically black land-grant university adjacent to Lorman, Mississippi. It was founded in 1871 and was the first black land grant college established in the United States.


title: Alcorn State University

text: One of Alcorn's most notable graduates, Medgar Evers, a civil rights activist, graduated in 1952. Students and alumni of the college were part of the mid-twentieth century Civil Rights Movement, working to register voters and end inequality in the U.S. The university is a member-school of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State's athletic teams known as the Braves and compete in the NCAA's Division I. All teams compete as members of the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC).


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University was the first black land grant college in the country. Mississippi's Reconstructionist legislature, dominated by Republicans sympathetic to the cause of educating the formerly enslaved, was established on the site of Oakland College, a college that had gone defunct due to the Civil War. Alcorn University started with what is recognized as three historic buildings.


title: Alcorn State University

text: United States Senator Hiram R. Revels resigned his seat when he accepted the position as Alcorn's first president. The state legislature provided $50,000 in cash for ten successive years for the establishment and overall operations of the college. The state also granted Alcorn three-fifths of the proceeds earned from the sale of of land scrip for agricultural or land grant colleges under federal legislation. The land was sold for $188,928 with Alcorn receiving a share of $113,400. This money was to be used solely to support the agricultural and mechanical components of the college, which Congress wanted to develop nationally. From its beginning, Alcorn State University was a land-grant college. After a group of white Democrats known as Redeemers took over the legislature, Alcorn's appropriation was slashed by almost 90 percent, to $5,500 per year, and an all-white board of trustees was appointed.


title: Alcorn State University

text: In 1878, the name Alcorn University was changed to Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College. The university's original of land have been expanded to develop a campus. The goals for the college set by the Mississippi legislature following the Reconstruction era emphasized training for blacks rather than academic education. The school, like other black schools during these years, was less a college than a vocational school intended to prepare students for the agricultural economy of the state and of most of their hometowns.


title: Alcorn State University

text: At first the school was exclusively for black males, but women were admitted in 1895. Today, women outnumber men at the university 1800 to 1200. Alcorn began with eight faculty members in 1871. Today the faculty and staff number more than 500. The student body has grown from 179 mostly local male students to more than 4,000 students from all over the world.


title: Alcorn State University

text: In 1974, Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College was renamed Alcorn State University, representing the development of its programs. Governor William L. Waller signed House Bill 298 granting university status to Alcorn and the other state-supported colleges. Alcorn had already become a more diversified university, with graduate programs. It provides an undergraduate education that enables students to continue their work in graduate and professional schools, engage in teaching, and enter other professions. It also provides graduate education to equip students for further training in specialized fields.


title: Alcorn State University

text: In 1994 Jay Searcy of the "Philadelphia Inquirer" said that except for its football team, Evers, and "an occasional Olympic athlete," "Alcorn rarely gets mentioned outside the state of Mississippi" although attention on the university increased after Steve McNair made athletic successes.


title: Alcorn State University

text: In 2020, MacKenzie Scott donated $25 million to Alcorn State. Her donation is the largest single gift in Alcorn State's history.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State is accredited, with seven schools and degree programs in more than 50 areas, including a nursing and a Master of Business Administration program. The facilities number approximately 80 modern structures with an approximate value of $71 million.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State is the second largest historically black college or university (HBCU) and the fifth largest university in Mississippi with an enrollment of approximately 3,700 undergraduate students and 600 graduate students.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University consistently ranks among the top 25 HBCUs in the nation according to the annual U.S. News & World Report HBCU rankings.


title: Alcorn State University

text: The Myrlie Evers-Williams Honors Program is available to highly motivated undergraduate students seeking to enhance their academic experience and leadership skills.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University offers a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program through its Natchez campus. Classes are conducted in the evening. Students may join the live lecture classes via a live internet feed. The program is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP), a global accrediting body for business degree programs. The MBA program has been popular with international and out-of-state students.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Besides coordinating study-abroad opportunities, Global Programs brings worldwide perspectives to campus through exchange programs and special events.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn offers pre-professional programs to better prepare students for a transition to specialized studies in the fields of law, engineering, nursing, physical therapy, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award the Associate, Bachelor's, Master's, and Specialist in Education degrees.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn's teacher education program is accredited by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education. The Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics is accredited by the American Dietetics Association. The Associate of Science in Nursing degree, the Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree, and the Master of Science in Nursing degree programs are accredited by the National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission. Alcorn State University is an accredited institutional member of the National Association of Schools of Music, the National Association of Industrial Technology, and the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences.


title: Alcorn State University

text: The main campus is located in Alcorn State University census-designated place, an unincorporated area in Claiborne County, Mississippi. It is south of Vicksburg, north of Natchez, and southwest of Jackson. It is near Lorman.


title: Alcorn State University

text: The Nursing School and the Business School's Master of Business Administration (MBA) program are located in Natchez, Mississippi. The university also has a class center in Vicksburg.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Male residence halls include Medgar Wiley Evers Heritage Village Complex A and B, Hiram Revels Hall and Albert Lott Hall. Female residence halls include Medgar Wiley Evers Heritage Village Complex buildings C and D, John Burrus Hall, Beulah Robinson Hall, and the Female Honors Residence Hall.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Faculty housing, which is open to full time employees, and their dependents, is zoned to the Claiborne County School District. Port Gibson High School is the comprehensive high school of the district.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State is a member of the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) and participates in NCAA Division I FCS. Alcorn sponsors 15 athletic programs.


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University's marching band was founded in the 1960s; the band is known as the "Sounds of Dyn-O-mite" (SOD). Led by four or five drum majors, SOD has more than 190+ members.


title: Alcorn State University

text: The "Golden Girls" (GGs) is the danceline that has been featured with SOD since its inception. Founded in 1968, the GGs is the oldest danceline (no twirling batons) featured with a HBCU marching band which is why they often refer to themselves as "The Mother of HBCU dancelines."


title: Alcorn State University

text: Alcorn State University CDP is a census-designated place (CDP) and the official name for an area covering the Alcorn State University campus, in Claiborne County, Mississippi, United States.


title: Alcorn State University

text: The population at the 2020 census was 1,120. while the Fall 2019 enrollment at Alcorn State University was 3,523.


title: Alcorn State University

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: AOC International

text: AOC International (trading as AOC, formerly Admiral Overseas Corporation, ) is a multinational electronics company headquartered in Taipei, Taiwan, and a subsidiary of TPV Technology. It designs and produces a full range of LCD TVs and PC monitors, and formerly CRT monitors for PCs which are sold worldwide under the AOC brand.


title: AOC International

text: Admiral Overseas Corporation (AOC) was founded in Chicago, Illinois, by Ross Siragusa as the Asian arm of his Admiral Corporation, and later established in Taiwan in 1967 as the first manufacturer of colour televisions for export. In 1978, Admiral Overseas Corporation was renamed AOC International. Direct marketing under the AOC brand name began in 1979. From 1988 to 1997, AOC established its sales offices in United States, China, Europe, and Brazil. AOC was launched in India and Mexico in 2005 and 2006 respectively. Today, AOC products including CRT and LCD monitors, LCD television sets, all-in-one units and Android tablets, are available in more than 40 countries worldwide.


title: Title II weapons

text: Title II weapons, or NFA firearms, are designations of certain weapons under the United States National Firearms Act (NFA).


title: Title II weapons

text: These are weapons requiring a Type 01 Federal Firearms License (FFL) as well as a Class 3 Special Occupation Tax (SOT) to sell, and an ATF Form 4 (transfer of registration) with $200 tax stamp to purchase. Also a Type 07 FFL (manufacturer) with a Class 2 Special Occupation Tax is qualified to manufacture, purchase and sell. The restrictions apply to certain firearms, explosive munitions, and other devices which are federally regulated by the NFA. Any violation of the NFA is a felony punishable by up to 10 years in prison. Per the National Rifle Association's "Summary of Gun Control Act of 1968":


title: Title II weapons

text: The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), which enforces federal firearms law, refers to such weapons as "NFA firearms". NFA firearms include machine guns, short-barreled rifles and shotguns, heavy weapons, explosive ordnance, silencers and "any other weapon" (AOW), such as disguised or improvised firearms. Title I weapons, or GCA firearms, are standard rifles, shotguns, and handguns.


title: Title II weapons

text: Explosive devices such as bombs or grenades are regulated as NFA firearms (destructive devices). Explosive materials are not considered NFA firearms; they are regulated under the Organized Crime Control Act.


title: Title II weapons

text: A machine gun, as defined in the NFA, is "Any weapon which shoots, is designed to shoot, or can be readily restored to shoot, automatically more than one shot without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger." The NFA term machine gun refers to all firearms capable of full automatic fire and includes true machine guns, submachine guns, and machine pistols. The frame or receiver of a machine gun, and any combination of parts intended to make a machine gun, is legally defined as a machine gun. For example, according to the ATF, "A Glock conversion switch is a part designed and intended for use in converting a semi-automatic Glock pistol into a machine gun; therefore, it is a "machine gun" as defined in 26 U.S.C. 5845(b)." Open-bolt firearms made after 1982 are considered machine guns due to ease of conversion.


title: Title II weapons

text: Parts that can be used to convert a semi-automatic firearm to fully automatic capability are regulated as machine guns and must be registered and tax paid under the NFA. The U.S. military issued kits T17 and T18 to convert the M1 carbine to an M2, capable of fully automatic fire; these kits are legally "machine guns".


title: Title II weapons

text: It must be intended to be fired from the shoulder one shell of shot (pellets) or one projectile at a time.


title: Title II weapons

text: A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder and fire one bullet at a time through a rifled barrel. An SBR need not retain a shoulder stock after modification.


title: Title II weapons

text: ATF regards pistols with shoulder stocks as redesigned to be fired from the shoulder. Modern pistols with shoulder stocks and with barrels less than 16 inches long, or overall length under 26 inches, are NFA short barrelled rifles. ATF has removed some specified stocked handguns (e.g., original Mauser C96 and Luger utilizing an original shoulder stock) from the NFA as collectors' items (Curios or Relics List); ATF treats them as pistols under the GCA.


title: Title II weapons

text: Most commercial shotguns have a bore diameter greater than inch, but are exempt due to their "sporting purpose"; however, both the Street Sweeper and USAS-12 shotguns, designed for military or police use, were reclassified as DDs when the ATF determined they were combat shotguns not "generally recognized as particularly suitable for sporting purposes".


title: Title II weapons

text: Devices which are not intended or not likely to be used as a weapon are also exempt. Examples of non-weapon large bore firearms include:


title: Title II weapons

text: Flare launchers are normally exempt as they are signalling devices, not weapons; however, possession of a flare launcher and anti-personnel ammunition for it puts it in the DD category as it is then considered to be a weapon.


title: Title II weapons

text: The legal term silencer, also known as a "suppressor", is defined as "any device for silencing, muffling, or diminishing the report of a portable firearm, including any combination of parts ... intended for use in assembling or fabricating a firearm silencer."


title: Title II weapons

text: "Any other weapon" is a "catch-all" category. An AOW is defined as "any weapon or device capable of being concealed on the person from which a shot can be discharged through the energy of an explosive," other than a handgun with a rifled barrel". This umbrella definition includes many improvised firearms ("zip guns") and disguised firearms. Examples include wallet guns, cane guns, knife guns and pen guns. An AOW can be transferred to non-prohibited persons with a $5 BATF stamp as opposed to the $200 stamp required for machine guns and short-barreled rifles.


title: Title II weapons

text: AOW is a complex and often misunderstood category of NFA firearms. Less obvious examples of AOW devices include:


title: Title II weapons

text: An antique firearm is excluded from NFA regulation if it is "not likely to be used as a weapon" and is not a machine gun or destructive device. It must have been manufactured before 1899:


title: Title II weapons

text: Note that a firearm manufactured before 1899 is an antique by nature of production date. A replica is of the same status provided it is either a muzzle loader, uses non-fixed ammunition (such as pinfire), or custom ammunition not commercially produced (such as conversion cartridges). Note that ATF has not defined "commercial production" for quantities of ammunition to qualify as "readily available".


title: Title II weapons

text: The ownership of Title II weapons is not illegal, but is heavily regulated at both the State and Federal level. Numerous federal restrictions are imposed on the ownership of NFA firearms, including an extensive background check initiated by the applicant's local police department or Sheriff's office. In most states, certification of the local background check is discretionary ("May-Certify"), meaning the law enforcement agency charged with initiating the background check may deny certification of the background check either arbitrarily or for reasons unrelated to the information obtained from the background check, or refuse to accept applications to start the background check process. Some states have passed "Shall-Certify" legislation requiring local law enforcement agencies to process and certify applications for those who pass the initial background check. A few states completely outlaw private citizens from obtaining NFA Title II weapons ("No-Certify").


title: Title II weapons

text: Federal law imposes a $200 tax on manufacture or certain transfers of an NFA firearm, and a requirement for registration under the NFA. Generally, for the manufacture of NFA items, ATF Form 5320-1 must be submitted to the ATF. For the transfer of a NFA item (from a person or entity lawfully entitled to transfer it (Class 3 dealer) to oneself, or an entity (Gun Trust or LLC), the ATF Form 5320-4 must be submitted to the ATF. There is a lower, $5 transfer tax for weapons that fit in the definition of "Any Other Weapon" (AOW). Any violation of the NFA is a felony punishable by a fine of up to $250,000 and up to 10 years in prison, and any firearm involved is forfeit.


title: Title II weapons

text: Of NFA firearms (silencers, machine guns, short barrel rifles, short barrel shotguns, any other weapon (AOW) and destructive devices) machineguns are the most restricted. Since 19 May 1986, no new machineguns can be registered for private ownership.


title: Title II weapons

text: A few states, such as New York, Delaware, and California, prohibit ownership of all or certain types of Title II weapons and devices. Most states allow legal ownership if the owner has complied with the federal registration and taxation requirements. A few states only allow possession of NFA firearms on the ATF Curios and Relics List, again only if the owner has complied with all federal requirements.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade is the first expansion set for the MMORPG "World of Warcraft". It was released on January 16, 2007 at local midnight in Europe and North America, selling nearly 2.4 million copies on release day alone and making it, at the time, the fastest-selling PC game released at that point. Approximately 3.53 million copies were sold in the first month of release, including 1.9 million in North America, nearly 1.6 million in Europe, and over 100,000 copies in Australia.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Two new playable races were added to "World of Warcraft" in "The Burning Crusade": the Draenei of the Alliance and the Blood Elves of the Horde. Previously, the shaman class was exclusive to the Horde faction (available to the orc, troll and tauren races), and the paladin class was exclusive to the Alliance faction (available to the human and dwarf races); with the new races, the expansion allowed players to be a Draenei shaman (Alliance), and a Blood Elf paladin (Horde). The level cap was raised by ten, making it 70 (up from 60, established in the original World of Warcraft) in addition to that; a whole new planet, Outland, was released, with associated quests, dungeons, raids, zones, creatures, and cities.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: In Player versus Player (PvP), a new battleground, Eye of the Storm was introduced with two brackets: one for characters between levels 61–69, and another for level 70 characters. Players are unable to summon flying mounts in this battleground. The Eye of the Storm battleground is only available to those with the expansion.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: In addition, a new PvP Arena System was introduced as a way for players to fight in 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, or 5 vs 5 death-match style battles. While the arena system allowed players without "The Burning Crusade" expansion to partake in skirmish matches, those without the expansion were unable to participate in rated matches, which yield rewards based on a point system. Ladder matches were only accessible by players who have reached level 70. Three arena stages were introduced in The Burning Crusade expansion, including The Ruins of Lordaeron in the Undercity, The Circle of Blood in Blade's Edge Mountains, and the Ring of Trials in Nagrand.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Arena matches have taken a more prominent role in World of Warcraft's PvP content, and have developed into an electronic sport. One example of Arena matches as an electronic sport was the World Series of Video Games in 2007, where player teams competed in 3 vs 3 matches to earn cash prizes. Blizzard also holds its own seasonal tournament, the World of Warcraft Arena Tournament, which pitches teams from servers all around the world against each other. This tournament concludes with a 5v5 world final event, the first of which took place at BlizzCon ’07 and so ended season 1.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Additional "outdoor" PvP objectives were implemented, which are different for each zone in which they are located. Most of these outdoor PvP objectives involve "capturing" key points to reward players of the same faction in the area, usually with a temporary buff that adds a damage boost to player attacks or increases the rate players gain experience or faction points while the players are in the zone. For example, Terokkar Forest's PvP contest involves players standing near towers in order to capture them while defending the towers in PvP combat with players of the opposite faction that try to capture the objective. Other examples include Halaa in Nagrand and the Hellfire Fortifications in Hellfire Peninsula, where players compete for control to unlock quest and vendor access or gain factional reputation for rewards.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: There are two new races in this expansion: the Blood Elves for the Horde and the Draenei for the Alliance.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Blood elf — A faction of former Alliance members join the Horde in the expansion. They are led by Regent Lord Lor'themar Theron. The blood elf capital is Silvermoon City. Their racial mount is the bird-like hawkstrider and their language is Thalassian.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Draenei — A faction of uncorrupted eredar join the Alliance. They are led by their prophet, Velen. The draenei capital city is the Exodar. Their racial mount is the elephant-like elekk and their language is Draenei.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: The expansion's name refers to the return of the "Burning Legion"; a vast army of demons being one of the main, recurring antagonist forces in the Warcraft-universe and whose last invasion was defeated in "". This legion and its allies are the main enemy which players will fight against in "The Burning Crusade". In addition to some new areas on Azeroth, this expansion mainly features the ravaged world of Outland which the Burning Legion and other powerful beings control.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: The Doom Lord Kazzak reopened the Dark Portal to Outland, flooding Azeroth with the ravenous demons of the Burning Legion. Expeditions from the Horde and Alliance, reinforced by their new blood elf and draenei allies, passed through the gateway to stop the invasion at its source. On Outland's desiccated Hellfire Peninsula, the Alliance discovered several of their heroes who had crossed through the portal many years before, while the Horde made contact with the Mag'har (uncorrupted) orcs who had not participated in their race's original invasion of Azeroth. The expedition into Outland dragged Horde and Alliance armies further into conflict with the agents of the Legion and the lieutenants of Illidan Stormrage, who had claimed the shattered realm for his own.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: In his quest to reign over all of Outland, Illidan the Betrayer had established a mighty stronghold for his forces within the Black Temple, a former draenei citadel. Yet his influence began to wane after the defeat of his most trusted lieutenants, including the ruler of the Illidari Naga, Lady Vashj, and the traitorous former leader of the blood elves, Kael'thas Sunstrider. The resulting window of opportunity permitted Akama, an elder sage of devolved draenei known as the Broken, to rebel against the self-styled "Lord of Outland." Along with Illidan's former jailor, the obsessed night elf Maiev Shadowsong, Akama helped a group of heroes infiltrate Illidan's seat of power and put an end to the Betrayer's reign once and for all.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Following years of battles alongside the old Horde, the troll warlord Zul'jin retired to the city of Zul'Aman, capital of the Amani trolls, where he called upon mysterious dark powers to rebuild his army. While the eyes of Azeroth focused on the fight against the Burning Legion and the expedition to Outland, treasure-seekers invaded Zul'Aman, rekindling Zul'jin's hatred of the outside world—particularly the high elves of Quel'Thalas. Upon hearing that these newly christened "blood elves" had become part of the Horde in his absence, the infuriated Zul'jin declared war on both Horde and Alliance. To gain the upper hand, Zul'jin attempts to awaken ancient animal gods to harness their power, but is slain by a group of heroes before his plans can come to fruition.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Fresh from his defeat in Outland, Kael'thas Sunstrider returned to the blood elf city of Silvermoon. Rather than leading his people to glory as he had promised, the disgraced prince betrayed them. Kael'thas plotted to use the legendary Sunwell, source of the blood elves' magical power, to summon the demon lord Kil'jaeden into Azeroth. Aided by a joint task force of blood elves and draenei, the Shattered Sun Offensive, Horde and Alliance heroes, with the help of a dragon Kalecgos and the Sunwell's mortal form, Anveena; narrowly stopped both Kael'thas and Kil'jaeden, although Anveena sacrificed herself in the process. The draenei prophet Velen then used the naaru M'uru's energy to reignite and purify the Sunwell.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Release was staggered by time zone, with players queuing outside more than 5000 brick and mortar game stores around the world as midnight approached in their local time zone. The game was released in North America, Europe, Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia on January 16, 2007. It was released in Australasia one day later on January 17, 2007. It was later released in South Korea on February 1, 2007; in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau on April 30, 2007. The game was released in mainland China on September 6, 2007.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: On June 28, 2011, Blizzard included the Burning Crusade expansion to all players who purchase the base game. On July 17, 2018 with the pre-patch to , Blizzard included all expansions except the latest to all players who subscribe.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: On February 19, 2021, Blizzard announced the Burning Crusade expansion for the Classic version of the game.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Blizzard made a number of errors during the distribution of "World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade" in Europe. One such error was the failure to register the Collector's Edition for in-game rewards. As such, players who purchased the Collector's Edition of the game would have to send numerous proofs of purchase to Blizzard by postal mail in order to redeem their in-game awards. To compensate for the additional trouble, as well as encouraging players to send in proof, Blizzard sent these players an exclusive in-game pet not found in other regions.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Only 1,600 copies were delivered to Romania, which had more than 10,000 "World of Warcraft" subscribers at the time.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: The Collector's Edition of "World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade" included an audio CD of the soundtrack including 21 tracks of the orchestrally recorded music, composed by Russell Brower, Derek Duke, Matt Uelmen, and Neal Acree with additional music by Brian David Farr and David Arkenstone. The soundtrack was also subsequently released for purchase through online sources, such as Apple's iTunes Store.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: The specially designed new starter areas met a mixed reception from critics. On the one hand, they were felt to give a strong new perspective to existing players or a solid introduction to the game to new players. The arrangement of quests and content in these areas was felt to be more finely tuned than for existing races, with players unlikely to face grinding in order to progress and an interesting backstory being gradually revealed. It was felt that Blizzard had learned from the release of the original game, with the new content being varied without becoming overwhelming to new players, and new concepts being gradually introduced. On the other hand, reviewers felt that the new starter areas were poorly integrated with the existing world, leaving them feeling "tacked on." They were also disappointed that the new areas had a definite finish, beyond which a player would have to switch back to older content in order to progress their character. This progression didn't feel as smooth to reviewers when compared to the movement between zones for new characters from the older starting areas. The experience was also felt to be short-lived, with players being able to progress through these new areas with a couple of days' play without any new introductory dungeons to explore. It was also felt that these changes didn't address existing problems, such as the travel time between quest locations.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: Like in the original, the scenery of "The Burning Crusade" was highly praised, being described as "occasionally breathtaking," The introductory video to the expansion was described as "hugely impressive." It was generally felt that the new Outland areas were some of the best in the game, with the size of the new areas introduced being similar to the total size of other existing games in the genre. The new starting areas were also liked, with reviewers appreciating the attention to detail in these zones. Building architecture, scenery and creatures were all singled out for mention, despite some disappointment that buildings and creatures from the original game had been "rubber stamped" into these new locations. The uniqueness of each zone, from scorched plateaus to lush forests were praised, each area being described as having its own unique feel. The various small features, such as mechanical settlements or abandoned temples were also well liked. Players were advised that they would spend a large amount of time "just staring at the scenery" in these new locations. That said, it was felt that the game was starting to show its age, with careful use of texture and lighting techniques disguising a basic underlying geometry. This was thought to follow on from the strategy in the original game, where strong art direction and careful choice of color helped to compensate for a simpler game engine, describing it as a "testament of art over technology."


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: The orchestral music was well received, being described as providing a "constantly changing backdrop." The new score was felt to mesh well with the original, while still providing occasional "fresh twists." The soundtracks to each of the two new starting areas were particularly praised. Reviewers were generally positive about the voice acting in the game.


title: World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

text: "World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade" was the best-selling PC game of 2007 in North America and Europe, and it is also the third fastest-selling PC game of all time (behind Wrath of The Lich King and Cataclysm), selling nearly 2.4 million copies in its first 24 hours and approximately 3.5 million in its first month. It received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Jim True-Frost

text: Jim True-Frost ("né" True; July 31, 1966) is an American stage, television and screen actor. He is most known for his portrayal of Roland "Prez" Pryzbylewski on all five seasons of the HBO program "The Wire", as James Woodrow in "Treme" (2010-2012), and film roles such as "Singles" (1992).


title: Jim True-Frost

text: True-Frost graduated from New Trier High School in Winnetka, Illinois. He has been an ensemble member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago since 1989. Prior to that, he was a member of Remains Theater, co-founded by actor William L. Petersen ("To Live and Die in L.A., "). True-Frost appeared in the film "Off the Map" with fellow Steppenwolf ensemble member Joan Allen, directed by "Singles" co-star Campbell Scott. He has performed on Broadway and as far away as Sierra Leone.


title: Jim True-Frost

text: When he married lawyer and legal scholar Cora Frost in 1999, both changed their last names to True-Frost. Jim and his wife now reside in Syracuse, New York, and have two children, a son named Leo and a daughter named Phoebe.


title: Jim True-Frost

text: True-Frost appeared in 2008 as Brutus in the American Repertory Theatre's production of William Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar", as well as Steppenwolf's Broadway run of "", which won the Tony for Best Play.


title: Warwolf

text: The Warwolf, or War Wolf or Ludgar (), is believed to be the largest trebuchet ever made. It was created in Scotland by order of King Edward I of England, during the siege of Stirling Castle, as part of the Scottish Wars of Independence.


title: Warwolf

text: When disassembled, the weapon would fill 30 wagons in parts. It reportedly took five master carpenters and forty-nine other labourers at least three months to complete.


title: Warwolf

text: A contemporary account of the siege states, "During this business the king had carpenters construct a fearful engine called the "loup-de-guerre" [sic., War wolf], and this when it threw, brought down the whole wall."


title: Warwolf

text: Even before construction could be completed, Scottish soldiers offered surrender, fearing the weapon's potential to destroy the entire castle. Edward sent the truce party back inside the castle, declaring, "You do not deserve any grace, but must surrender to my will." Edward decided to carry on with the siege and witness the destructive power of the weapon. Reportedly, the Warwolf could accurately hurl rocks weighing as much as from distance of and level a large section of the curtain wall.


title: Warwolf

text: Some of the original parchment rolls of the accounts of King Edward survive. Two references to the War Wolf, in Latin read;


title: Warwolf

text:
Domino Alexandro le Convers, pro denariis per ipsum datis..., carpentariis facientibus ingenium quod vocatur Lupus Guerre, et aliis operaris diversis operantibus, ..., mensibus Maii et Junii anno presenti (1304), vii die Junii, ..., 10 s.
To Master Alexander le Convers, for money paid by him to the carpenters making the engine called 'War Wolf', and other workers working (also on the engine), in May and June 1304, 10 shillings on 7 June 1304.

Thome de Viridi Campo, valleto regine, de dono regis in recompensacionem laboris quem sustenit circa facturem Lupus Guerre quem rex fieri ordinavit pro insultu castri de Stryvelyn, ..., xl li.
"To Thomas of Viridis Campus (i.e. Greenfield), the queen's valet, recompensed at the King's hand for his labours in the making of the 'War Wolf', which the King ordered to be made to slight Stirling Castle, £40."


title: Warwolf

text: Another payment refers to a watchman; Reginald the Janitor was paid wages for guarding its beams for forty nights in June and July 1304.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,849 metres (29,031.7 ft) above sea level. It is situated in the Himalayan range of Solukhumbu district (Province 1 in present days), Nepal.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The first British expedition—organized and financed by the newly formed Mount Everest Committee—came under the leadership of Colonel Charles Howard-Bury, with Harold Raeburn as mountaineering leader, and included George Mallory, Guy Bullock, and Edward Oliver Wheeler. It was primarily for mapping and reconnaissance to discover whether a route to the summit could be found from the north side. As the health of Raeburn broke down, Mallory assumed responsibility for most of the exploration to the north and east of the mountain. He wrote to his wife: "We are about to walk off the map..." After five months of arduous climbing around the base of the mountain, Wheeler explored the hidden East Rongbuk Glacier and its route to the base of the North Col. On September 23, Mallory, Bullock, and Wheeler reached the North Col at before being forced back by strong winds. To Mallory's experienced eye, the route up the North ridge intersecting the NE Ridge and from there to the summit looked long, but feasible for a fresher party.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The second British expedition, under General Charles Granville Bruce and climbing leader Lt-Col. Edward Lisle Strutt, and containing Mallory, returned for a full-scale attempt on the mountain. On May 22, they climbed to 8,170 m (26,800 ft) on the North Ridge before retreating. They were the first humans to climb above on a mountain. The scope of this accomplishment is reflected by the fact that there are only 14 mountains on earth—the eight-thousanders—that reach and exceed 8,000 metres. At that moment, Mallory and Strutt had exceeded the summit of all but five other mountains on the planet.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: A day later, George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce climbed up the North Ridge and Face to 8,320 m (27,300 ft) using oxygen for the first time. They climbed from the North Col to their highest camp at a phenomenal rate of 900 vert-ft/hr., and were the first climbers to sleep using oxygen.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The third British expedition was led by Brigadier-General Charles Bruce, although becoming indisposed as a result of a flare-up of malaria, he relinquished leadership of the expedition to Lt-Col. Edward Norton, with Mallory promoted to climbing leader. Geoffrey Bruce, Howard Somervell, and John Noel returned from the previous year, along with newcomers Noel Odell and Andrew Irvine.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: On June 2, Mallory and Bruce set off from the North Col (C-4) to make the first summit attempt. But extreme wind and cold, exhaustion, and the refusal of the porters to carry farther led Mallory to abandon the attempt and the next day the party returned to the North Col camp.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: On June 4, Norton and Somervell attempted an oxygenless summit in perfect weather; throat trouble forced Somervell to abandon the climb at about 28,000 feet (8534 m) while Norton continued on alone, reaching a height of 8,573 m (28,126 ft), just 275 m (900 ft) short of the summit. Exhausted, he turned back and rejoined Somervell for the descent.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: On June 8, Mallory and Irvine left their high camp (C-6 at 26,900-ft) to attempt the summit, using Irvine's modified oxygen apparatus. Odell, climbing in support below, wrote in his diary that at 26,000-ft he "saw Mallory & Irvine on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramid" climbing what he thought at the time was the very difficult Second Step at 12:50 p.m. It was the last time the two were seen alive; whether either of them reached the summit remains a question that has reverberated through the decades.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: Back in England, the climbing establishment pressured Odell to change his view. After about six months he began to equivocate on which Step it was he saw them—from the Second to possibly the First. If the First, they had no chance of having reached the top; if the Second, they would have had about three hours of oxygen each and the summit was at least three hours away. It is conceivable (though unlikely) that Mallory might have taken Irvine's remaining oxygen and attempted to reach the summit.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: A much more probable scenario is that the two reached First Step at about 10:30am. Mallory, seeing the treacherous nature of the traverse to the Second Step, went it alone. He reconnoitered the base of the climbing crux and decided it was not for him that day. He returned, picked up Irvine and the two decided to climb the First Step for a look around and to photograph the complex approach to the Second Step. It was when climbing this small promontory that they were spotted from below by Odell, who assumed that, since they were ascending, they must therefore have been on the Second Step, although it is now difficult to believe that the two would still be climbing from so low down at a time—five hours late—that was considered to be the turn-around hour.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: Descending from the First Step, the two continued down when, at 2pm, they were hit by a severe snow squall. Roping up, Mallory, leading, may have slipped, pulling himself and Irvine down. The rope must have caught to inflict severe rope-jerk injury around Mallory's (and presumably, Irvine's) waist. Some researchers believe Irvine was able to stay high and struggle along the crest of the NE Ridge another 100 yards, only to succumb to cold and possible injuries of the fall. Others believe that the two became separated after the fall by the near white-out conditions of the squall. Based on his final location, it would seem that Mallory had continued straight down in search of his partner, while Irvine, also injured, might have continued diagonally down through the Yellow Band.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: In 1979, climber Wang Hongbao of China revealed to the climbing leader of a Japanese expedition that in 1975, while taking a stroll from his bivouac he had discovered "an English dead" at 8100 m, roughly below the site of Irvine's ice axe discovered in 1933 near the NE Ridge. Wang was killed in an avalanche the next day before he could provide additional details.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: In 1999, however, Conrad Anker of the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese bivouac. There are opposing views within the mountaineering community as to whether the duo may have reached the summit 29 years before the first successful ascent by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953. Despite the existence of many theories, the success of Mallory and Irvine's summit assault must be viewed as remote at best.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The leading theory amongst those supporting the summit push has Mallory overcoming the difficulty of the sheer face of the Second Step by standing on Irvine's shoulders. Armed with Irvine's remaining 3/4-full oxygen tank he could conceivably have reached the summit late in the day, but this would have meant that Irvine would have had to descend by himself. However, rope-jerk injuries around Mallory's waist must mean the two were roped when they fell from below the First Step. 1960s Chinese Everest climber Xu Jing told Eric Simonson and Jochen Hemmleb in 2001 that he recalled spotting a corpse somewhere in the Yellow Band. Despite numerous searches of the north face, no sign of Irvine has turned up so far. One researcher claims to have finally spotted Irvine's body using microscopic examination of aerial photographs. This possible discovery set off a new round of search expeditions in 2010 and 2011.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: A major expedition, under the leadership of Hugh Ruttledge, set out to climb with the great expectations that this time they would succeed. Oxygen was taken but not used because of the incorrect but lingering belief that it was of little benefit to a properly acclimated climber. After delays caused by poor weather and illness of team members, a much higher assault camp was placed than in 1924. On the first summit attempt, Lawrence Wager and Percy Wyn-Harris intended to follow the Northeastern ridge, but were unable to regain it, having bypassed (rather than climb over) the First Step, which they reached at 7:00am. The direct access to the Second Step from the First involves a treacherous traverse. Instead of taking it, they dropped down to follow the lower, easier traverse pioneered by Norton in 1924. Observing the Second Step from below it, Wyn-Harris declared it "unclimbable." Shortly after crossing the Great Couloir, they turned back for poor snow conditions and the lateness of the hour. A subsequent attempt by Eric Shipton and Frank Smythe followed the same route but Smythe, who pressed on alone when Shipton turned back because of illness, got no higher.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: Lucy, Lady Houston, a British millionaire former showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of airplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the summit in an effort to photograph the unknown terrain.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston, and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: In 1996, fifteen people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest year in Everest history. On May 10, a storm stranded several climbers between the summit and the safety of Camp IV, killing Rob Hall, Scott Fischer, Yasuko Namba, Doug Hansen, and guide Andy Harris on the south and the Indian (Ladakhi) climbers Tsewang Paljor, Dorje Morup, Tsewang Smanla on the north. Hall and Fischer were both highly experienced climbers who were leading paid expeditions to the summit.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from "Outside" magazine, was in Hall's party. He published the bestseller "Into Thin Air" about the experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called "The Climb". The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told "New Scientist" magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on that day suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14%.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: During the same season, climber and filmmaker David Breashears and his team filmed the IMAX feature "Everest" on the mountain (some climbing scenes were later recreated for the film in British Columbia, Canada). The 70 mm IMAX camera was specially modified to be lightweight enough to carry up the mountain, and to function in the extreme cold with the use of particular greases on the mechanical parts, plastic bearings and special batteries. Production was halted as Breashears and his team assisted the survivors of the May 10 disaster, but the team eventually reached the top on May 23 and filmed the first large format footage of the summit. On Breashears' team was Jamling Tenzing Norgay, the son of Norgay, following in his father's footsteps for the first time. Also on his team was Ed Viesturs of Seattle, WA, who summited without the use of supplemental oxygen, and Araceli Segarra, who became the first woman from Spain to summit Everest.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The storm's impact on climbers on the mountain's other side, the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book "The Other Side of Everest".


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: The Nepalese government announced on 13 March 2020 that it was suspending all climbing permits for Mount Everest and all other peaks in the country due to concern over the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic; the Chinese government has already closed its side of Everest.


title: Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions

text: On 3 April 2020 it was announced that more than two dozen Chinese climbers were tackling Mount Everest and were expected to reach the advanced base camp on Friday, although only Chinese climbers would be permitted in the spring season.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Osmotic concentration, formerly known as osmolarity, is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/L (pronounced "osmolar"), in the same way that the molarity of a solution is expressed as "M" (pronounced "molar"). Whereas molarity measures the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution, osmolarity measures the number of "osmoles of solute particles" per unit volume of solution. This value allows the measurement of the osmotic pressure of a solution and the determination of how the solvent will diffuse across a semipermeable membrane (osmosis) separating two solutions of different osmotic concentration.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: The unit of osmotic concentration is the osmole. This is a non-SI unit of measurement that defines the number of moles of solute that contribute to the osmotic pressure of a solution. A milliosmole (mOsm) is 1/1,000 of an osmole. A microosmole (μOsm) (also spelled micro-osmole) is 1/1,000,000 of an osmole.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Osmolarity is distinct from molarity because it measures osmoles of solute particles rather than moles of solute. The distinction arises because some compounds can dissociate in solution, whereas others cannot.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Ionic compounds, such as salts, can dissociate in solution into their constituent ions, so there is not a one-to-one relationship between the molarity and the osmolarity of a solution. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissociates into Na and Cl ions. Thus, for every 1 mole of NaCl in solution, there are 2 osmoles of solute particles (i.e., a 1 mol/L NaCl solution is a 2 osmol/L NaCl solution). Both sodium and chloride ions affect the osmotic pressure of the solution.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Another example is magnesium chloride (MgCl), which dissociates into Mg and 2Cl ions. For every 1 mole of MgCl in the solution, there are 3 osmoles of solute particles.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Nonionic compounds do not dissociate, and form only 1 osmole of solute per 1 mole of solute. For example, a 1 mol/L solution of glucose is 1 osmol/L.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Multiple compounds may contribute to the osmolarity of a solution. For example, a 3 Osm solution might consist of: 3 moles glucose, or 1.5 moles NaCl, or 1 mole glucose + 1 mole NaCl, or 2 moles glucose + 0.5 mole NaCl, or any other such combination.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: The osmolarity of a solution, given in osmoles per liter (osmol/L) is calculated from the following expression:


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Osmolarity can be measured using an osmometer which measures colligative properties, such as Freezing-point depression, Vapor pressure, or Boiling-point elevation.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Osmolarity and tonicity are related but distinct concepts. Thus, the terms ending in "-osmotic" (isosmotic, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic) are not synonymous with the terms ending in "-tonic" (isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic). The terms are related in that they both compare the solute concentrations of two solutions separated by a membrane. The terms are different because osmolarity takes into account the total concentration of penetrating solutes "and" non-penetrating solutes, whereas tonicity takes into account the total concentration of non-freely penetrating solutes "only".


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Penetrating solutes can diffuse through the cell membrane, causing momentary changes in cell volume as the solutes "pull" water molecules with them. Non-penetrating solutes cannot cross the cell membrane; therefore, the movement of water across the cell membrane (i.e., osmosis) must occur for the solutions to reach equilibrium.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: A solution can be both hyperosmotic and isotonic. For example, the intracellular fluid and extracellular can be hyperosmotic, but isotonic – if the total concentration of solutes in one compartment is different from that of the other, but one of the ions can cross the membrane (in other words, a penetrating solute), drawing water with it, thus causing no net change in solution volume.


title: Osmotic concentration

text: According to IUPAC, osmolality is the quotient of the negative natural logarithm of the rational activity of water and the molar mass of water, whereas osmolarity is the product of the osmolality and the mass density of water (also known as osmotic concentration).


title: Osmotic concentration

text: In simpler terms, osmolality is an expression of solute osmotic concentration per "mass" of solvent, whereas osmolarity is per "volume" of solution (thus the conversion by multiplying with the mass density of solvent in solution (kg solvent/litre solution).


title: Osmotic concentration

text: Plasma osmolarity/osmolality is important for keeping proper electrolytic balance in the blood stream. Improper balance can lead to dehydration, alkalosis, acidosis or other life-threatening changes. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) is partly responsible for this process by controlling the amount of water the body retains from the kidney when filtering the blood stream.


title: Euthanasia device

text: A euthanasia device is a machine engineered to allow an individual to die quickly with minimal pain. The most common devices are those designed to help terminally ill people die by voluntary euthanasia or assisted suicide without prolonged pain. They may be operated by a second party, such as a physician, or by the person wishing to die. There is an ongoing debate on the ethics of euthanasia and the use of euthanasia devices.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Invented by Jack Kevorkian, who used this device and called it a "Thanatron" or death machine after the Greek daemon, Thanatos. It worked by pushing a button to deliver the euthanizing drugs mechanically through an IV. It had three canisters mounted on a metal frame. Each bottle had a syringe that connected to a single IV line in the person's arm. One contained saline, one contained a sleep-inducing barbiturate called sodium thiopental and the last a lethal mixture of potassium chloride, which immediately stopped the heart, and pancuronium bromide, a paralytic medication to prevent spasms during the dying process. Two deaths were assisted with this method.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Kevorkian assisted others with a device that employed a gas mask fed by a canister of carbon monoxide which was called "Mercitron" (mercy machine). This became necessary because Kevorkian's medical license had been revoked after the first two deaths, and he could no longer have legal access to the substances required for the "Thanatron". It was a rudimentary device consisting of a canister of carbon monoxide attached to a face mask with a tube. A valve must be released to start the gas flowing. Depending on the person's disability, a makeshift handle may be attached to the valve to make it easier to turn. Or, with the valve in the "open" position, a clip or clothespin could be clamped on the tubing. Pulling it off allows the gas to flow. By Kevorkian's estimates, this method took 10 minutes or longer. Sometimes he encouraged people to take sedatives or muscle relaxants to keep them calm as they breathed deeply of the gas.


title: Euthanasia device

text: The Deliverance Machine was invented by Philip Nitschke. It consisted of software entitled Deliverance, that came on a special laptop that could be connected to an IV in a person's arm. The computer program asked a series of questions to confirm the person's intent to die. After answering affirmatively to all of the questions, a lethal injection of barbiturates was triggered.


title: Euthanasia device

text: In an interview Nitschke said that, even if it had been legal for a doctor to give a lethal injection, he preferred that the patient be in control of the administration of the drugs. Reducing the role of a physician also allowed a patient to be alone with their family during the euthanasia process.


title: Euthanasia device

text: The machine was used, legally, while the Australian Northern Territory's Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995 was in effect; the act was eventually nullified by legislation of the Australian Parliament. The machine was put on display in the British Science Museum.


title: Euthanasia device

text: The Exit International euthanasia device was invented by Philip Nitschke in 2008. It uses a canister of nitrogen, a plastic suicide bag, and a plastic tube with one end attached to the gas canister and the other fixed inside the bag by a tie held by adhesive tape. Nitschke said, "That idea of giving people access to a means of feeling that they're back in control of this issue is actually a way of prolonging life. It may seem paradoxical, but what we find is when people feel that they're back in control, they're less likely to do desperate things."


title: Euthanasia device

text: The basic principle of autoeuthanasia by anoxia was first described in the book "Final Exit" by Derek Humphry in 1991. The original methodology was devised, using helium, by the "NuTech" group.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Nitschke described his device as a modification of the exit bag with helium method described in "The Peaceful Pill Handbook". Helium was replaced by a cylinder of compressed nitrogen and a regulator to supply the nitrogen into a plastic bag. One advantage of this method was the availability of larger amounts of nitrogen and flow rates last longer. Nitschke states that nitrogen is also more physiologically inert than helium, with less chance of adverse reaction, and that loss of consciousness is quick with death following within minutes. Unlike helium cylinders, nitrogen cylinders can be refilled in the event of leakage and nitrogen gas can't be detected during an autopsy.


title: Euthanasia device

text: The principle behind the device is oxygen deprivation that leads to hypoxia, asphyxia and death within minutes. Deprivation of oxygen in the presence of carbon dioxide creates panic and a sense of suffocation (the hypercapnic alarm response), and struggling even when unconscious, whereas anoxia in the presence of an inert gas, like nitrogen, helium or argon, does not.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Close contact with an enclosed inert gas is lethal, but released into the open air, it quickly disperses, and is safe for others. It is neither flammable nor explosive. Humphry's book describes close contact with the gas achieved by enclosing the head in a strong, clear plastic bag, secured around the neck, with the inert gas fed into the bag by plastic tubing.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Suicides using this method are documented in the forensic literature. In the study "Asphyxial suicide with helium and a plastic bag" (Ogden et al.), the authors describe a typical case history, in which an elderly cancer sufferer used a plastic bag which was secured over her head, a helium tank, and a plastic hose attached to the tank valve and plastic bag. The authors noted that a suicide bag filled with helium will cause almost immediate unconsciousness, followed within minutes by death. Time to loss of consciousness in a bag filled with nitrogen is 15 seconds, according to professors Copeland, Pappas and Parr, who campaigned for a more humane execution method in the US state of Oklahoma.


title: Euthanasia device

text: In 2017, Nitschke invented the 3D-printed suicide capsule, which he named "the Sarco". The Sarco would contain a touchpad and nitrogen, and once an activation code is entered, "the person is again asked if they wish to die". An affirmative answer causes nitrogen to flow into the capsule, displacing oxygen, and death follows shortly thereafter. The Sarco machine cannot be printed on small 3D printers. The Sarco offers a "euphoric death".


title: Euthanasia device

text: A suicide booth is a fictional machine for committing suicide. Suicide booths appear in numerous fictional settings, one of which is the American animated series "Futurama". Compulsory self-execution booths were also featured in an episode of the original "Star Trek" TV series entitled "A Taste of Armageddon". The concept can be found as early as 1893. When a series of suicides were vigorously discussed in United Kingdom newspapers, critic William Archer suggested that in the golden age there would be penny-in-the-slot machines by which a man could kill himself.


title: Euthanasia device

text: Modern writer Martin Amis provoked a small controversy in January 2010 when he facetiously advocated "suicide booths" for the elderly, of whom he wrote:


title: Euthanasia device

text: Following Archer's statement in 1893, the 1895 story "The Repairer of Reputations" by Robert W. Chambers featured the Governor of New York presiding over the opening of the first "Government Lethal Chamber" in the then-future year of 1920, after the repeal of laws against suicide:


title: Euthanasia device

text: However, as Chambers's protagonist who relates the story is suffering from brain damage, it remains ambiguous whether or not he is an unreliable narrator.


title: Euthanasia device

text: In the world of "Futurama", Stop-and-Drop suicide booths resemble phone booths and cost one quarter per use. The booths have at least three modes of death: "quick and painless", "slow and horrible", and "clumsy bludgeoning" though, it is also implied that "electrocution, with a side order of poison" exists, and that the eyes can be scooped out for an extra charge. After a mode of death is selected and executed, the machine cheerfully says, "You are now dead. Thank you for using Stop-and-Drop, America's favorite suicide booth since 2008", or in "", "You are now dead, please take your receipt", and at this time many untaken receipts are shown.


title: Euthanasia device

text: The first appearance of a suicide booth in "Futurama" is in "Space Pilot 3000", in which the character Bender wants to use it. Fry at first mistakes the suicide booth for a phone booth, and Bender offers to share it with him. Fry requests a collect call, which the machine interprets as a "slow and horrible" death. It then turns out that "slow and horrible" can be survived by pressing oneself against the side of the booth, leading Bender to accuse the machine of being a rip-off. In "", after failing to initially chase down Fry in the year 2000, Bender wants to kill himself, but mistakes a regular phone booth for a suicide booth. A suicide booth reappeared in "" where Bender once again attempts to end his life, but is saved when dropped into the League of Robots' lair. During the season 6 episode "Ghost in the Machines", Bender commits suicide in a booth named Lynn that is still angry at him over the end of their relationship six months earlier; his ghost eventually makes its way back to his body so he can continue living.


title: Euthanasia device

text: According to series co-creator Matt Groening, the suicide booth concept was inspired by a 1937 Donald Duck cartoon, "Modern Inventions", in which Donald Duck visits a Museum of the Future and is nearly killed by various push button gadgets. The suicide booth was closely enough associated with Bender's character that in 2001 it was featured as the display stand for the Bender action figure. It was also one of the many features of the series which troubled the executives at Fox when Groening and David X. Cohen first pitched the series.


title: Euthanasia device

text: In the "" episode "A Taste of Armageddon", people who were deemed war casualties by the government of Eminiar VII were required to enter suicide booths. Treaty arrangements require that everyone who is calculated as "dead" in the hypothetical thermonuclear war simulated using computers actually die, without actually damaging any infrastructure. In the end, the computers are destroyed, the war can no longer be calculated in this way, the treaty breaks down, and faced with a real threat, (presumably) peace begins. After the Heaven's Gate mass suicide event was linked by tabloids to an extreme fascination with science fiction and "Star Trek" in particular it was noted that multiple episodes, including "A Taste of Armageddon", actually advocated an anti-suicide standpoint as opposed to the viewpoint expressed by the Heaven's Gate group.


title: Euthanasia device

text: In the seventeenth season "The Simpsons" episode "Million Dollar Abie", a suicide machine called a "diePod" (a pun on the iPod) is featured. The diePod allows the patient to choose visual and auditory themes that present themselves as the patient is killed. It also shows three different modes, namely, "Quick Painless Death", "Slow and Painful Death", and "Megadeath" (a pun on a band of a similarly spelled name). It was a reference to the suicide building in "Soylent Green". Being a direct parody of the aforementioned scene, Abraham Simpson receives the opportunity to select his final vision and musical accompaniment: 1960s-era footage of "cops beatin' up hippies" to the tune of "Pennsylvania 6-5000" by the Glenn Miller Orchestra.


title: Prefecture

text: A prefecture (from the Latin "Praefectura") is an administrative jurisdiction traditionally governed by an appointed prefect. This can be a regional or local government subdivision in various countries, or a subdivision in certain international church structures, as well as in antiquity a Roman district.


title: Prefecture

text: "Prefecture" originally refers to a self-governing body or area since the tetrarchy, when Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into four districts (each divided into dioceses), grouped under "a Vicarius" (a number of Roman provinces, listed under that article), although he maintained two pretorian prefectures as an administrative level above the also surviving dioceses (a few of which were split).


title: Prefecture

text: As canon law is strongly inspired by Roman law, it is not surprising that the Catholic Church has several offices under a prefect. That term occurs also in otherwise styled offices, such as the head of a congregation or department of the Roman Curia. Various ecclesiastical areas, too small for a diocese, are termed prefects.


title: Prefecture

text: In Brazil, the prefecture ("prefeitura" or "prefeitura municipal" in Portuguese) is the executive branch of the government of each Brazilian municipality ("município" in Portuguese). The term also refers to the office of the mayor ("prefeito" in Portuguese).


title: Prefecture

text: From 1836 until 2011, modern Greece was divided into (, singular , ) which formed the country's main administrative units. These are most commonly translated into English as "prefectures" or "counties".


title: Prefecture

text: Each was headed by a prefect (, ), who was a ministerial appointee until ca. 1990, but was then elected by direct popular vote in a process of decentralization that saw the prefectures become local government units. Municipal elections in Greece are held every four years and voting for the election of prefects and mayors was carried out concurrently but with separate ballots.


title: Prefecture

text: The 2010 Kallikratis plan, which took effect on 1 January 2011, abolished the prefectures as separate administrative units, and transformed them into regional units within the country's thirteen administrative regions.


title: Prefecture

text: When used in the context of Chinese history, especially China before the Tang Dynasty, the word "prefecture" is used to translate "xian" (). This unit of administration is translated as "county" when used in a contemporary context, because of the increase of the number of "xian" and the decrease of their sizes over time in the Chinese history.


title: Prefecture

text: In the context of Chinese history during or after the Tang Dynasty, the word "prefecture" is used to translate "zhou" (Wade–Giles "chou" (), another ancient unit of administration in China, equivalent to the modern "province".


title: Prefecture

text: In modern-day China, the prefecture (; pinyin: ) is an administrative division found in the second level of the administrative hierarchy. In addition to prefectures, this level also includes autonomous prefectures, leagues, and prefecture-level cities. The prefecture level comes under the province level, and in turn oversees the county level.


title: Prefecture

text: In Italy a "prefettura" is the office of prefetto; like in France they are the representative of the Government in each provincia.


title: Prefecture

text: In France, a "préfecture" is the capital city of a department, and by metonymy also designates the office and residence of the prefect. As there are 101 departments in France, there are 101 prefectures. A "préfecture de région" is the capital city of an administrative region. This is the city where the prefect - the appointed government representative - resides.


title: Prefecture

text: In English, "prefecture" is used as the translation for , which are the main subdivisions of Japan. They consist of 43 prefectures (県 ken) proper, two urban prefectures (府 fu, Osaka and Kyoto), one "circuit" or "territory" (道 dō, Hokkaido) and one "metropolis" (都 to, Tokyo). Before the end of World War II, the word was also used for overseas areas 庁 (chō)、州 (shu) and 道 (dō, in Korea).


title: Prefecture

text: Until 1894 (; ) was the lowest level administrative division in Korea and can be translated into "Petty Prefecture" in the modern sense. It was below (, ; "county") in the administrative hierarchy.


title: Prefecture

text: In 1895, and divisions were abolished. From 1910 to 1949, the term "prefecture" was used to translate (; ). Since 1949 neither nor have been used, and there has been no division in either the South Korean or North Korean administrative system which translates as "prefecture".


title: Prefecture

text: Mongolian prefectures (Aimags) were adopted during Qing Dynasty's rule. Today these are usually translated as "provinces".


title: Prefecture

text: In Morocco, the 75 second-level administrative subdivisions are 13 prefectures and 62 provinces. They are subdivisions of the 12 regions of Morocco. Each prefecture and province are subdivided in their turn into districts ("cercles", sing. "cercle"), municipalities ("communes", sing. "commune") or urban municipalities ("communes urbaines", sing. "commune urbaine"), and "arrondissements" in some metropolitan areas.


title: Prefecture

text: Traditionally the prefecture as being the City Hall and the prefect as being the equivalent of a mayor and commissioner until recently; now the prefectures and prefect are analogous with the figure of Town Clerk.


title: Art Shell

text: Arthur Lee Shell Jr. (born November 26, 1946) is an American former professional football player in the American Football League (AFL) and later in the National Football League (NFL), a Hall of Fame offensive tackle and a two-time former head coach of the Oakland Raiders. He holds the distinction of becoming the second African-American head coach in the history of professional football, and the first in the sport's modern era. Shell was inducted to the College Football Hall of Fame in 2013 and the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1989. He played college football at Maryland State.


title: Art Shell

text: Shell was drafted by the American Football League's Oakland Raiders from Maryland State College (now known as the University of Maryland, Eastern Shore). Playing offensive tackle, Shell participated in 24 playoff contests, including Super Bowls XI and XV, and was named to eight Pro Bowls.


title: Art Shell

text: Shell was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1989. In 1999, he was ranked number 55 on "The Sporting News"' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players.


title: Art Shell

text: Through Al Davis, Shell is a member of the Sid Gillman coaching tree. As coach of the Raiders (at the time located in Los Angeles), Shell compiled a record of 54 wins, 38 losses, and was named AFC Coach of the Year in 1990, when the Raiders won the AFC West division with a 12–4 record, and advanced to the in the playoffs, becoming the first African-American coach to lead the team to the Conference Championship game. Al Davis, owner of the Raiders, fired Shell after a 9–7 season in 1994, a move Davis later called "a mistake."


title: Art Shell

text: After leaving the Raiders, Shell went on to coaching positions with the Kansas City Chiefs and Atlanta Falcons, before serving as a senior vice president for the NFL, in charge of football operations.


title: Art Shell

text: Shell was officially re-hired by the-then Oakland Raiders as head coach on February 11, 2006. After leading the team to its worst record (2 wins, 14 losses) since 1962, despite having one of the best defenses, Shell was fired for the second time as head coach of the Raiders on January 4, 2007.


title: Art Shell

text: Shell attended Bonds-Wilson High School in North Charleston, South Carolina. The school is no longer in existence. Shell is an alumnus of Maryland State College, now known as the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, located in Princess Anne, Maryland. Shell is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. In 2013, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He hosts an annual celebrity golf tournament.


title: Art Shell

text: Shell is the father of Billie Dureyea Shell, the author of the "Unfaithful" book trilogy, and the great uncle of Brandon Shell, an offensive lineman who was drafted in 2016 by the New York Jets.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: The Russian Orthodox Army, ROA (, "Russkaya pravoslavnaya armiya") was a Russian separatist paramilitary group in Ukraine that has been fighting Ukrainian forces in the Donbas War. It was founded in 2014. The ROA was later absorbed into the Oplot Fifth Separate Infantry Brigade.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: The Russian Orthodox Army was one of the number of pro-Russian separatist militia units in the Donbas region described as "pro-Tsarist", "extremist" Eastern Orthodox Christian.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: Since the onset of insurgency in Ukraine in the early 2014, many central figures in Donetsk have been referred to be directly or indirectly related to Russian National Unity (RNU), most notably Pavel Gubarev, a prominent spokesman with multiple titles (leader of the Donbas militia, governor of the Donetsk People’s Republic, its foreign affairs minister, and the founder of the New Russia Party), who besides stating ROA was organised by RNU under his control also declared himself leader of the RNE section in Donetsk. Exactly when the RNE affiliates were created in Ukraine has not been possible to establish. Historian Marlène Laruelle states that while there are suspicions of former RNU-leader Barkashov being close to commander Verin, no reliable sources in Ukraine can verify that, and ROA's own Facebook page displayed no direct connection with RNE.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: The ROA reportedly had 4,000 members according to Russian journalists, while eyewitnesses estimated their membership to be at 500.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: Notable engagements of the ROA include the June 2014 skirmishes in Mariupol and Amvrosiivka Raion. The headquarters of the ROA is located in an occupied Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) building in Donetsk city. Members had no special training apart from the usual conscription service in the army and swore allegiance to Igor Girkin ("Strelkov"), insurgent and Minister of Defence of the self-declared Donetsk People's Republic, as of January, 2017.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: Along with other separatist groups in the region, the ROA has been accused of "kidnapp[ing], beat[ing], and threaten[ing] Protestants, Catholics, and members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church… as well as participat[ing] in anti-Semitic acts."


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: In late November 2014, the group gained attention after abducting prominent Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest, Sergeii Kulbaka, and Roman Catholic priest, Father Pawel Witek. According to the Defence Ministry of Ukraine, the ROA has also been in conflict with another pro-Russian militia, the Vostok Battalion, which accused the ROA of looting, and of avoiding combat.


title: Russian Orthodox Army

text: In September 2014, the ROA changed its format and joined the new Oplot Fifth Separate Infantry Brigade.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone is an odorless, colorless, crystalline isoflavone used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the seeds and stems of several plants, such as the jicama vine plant, and the roots of several members of Fabaceae. It was the first described member of the family of chemical compounds known as rotenoids. Evidence has come to suggest that rotenone may cause Parkinson's disease to develop from both acute and prolonged exposure.


title: Rotenone

text: The earliest record of the now-known rotenone-containing plants used for killing leaf-eating caterpillars was in 1848, and for centuries, the same plants were used to poison fish. The active chemical component was first isolated in 1895 by a French botanist, Emmanuel Geoffroy, who called it "nicouline", from a specimen of "Robinia nicou", now called "Lonchocarpus nicou", while traveling in French Guiana. He wrote about this research in his thesis, published in 1895 after his death from a parasitic disease. In 1902 Kazuo Nagai, Japanese chemical engineer of the Government-General of Taiwan, isolated a pure crystalline compound from "Derris elliptica" which he called rotenone, after the Taiwanese name of the plant 蘆藤 () translated into Japanese . By 1930, nicouline and rotenone were established to be chemically the same.


title: Rotenone

text: It is commercialized as "cubé", "tuba", or "derris", in single preparation or in synergistic combination with other insecticides. In the United States and Canada, all uses of rotenone except as a piscicide are being phased out. It is currently banned in the United States for any use in organic farming. In the UK, rotenone insecticides (sold under the trade name Derris) were banned for sale in 2009.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone has historically been used by indigenous peoples to catch fish. Typically, rotenone-containing plants in the legume family, Fabaceae, are crushed and introduced into a body of water, and as rotenone interferes with cellular respiration, the affected fish rise to the surface in an attempt to gulp air, where they are more easily caught.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone has been used by government agencies to kill fish in rivers and lakes in the United States since 1952.


title: Rotenone

text: Small-scale sampling with rotenone is used by fish researchers studying the biodiversity of marine fishes to collect cryptic, or hidden, fishes, which represent an important component of shoreline fish communities. Rotenone is the most effective tool available because only small quantities are necessary. It has only minor and transient environmental side effects.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone is also used in powdered form to treat scabies and head lice on humans, and parasitic mites on chickens, livestock, and pet animals.


title: Rotenone

text: Unselective in action, it kills potato beetles, cucumber beetles, flea beetles, cabbage worms, raspberry beetles, and asparagus beetles, as well as most other arthropods. It biodegrades rapidly in soil, with 90% degraded after 1–3 months at and three times faster at .


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone works by interfering with the electron transport chain within complex I in mitochondria, which places it in IRAC MoA class 21 (by itself in 21B). It inhibits the transfer of electrons from iron-sulfur centers in complex I to ubiquinone. This interferes with NADH during the creation of usable cellular energy (ATP). Complex I is unable to pass off its electron to CoQ, creating a back-up of electrons within the mitochondrial matrix. Cellular oxygen is reduced to the radical, creating reactive oxygen species, which can damage DNA and other components of the mitochondria.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots and stems of several tropical and subtropical plant species, especially those belonging to the genera "Lonchocarpus" and "Derris".


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone is classified by the World Health Organization as moderately hazardous. It is mildly toxic to humans and other mammals, but extremely toxic to insects and aquatic life, including fish. This higher toxicity in fish and insects is because the lipophilic rotenone is easily taken up through the gills or trachea, but not as easily through the skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Rotenone is toxic to erythrocytes "in vitro".


title: Rotenone

text: The lowest lethal dose for a child is 143 mg/kg. Human deaths from rotenone poisoning are rare because its irritating action causes vomiting. Deliberate ingestion of rotenone can be fatal.


title: Rotenone

text: The compound decomposes when exposed to sunlight and usually has an activity of six days in the environment. It oxidizes to rotenolone, which is about an order of magnitude less toxic than rotenone. In water, the rate of decomposition depends upon several factors, including temperature, pH, water hardness and sunlight. The half-life in natural waters ranges from half a day at 24 °C to 3.5 days at 0 °C.


title: Rotenone

text: In 2000, injecting rotenone into rats was reported to cause the development of symptoms similar to those of Parkinson's disease (PD). Rotenone was continuously applied over a period of five weeks, mixed with DMSO and PEG to enhance tissue penetration, and injected into the jugular vein. The study does not directly suggest rotenone exposure is responsible for PD in humans, but is consistent with the belief that chronic exposure to environmental toxins increases the likelihood of the disease.


title: Rotenone

text: In addition, studies with primary cultures of rat neurons and microglia have shown low doses of rotenone (below 10 nM) induce oxidative damage and death of dopaminergic neurons, and it is these neurons in the substantia nigra that die in Parkinson's disease. Another study has also described toxic action of rotenone at low concentrations (5 nM) in dopaminergic neurons from acute rat brain slices. This toxicity was exacerbated by an additional cell stressor – elevated intracellular calcium concentration – adding support to the 'multiple hit hypothesis' of dopaminergic neuron death.


title: Rotenone

text: The neurotoxin MPTP had been known earlier to cause PD-like symptoms (in humans and other primates, though not in rats) by interfering with complex I in the electron transport chain and killing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Further studies involving MPTP have failed to show development of Lewy bodies, a key component to PD pathology. However at least one study recently has found evidence of protein aggregation of the same chemical makeup as that which makes up Lewy bodies with similar pathology to Parkinson's disease in aged Rhesus monkeys from MPTP. Therefore, the mechanism behind MPTP as it relates to Parkinson's disease is not fully understood. Because of these developments, rotenone was investigated as a possible Parkinson-causing agent. Both MPTP and rotenone are lipophilic and can cross the blood–brain barrier.


title: Rotenone

text: In 2010, a study was published detailing the progression of Parkinson's-like symptoms in mice following chronic intragastric ingestion of low doses of rotenone. The concentrations in the central nervous system were below detectable limits, yet still induced PD pathology.


title: Rotenone

text: In 2011, a US National Institutes of Health study showed a link between rotenone use and Parkinson's disease in farm workers.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone was implemented in 2010 to kill an invasive goldfish population present in Mann Lake, with the intention of not disrupting the lake's trout population. Rotenone successfully achieved these aims, killing nearly 200,000 goldfish, and only three trout.


title: Rotenone

text: Beginning May 1, 2006, Panguitch Lake was treated with rotenone, to potentially eradicate and control the invasive population of Utah chub, which were probably introduced accidentally by anglers who used them as live bait. The lake was restocked with 20,000 rainbow trout in 2006; as of 2016, the lake's fish population has recovered.


title: Rotenone

text: In 2012 rotenone was used to kill all remaining fish in Stormy Lake (Alaska) due to invasive pike destroying native species, which were re-introduced once the treatment was concluded.


title: Rotenone

text: In 2014, rotenone was used to kill all remaining fish in San Francisco's Mountain Lake, which is located in Mountain Lake Park, in order to rid it of invasive species introduced since the migration of European settlers to the region.


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone is used in biomedical research to study oxygen consumption rate of cells usually in combination with antimycin A (an electron transport chain Complex III inhibitor), oligomycin (an ATP synthase inhibitor) and FCCP (a mitochondrial uncoupler).


title: Rotenone

text: Rotenone can be deactivated in water with the use of potassium permanganate to lower toxicity back down to acceptable levels.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: Billy Bathgate is a 1991 American biographical gangster film directed by Robert Benton, starring Loren Dean as the title character and Dustin Hoffman as real-life gangster Dutch Schultz. The film co-stars Nicole Kidman, Steven Hill, Steve Buscemi, and Bruce Willis. Although Billy is a fictional character, at least four of the other characters in the film were real people. The screenplay was adapted by British writer Tom Stoppard from E.L. Doctorow's 1989 novel of the same name. Doctorow distanced himself from the film for the extensive deviations from the book. It received negative reviews and was a box office bomb, grossing a mere $15.5 million against its $48 million budget.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: Billy Behan (Loren Dean) is a poor Irish American teenager from the Bronx in the 1920s. One day, he catches the attention of wealthy Jewish mobster Dutch Schultz (Dustin Hoffman). Changing his last name to Bathgate after a local street, Billy goes to work for Schultz's organization, serving mostly as a gofer for Schultz himself. Billy is present when Schultz personally commits two brutal murders: his trusted lieutenant, Bo Weinberg (Bruce Willis), who Schultz believes betrayed him after learning that Weinberg has been secretly meeting with rival bosses, is dumped in the water wearing cement shoes, and his top enforcer, "Big" Julie Martin (Mike Starr), is personally shot dead by Dutch for stealing $50,000 from the organization's accounts and defiantly stating that he's "entitled" to it. Despite this, Billy comes to see Schultz as a father figure and the mob as his chance to make it big.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: Facing criminal charges of tax evasion in a court in upstate New York, Schultz brings his entourage, including Billy and his mistress Drew Preston (Nicole Kidman) (who was previously Bo's mistress), along as he temporarily moves into the local community. He successfully charms the residents, presenting himself as good natured and easygoing while doing many charitable acts, even faking conversion to Catholicism. While Dutch is attending his trial, Billy is assigned to watch Drew. His loyalties to Schultz are tested as he begins falling in love with the flirtatious Drew. Realizing that Dutch intends to have Drew murdered for cheating on him, Billy is able to get in contact with her real husband, wealthy Harvey (Xander Berkeley), who manages to take Drew home, whisking her out of harm's way on a private plane before Schultz's men can make their move.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: Despite being acquitted by a sympathetic jury, Dutch is soon indicted again. After running into difficulties paying for his legal defense, he decides to have state prosecutor Thomas E. Dewey assassinated; this request is denied by the mob's governing authority, the Commission, out of fear that killing Dewey will bring too much heat onto the Mafia. Schultz sends Billy to bribe a member of the Commission, but the bribe is rejected. When Billy returns with the bad news, Schultz angrily blames him for not doing enough and Billy is fired by Schultz's right-hand man, Otto Berman (Steven Hill), who, seemingly foreseeing doom ahead for the out of control Schultz, lets him keep the bribe money as a gift. As Billy leaves, he is ambushed and beaten by gangsters working for Commission head Lucky Luciano (Stanley Tucci) and is then forced to watch as Luciano's men storm Dutch’s safe haven restaurant where he is dining; Dutch, Berman, and his two henchmen are swiftly gunned down. Billy is taken to meet Luciano, who tells him that he knows where Billy's family lives if he ever speaks of what happened to Dutch, before letting him go along with his envelope of cash.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 36% based on 25 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Billy Bathgate (film)

text: "Variety" wrote: "This refined, intelligent drama about thugs appeals considerably to the head but has little impact in the gut, which is not exactly how it should be with gangster films." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4 and wrote: "Billy Bathgate cost a lot of money to make, they say, but it's not there on the screen."


title: Rey Vargas

text: Rey Geovani Vargas Roldán (born November 25, 1990) is a Mexican professional boxer. He is a world champion in two weight classes, having held the WBC featherweight title since July 2022 and the WBC super bantamweight title from February 2017 to August 2020.


title: Rey Vargas

text: Vargas won 7 national championships in Mexico as an amateur, as well as a gold medal in the 2009 Panamerican Championships. He competed in the 2009 World Championships but was defeated by Luke Campbell in the first round.


title: Rey Vargas

text: Vargas debuted as a professional in May 2010. He won the IBF Youth title in his 11th fight. Vargas won 15 of his first 16 fights by way of knockout. The first fighter to go the distance with him since his second fight was Yuki Murai. In March 2014, Vargas was knocked down for the first time against Sylvester Lopez. Vargas went down in round 2 but won the bout after Lopez suffered an injury and was unable to continue. The two rematched on November of that same year, Vargas won the second fight with a round 8 TKO. Vargas went down once again in round 2 of an eight-round fight against Lucian González, after an overhand right. Vargas was able to survive and get the unanimous decision (78-73, 78–74, 77-75).


title: Rey Vargas

text: In June 2016, Vargas won a shut-out unanimous decision (120-108, 120–108, 120-108) over Alexis Kabore. With the win, Vargas became the mandatory challenger to the WBC's super bantamweight titlist, Hugo Ruiz. In September 2016, Vargas defeated former WBA super flyweight champion Alexander Muñoz with a 5th-round TKO. Muñoz went down four times until the referee finally stopped the contest.