title: Aandhi

text: Like most of Gulzar's films, including "Mausam" and "Ijaazat", the narrative of Aandhi also unfolds through various flashbacks. The film was almost shot together with "Mausam", with Sanjeev Kumar playing the lead of an old man in both the films. Though Aandhi was released first, it ran into political controversy and portions of it has to be reshot, meanwhile Mausam was completed and released. The songs of the film were shot at various locations in Jammu and Kashmir state, like "Tum Aa Gaye Ho" was shot around Pari Mahal gardens in Srinagar, the classic "Tere Bina Zindagi Se" at the ruined 7th-8th century Martand Sun Temple, near Anantnag, while "Is Mod Se Jaate Hai" was shot at Pahalgam. Most of the songs have architectural ruins as a backdrop, depicting brokeness. Gulzar's family, wife actress Raakhee and daughter young Meghna Gulzar accompanied him on the shooting in Kashmir, however upon the return Rakhee and Gulzar separated.


title: Aandhi

text: In her memoir, daughter Meghna mentioned that Gulzar's wife Rakhee had once said to him, "Agar aap shayar na hote, to bade hi ordinary hote" (If you weren't a poet, you would have been very ordinary), this line was paraphrased and spoken by Aarti Devi to her husband in the film. The film looks at the life of a career-minded woman in the political arena, which is large dominated by men. Aarti inherits the legacy of her ambitious politician father, and comes in conflict with her role as dutiful wife. Soon she has to make choices to resolve the conflicts, and part ways with her husband, giving career rather duty as a daughter precedence over her personal life. When they meet again after nine years of separation, the dominating personality created under influence of her father has mellow and wisdom risen and she sees what she has missed. Yet she finds herself at a choice point once again, should she give up her political career or settle for matrimonial life. Aandhi takes on a feminist theme, also taken up in Ray's "Mahanagar" before, as it questions the price women often have to pay for political aspirations or career aspiration for that matter, when her unambitious hotel manager husband refuses to support.


title: Aandhi

text: It also satirizes the political opportunism in Indian democracy, where politicians visit the common man only every five years, at the time of elections. Through the lines of the song "Salaam kijiye aali janaab aaye hain, ye paanch saalon ka dene hisaab aaye hain. (Bow to the masters.. They have come after five years...).


title: Aandhi

text: The music of this film was composed by Rahul Dev Burman with lyrics by Gulzar. Director-lyricist Gulzar first worked with Burman or Pancham as he commonly known as in "Parichay" (1972), giving popular songs like "Beeti Na Bitai Raina" and "Musafir Hoon Yaaro". In the following years their team gradually developed in the preceding years, eventually reaching a flourish in 1975 with two important film scores in the same year, "Aandhi" and "Khushboo". Previously Gulzar had like the use of pure notes (shuddha swara) in "Raina Beete Jai" from "Amar Prem" (1972) by Burman, a treatment which was used in the film's title music. The Lata Mangeshkar-Kishore Kumar duet "Is Mod Se Jaate Hain" extended the major scale usage with an added sharp (Teevra Madhyam) and reminiscence of Raga Yaman. Even the interludes included Indian classical instruments, like flute played by Hariprasad Chaurasia, sarod by Zarin Daruwala (Sharma) and sitar by Jairam Acharya, aided by a violin ensemble. The tune of "Tere Bina.." another Lata Mangeshkar-Kishore Kumar duet, was originally created as Durga Puja song, "Jete Jete Potho Holo Deri" in Bengali, which Gulzar liked and wrote lyrics around the tune


title: Aandhi

text: The RD-Gulzar team created for the film, songs which were both acclaimed and also popular songs of the decade. Songs like "Tere Bina Zindagi", "Tum Aa Gaye Ho" and "Is Mod Se Jate Hain" are considered eternal classics in Indian cinema. Songs "Tere Bina Zindagi Se" and "Is Mod Se Jate Hain" were listed 5th and 14th respectively on Binaca Geetmala annual list 1975. As per Planet Bollywood listings, "Tere Bina Zindagi Se" stands number 2 amongst top 10 Bollywood songs of the 1970s.


title: Aandhi

text: The film released in February 1975 amidst controversy, as rumours abound that it was based on the life of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Some of film's posters also hyped the similarity, with lines like, "See your Prime Minister on screen" and "the story of a great woman political leader in post-Independence India", were featured in a film magazine. Eventually, the film was given a go-ahead after it was seen by two staff members and then Information and Broadcasting minister, I.K. Gujral. After the release, similarity was seen in the dressing and mannerism of lead Aarti Devi, played by Suchitra Sen and Mrs Gandhi, including the sarees and streak of white hair. During the June Legislative assembly election campaign in Gujarat, some opposition politicians showed scenes of the film, depicting Aarti Devi smoking and drinking. As the film gained momentum, some ambitious exhibitors even started promoting the film with the line, "See Indira Gandhi in Aandhi", by now film was openly courting controversy, despite being only a mild satire on politicians. The film was eventually banned after 26 weeks after its release. In June State of Emergency was declared in India by Mrs. Gandhi and on 12 July despite heavy press censorship, "The Statesman" managed to carry the headline on its front page, "Screening on Aandhi banned". Gulzar who had then taken the film to Moscow International Film Festival got the news of the ban prior to the screening. He was also informed that the film publicity posters be taken down and the prints sent back.


title: Aandhi

text: Subsequently, while "Mausam" was being premiered in December 1975, portions of Aandhi were being reshot. It included the controversial drinking scene and to establish the fact it was not a biopic, a scene with Aarti Devi looking at the framed image of Indira Gandhi tells her father that she wants to serve India like Mrs Gandhi, "Woh meri ideal thi" (She is my ideal) was inserted. After Indira Gandhi lost the general election of 1977 and Janata Party came to power it was re-released and also shown on the state-run national television. The film went on to become biggest hit of the Sen's Bollywood career, of which Aandhi was the last film, though she did two more Bengali films before retiring from acting in 1978.


title: Aandhi

text: Some critics, including Subhash K. Jha have drawn thematic parallels between Indira Gandhi and her father Jawaharlal Nehru as depicted in the film also references to their personal lives. Also the role of Sanjeev Kumar, having shades of Mrs. Gandhi's husband. All through the controversy, Gulzar denied any connection with Indira Gandhi, it was only after she lost the national elections in 1977 and Janata Party came to power, did he admit, "Yes, the film was made with Indira Gandhi in mind". Sanjeev Kumar on his part said, only the characterisation of his role was based on Feroze Gandhi.


title: County of Tripoli

text: The County of Tripoli (1102–1289) was the last of the Crusader states. It was founded in the Levant in the modern-day region of Tripoli, northern Lebanon and parts of western Syria which supported an indigenous population of Christians, Druze and Muslims.


title: County of Tripoli

text: When the Frankish Crusaders – mostly southern French forces – captured the region in 1109, Bertrand of Toulouse became the first count of Tripoli as a vassal of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. From that time, the rule of the county was decided not strictly by inheritance but by factors such as military force (external and civil war), favour and negotiation. In 1289 the County of Tripoli fell to Sultan Qalawun of the Muslim Mamluks of Cairo. The county was absorbed into Mamluk Egypt.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Raymond IV of Toulouse was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the crusaders. Even so, after the First Crusade, he had failed to secure any land holdings in the Near East. Meanwhile, the County of Edessa, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Principality of Antioch had been established. Tripoli was an important strategic goal as it linked the French in the south with the Normans in the north. It was a fertile and well populated area. In 1102, Raymond IV occupied Tortosa (now Tartus) and in 1103, he prepared, together with veterans of the 1101 crusade, to take Tripoli.


title: County of Tripoli

text: On a natural ridge, which he named "Mons Peregrinus" (, ), from Tripoli, Raymond IV (also known as Raymond de Saint-Gilles) began the construction of a large castle, known in Arabic as "Qal'at Sanjil". Despite this new fortress and seasoned troops, Raymond IV's siege of Tripoli failed to secure the port. He died on 25 February 1105.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Count William of Cerdagne, Raymond IV's cousin and comrade, was supported by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, but his succession in the Tripoli campaign was challenged by Raymond IV's illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse. Bertrand of Toulouse, who was supported by Baldwin I of Jerusalem, arrived in the Near East with a substantial army and a large Genoese fleet.


title: County of Tripoli

text: In order to resolve the succession issue, Baldwin I created a partition treaty. It specified that William was to hold northern Tripoli and pay homage to Tancred while Bertrand was to hold south Tripoli as a vassal of Baldwin. Under a united Christian onslaught, Tripoli fell on 12 July 1109, completing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. When William died of an arrow through the heart (some claim it was murder), Bertrand became the first count of Tripoli.


title: County of Tripoli

text: The extent of the County of Tripoli was determined in part by pre-existing Byzantine borders and in part by victory in battle, tempered by the demands of neighbouring crusader states. At its height, the county controlled the coastline from Maraclea in the north to Beirut in the south. Inland, the county's control extended to the Krac des Chevaliers fortress. The rich inland agricultural land of the Homs Gap was known as La Bocquée.


title: County of Tripoli

text: The county was divided into 'lordships'; areas based roughly around its coastal ports. The Count of Tripoli himself held the port of Tripoli and its surrounds. He also controlled the hostile region of Montferrand, now modern-day Bar'in, Syria, lying to the east. Approximately one quarter of the land seized around Tripoli was given to the Genoese as payment for military aid. The Genoese admiral Guglielmo Embriaco was awarded the city of Byblos.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Despite his contribution to its establishment, Baldwin I did not directly control the County of Tripoli. Nevertheless, the County of Tripoli owed fealty (allegiance) and homage (declarations of allegiance) to him, and he, in return, provided support to the county in times of trouble.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Although occupying a narrow coastal plain, the mountain range beyond was a natural defensive line for Tripoli. Several castle forts were built to defend the mountain passes.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Muslim forces (Turk and Egyptian) attacked the County of Tripoli along its borders, especially those to the east. In 1137, Raymond II, the reigning count, lost control of Montferrand. The Muslim position strengthened when the Hashshashin (Nizari Ismailis) forces formed in the Nosairi mountains to the north. In 1144, in order to increase the county's defences, particularly against Zangi of Mosul, Raymond II gave the Knights Hospitaller large stretches of frontier land along the Buqai'ah plain. This included the castles of Krak des Chevaliers, Anaz, Tell Kalakh, Qalaat el Felis and Mardabech. In the 1150s, the defences were further strengthened by the presence of the Knights Templar at Tartus on the seashore.


title: County of Tripoli

text: In religious matters, the counties of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were expected to follow the lead of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. However, one of the Counts of Tripoli, Pons of Tripoli, had formed an alliance with Antioch, and acknowledged the Latin Patriarch of Antioch. This was so even after a Papal edict to the contrary.


title: County of Tripoli

text: As a vassal of the Kings of Jerusalem, Bertrand of Tripoli was drawn into war with the Seljuk Turks. In 1111, Mawdud ibn Altuntash, a Turkish military leader, campaigned against Antioch and Edessa. Bertrand of Tripoli and Baldwin I marched to defend the Christians in the north. In joining Tancred and the Count of Edessa at the Battle of Shaizar, their defence of the kingdom was successful.


title: County of Tripoli

text: In 1119, the Seljuk Empire again attacked Antioch, winning the Battle of Ager Sanguinis. However, Count Pons of Tripoli and Baldwin II defended Antioch and, at the Battle of Hab, successfully defended the flank of the Christian forces.


title: County of Tripoli

text: In 1125, Count Pons of Tripoli marched against the Turks who had again attacked Edessa, this time besieging the town of Azaz. Pons of Tripoli, Baldwin II and the Count of Edessa lured the Turks from Azaz and into an ambush on the plains, where the Turkish forces were defeated.


title: County of Tripoli

text: On 29 June 1170, an earthquake struck the region. The defensive forts of Krac des Chevaliers, Chastel Blanc and al-'Ariymah were damaged. The cathedral of St Mary in Tripoli township was destroyed. The earthquake of 1170 resulted in a brief truce between Nur al-Din and the county (unlike a previous less severe earthquake of 1157 where fighting continued).


title: County of Tripoli

text: Alfonso-Jordan (1103–1148) was the son of Raymond IV and his third wife, Elvira of Castile. Although he was born in Tripoli, Alphonso-Jordan was raised in France. In 1147, he joined the Second Crusade, which was launched in response to the loss of the County of Edessa to Turkish forces. Alphonso died, possibly poisoned, in Caesarea, in 1148. He had an illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse, who continued his progress towards Tripoli.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Count Raymond II (1115–1152), the grandson of Bertrand, Count of Tripoli, engaged his enemies, Nur al-Din and Unur of Damascus, to confront his cousin, Bertrand. The Turkish forces, having only recently battled Raymond II at the Siege of Damascus, attacked the castle of Arima (al-Ariymah). They captured Bertrand of Toulouse, who spent the following decade in Muslim prisons. He was released in 1159 following the intervention of Manuel Comnenus, emperor of Byzantium. Raymond II later regained Arima. In 1152, Raymond II was killed by the Assassins. He was the first recorded non-Muslim victim of this sect.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Bohemond VII of Tripoli (1261 – 19 October 1287) was Count of Tripoli and the nominal Prince of Antioch from 1275 until his death. From 1275 to 1277, Bartholomew, Bishop of Tortosa, was Bohemond VII's regent. Paul of Segni, Bishop of Tripoli, who was a friend of the Templar Grandmaster, William of Beaujeu, opposed the succession of Bohemond VII. Ernoul wrote, "This was the beginning of war between Bohemond VII and the Templars."


title: County of Tripoli

text: Guy II Embriaco of Giblet (1277–1282) was a former vassal of Bohemond VII in Byblos. Grievances between them had led to enmity and this was part of a larger trade war between Genoa and the Venetians.


title: County of Tripoli

text: The Templars sought to unseat Bohemond VII by supporting Guy II Embriaco. Bohemond VII responded by sacking the Templar house in Tripoli and forests at Montroque. This action led to indecisive fighting over the following months at Botron, Fort Nephin, Sidon and at sea. In 1282, Guy II Embriaco and the Templars were ambushed in Tripoli. Guy, his brothers, and cousins were imprisoned at Fort Nephin and left to starve; his followers were blinded and the Templars were summarily executed.


title: County of Tripoli

text: After the death of Bohemond VII in 1287, the resulting power vacuum moved the lords of the County of Tripoli to offer Benedetto I Zaccaria (1235–1307), a powerful Genoese merchant, control of the county. In Tripoli, a special non-aristocratic social status had been granted to people from the great mercantile cities of Europe, especially those from the maritime republics of Italy ("e.g.", Venice). The communes elected Bartholomew Embriaco to the role of Mayor of Tripoli. He also promoted trade with the Genoese.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Bohemond VII had no issue. His mother, Sibylla of Armenia, was discounted in the succession because she was the friend of Bishop Bartholomew of Tortosa, considered an enemy of Tripoli. Bohemond VII's younger sister, Lucie, established herself at Fort Nephin with the support of the Knights Hospitaller. Eventually, Bartholomew Embriaco and the communes decided they could not rule, while Benedetto I Zaccario declined the countship. Thus, after negotiations, Lucie became Lucia, Countess of Tripoli in 1288.


title: County of Tripoli

text: Constant infighting, lack of resources, a series of poor harvests, changes to trade routes and the local economy and Muslim and Mongol military pressure led to the decline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By the 1280s, only two crusader states remained; the remnants of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. Even though the Mamluk government of Egypt had a treaty with the county, in March 1289, Tripoli favoured an alliance with the Mongols and as a result Sultan Qalawun of Egypt attacked Tripoli. Despite desperate defense operations, the county fell and was merged with Qalawun's empire.


title: Thenmerku Paruvakaatru

text: Thenmerku Paruvakatru () is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language drama film written and directed by Seenu Ramasamy and produced by Shibu Issac. The film is named after a song composed by A. R. Rahman for the film, Karuthamma. It stars Vijay Sethupathi, Vasundhra Chiyertra and Saranya Ponvannan in her 100th film, which won her Best Actress at National film Awards. The music was composed by N. R. Raghunanthan with cinematography by Chezhiyan and editing by Mu. Kasivishwanathan.


title: Thenmerku Paruvakaatru

text: The film received mixed reviews, but was eventually featured at the 58th National Film Awards ceremony, where it was named the Best Feature Film in Tamil while Saranya Ponvannan and lyricist Vairamuthu were awarded the Best Actress and Best Lyricist prizes, respectively.


title: Thenmerku Paruvakaatru

text: Set in the backdrop of Theni, the story is about Murugaiyan (aka Murugan), who is a goatherd. He has a loving mother, Veerayi, who is a widow. She struggles hard to raise Murugan but has an overflowing affection for him. Meanwhile, there is a gang which attacks the villagers at night and steals their goats. Murugan, along with his group, manages to catch one of the members in an attack and discovers that it is a girl. Her name is Pechi, and her family steals goats for their livelihood. While Murugan develops feelings for her, Pechi's family is known to be quite dangerous. Veerayi learns of this and asked Murugan to marry a girl of her choice. He refuses to accept her wish. However, complications arise between them. An old lady of her house tells Veerayi to let her son marry the girl whom he loves. A possessive widow tells how her husband was killed to that old lady. Her husband was killed by a group of thieves. The head of the gang is none other than the father of the girl whom her son loves.


title: Thenmerku Paruvakaatru

text: The music of the film was composed by debutant N. R. Raghunanthan. Vairamuthu won the National Film Award for Best Lyrics for the song "Kalli Kaattil".


title: Thenmerku Paruvakaatru

text: "The Hindu" wrote, ""Thenmerku Paruvakkaatru" with its mother sentiment makes a mark among films with rural themes". Sify called the film "OK" and wrote, "It is made like a [1970s] tear jerker with the central character being the all sacrificing mother". "The New Indian Express" wrote, "A film that has worked out well in all departments, "Thenmerku Paruvakaatru" is worth a watch. Behindwoods gave 1 out of 5 stars and wrote, "While the opening scene makes one sit up and take notice, the movie pales into insignificance soon after with nothing much to hold the viewer’s interest. Essentially, "Thenmerkku Paruvakatru" is a regular village drama and can easily be written down as one of those small timers aspiring to make a fast buck or two". i


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Harper's Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in New York City in June 1850, it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the U.S. ("Scientific American" is older, but it did not become monthly until 1921). "Harper's Magazine" has won 22 National Magazine Awards.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, the magazine published works of authors such as Herman Melville, Woodrow Wilson, and Winston Churchill. Willie Morris's resignation as editor in 1971 was considered a major event, and many other employees of the magazine resigned with him. The magazine has developed into the 21st century, adding several blogs. "Harper's" has been the subject of several controversies.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: "Harper's Magazine" began as Harper's New Monthly Magazine in New York City in June 1850, by publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines "Harper's Weekly" and "Harper's Bazaar", and grew to become HarperCollins Publishing. The first press run of "Harper's Magazine"—7,500 copies—sold out almost immediately. Circulation was some 50,000 issues six months later.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: The early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters. The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, and in time commentary by the likes of Winston Churchill and Woodrow Wilson. Portions of Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick" were first published in the October 1851 issue of "Harper's" under the title, "The Town-Ho's Story" (titled after Chapter 54 of "Moby-Dick").


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company, becoming Harper & Row (now HarperCollins). In 1965, the magazine was separately incorporated, and became a division of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles Media Company.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In the 1970s, "Harper's Magazine" published Seymour Hersh's reporting of the My Lai Massacre by United States forces in Vietnam. In 1971, editor Willie Morris resigned under pressure from owner John Cowles, Jr., prompting resignations from many of the magazine's star contributors and staffers, including Norman Mailer, David Halberstam, Robert Kotlowitz, Marshall Frady, and Larry L. King:


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Robert Shnayerson, a senior editor at "Time" magazine, was hired to replace Morris as "Harper's" ninth editor, serving in that position from 1971 until 1976.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Lewis H. Lapham served as managing editor from 1976 until 1981; he returned to the position again from 1983 until 2006. On June 17, 1980, the Star Tribune announced it would cease publishing "Harper's Magazine" after the August 1980 issue, but on July 9, 1980, John R. MacArthur (who goes by the name Rick) and his father, Roderick, obtained pledges from the directorial boards of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Atlantic Richfield Company, and CEO Robert Orville Anderson to amass the $1.5 million needed to establish the Harper's Magazine Foundation. It now publishes the magazine.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In 1984, Lapham and MacArthur—now publisher and president of the foundation—along with new executive editor Michael Pollan, redesigned "Harper's" and introduced the "Harper's Index" (statistics arranged for thoughtful effect), "Readings", and the "Annotation" departments to complement its fiction, essays, reportage, and reviews. As of the December 2019 issue, Julian Lucas writes the print edition's "New Books" column.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Under the Lapham-MacArthur leadership, "Harper's Magazine" continued publishing literary fiction by John Updike, George Saunders, and others. Politically, "Harper's" was an especially vocal critic of U.S. domestic and foreign policies. Editor Lapham's monthly "Notebook" columns have lambasted the Clinton and the George W. Bush administrations. Since 2003, the magazine has concentrated on reportage about U.S. war in Iraq, with long articles about the battle for Fallujah, and the cronyism of the American reconstruction of Iraq. Other reporting has covered abortion issues, cloning, and global warming.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In 2007, "Harper's" added the "No Comment" blog, by attorney Scott Horton, about legal controversies, Central Asian politics, and German studies. In April 2006, "Harper's" began publishing the "Washington Babylon" blog on its website, written by Washington Editor Ken Silverstein about American politics; and in 2008, "Harper's" added the "Sentences" blog, by contributing editor Wyatt Mason, about literature and "belles lettres". Since that time these two blogs have ceased publication. Another website feature, composed by a rotating set of authors, is the "Weekly Review", a three-paragraph distillation of the week's political, scientific, and bizarre news; like the "Harper's Index" and "Findings" in the print edition of the magazine, the "Weekly Review" items are typically arranged for ironic contrast.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Editor Lewis H. Lapham was criticized for his reportage of the 2004 Republican National Convention, which had yet to occur, in his essay "Tentacles of Rage: The Republican Propaganda Mill, a Brief History", published in the September 2004 issue, which implied that he had attended the convention. He apologized in a note. Lapham left two years later, after 28 years as "Harper's" editor-in-chief, and launched "Lapham's Quarterly".


title: Harper's Magazine

text: The August 2004 issue contained a photo essay by noted photojournalist Peter Turnley, who had been hired to do a series of photo essays for the magazine. The eight-page spread in August 2004 showed images of death, grieving, and funerals from both sides of the U.S. war in Afghanistan. On the U.S. side, Turnley visited the funeral of an Oklahoma National Guard member, Spc. Kyle Brinlee, 21, who was killed when his vehicle ran over an improvised explosive device (IED) in Afghanistan. During his funeral, Turnley photographed the open casket as it lay in the back of the high-school auditorium where the funeral was held to accommodate 1,200 mourners, and this photo was used in the photo essay. Subsequently, the family sued the magazine in federal court. The case ended in 2007 when the U.S. Supreme Court, although saying the unauthorized publication was in "poor taste", upheld the ruling of the Tenth Circuit that the magazine had not violated the privacy rights of the family, as the family had invited the press, thus had "opened up the funeral scene to the public eye".


title: Harper's Magazine

text: The March 2006 issue contained Celia Farber's article, "Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science", presenting Peter Duesberg's theory that HIV does not cause AIDS. It was strongly criticized by AIDS activists, scientists and physicians, the "Columbia Journalism Review", and others as inaccurate and promoting a scientifically discredited theory. The Treatment Action Campaign, a South African organization working for greater popular access to HIV treatments, posted a response by eight researchers documenting more than 50 errors in the article.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Lewis Lapham was succeeded as "Harper's" editor by Roger Hodge in 2006. Since that time, the magazine has had a number of shorter-termed editors in chief, several of whom were fired amid various controversies. On January 25, 2010, the firing of the magazine's editor, Roger Hodge, by publisher John R. MacArthur was met with criticism among the magazine's subscribers and staff. MacArthur initially claimed Hodge was stepping down for "personal reasons", but later disclosed that he fired Hodge.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: Ellen Rosenbush served from 2010 to 2015. She returned in January 2016, when MacArthur fired Christopher Cox, who had been named editor only three months prior in October 2015.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: James Marcus assumed the post of editor in 2016. In March 2018, an essay by Katie Roiphe on the #MeToo movement excited controversy both online and inside "Harper's". Marcus had complained about the piece, suggesting the critique of #MeToo was inappropriate in light of "Harper's" "longtime reputation as a gentleman's smoking club"; he attributed this disagreement as a primary cause of his firing in 2018. In April 2018, Ellen Rosenbush assumed the title of editorial director. In October 2019, the magazine announced that novelist and essayist Christopher Beha would be taking over as editor, with Rosenbush remaining as editor-at-large.


title: Harper's Magazine

text: In July 2020, "Harper's" published an open letter called "A Letter on Justice and Open Debate" criticizing "illiberalism" and promoting a tolerance of different viewpoints. The letter received a mixed response on Twitter, with some remarking that the prominent signatories had "bigger platforms and more resources than most other humans" and were unlikely to face repercussions for anything they said, and others taking umbrage at particular signatories such as J. K. Rowling, who faced recent criticism for her comments on transgender issues.


title: K-index

text: The K"-index quantifies disturbances in the horizontal component of earth's magnetic field with an integer in the range 0–9 with 1 being calm and 5 or more indicating a geomagnetic storm. It is derived from the maximum fluctuations of horizontal components observed on a magnetometer during a three-hour interval. The label K comes from the German word "Kennziffer" meaning ""characteristic digit"". The K"-index was introduced by Julius Bartels in 1939.


title: K-index

text: The "K"-scale is quasi-logarithmic. The conversion table from maximum fluctuation "R" (in units of nanoteslas, nT) to "K"-index, varies from observatory to observatory in such a way that the historical rate of occurrence of certain levels of "K" are about the same at all observatories. In practice this means that observatories at higher geomagnetic latitude require higher levels of fluctuation for a given "K"-index. For example, at Godhavn, Greenland, a value of "K" = 9 is derived with "R" = 1500 nT, while in Honolulu, Hawaii, a fluctuation of only 300 nT is recorded as "K" = 9. In Kiel, Germany, "K" = 9 corresponds to "R" = 500 nT or greater. The real-time "K"-index is determined after the end of prescribed intervals of 3 hours each: 00:00–03:00, 03:00–06:00, ..., 21:00–24:00. The maximum positive and negative deviations during the 3 hour period are added together to determine the total maximum fluctuation. These maximum deviations may occur any time during the 3 hour period.


title: K-index

text: The official planetary "K"-index is derived by calculating a weighted average of "K"-indices from a network of 13 geomagnetic observatories at mid-latitude locations. Since these observatories do not report their data in real-time, various operations centers around the globe estimate the index based on data available from their local network of observatories. The "K"-index was introduced by Bartels in 1939.


title: K-index

text: The "A"-index provides a daily average level for geomagnetic activity. Because of the non-linear relationship of the "K"-scale to magnetometer fluctuations, it is not meaningful to take the average of a set of "K"-indices. What is done instead is to convert each "K" back into a linear scale called the "equivalent three hourly range" "a"-index (note the lower case ""a""), according to the following table:


title: K-index

text: Thus, for example, if the "K"-indices for the day were 3, 4, 6, 5, 3, 2, 2 and 1, the daily "A"-index is the average of the equivalent amplitudes:


title: K-index

text: This is a description of the relationship between the NOAA G-scale and "K". The "K"-scale is a scientific way to summarize the global level of geomagnetic activity, but it has not always been easy for those affected by the space environment to understand its significance. The NOAA G-scale was designed to correspond, in a straightforward way, to the significance of effects of geomagnetic storms.


title: K-index

text: The "K"-index is used for the study and prediction of ionospheric propagation of high frequency radio signals. Geomagnetic storms, indicated by a "K" = 5 or higher, have no direct effect on propagation. However they disturb the F-layer of the ionosphere, especially at middle and high geographical latitudes, causing a so-called "ionospheric storm" which degrades radio propagation. The degradation mainly consists of a reduction of the maximum usable frequency (MUF) by as much as 50%. Sometimes the E-layer may be affected as well. In contrast with sudden ionospheric disturbances (SID), which affect high frequency radio paths mostly at mid and low latitudes, the effects of ionospheric storms are more intense high latitudes and the polar regions.


title: Information hazard

text: An information hazard, or infohazard, is "a risk that arises from the dissemination of (true) information that may cause harm or enable some agent to cause harm", as defined by philosopher Nick Bostrom in 2011, or contained in Information sensitivity. One example would be instructions for creating a thermonuclear weapon.


title: Monsieur

text: Under the Ancien Régime, the court title of Monsieur referred to the next brother in the line of succession of the King of France. It was always used for referring to the prince, not as a Style. The Kings' brothers were addressed as Monseigneur or Royal Highness.


title: Monsieur

text: Hercule François, Duke of Anjou and Alençon (1555–1584), was the first notable member of the royalty to assume the title without the use of an adjoining proper name. In 1576, Monsieur pressured his brother King Henry III of France into signing the Edict of Beaulieu and effectively ending the Fifth Religious War of France. The resulting peace became popularly known as "the Peace of Monsieur".


title: Monsieur

text: The title was later assumed by Gaston, Duke of Orléans, brother of Louis XIII, and then Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, brother of Louis XIV. From 1643 to 1660, while both princes were alive, Philippe was commonly known as "le Petit Monsieur", while Gaston, his uncle, was known as "le Grand Monsieur".


title: Monsieur

text: For over seventy years, from 1701 to 1774, the title had no living representatives in the French court, as Philippe of France, died in 1701; Louis XV was the youngest of the sons of Louis of France, Duke of Burgundy and at the time of his accession to the throne in 1715 had no brothers.


title: Monsieur

text: The title was restored in 1775 for Louis Stanislas Xavier, Count of Provence, the oldest surviving brother of the reigning Louis XVI and the future Louis XVIII. After his coronation in 1814, the title passed to Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, his younger brother. Charles Philippe, who led the ultras during the Bourbon Restoration and became King Charles X in 1824, was the last royal sibling to officially hold the title of Monsieur. His successor, Louis-Philippe I, the next and last king to rule France, had lost both his brothers, Louis Charles and Antoine Philippe, many years before he succeeded to the throne.


title: Monsieur

text: In modern French, "monsieur" (plural "messieurs") is used as a courtesy title of respect, an equivalent of English "mister" or "sir". It can be abbreviated in "M." (plural "MM."), "Mssr." (plural "Mssrs."), and rarely "M" (plural "M"), but never "Mr.", which is only for "Mister".


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: Bassma Al Jandaly () is a journalist based in the United Arab Emirates; she worked as a community and crime correspondent at Dubai-based English-language newspaper "Gulf News", and is known for her demonstrated interests in humanitarian causes.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: Bassma Al Jandaly was born on August 30, 1977, in Leningrad in the Soviet Union (now Saint Petersburg), to a Sunni Muslim Syrian family. She has three sisters and one brother; and her father Hassan Jandaly was a high ranking General in the Syrian army. She is also a first cousin of Steve Jobs, Mona Simpson and Malek Jandali. Jobs’ father Abdul Fattah Jandali and Bassma are still in contact, and she interviewed him after Jobs' death.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: Bassma Al Jandaly started her career as a journalist at "Gulf News", an English newspaper based in the United Arab Emirates. One of her more notable stories is the exposing of a United States national by the name of Sharla Musabih, who ran a human trafficking syndicate. Sharla was selling the babies of prostitutes who were sent to her shelter seeking help, all the while being portrayed as a non-government organization for women's right in the UAE.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: In 2015 Bassma Al Jandaly left "Gulf News" and joined The General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners Affairs in Dubai as a Senior Journalist, Editor and Content developer, during which she was part of the Dubai government Permanent Committee of labourers’ Affairs in Dubai (PCLAD); she later resigned in 2017 to work on personal projects.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: In 2009, Bassma was nominated by the state department in the International Visitor Leadership Program on effective women in the media in the US. While there, she wrote an article about her experience as a Muslim in the United States of America.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: In 2010, Bassma was invited to join the President of the UAE Federal National Council to cover the Business trip to Algeria, which was an operation between the UAE and Algeria that was meant to strengthen co-operation between the two nations.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: In 2013, Bassma interviewed the ruler of Ajman, Sheikh Humaid Bin Rashid Al Nuaimi; the interview focused on education and its importance.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: in 2014, as part of an Official delegation visit to Kurdistan by Dubai, Bassma was invited to join the Dubai Chamber of Commerce for the inauguration of the representative office in Kurdistan.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: In June 2005, Bassma Al Jandaly was departing on an official trip to Greece when she was stopped at Dubai airport and was detained for an arrest warrant issued by Sharjah police, for an article she had written about a man who had been slashing women in the emirate of Sharjah. The United Arab Emirates' interior minister at the time, Saif bin Zayed Al Nahyan, intervened and ordered her release; he asked the police to "rethink their policies when dealing with the media and press". Bassma was released immediately and the case against her was dropped; this in turn promoted increased freedom of speech in the country and gaining much attention from international media; the arrest was mentioned in the U.S. Department of State Country Report on Human Rights Practices.


title: Bassma Al Jandaly

text: The committee to protect journalists (CPJ) also wrote an article regarding the arrest; the CPJ Executive Director Ann Cooper said she was relieved that Bassma was released.


title: Comedown Machine

text: Comedown Machine is the fifth studio album by American rock band the Strokes. It was released on March 26, 2013, through RCA Records. The band decided to pull a media blackout for the album, with no promotion in the form of television appearances, interviews, photoshoots, live shows, or tours. The cover artwork was designed to resemble an old RCA tape reel box.


title: Comedown Machine

text: "Comedown Machine" received mostly positive reviews from critics, and was placed at number 41 on the "NME"s list of the "50 Best Albums of 2013".


title: Comedown Machine

text: Before the release of the album the song "One Way Trigger" was released as a free download and was made available for streaming via YouTube and SoundCloud, and as a free download via the band's official website on January 25, 2013. Julian Casablancas posted a stylized lyric sheet for the song, designed by long-time collaborator Warren Fu, on his official website on January 30, 2013. "All the Time" was released as a digital download on February 19, 2013 and later released as a 7-inch single on April 20, 2013 and contained "Fast Animals" as the B-side.


title: Comedown Machine

text: Media response to "Comedown Machine" was generally favorable; the aggregating website Metacritic reports a weighted average rating of 68%, based on 44 reviews. "Whether you're in an "Is This It" vortex or not, this is The Strokes and they've returned with their most thought-provoking, strange and sexiest record yet," said Kieran Mayall of "Clash" magazine. James Skinner of BBC Music added, "Although plenty of the group’s signature sounds are present and correct, they form the backdrop to an unexpectedly wide range of styles and approaches." In contrast, Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" questioned why the album was "an official Strokes album instead of another Casablancas solo album."


title: Comedown Machine

text: Without much promotional effort, "Comedown Machine" entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 10 but became the band's first album not to debut within the top three. The album did, however, give the band their fifth consecutive appearance in the top ten. Likewise, it reached No.10 in the US with an entry sales week of 41,000 copies, the band's weakest performance since "Is This It" in 2001.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: Mitchel L Vogel (born January 17, 1956) is an American former child actor, musician and director. As of 2021, he is one of two surviving main cast members from "Bonanza", next to Tim Matheson.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: Having begun his professional acting career at age ten, Vogel is widely known for his role as the red-headed orphan, Jamie Hunter-Cartwright on the NBC western series "Bonanza", as well as for his feature film roles: as Tommy North in "Yours, Mine and Ours" and as Lucius McCaslin in "The Reivers".


title: Mitch Vogel

text: Born in Alhambra, California, Vogel began his acting career at the age of ten, appearing in stage productions of "Tom Sawyer", "Heidi", "Peter Pan" and "The Wizard of Oz". As his acting career progressed, he attended Heinz Kaiser Junior High School in Costa Mesa, California, from 1969 to 1970 and later attended Jordan Junior High School in Burbank, California.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: Vogel made his feature film debut at the age of 12, appearing in the 1968 comedy "Yours, Mine and Ours", as one of Lucille Ball and Henry Fonda's brood. He rose to prominence the following year as Lucius McCaslin in the feature film "The Reivers", which earned him a Golden Globe nomination as the Best Supporting Actor of 1969.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: Having established himself in feature films, Vogel briefly appeared on an episode of "Bonanza" broadcast on October 6, 1968, entitled "The Real People of Muddy Creek". Two years later he joined the "Bonanza" cast, co-starring as Jamie Hunter, an adolescent orphan taken in and eventually adopted by the Cartwrights during the last three seasons of the series.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: In addition to his role on "Bonanza", Vogel also guest-starred on several other western television series of the time, including "The Virginian", "Here Come the Brides", "Gunsmoke", and "Dundee and the Culhane", as well as appearing in a recurring role as "Johnny Johnson" on the western frontier series "Little House on the Prairie" from 1974 to 1975, after which he had a starring role in the 10th episode of the Saturday morning live-action show, "The Secrets of Isis" and guest starred on "Wonder Woman" in 1978.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: In addition to his guest-starring roles on episodic television series, Vogel also appeared in lead roles in the "Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color" films, "Menace on the Mountain" in 1970 and "The Boy from Dead Man's Bayou" in 1971, as well as co-starring in the made-for-television films "Born Innocent" in 1974 and "State Fair" in 1976.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: In 1975 he played the character “Dink” on the TV Western "Gunsmoke" in the episode “The Hiders” (S20E15).


title: Mitch Vogel

text: In 1978, Vogel left show business and began a life away from the limelight. He formed a rock band and moved to Pittsburgh. He married in 1985 and the couple have two daughters. Vogel lives in the Southern California area and has spent time directing and appearing in church plays, as well as singing in a band.


title: Mitch Vogel

text: In 2002, Vogel returned to "Bonanza"'s locations for the Travel Channel's "TV Road Trip", in which he narrated an account of his visit to the Ponderosa Ranch in Incline Village near Lake Tahoe, Nevada. In 2004, he was featured in an interview in "Bonanza Gold" magazine. He participated in both the 2005 Bonanza Convention and the 2010 Bonanza Weekend in Liverpool, England. Vogel was featured in an interview published online on January 19, 2017, in which he described how he had been cast for his part on Bonanza.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: South Park is a grassland flat within the basin formed by the Rocky Mountains' Mosquito and Park Mountain Ranges within central Colorado. This high valley ranges in elevation from approximately 9,000 to 10,000 ft (3,000 m). It encompasses approximately 1,000 square miles (2,590 km or 640,000 acres) around the headwaters of the South Platte River in Park County approximately 60 mi (100 km) southwest of Denver. It is the largest and southernmost of three similarly named high altitude basins in the Front Range of Colorado, the others being North Park and Middle Park. The largest town in the basin is Fairplay, with a population of 724.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: Geologically, the valley is a wide faulted syncline of sedimentary rocks, sitting between the predominantly Precambrian igneous rocks of the Front Range to the east and the Sawatch Uplift to the west. The Mosquito Range forms a high barrier along the western side of the valley. The long-extinct Thirty-Nine Mile volcanic field is located just to the southeast.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: The valley is mostly underlain by Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks concealed by a thin layer of gravel laid down by glaciation during Pleistocene time. The underlying rocks are dipping slightly to the east. The eastern (and newer) side of the valley is underlain primarily by Pierre Shale laid down during Cretaceous time. The western (and older) side of the valley, on the west side of Red Hill, is underlain primarily by Permian and Pennsylvanian rocks. Red Hill runs through the center of the valley as a hogback ridge of tilted Cretaceous and Jurassic sedimentary rocks.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: Gold mining in South Park began in 1859. Extensive placer deposits were mined along the west side of the park, and lode deposits were mined in the Mosquito Range. The extensive gravel ridges east of Fairplay are the result of dredging for gold. ("see Gold mining in Colorado").


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: Although South Park contains some of the same geologic formations that yield oil and gas in the Denver Basin further east, efforts to find commercial oil and gas in South Park have so far proven unsuccessful.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: A minor amount of uranium has been mined from sandstone in South Park ("see Uranium mining in Colorado").


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: The valley is traversed by several highways, including U.S. Highway 285, which enters the valley from the eastern side over the Front Range at Kenosha Pass, providing a vehicle link to Denver. The highway crosses Red Hill at Red Hill Pass. On its northern side, the valley is connected by several high mountain passes to the valley of the North Fork of the South Platte River (a tributary of the South Platte). It is also connected by CO Route 9 via Hoosier Pass to the valley to the Blue River near Breckenridge. To the west, the extremely high Mosquito Pass crosses the Mosquito Range to Leadville. (Mosquito Pass is no longer a practical transportation route, but is now a historical and recreation site.) On its southwestern side, at the southern end of the Mosquito Range, it is connected by Trout Creek Pass to the upper valley of the Arkansas River near Buena Vista. U.S. Highway 24 enters South Park from the east at Wilkerson Pass, where the highway provides vehicle access to Colorado Springs. To the very south, CO Route 9 crosses Currant Creek Pass, which marks the southern edge of the South Park region.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: Like much of the mountainous areas of Colorado, the valley was inhabited by Utes before the arrival of European settlers in the middle 19th century. However, from the 1850s onward, the area was increasingly encroached on by Southern Arapaho bands, who came to cherish it as an important buffalo range after witnessing the continued degradation of their typical hunting grounds on the plains and who repeatedly became entangled in skirmishes with the Utes over the territory. It was explored by John C. Fremont during his second expedition in 1844, at which time it was referred to as "Bayou Salade," a corruption of Spanish "Valle Salado," meaning salty valley. In 1859 the discovery of placer gold in the streams of the valley during the Colorado Gold Rush led to an influx of prospectors and miners. The town of Fairplay was founded as a more law-abiding place to live than the older, nearby town of Tarryall during this time and continued to be a center of gold, and later silver mining up through the middle 20th century. South Park City, an open-air museum outside Fairplay, provides a historical recreation of the gold rush days. The basin was connected to Denver by railroad with the extension of the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad over Kenosha Pass in 1879.


title: South Park (Park County, Colorado)

text: Since the late 1990s, South Park has been best known as the eponymous setting of the animated series "South Park". Trey Parker, one of the creators of the "South Park" series, grew up in Conifer, about 40 miles (65 km) east of Fairplay.


title: Jock Lewes

text: Lieutenant John Steel "Jock" Lewes (21 December 1913 – 30 December 1941) was a British Army officer prominent during the Second World War. He was the founding principal training officer of the Special Air Service. Its founding commander, David Stirling, said later of Lewes: "Jock could far more genuinely claim to be founder of the SAS than I." Lewes also invented an explosive device for the purposes of the SAS, the eponymous Lewes bomb.


title: Jock Lewes

text: Lewes was born in Calcutta to a British father, chartered accountant Arthur Harold Lewes, and an Australian mother, Elsie Steel Lewes. The family moved to Australia and Lewes grew up at Bowral, New South Wales. As a teenager he attended The King's School, Parramatta.


title: Jock Lewes

text: Lewes travelled to the United Kingdom to attend Christ Church, Oxford, from September 1933. At Oxford he read philosophy, politics and economics. In 1936–37, Lewes was president of the Oxford University Boat Club; during 1937 he voluntarily gave up his place in the Oxford Blue boat crew, to assist it in winning that year's University Boat Race, and ending a 15-year winning streak by Cambridge. Lewes travelled to Berlin to work for the British Council and, before the events of "Kristallnacht", was briefly an admirer of Hitler and the Nazi state.


title: Jock Lewes

text: A younger brother, David Steel Lewes, was later prominent as a cardiologist in the United Kingdom and served as a Royal Air Force medical officer during the war.


title: Jock Lewes

text: At the time of his death, Jock Lewes was engaged to marry Mirren Barford, an Oxford undergraduate. Their love letters were collected and published by Barford's son in 1995.


title: Jock Lewes

text: Lewes was first commissioned to the British Army's General List as a university candidate on 5 July 1935, while a student at Oxford. At the outbreak of the Second World War, he was briefly transferred to a Territorial Army unit, the 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade on 2 September 1939 before joining the Welsh Guards on 28 October.


title: Jock Lewes

text: In 1941, Lewes was in a group of volunteers assembled by David Stirling to form a unit dedicated to raiding missions against the lines of communication of Axis forces in North Africa. For military deception and counterespionage purposes, this platoon-sized group was at first officially known as "L" Detachment, Special Air Service Brigade.


title: Jock Lewes

text: To destroy Axis vehicles, members of the SAS surreptitiously attached small explosive charges. Lewes noticed the respective weaknesses of conventional (blast) and incendiaries, as well as their failure to destroy vehicles in some cases. He improvised a new, combined charge out of plastic explosive, diesel and thermite. The Lewes bomb was used throughout the Second World War.


title: Jock Lewes

text: In late December 1941, Lewes was involved in an SAS/LRDG raid on Axis airfields in Libya. As the raiders returned to Allied lines, their vehicles were repeatedly attacked by Italian and German aircraft. While returning fire on 30 December, near "Marble Arch" (El Gaus; "Arco dei Fileni"), Lewes was reportedly hit in the thigh by a 20 mm cannon round and died at the scene of the attack. He is commemorated on the Alamein Memorial.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Ionian Revolt, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus and Caria, were military rebellions by several Greek regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 BC to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras. The cities of Ionia had been conquered by Persia around 540 BC, and thereafter were ruled by native tyrants, nominated by the Persian satrap in Sardis. In 499 BC, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position. The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In 498 BC, supported by troops from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched on, captured, and burnt Sardis. However, on their return journey to Ionia, they were followed by Persian troops, and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus. This campaign was the only offensive action by the Ionians, who subsequently went on the defensive. The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellion, but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant that the largest army, under Daurises, relocated there. While initially campaigning successfully in Caria, this army was annihilated in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus. This battle had started a stalemate for the rest of 496 BC and 495 BC.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped, and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus. The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea, but was decisively beaten at the Battle of Lade, after the defection of the Samians. Miletus was then besieged, captured, and its population was brought under Persian rule. This double defeat effectively ended the revolt, and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result. The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia which was generally considered to be both just and fair.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Persian Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt. Moreover, seeing that the myriad city states of Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, according to Herodotus, Darius decided to conquer the whole of Greece. In 492 BC, the first Persian invasion of Greece, the next phase of the Greco-Persian Wars, began as a direct consequence of the Ionian Revolt.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Practically the only primary source for the Ionian Revolt is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History', was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—"Historia"; English—"(The) Histories") around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least from the point of view of Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it. As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the siege of Sestos), and therefore presumably felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "philobarbaros" (φιλοβάρβαρος, "barbarian-lover") and for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained widely read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by the age of democracy and some archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his "Historia", but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism. Nevertheless, there are still many historians who believe Herodotus' account has an anti-Persian bias and that much of his story was embellished for dramatic effect.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In the 12th century BC, the Mycenaean civilization fell as part of the Late Bronze Age collapse. During the subsequent dark age, significant numbers of Greeks emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there. These settlers were from three tribal groups: the Aeolians, Dorians and Ionians. The Ionians had settled along the coasts of Lydia and Caria, founding the twelve cities which made up Ionia. These cities(part of the Ionian League) were Miletus, Myus and Priene in Caria; Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Clazomenae, Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia; and the islands of Samos and Chios. Although the Ionian cities were independent from each other, they acknowledged their shared heritage, and had a common temple and meeting place, the Panionion. They thus formed a 'cultural league', to which they would admit no other cities, or even other tribal Ionians. The cities of Ionia had remained independent until they were conquered by the famous Lydian king Croesus, in around 560 BC. The Ionian cities then remained under Lydian rule until Lydia was in turn conquered by the nascent Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: While fighting the Lydians, Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule, which the Ionians had refused to do. After Cyrus completed the conquest of Lydia, the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus. Cyrus refused, citing the Ionians' unwillingness to help him previously. The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves, and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer Ionia. He first attacked Phocaea; the Phocaeans decided to entirely abandon their city and sail into exile in Sicily, rather than become Persian subjects (although many subsequently returned). Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos, but the rest of the Ionians remained, and were in turn conquered.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule. Elsewhere in the empire, Cyrus was able to identify elite native groups to help him rule his new subjects – such as the priesthood of Judea. No such group existed in Greek cities at this time; while there was usually an aristocracy, this was inevitably divided into feuding factions. The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city, even though this drew them into the Ionians' internal conflicts. Furthermore, a tyrant might develop an independent streak, and have to be replaced. The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens' hatred, while staying in the favour of the Persians.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: About 40 years after the Persian conquest of Ionia, and in the reign of the fourth Persian king, Darius the Great, the stand-in Milesian tyrant Aristagoras found himself in this familiar predicament. Aristagoras's uncle Histiaeus had accompanied Darius on campaign in 513 BC, and when offered a reward, had asked for part of the conquered Thracian territory. Although this was granted, Histiaeus's ambition alarmed Darius's advisors, and Histiaeus was thus further 'rewarded' by being compelled to remain in Susa as Darius's "Royal Table-Companion". Taking over from Histiaeus, Aristagoras was faced with bubbling discontent in Miletus. In 500 BC, Aristagoras was approached by some exiles from Naxos, who asked him to take control of the island. Seeing an opportunity to strengthen his position in Miletus by conquering Naxos, Aristagoras approached the satrap of Lydia, Artaphernes, with a proposal. If Artaphernes provided an army, Aristagoras would conquer the island, thus extending the boundaries of the empire for Darius, and he would then give Artaphernes a share of the spoils to cover the cost of raising the army. Artaphernes agreed in principle, and asked Darius for permission to launch the expedition. Darius assented to this, and a force of 200 triremes was assembled in order to attack Naxos the following year.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In the spring of 499 BC, Artaphernes readied the Persian force, and placed his cousin Megabates in command. He then sent ships on to Miletus, where the Ionian troops levied by Aristagoras embarked, and the force then set sail for Naxos.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The expedition quickly descended into a debacle. Aristagoras fell out with Megabates on the journey towards Naxos, and Herodotus says that Megabates then sent messengers to Naxos, warning the Naxians of the force's intention. It is also possible, however, that this story was spread by Aristagoras after the event, by way of a justification for the subsequent failure of the campaign. At any rate, the Naxians were able to prepare properly for a siege, and the Persians arrived to a well-defended expedition. The Persians laid siege to the Naxians for four months, but eventually they and Aristagoras both ran out of money. The force sailed back to the mainland without a victory.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: With the failure of his attempt to conquer Naxos, Aristagoras found himself in dire straits; he was unable to repay Artaphernes, and had, moreover, alienated himself from the Persian royal family. He fully expected to be stripped of his position by Artaphernes. In a desperate attempt to save himself, Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects, the Milesians, to revolt against their Persian masters, thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In autumn 499 BC, Aristagoras held a meeting with the members of his faction in Miletus. He declared that in his opinion the Milesians should revolt, to which all but the historian Hecataeus agreed. At the same time, a messenger sent by Histiaeus arrived in Miletus, imploring Aristagoras to rebel against Darius. Herodotus suggests that this was because Histiaeus was desperate to return to Ionia, and thought he would be sent to Ionia if there was a rebellion. Aristagoras therefore openly declared his revolt against Darius, abdicated from his role as tyrant, and declared Miletus to be a democracy. Herodotus has no doubt that this was only a pretence on Aristagoras's part of giving up power. Rather it was designed to make the Milesians enthusiastically join the rebellion. The army that had been sent to Naxos was still assembled at Myus and included contingents from other Greek cities of Asia Minor (i.e. Aeolia and Doris) as well as men from Mytilene, Mylasa, Termera and Cyme. Aristagoras sent men to capture all the Greek tyrants present in the army and handed them over to their respective cities in order to gain the cooperation of those cities. Bury and Meiggs stated that the handovers were done without bloodshed with the exception of Mytilene, whose tyrant was stoned to death; tyrants elsewhere were simply banished. It has also been suggested (Herodotus does not explicitly say so) that Aristagoras incited the whole army to join his revolt, and also took possession of the ships that the Persians had supplied. If the latter is true, it may explain the length of time it took for the Persians to launch a naval assault on Ionia, since they would have needed to build a new fleet.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Although Herodotus presents the revolt as a consequence of Aristagoras and Histiaeus's personal motives, it is clear that Ionia must have been ripe for rebellion anyway. The primary grievance was the tyrants installed by the Persians. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this was a form of government on the decline. Moreover, past tyrants had tended (and needed) to be strong and able leaders, whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply the representatives of the Persians. Backed by Persian military might, these tyrants did not need the support of the population, and could thus rule absolutely. Aristagoras's actions have thus been likened to tossing a flame into a kindling box; they incited rebellion across Ionia, and tyrannies were everywhere abolished, and democracies established in their place.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Aristagoras had brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt, but evidently realised that the Greeks would need other allies in order to successfully fight the Persians. In the winter of 499 BC, he first sailed to Sparta, the pre-eminent Greek state in matters of war. However, despite Aristagoras's entreaties, the Spartan king Cleomenes I turned down the offer to lead the Greeks against the Persians. Aristagoras therefore turned instead to Athens.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Athens had recently become a democracy, overthrowing its own tyrant Hippias. In their fight to establish the democracy, the Athenians had asked the Persians for aid (which was not in the end needed), in return for submitting to Persian overlordship. Some years later, Hippias had attempted to regain power in Athens, assisted by the Spartans. This attempt failed and Hippias fled to Artaphernes, and tried to persuade him to subjugate Athens. The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant. Needless to say, the Athenians had balked at this, and resolved instead to be openly at war with Persia. Since they were already an enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities in their revolt. The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example of the Athenian democracy no doubt helped persuade the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt, especially since the cities of Ionia were (supposedly) originally Athenian colonies.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Aristagoras was also successful in persuading the city of Eretria to send assistance to the Ionians for reasons that are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean. Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria some time previously, possibly referring to the Lelantine War. The Athenians sent twenty triremes to Miletus, reinforced by five from Eretria. Herodotus described the arrival of these ships as the beginning of troubles between Greeks and barbarians.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Over the winter, Aristagoras continued to foment rebellion. In one incident, he told a group of Paeonians (originally from Thrace), who Darius had brought to live in Phrygia, to return to their homeland. Herodotus says that his only purpose in doing this was to vex the Persian high command.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In the spring of 498 BC, an Athenian force of twenty triremes, accompanied by five from Eretria, set sail for Ionia. They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus. Declining to personally lead the force, Aristagoras appointed his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, as generals.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: This force was then guided by the Ephesians through the mountains to Sardis, Artaphernes's satrapal capital. The Greeks caught the Persians unaware, and were able to capture the lower city. However, Artaphernes still held the citadel with a significant force of men. The lower city then caught on fire, Herodotus suggests accidentally, which quickly spread. The Persians in the citadel, being surrounded by a burning city, emerged into the market-place of Sardis, where they fought with the Greeks, forcing them back. The Greeks, demoralised, then retreated from the city, and began to make their way back to Ephesus.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus reports that when Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he swore vengeance upon the Athenians (after asking who they indeed were), and tasked a servant with reminding him three times each day of his vow: "Master, remember the Athenians".


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus says that when the Persians in Asia Minor heard of the attack on Sardis, they gathered together, and marched to the relief of Artaphernes. When they arrived at Sardis, they found the Greeks recently departed. So they followed their tracks back towards Ephesus. They caught up with the Greeks outside Ephesus and the Greeks were forced to turn and prepare to fight. Holland suggests that the Persians were primarily cavalry (hence their ability to catch up with the Greeks). The typical Persian cavalry of the time were probably missile cavalry, whose tactics were to wear down a static enemy with volley after volley of arrows.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: It is clear that the demoralised and tired Greeks were no match for the Persians, and were completely routed in the battle which ensued at Ephesus. Many were killed, including the Eretrian general, Eualcides. The Ionians who escaped the battle made for their own cities, while the remaining Athenians and Eretrians managed to return to their ships and sailed back to Greece.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Athenians now ended their alliance with the Ionians, since the Persians had proved to be anything but the easy prey that Aristagoras had described. However, the Ionians remained committed to their rebellion and the Persians did not seem to follow up their victory at Ephesus. Presumably these "ad hoc" forces were not equipped to lay siege to any of the cities. Despite the defeat at Ephesus, the revolt actually spread further. The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities. They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion. Furthermore, seeing the spread of the rebellion, the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus's narrative after the Battle of Ephesus is ambiguous in its exact chronology; historians generally place Sardis and Ephesus in 498 BC. Herodotus next describes the spread of the revolt (thus also in 498 BC), and says that the Cypriots had one year of freedom, therefore placing the action in Cyprus to 497 BC. He next says that Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes, all of them Persian generals and married to daughters of Darius, pursued those Ionians who had marched to Sardis, and drove them to their ships. After this victory they divided the cities among themselves and sacked them. This passage implies these Persian generals counter-attacked "immediately" after the Battle of Ephesus. However, the cities that Herodotus describes Daurises as besieging were on the Hellespont, which (by Herodotus's own reckoning) did not become involved in the revolt until "after" Ephesus. It is therefore easiest to reconcile the account by assuming that Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes waited until the next campaigning season (i.e., 497 BC), before going on the counter-offensive. The Persian actions that Herodotus described at the Hellespont and in Caria seem to be in the same year, and most commentators place them in 497 BC.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In Cyprus, all the kingdoms had revolted except that of Amathus. The leader of the Cypriot revolt was Onesilus, brother of the king of Salamis, Gorgus. Gorgus did not want to revolt, so Onesilus locked his brother out of the city and made himself king. Gorgus went over to the Persians, and Onesilus persuaded the other Cypriots, apart from the Amathusians, to revolt. He then settled down to besiege Amathus.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The following year (497 BC), Onesilus (still besieging Amathus), heard that a Persian force under Artybius had been dispatched to Cyprus. Onesilus thus sent messengers to Ionia, asking them to send reinforcements, which they did, "in great force". A Persian army eventually arrived in Cyprus, supported by a Phoenician fleet. The Ionians opted to fight at sea and defeated the Phoenicians. In the simultaneous land battle outside Salamis, the Cypriots gained an initial advantage, killing Artybius. However, the defection of two contingents to the Persians crippled their cause, they were routed and Onesilus was killed. The revolt in Cyprus was thus crushed and the Ionians sailed home.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Persian forces in Asia Minor seem to have been reorganised in 497 BC, with three of Darius's sons-in-law, Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes, taking charge of three armies. Herodotus suggests that these generals divided up the rebellious lands between themselves and then set out to attack their respective areas.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Daurises, who seems to have had the largest army, initially took his army to the Hellespont. There, he systematically besieged and took the cities of Dardanus, Abydos, Percote, Lampsacus, and Paesus, each in a single day according to Herodotus. However, when he heard that the Carians were revolting, he moved his army southwards to attempt to crush this new rebellion. This places the timing of the Carian revolt to early 497 BC.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Hymaees went to the Propontis and took the city of Cius. After Daurises moved his forces towards Caria, Hymaees marched towards the Hellespont and captured many of the Aeolian cities as well as some of the cities in the Troad. However, he then fell ill and died, ending his campaign. Meanwhile, Otanes, together with Artaphernes, campaigned in Ionia (see below).


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Hearing that the Carians had rebelled, Daurises led his army south into Caria. The Carians gathered at the "White Pillars", on the Marsyas River (the modern Çine), a tributary of the Meander. Pixodorus, a relative of the king of Cilicia, suggested that the Carians should cross the river and fight with it at their backs, so as to prevent retreat and thus make them fight more bravely. This idea was rejected and the Carians made the Persians cross the river to fight them. The ensuing battle was, according to Herodotus, a long affair, with the Carians fighting obstinately before eventually succumbing to the weight of Persian numbers. Herodotus suggests that 10,000 Carians and 2,000 Persians died in the battle.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The survivors of Marsyas fell back to a sacred grove of Zeus at Labraunda and deliberated whether to surrender to the Persians or to flee Asia altogether. However, while deliberating, they were joined by a Milesian army, and with these reinforcements resolved instead to carry on fighting. The Persians then attacked the army at Labraunda, and inflicted an even heavier defeat, with the Milesians suffering particularly bad casualties.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: After the double victory over the Carians, Daurises began the task of reducing the Carian strongholds. The Carians resolved to fight on, and decided to lay an ambush for Daurises on the road through Pedasus.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus implies that this occurred more or less directly after Labraunda, but it has also been suggested that Pedasus occurred the following year (496 BC), giving the Carians time to regroup. The Persians arrived at Pedasus during the night, and the ambush was sprung to great effect. The Persian army was annihilated and Daurises and the other Persian commanders were slain. The disaster at Pedasus seems to have created a stalemate in the land campaign, and there was apparently little further campaigning in 496 BC and 495 BC.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The third Persian army, under the command of Otanes and Artaphernes, attacked Ionia and Aeolia. They re-took Clazomenae and Cyme, probably in 497 BC, but then seem to have been less active in 496 BC and 495 BC, probably as a result of the calamity in Caria.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: At the height of the Persian counter-offensive, Aristagoras, sensing his untenable position, decided to abandon his responsibilities as leader of Miletus and of the revolt. He left Miletus with all the members of his faction who would accompany him, and went to the part of Thrace that Darius had granted to Histiaeus after the campaign of 513 BC. Herodotus, who evidently has a rather negative view of him, suggests that Aristagoras simply lost his nerve and fled. Some modern historians have suggested that he went to Thrace to exploit the greater natural resources of the region, and thus support the revolt. Others have suggested that finding himself at the centre of an internal conflict in Miletus, he chose to go into exile rather than exacerbate the situation.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In Thrace, he took control of the city that Histiaeus had founded, Myrcinus (site of the later Amphipolis), and started campaigning against the local Thracian population. However, during one campaign, probably in either 497 BC or 496 BC, he was killed by the Thracians. Aristagoras was the one man who might have been able to provide the revolt with a sense of purpose, but after his death the revolt was left effectively leaderless.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Shortly after this, Histiaeus was released from his duties in Susa by Darius and sent to Ionia. He had persuaded Darius to let him travel to Ionia by promising to make the Ionians end their revolt. However, Herodotus leaves us in no doubt that his real aim was simply to escape his quasi-captivity in Persia. When he arrived in Sardis, Artaphernes directly accused him of fomenting the rebellion with Aristagoras: "I will tell you, Histiaeus, the truth of this business: it was you who stitched this shoe, and Aristagoras who put it on." Histiaeus fled that night to Chios and eventually made his way back to Miletus. However, having just got rid of one tyrant, the Milesians were in no mood to receive Histiaeus back. He therefore went to Mytilene in Lesbos and persuaded the Lesbians to give him eight triremes. He set sail for Byzantium with all those who would follow him. There he established himself, seizing all ships that attempted to sail through the Bosporus, unless they agreed to serve him.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: By the sixth year of the revolt (494 BC), the Persian forces had regrouped. The available land forces were gathered into one army, and were accompanied by a fleet supplied by the re-subjugated Cypriots, along with Egyptians, Cilicians and Phoenicians. The Persians headed directly to Miletus, paying little attention to other strongholds, presumably intending to tackle the revolt at its epicentre. The Median general Datis, an expert on Greek affairs, was certainly dispatched to Ionia by Darius at this time. It is therefore possible that he was in overall command of this Persian offensive.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Hearing of the approach of this force, the Ionians met at the Panionium, and decided not to attempt to fight on land, leaving the Milesians to defend their walls. Instead, they opted to gather every ship they could and make for the island of Lade, off the coast of Miletus, in order to "fight for Miletus at sea". The Ionians were joined by the Aeolian islanders from Lesbos, and altogether they had 353 triremes.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: According to Herodotus, the Persian commanders were concerned that they would not be able to defeat the Ionian fleet and, therefore, would not be able to take Miletus. So they sent the exiled Ionian tyrants to Lade, where each tried to persuade his fellow citizens to desert to the Persians. This approach was initially unsuccessful, but in the week-long delay before the battle, divisions arose in the Ionian camp. These divisions led to the Samians secretly agreeing to the terms offered by the Persians, but remained with the other Ionians for the time being.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Soon after, the Persian fleet moved to attack the Ionians, who sailed out to meet them. However, as the two sides neared each other, the Samians sailed away back to Samos, as they had agreed with the Persians. The Lesbians, seeing their neighbours in the battle-line sail away, promptly fled as well, causing the rest of the Ionian line to dissolve. The Chians, together with a small number of ships from other cities, stubbornly remained and fought the Persians, but most of the Ionians fled to their cities. The Chians fought valiantly, at one point breaking the Persian line and capturing many ships, but sustaining many losses of their own; eventually the remaining Chian ships sailed away, thereby ending the battle.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: With the defeat of the Ionian fleet, the revolt was effectively over. Miletus was closely invested, the Persians "mining the walls and using every device against it, until they utterly captured it". According to Herodotus, most of the men were killed, and the women and children were enslaved. Archaeological evidence partially substantiates this, showing widespread signs of destruction, and abandonment of much of the city in the aftermath of Lade. However, some Milesians did remain in (or quickly returned to) Miletus, though the city would never recapture its former greatness.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Miletus was thus notionally "left empty of Milesians"; the Persians took the city and coastal land for themselves, and gave the rest of the Milesian territory to Carians from Pedasus. The captive Milesians were brought before Darius in Susa, who settled them at "Ampé" on the coast of the Persian Gulf, near the mouth of the Tigris.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Many Samians were appalled by the actions of their generals at Lade, and resolved to emigrate before their old tyrant, Aeaces of Samos, returned to rule them. They accepted an invitation from the people of Zancle to settle on the coast of Sicily, and took with them the Milesians who had managed to escape from the Persians. Samos itself was spared from destruction by the Persians because of the Samian defection at Lade. Most of Caria now surrendered to the Persians, although some strongholds had to be captured through force.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: When Histiaeus heard of the fall of Miletus, he seems to have appointed himself as leader of the resistance against Persia. Setting out from Byzantium with his force of Lesbians, he sailed to Chios. The Chians refused to receive him, so he attacked and destroyed the remnants of the Chian fleet. Crippled by the two defeats at sea, the Chians then acquiesced to Histiaeus's leadership.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Histiaeus now gathered a large force of Ionians and Aeolians and went to besiege Thasos. However, he then received the news that the Persian fleet was setting out from Miletus to attack the rest of Ionia, so he quickly returned to Lesbos. In order to feed his army, he led foraging expeditions to the mainland near Atarneus and Myus. A large Persian force under Harpagus was in the area and eventually intercepted one foraging expedition near Malene. The ensuing battle was hard fought, but was ended by a successful Persian cavalry charge, routing the Greek line. Histiaeus himself surrendered to the Persians, thinking that he would be able to talk himself into a pardon from Darius. However, he was taken to Artaphernes instead, who, fully aware of Histiaeus's past treachery, impaled him and then sent his embalmed head to Darius.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Persian fleet and army wintered at Miletus, before setting out in 493 BC to finally stamp out the last embers of the revolt. They attacked and captured the islands of Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. On each, they made a 'human-net' of troops and swept across the whole island to flush out any hiding rebels. They then moved over to the mainland and captured each of the remaining cities of Ionia, similarly seeking out any remaining rebels. Although the cities of Ionia were undoubtedly harrowed in the aftermath, none seems to have suffered quite the fate of Miletus. Herodotus says that the Persians chose the most handsome boys from each city and castrated them, and chose the most beautiful girls and sent them away to the king's harem, and then burnt the temples of the cities. While this is possibly true, Herodotus also probably exaggerates the scale of devastation. In a few years, the cities had more-or-less returned to normal and they were able to equip a large fleet for the second Persian invasion of Greece, just 13 years later.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Persian army then re-conquered the settlements on the Asian side of the Propontis, while the Persian fleet sailed up the European coast of the Hellespont, taking each settlement in turn. With all of Asia Minor now firmly returned to Persian rule, the revolt was finally over.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Once the inevitable punishment of the rebels had occurred, the Persians were in the mood for conciliation. Since these regions were now Persian territory again, it made no sense to harm their economies further or to drive the people to further rebellions. Artaphernes thus set out to re-establish a workable relationship with his subjects. He summoned representatives from each Ionian city to Sardis, and told them that henceforth, rather than continually quarrelling and fighting between themselves, disputes would be resolved by arbitration, seemingly by a panel of judges. Furthermore, he re-surveyed the land of each city, and set their tribute level in proportion to its size. Artaphernes had also witnessed just how much the Ionians disliked tyrannies, and began to reconsider his position on the local governance of Ionia. The following year, Mardonius, another son-in-law of Darius, would travel to Ionia and abolish the tyrannies, replacing them with democracies. The peace established by Artaphernes would long be remembered as just and fair. Darius actively encouraged the Persian nobility of the area to participate in Greek religious practices, especially those dealing with Apollo. Records from the period indicate that the Persian and Greek nobility began to intermarry, and the children of Persian nobles were given Greek names instead of Persian names. Darius' conciliatory policies were used as a type of propaganda campaign against the mainland Greeks, so that in 491 BC, when Darius sent heralds throughout Greece demanding submission (earth and water), initially most city-states accepted the offer, Athens and Sparta being the most prominent exceptions.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: For the Persians, the only unfinished business that remained by the end of 493 BC was to exact punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt. The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Therefore, the first Persian invasion of Greece effectively began in the following year, 492 BC, when Mardonius was dispatched (via Ionia) to complete the pacification of the land approaches to Greece and push on to Athens and Eretria if possible. Thrace was re-subjugated, having broken loose from Persian rule during the revolts and Macedon compelled to become a vassal of Persia. However, progress was halted by a naval disaster. A second expedition was launched in 490 BC under Datis and Artaphernes, son of the satrap Artaphernes. This amphibious force sailed across the Aegean, subjugating the Cyclades, before arriving off Euboea. Eretria was besieged, captured and destroyed, and the force then moved onto Attica. Landing at the Bay of Marathon, they were met by an Athenian army and defeated in the famous Battle of Marathon, ending the first Persian attempt to subdue Greece.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The Ionian Revolt was primarily of significance as the opening chapter in, and causative agent of, the Greco-Persian Wars, which included the two invasions of Greece and the famous battles of Marathon, Thermopylae and Salamis. For the Ionian cities themselves, the revolt ended in failure, and substantial losses, both material and economic. However, Miletus aside, they recovered relatively quickly and prospered under Persian rule for the next forty years. For the Persians, the revolt was significant in drawing them into an extended conflict with the states of Greece which would last for fifty years, over which time they would sustain considerable losses.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Militarily, it is difficult to draw too many conclusions from the Ionian Revolt, save for what the Greeks and Persians may (or may not) have learnt about each other. Certainly, the Athenians, and Greeks in general, seem to have been impressed by the power of Persian cavalry, with the Greek armies displaying considerable caution during the following campaigns when confronted by the Persian cavalry. Conversely, the Persians seem not to have realised or noticed the potential of the Greek hoplites as heavy infantry. At the Battle of Marathon, in 490 BC, the Persians took little heed of a primarily hoplitic army, resulting in their defeat. Furthermore, despite the possibility of recruiting heavy infantry from their domains, the Persians began the second invasion of Greece without doing so, and again encountered major problems in the face of Greek armies. It is possible that, given the ease of their victories over the Greeks at Ephesus, and similarly armed forces at the battles of the Marsyas River and Labraunda, the Persians simply disregarded the military value of the hoplite phalanx—to their cost.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus’ account is the best source we have on the events that amounted to a collision between Persia, which was expanding westward, and classical Greece at its peak. Nevertheless, its depictions are often scanty and uncertain, or incomplete. One of the major uncertainties of the Ionian revolt in Herodotus is why it occurred in the first place.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In retrospect the case seems obvious: Persia disputed the Hellenes for control of cities and territories. The Hellenes had either to fight for their freedom or submit. The desirability of these material objects was certainly economic, although considerations of defence and ideology may well have played a part. These are the motives generally accepted today, after long retrospect.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Herodotus apparently knew of no such motives, or if he did, he did not care to analyse history at that level. J D Manville characterises his approach as the attribution of “personal motivation” to players such as Aristagoras and Histiaeus. In his view, Herodotus “may seem to overemphasise personal motivation as a cause,” but he really does not. We have either to fault Herodotus for his lack of analytical perspicacity or try to find credible reasons in the historical context for actions to which Herodotus gives incomplete explanations.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: Manville suggests that the unexplained places mark events in a secret scenario about which Herodotus could not have known, but he records what he does know faithfully. It is up to the historian to reconstruct the secret history by re-interpretation and speculation, a technique often used by historical novelists. Manville puts it forward as history.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The main players are portrayed by Herodotus as naturally hypocritical. They always have an ulterior motive which they go to great lengths to conceal behind persuasive lies. Thus neither Aristagoras nor Histiaeus are fighting for freedom, nor do they cooperate or collaborate. Each has a personal motive related to greed, ambition, or fear. Manville fills in the uncertainties with hypothetical motives. Thus he arrives, perhaps less credibly for his invention, at a behind-the-scenes struggle for dominance between Aristagoras and Histiaeus. They can best be described as rivals or even enemies. Some of the high points of the argument are as follows.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: While Histiaeus was away serving Darius, Aristagoras acted in his stead as deputy of Miletus where, it is argued, he worked on securing his own power. The word for deputy is epitropos, which he was when the Naxian deputation arrived. By the time the fleet departs for Naxos, Aristagoras has promoted himself to “tyrant of Miletus.” There is no explicit statement that he asked Histiaeus’ permission or was promoted by Histaeus. Instead, Aristagoras turned to Artaphernes, who was said to be jealous of Histiaeus. It is true that Artaphernes would not move without consulting the Great King, and that the latter's advisor on Greek affairs was Histiaeus. However, Manville sees a coup by Aristagoras, presuming not only that the Great King's advisor did not advise, but was kept in the dark about his own supersession.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: When the expedition failed, Histiaeus sent his tattooed slave to Aristagoras, not as encouragement to revolt, but as an ultimatum. Manville provides an underlying value system to fill in the gap left by Herodotus: revolt was so unthinkable that Histiaeus could bring the fantasies of his opponent back to reality by suggesting that he do it, a sort of “go ahead, commit suicide.” Histiaeus was, in Manville's speculation, ordering Aristagoras to give up his rule or suffer the consequences. Apparently, he was not being kept in the dark by the king after all. Manville leaves us to guess why the king did not just crush the revolt by returning the supposedly loyal Histiaeus to power.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: However, at this time Histiaeus was still required to remain in Susa and, despite his threat, he was unable to do anything if Aristagoras did revolt. Realising that this would be his last chance to gain power Aristagoras started the revolt despite Histiaeus’ threat. This is a surprise to Manville's readers, as we thought he already had power via a coup. Manville does note the contradiction mentioned above, that Aristagoras gave up tyranny, yet was able to force democracy on the other cities and command their obedience to him. We are to see in this paradox a strategy to depose Histiaeus, whom we thought was already deposed.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: The tale goes on to an attempt by Histiaeus to form an alliance with Artaphernes to depose the usurper and regain his power at Miletus. Artaphernes, though he was involved in open war with Aristagoras, refuses. The tale told by Manville thus contains events related by Herodotus supplemented by non-events coming from Manville's imagination.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: John Myres, classical archaeologist and scholar, whose career began in the reign of Queen Victoria and did not end until 1954, close friend and companion of Arthur Evans, and intelligence officer par excellence of the British Empire, developed a theory of the Ionian Revolt that explains it in terms of the stock political views of the empire, balance of power and power vacuum. Those views, still generally familiar, assert that peace is to be found in a region controlled by competing geopolitical powers, none of which are strong enough to defeat the others. If a power drops from the roster for any reason, a “vacuum” then exists, which causes violent competition until the balance is readjusted.


title: Ionian Revolt

text: In a key article of 1906, while Evans was excavating Knossos, the Ottoman Empire had lost Crete due to British intervention, and questions of the “sick man of Europe” were being considered by all the powers. Referring to the failing Ottoman Empire and the power vacuum that would be left when it fell, the young Myres published an article studying the balance of what he termed “sea-power” in the eastern Mediterranean in classical times. The word "sea-power" was intended to define his “thalassocracy.”