title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into numerous barangays, small states that were linked through region-wide trade networks. The name "barangay" is thought to come from the word balangay, which refers to boats used by the Austronesian people to reach the Philippines. These societies had three classes: the nobility, freemen, and serfs and slaves. They were led by powerful individuals now called datus, although different cultures used different terms. The arrival of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized datus. The first large state was Sulu, which adopted Islam in the 15th century. This system then spread to the nearby Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila. Ferdinand Magellan's death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon for control of Cebu. Spanish Captain-General Miguel López de Legazpi established a settlement in Cebu in 1565. Maynila was conquered in 1571, and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration. Spain gradually conquered the majority of the modern Philippines, although full control was never established over some Muslim areas in the south and in the Cordillera highlands.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Under Spanish rule barangays were consolidated into urban towns, aiding with control and a shift to a sedentary agricultural society. Nonetheless, the barangay structures were retained (becoming known as "barrio"), and used as a means to record community identity. Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the Church, especially friars from Spanish religious orders. Local priests often held powers in towns, carrying out Spanish orders and collecting taxes. In areas where the population had not been consolidated into towns, priests travelled between villages. Ultimate power was held by the King and the Council of the Indies, with the Philippines being part of New Spain. However, due to their distance from both New Spain and Spain itself, the Captaincy General of the Philippines functioned practically autonomously and royal decrees had limited effect. The Philippines had their own Governor, and a judicial body was established in 1583.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Direct Spanish rule did not extend far beyond Manila. Due to the small number of Spanish officials on the islands, which numbered in the tens, locals were relied upon for administration. Existing datus were co-opted to manage barangays and nominate individuals for provincial government. Representatives of the Catholic Church continued to be the most significant direct Spanish presence. Several revolts erupted against Spain, but all were defeated. Some revolts, such as the Tondo Conspiracy, led to greater local participation in the bureaucracy, and the bringing of local elites into a patronage system to prevent further rebellion. The establishment of towns created administrative positions local elites could fill. Traditional native elites, along with some native officeholders and high-value tax payers, became part of a group known as the "principalia". This group could make recommendations to the Spanish governor regarding administrative appointments, although they held no direct power. While they were just municipal office-holders, for some their status allowed them to avail of government patronage, and gain special permits and exemptions. Over time, this elite class became more culturally distinct, gaining an education unavailable to most and intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Pre-existing trading networks were blocked by Spanish authorities, with all trade instead going to Spanish colonies in the New World. Despite increasing economic activity, the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language. Some areas remained out of effective Spanish control, including much of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan. There was conflict between these areas and the Spanish throughout the Spanish period. In the Cordillera highlands, firm Spanish control was limited to the lowland fringes. Inward migration to escape Spanish control and an increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political complexity.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: In a process beginning in the late 18th century that would continue for the remainder of Spanish rule, the government tried to shift power from the friars of independent religious orders towards the "secular clergy" of Catholic priests. These priests included local mestizos, and even indios. In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society. In 1808, when Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain, the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted, giving the Philippines representation in the Spanish Cortes. However, once the Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes, the Philippine, and indeed colonial, representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded. From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860, often lacking any experience with the country. Significant political reforms began in the 1860s, with a couple of decades seeing the creation of a cabinet under the Governor-General and the division of executive and judicial power. Societal changes in Spain and the Philippines led to an expansion of the Philippine bureaucracy and its civil service positions, predominantly for the educated living in urban areas, although the highest levels continued to remain in the hand of those born in Spain. This, combined with a shifting economy, saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper and middle classes. A changing economy also brought poverty, which led to raiding and the founding of the Civil Guard. Education reforms in the 1860s expanded access to higher education. The 19th century also saw further attempts to establish control of the mountain tribes of the interior, although success remained limited. Better success was had in the south, where the Spanish gained control over the seas and coasts, and obtained the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term "Filipino" shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity, and served as a claim to status equal to Spanish "peninsulares" and "insulares". Spanish served as a common language for the growing local elite, who shared a Western educational background despite varied ethnolinguistic origins. Most came from Manila. A class of educated individuals became known as the Ilustrados. This group included individuals who had studied at both local universities and Spanish ones, and came from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds. They gained prominence in Philippine administration, and became increasingly involved in politics. This added a third group of elites to the two existing groups of the urban bureaucracy and the municipal elites.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Liberal reforms and ideas that had taken root in Spain were resisted by the conservative religious orders that had influence throughout the Philippines. In the 1880s, some prominent Ilustrados, especially those who had studied in Spain, launched the Propaganda Movement. This loose movement sought to reform Spanish administration of the Philippines. The restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the grievances raised by the Ilustrados. For the most part it was a campaign for secular self-government as a full part of Spain, as well as equality between those born in Spain and those born in the Philippines. Much of the campaigning took place in Madrid rather than in the Philippines. With liberal reforms rejected, some saw the movement as the beginning of a national awakening, as its members began to return to the Philippines. A small change occurred in 1893, when Spain passed the Maura Law, providing a limited measure of local autonomy.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: An authoritarian backlash against the Propaganda Movement led to official suppression. In the 1890s divisions emerged among those that supported the ideals of the movement. One group that emerged from this was the Katipunan, created in 1892 predominantly by members of Manila's urban middle class rather than by Ilustrados. These individuals were often less wealthy than those who made up the Ilustrados, and less invested in the existing political structures. The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence, and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. This revolution gained the support of the municipal elite outside of the major cities, who found themselves with significantly greater control as Spanish administrative and religious authorities were forced out by the revolutionaries.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Despite most Ilustrados opposing the revolution, many were implicated by the Spanish authorities and were arrested and imprisoned. After the execution of José Rizal on December 30, 1896, the leader of the Ilustrados who disapproved of the revolution, the rebellion intensified. The Katipunan in Cavite had won several battles against the Spaniards, but was split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. A conference was held in 1897 to unite the two factions, but instead caused further division that led to the execution of Andres Bonifacio, who was then the leader of the Katipunan; Bonifacio's death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo. This was part of a shift from middle class to elite leadership within the rebellion. Nonetheless, Spanish military superiority was unable to overcome growing political support for the revolution that emerged outside of Manila throughout the archipelago. A provisional constitution was set up to last two years, but was soon superseded by an agreement between the Spaniards and the revolutionaries, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This pact provided for Aguinaldo's surrender and exile to Hong Kong, and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the Spaniards to the revolutionaries. However, both sides eventually violated the agreement.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Spanish–American War reached the Philippines on May 1 with the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo returned from exile, set up a new government, and proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. Aguilnaldo gained support even from Ilustrados who had opposed the initial revolution. War with the Americans prompted the Spanish Governor to offer an autonomous government, however the Americans defeated the Spanish on August 13 in a mock battle in Manila and took control of the city. Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government, and convened a congress on September 15, 1898, in Barasoain Church in Malolos. This unicameral congress was aimed at enticing support to the revolutionaries. It approved the declaration of independence, and in 1899 approved the Malolos Constitution to inaugurate the First Philippine Republic. The First Philippine Republic reflected the liberal ideas of the time, valuing private property rights and limiting voting to high-class men, reflecting the growing influence of the elite in the initially anti-elite movement. Discussions about this first constitution saw calls from the Visayas for federalism. However, this idea was not included in the final constitution, and the constitutional questions were overtaken by centralizing forces and military events. On December 10, 1898, Spain ceded sovereignty of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Philippine–American War erupted in February 1899 with a skirmish in Manila. The United States set up military and civil governments in the capital and other areas as they were pacified. Just nine days after the conquest of Manila, civil administration was initiated with the involvement of local Ilustrados. In rural areas, the co-opting of municipal elites that had taken over from the Spanish removed resistance to American rule. Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901, at Palanan, Isabela. While they rejected proposals for a federal system or autonomy in favor of a more easily controlled centralized system, the Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901, holding the first municipal elections, and passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national government and regularize civilian rule, designating the Philippine Commission as a legislative body, with membership consisting of Americans appointed by the U.S. President. The first provincial elections took place in 1902. The judicial system saw Cayetano Arellano appointed as the first Filipino Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The judicial system as a whole was modelled the American system, and American judges shaped early case law.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt ended U.S. hostilities and proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to revolutionaries on July 4, 1902, and abolished the office of U.S. Military Governor in the Philippines. On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: American belief in the importance of the rule of law defined its political approach to the Philippines, with its laws and constitutional traditions replicated in their new possessions and applying to Americans and natives alike. It also served as a justification for taking possession of the islands, along with the theory they were as of yet incapable of democratic self-governance. The Schurman Commission, in assessing the islands, reported to the President that the various peoples of the islands lacked a common nationhood. However, a small number of elites, such as those who led the independence movement, were considered "highly-educated and able". Those with wealth and education were considered more likely to acquiesce to American rule compared to those in the middle class.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: This elite minority was seen as the key to gaining acceptance of American rule, and the Americans appropriated selected narratives such as the veneration of José Rizal. The hierarchical social structure that existed under Spanish rule was co-opted by the United States, with democracy introduced in a manner which did not threaten the power of the existing elites. Actions which included Filipinos within government structures were taken as demonstrations of American commitment to local involvement in governance. The elites further benefited from the redistribution of friar lands. In turn, ilustrado views of Filipino society influenced the Americans. Initial American policy favored local governance, and so they introduced elections at a local level and later built upwards. This had the effect of entrenching local elites into the national system, who were often relied upon to help govern by the American administration. This process meant that politicians who built provincial power bases in these early years were able to compete at a national level with politicians from Manila. In some rural areas, support for the revolution and opposition to American rule persisted among the poorer population, which would later shift into support for socialist ideas and conflict with both American and elite rule. However, the Anti-Sedition Law of 1901 limited the early development of these political ideas.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic, securing the Sultanate of Sulu, and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest. The last military resistance outside of Mindanao was ended by 1906. Military rule over the Muslim Moro Province and the animist Mountain Province ended in 1913, with them then coming under the control of the civilian government in Manila. This wove southern Mindanao into the country more tightly that it had ever been previously, although its inhabitants remained a distinct minority. Divisions between Christians and Muslims (known as Moros) in the archipelago coincided with American economic interest in Mindanao. American proposals to split most of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan from the rest of the islands were supported by some Moro political leaders. Some Moro leaders believed all of Mindanao to be rightfully theirs, in spite of a large Christian minority. Moros remained concerned that rule by Americans would be replaced with rule by Christian Filipinos. Proposals to divide the colony were strongly opposed by the predominantly Christian Philippine legislature. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was created in 1920, replacing direct rule by an American Governor, and the Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao, supported by immigration from Christian areas. By 1935 these areas were fully integrated into the Philippine administrative structure. Despite this, the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel structure in Mindanao and Sulu throughout the American period, and beyond.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Americans expanded local participation in governance beyond that which had been allowed under Spanish rule, expanding representative government beyond the merely advisory system that existed under the Spanish. Political participation remained limited by pre-existing criteria on status and wealth, with the addition of literacy as another consideration. The Federalist Party, formed in 1900 by landed elites, advocated for autonomy under American rule, although its leaders hoped to become a state of the United States. These individuals were considered traitors by the ongoing Philippine revolution, but their alliance with the American military led members of the party to be placed in positions of power at all levels and branches of government. Opposition began to consolidate under the banner of the Nacionalista Party, which advocated for independence and regarded itself as the heir of the First Philippine Republic. On July 30, 1907, the first election of the Philippine Assembly was held. Led by Sergio Osmeña, the assembly was held predominantly by the Nacionalista Party; they were opposed by the Federalists, who were by then renamed the Progresista Party. The Nacionalistas ended up with a majority of 80 seats. Due to the tight restrictions of the voting franchise, only 1.4% of the population participated in this election. The Nacionalista party would maintain electoral dominance until independence, and even came to include several former Federalistas.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Legislation involving immigration, currency and coinage, and timber and mining required approval by the United States President. Despite their ambitions for independence, Nacionalista leaders developed collaborative relationships with American officials. The election of United States President Woodrow Wilson, and his appointment of Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison, led to the policy of "Filipinization" being introduced in 1913 as part of a policy to accelerate decolonization. In 1913 Filipinos were included in the commission, shifting its membership to five Filipinos and four Americans. Efforts were also made to bring locals into the civil service.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The commission was replaced by the Philippine Senate through the 1916 Jones Law. This body had 24 members elected for six-year terms, with two from each of the 12 senatorial districts. Most were elected; however those from the district consisting of the non-Christian areas of Mindanao and the Cordilleras were appointed by the Governor-General. The appointed senators had no fixed terms. This legislative body had the power to confirm appointments to the executive and judicial branches. The Jones Law envisioned eventual Philippine independence, once the territory had achieved stable governance. Some American legislators continued to disagree with this aim, believing American rule could be indefinite. 1916 also saw the voting franchise expand from just educated English and Spanish speakers to include educated speakers of native languages, and the removal of the requirement to own property, leading to the electorate including 6–7% of the population. By 1921, the "Filipinization" policy had resulted in 96% of the civil service staff being Filipinos.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Nacionalista-dominated Philippine Assembly, and later the Philippine Senate, were often at odds with the Governor-General. Its leadership grew more powerful, seizing state bodies and using nationalism to weaken American oversight. The establishment of the senate led to the Nacionalistas forming opposing camps loyal to Osmeña (the Unipersonalistas) and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon (the Colectavistas). Despite this division, several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. The onset of the Great Depression strengthened American desire to grant independence to the Philippines, as it would reduce American liability to the territory. The OsRox Mission led by Osmeña and House Speaker Manuel Roxas resulted in the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act. However, the Senate rejected this; a new law, the Tydings–McDuffie Act which was marginally different and, more importantly, was supported by Quezon, was approved and paved the way for the Commonwealth of the Philippines and mandated U.S. recognition of independence of the Philippine Islands after a ten-year transition period.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The institutionalization of the elite's role in politics under the American system, combined with an increase in the Philippine population and an accruing of land into elite hands, led to a breakdown in transitional social relationships between the elite and the rest of the populace. In rural areas, especially central Luzon, class consciousness-based political organization developed, leading to eventually to peasant revolts in the 1930s.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The new constitution created under this act was approved on January 31, 1935, and was adopted the next day. The first elections were held on September 17. Quezon and Osmeña reconciled, and both were elected as president and vice president, respectively, in 1935. The Nacionalistas controlled the now unicameral National Assembly for the entirety of the Commonwealth, with the understanding that the Americans would grant independence in the near future. In 1937 the voting franchise was expanded to include literate women, and this period saw participation in elections reach 14%. Local elections were held in different years to legislative and presidential elections. Under the Commonwealth religious freedom was guaranteed, although government and national identity remained Christian and Manila-centric. A national curriculum similarly sought to impose a single vision of a Filipino identity across the diverse ethnolinguistic groups of the islands. Alongside this, Tagalog was established as a national language.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Presidential system of the Commonwealth government was based on that of the United States. However, while dividing power between three branches similarly with the constitution of the United States, the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine President significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the President of the United States. Tensions between the executive and legislature, especially over passing budgets, were immediately apparent under the new system. Control over budgets and political appointments were the two biggest ways that the legislature could influence the executive. Budgetary control also provided members of Congress of means to generate political patronage through pork barrel politics. Seats in the legislature provided valuable access to the Philippine National Bank, and the ability to influence export quotas (most valuably that of sugar). Often one family member became involved in politics, while another managed the family business.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Having sought the restriction of executive power under American Governors, as President Quezon now moved to expand its power. The peasant-led Sakdal uprising and the fear of a newly formed communist party were used to justify centralizing power. Originally a unicameral legislature was created, however Quezon pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow him to obtain a second term and for the restoration of a bicameral legislature. Both amendments were passed, with the newly restored Senate now being elected at-large instead of per district, as what was done during the pre-Commonwealth era. Quezon, Osmeña, and the Nacionalista Party as a whole won the elections in 1941 with greatly increased margins. Through patronage, Quezon was able to maintain strong support among local elites. This clout allowed him to pass several significant reforms aimed at improving the economic situation of the poor and middle classes, failing only in his attempts at land reform.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The transition to the Commonwealth government from American rule led to civil service positions that had previously been held by Americans being filled by political appointees, a practice explicitly allowed by the 1935 constitution. The constitution also served to protect American interests in the Philippines, effectively giving them greater economic access than other foreign countries, and the Philippine economy remained tied to the American one even after independence. Defence and foreign affairs remained under the control of the United States, while legislation and judicial decisions could be reviewed in the United States. Treatment of the Commonwealth by the United States was inconsistent, with it sometimes being treated as a separate country and sometimes being treated as under United States jurisdiction. Nonetheless, internationally they had gained some acceptance as a distinct country. The Philippines already had membership within the Universal Postal Union, which was continued by the Commonwealth. After World War II, the Commonwealth became a founding member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the United Nations.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile, and subjected the country to a puppet government. All existing political parties merged into the KALIBAPI party, created by Proclamation No. 109 on December 8, 1942. KALIBAPI became the sole legal political party, and Jose P. Laurel was declared president of an independent Second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943. Some municipal and tax laws from the 1935 Constitution remained in force during this period, and there was continuity in state bureaucracy from the Commonwealth to the Second Republic. Under Japanese rule, governing policy was to win the populace over to the Japanese cause and thus reduce support for the United States, but this was unsuccessful. In rural areas, a sudden vacuum of elite power led to the formation of new local governments by the remaining populace, beginning the Hukbalahap Rebellion. Exiled leaders of the previous first Commonwealth government provided limited support to the U.S.; President President Quezon was a member of the Pacific War Council and participated, along with Vice President Osmeña and members of his cabinet, in civic and social activities, promoting the sale of war bonds, etc.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The Americans reconquered the country in 1944, and Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government. Those attending the congress were the remaining living and free members of the 1941 congress. The Nacionalistas were divided following the war, with a leadership struggle leading to Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be the Liberal Party. Roxas defeated Osmeña in the 1946 presidential election, and became the last president of the Commonwealth. A left-wing political movement that spawned from the Hukbalahap fight against the Japanese was suppressed by the former elite with American support, leading to the continuation of the rebellion against the new government. The Americans granted independence on July 4, 1946, and Roxas became the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines. The 1935 Commonwealth constitution continued in effect, as did existing membership in international organizations.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The impact of the war led to a weaker civil service and a reduction in the dominance of Manila, with provincial politicians gaining political power and in some cases "de facto" autonomy. Many leveraged their provincial power to engage in national politics. Muslim leaders who had resisted Japanese occupation were rewarded with local political office, and others successfully ran for Congress. Eventually, many throughout the country who had collaborated with the Japanese were pardoned in 1948 and 1953. Universal suffrage saw an expansion of voter participation, although power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Despite the landed elite continuing to dominate the legislature, a diversifying post-war economy saw politicians who were not primarily from agricultural backgrounds come to executive power. By the late 1960s this had largely brought an end to the land-based cacique democracy patronage system. Political offices became lucrative by themselves, and patronage became more reliant on access to government funds. Continued American economic and military support lessened the dependence of the executive on the legislature. These changes did not shift the overall shape of Filipino politics, which remained a two-party system dominated by a narrow elite. The winner of the Presidency tended to also take control of both houses of Congress. There was little policy difference between the two parties, and defections were common. Patronage, fraud, and voter suppression were common methods of maintaining power.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years, after winning in 1949. The continuing threat of the Hukbalahap led Defence Secretary Ramon Magsaysay to use the military to guard polling stations in the 1951 Senate election, an election which was as a result considered quite fair. During his term in office, Quirino sought to significantly expand executive power. Election concerns led to the National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections being formed, an early example of civil society organization that prominently included World War II veterans. This movement was supported by the United States, who desired the Philippines to be an example of democracy as the Cold War reached Asia, and by the Catholic Church. Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election. Magsaysay, who oversaw the surrender of the Hukbalahap, was massively popular. Magsaysay implemented a plan to settle surrendered Hukbalahap rebels in Mindanao. This cemented a demographic shift in Mindanao from having a Muslim majority to having a Christian majority. The expression of class-based politics shifted towards more moderate groups, such as the Federation of Free Farmers and the Federation of Free Workers. During his rule, Magsaysay also expanded the role of the military in his administration, believing them to be reliable.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Before the 1957 election, Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash. His vice president, Carlos P. Garcia, succeeded him and won the election. The military distrusted Garcia, but plans to remove him from office never reached fruition. The removal of many officers from the administration, to be replaced by often corrupt civilians, fermented a distrust of the democratic process within some parts of the military. Garcia continued Magsaysay's "Filipino First" policy and implemented an austerity program. Garcia was defeated by his vice president, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961. Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise, and sought land reform and electrification. However, Macapagal's policies faced stiff opposition in Congress, where the Nacionalistas held the majority. The Philippine civil service in the late 1950s and 60s was becaming more technocratic, and Macapagal established the Program Implementation Agency directly under the President. This body was used to manage projects relatively free from Congressional oversight. Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power and an expansion in mass media. Marcos' infrastructure projects were the feature policy of his term, he was the first president to be re-elected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying. The 1969 election saw a similar election observation effort to 1953, although it did not receive as much backing or have as much impact. Marcos was not opposed by the church, business, or the United States. Significant protests, such as the First Quarter Storm, and civil unrest heightened after the election. While Marcos initially distrusted the military, who were suspected of planning a coup following successful coups elsewhere in Asia, he eventually co-opted the military into his re-election campaign, and began to heavily rely on the military during his second term. Communist rebellion strengthened during Marcos' rule, and a Moro insurgency emerged in Mindanao as tensions surrounding Christian immigration combined with a more empowered national government. Local elections in 1971 overturned Muslim political dominance in Mindanao, as Christian settlers who had previously voted for traditional Muslim leaders switched to voting for Christian representatives.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Despite initiating a constitutional convention in 1971, Marcos declared martial law in 1972. While this was likely to justify arresting political opponents, Marcos cited the communist insurgency and Muslim separatism as the reasons for the move. At one point, communist rebels were present in one fifth of the country's villages. Meanwhile, the imposition of military rule only increased Muslim resistance in Mindanao. Attempts to end the war in Mindanao led Marcos to alter the political situation in the area. He introduced a code of Muslim personal laws, and formally recognized a number of sultans in Mindanao and Sulu. Negotiations led the insurgency to replace demands for independence with demands for autonomy. While peace talks ultimately failed, the level of violence subsided from its peak in the early 1970s.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics. He relied on the growing technocratic civil service, who were receptive to such arguments, to effectively run the country under martial law. The first large-scale government reorganization since independence shortly followed, including a purge of the existing civil service. Marcos also relied on the military, which gained increased power and resources during the martial law period. By the end of the Marcos' rule, it had quadrupled in size. Much of this was funded through U.S. military assistance, which doubled during this period. Military training also shifted, with an increasing emphasis on humanities, in order to allow officers to more effectively handle civilian administrative roles.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The convention finalized the new constitution in November 1972. It called for a semi-presidential government was approved in 1973 through shows of hands in citizen assemblies, a process that did not meet the requirements of the 1935 constitution for constitutional change. The Supreme Court ruled that although this procedure was improper, the constitution had come into force. "Amendment No. 6" of 1976 gave the executive the law-making powers of the legislature. Beginning with these referendums, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 15.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: In a 1974 Presidential Decree, the "barrio" subdivisions were renamed "barangays". The Integrated National Police was formed in 1975, extending national control of policing to the local level. Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) legislature was elected. Marcos had complete control over the bureaucracy, local governments, military, the press, and COMELEC. The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party. The unicameral IBP had little power, unable to repeal Presidential decrees or declare no confidence in the government. The Supreme Court affirmed the expansive executive powers claimed under martial law.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Marcos laid out a vision of a "new society", which would represent an end to old oligarchies. The changes implemented by Marcos sought to eliminate regional power centers and instead strengthen links between his national government and the general public. This was only partially successful, and Marcos relied on local allies to enforce martial law. Some political dynasties who were not allied with Marcos were stripped of assets and power, in many cases replaced in local politics by Marcos allies. Marcos ended martial law in 1981, shortly before a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II, although he retained immense executive powers. Opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which Marcos easily won while maintaining tight control of the election process. As martial law was repealed Marcos implemented a system of nominal autonomy in some regions of Mindanao. This was, however, seen as largely toothless, and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front operated as a shadow government in some areas.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Opponents to Marcos were able to consolidate under the United Nationalist Democratic Organization. Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated upon his return to the country in 1983. By this time, the government was marred by a weak economy, rampant corruption, and a loss of political support. A united opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election, and made gains including defections from the ruling party. Meanwhile, the economy had entered a period of contraction. Divisions within the military emerged during this period. As elements of the military became more involved in governing, including abetting Marcos in increasing his control, morale decreased among those continuing to fight the rebellion. As crisis deepened, some officers began to believe the survival of the political system required the removal of Marcos.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: In 1985, to counter growing opposition, Marcos called for a snap election that had no constitutional basis. The opposition nominated Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate. Marcos was declared the winner of the 1986 election, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged. This opposition included disaffected members of the military, who when their plans for a coup after the election were disrupted, instead declared support for Aquino. The resulting People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president following Congress officially declaring her the election winner.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Initially Aquino governed under a "freedom constitution", while setting up a constitutional commission to replace the 1973 constitution. This "freedom constitution" declared the Aquino Government to have been installed through a direct exercise of the power of the Filipino people assisted by units of the New Armed Forces of the Philippines. The military's perceived role in this overthrowing of President Marcos created a precedent for direct intervention into politics. With the IBP abolished, Aquino exercised both executive and legislative powers. This power was used to modify the Family Code to increase gender equality.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The 1987 constitution, approved via plebiscite, restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution, although local elections became synchronized with national elections, term limits were put in place, and a multi-party system replaced the previous two-party system. Checks and balances were put in place to limit executive power, and many laws established during martial law were repealed. The Senate was re-created, and active members of the military were barred from government. Written in the aftermath of the people power movement, the new constitution introduced some elements of direct democracy, such as the possibility of constitutional amendments though "initiative and referendum", recall of local elected officials, and provisions guaranteeing the right for civil society groups to organize.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The new constitution did not cancel the effect of the previous one, and unless otherwise stated laws established under the 1973 constitution remained in effect. Economic property that had been expropriated from elite families under the dictatorship was returned to them. The 1987 constitution kept the 1973 text on civilian rule over the military, although it added that the armed forces were the "protector of the people and the state". It also separated the Philippine Constabulary from the military, while shifting response for internal security from the military to the police. The military as a whole had mostly voted against the new constitution, and three coups were attempted between July 1986 and August 1987. The practice of recruiting retired military officers for some executive branch roles, such as ambassadorships, or within cabinet, that was started by Marcos and continued after the restoration of democracy. The separation between the police and the military was impeded by the continuing communist and Islamic rebellions.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: The 1987 legislative election, which saw elections for all 24 Senate seats instead of the usual 12, saw pro-Aquino parties win most of the seats in Congress. The electoral system meant that the 200 members of the House had together received only 34% of votes. While local officials were initially appointed directly by Aquino, divisions in left-leaning groups who had opposed Marcos, and a related lack of participation in the 1988 local elections, contributed to the traditional elite recapturing elected office. Political reform movements that had grown under Marcos and played a significant role in the revolution lost their strength over the next few years. Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts, high inflation and unemployment, and natural calamities, but introduced limited land reform and market liberalization. Communist rebels, who had broken with other anti-Marcos groups, continued a low-intensity rebellion. Islamic separatists similarly continued their campaign in the south. Although there were some initial peace negotiations which saw limited success, Aquino eventually undertook a "total war" policy against these insurrections. The establishment of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) saw little change on the ground. Aquino's administration also saw the pullout of the U.S. bases in Subic Bay and Clark. In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Aquino did not wish to run for re-election, and leading up to the 1992 presidential election she supported Fidel V. Ramos, who had left her party to form his own, rather than the nominated leader of her party, Ramon Mitra. Ramos won, albeit under controversial circumstances and allegations of electoral fraud. The 1992 elections was the first synchronized election, where presidential, legislative, and local elections were held simultaneously. This election also saw 24 senators elected, with the twelve with the lowest votes being elected only for three years. Following this election, the system of 12 senators being elected for six-year terms every three years began. Ramos, facing an ongoing energy crisis inherited from the Aquino administration, resolved the issue by issuing contracts favorable to power producers. The Ramos administration privatized government monopolies, lowered economic regulation, hosted the 1996 APEC summit, reinstated the death penalty, signed the party list system act, repealed the anti-subversion law, devolved power away from the national government through the Local Government Code, signed a peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front, and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. While Ramos actively cooperated with civil society groups, his social reform agenda did not bring about serious reform. He was unable to fulfil his desire to amend the constitution, following opposition from Aquino and other sectors.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: With the Asian financial crisis damaging the image of economy liberalism, and with no clear successor to Ramos, Ramos' vice president Joseph Estrada defeated the former's party mate Jose de Venecia and several others in the 1998 election with a comfortable margin, running a populist campaign that appealed directly to poorer voters. Meanwhile, de Venecia's running mate Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was elected vice president. Estrada wanted to amend the constitution to reduce economic protectionism, but was opposed by Aquino and the Catholic Church. The administration launched an "all-out war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that saw the government retaking Camp Abubakar, the main rebel encampment. Despite the popular anti-rebel stance, the administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption; a scandal involving jueteng gambling led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives. In the impeachment trial, Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented; this triggered massive protests. Days later, in what would be called the EDSA II, the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdrew their support from Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacañang Palace.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Four months later, after Estrada was officially charged with "plundering", his supporters launched their own mass movement, laying siege to the presidential palace. However, the movement did not succeed, and the protestors were later expelled. Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and therefore consolidated power. In 2003, Arroyo put down a coup attempt in the central business district. As Arroyo had served less than four years as president, she was eligible for re-election. She faced Fernando Poe Jr., a friend of Estrada, along with three others in 2004, and won on a slim plurality. Months after Poe died in December, it was exposed, via wiretapped conversations, that Arroyo rigged the election. On a national address, Arroyo said that she was "sorry on a lapse of judgment." The opposition did not let up, and she had to put down two more coup attempts. Following her election, Arroyo attempted to change the constitution and create a parliamentary system. This gained significant momentum and support from the House, but Senate opposition, a close Supreme Court ruling, and civil society opposition led to its failure. The opposition united in the 2007 Senate election and won easily, but Arroyo's allies still held the House of Representatives. By the end of her presidency, Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution, with her administration being widely viewed as deeply corrupt. Despite this unpopularity there was no mass movement to replace Arroyo. In part this was due to fatigue from previous people power movements, which were regarded as having failed to cause enough change to the political system.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Before the 2010 election, Arroyo's party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for president; however, some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly supporting Manny Villar, who was the front-runner at the time. The race changed following the death of former president Aquino, which led to her son Benigno Aquino III launching a campaign. Allegations of scandal led to Villar dropping in the polls, falling first behind Aquino, and then behind Estrada, who was running again following a pardon from Arroyo. Aquino embarked on an anti-corruption drive, saw the economy grow, and maintained high levels of popularity. It also sought to strengthen independent bodies, such as the Supreme Court and the Ombudsman. Overall, the Benigno Aquino administration was politically stable, seen as relatively clean, and had the highest ratings since Marcos. However, natural calamities, along with scams on the use of pork barrel and other discretionary funds coming to light, led to rising opposition in the final years of the administration. Such opposition became linked to perceptions about the failure of change within the wider political system, rather than to Aquino himself.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: In 2016, Aquino's handpicked successor, Mar Roxas, was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte in the 2016 Presidential Election. Duterte ran on a populist platform, winning votes from various socioeconomic classes, with particularly strong appeal to the middle classes. His election victory was propelled by growing public frustration over the tumultuous post-EDSA democratic governance, which favored political and economic elite over ordinary Filipinos. Duterte implemented a massive War on Drugs that resulted as of February 2022 in more than half of all barangays cleared of drugs but led to thousands of deaths. The opposition, now primarily Liberal Party, pro-Aquino figures, opposed the killings, branding them as human rights abuses. Duterte then prioritized infrastructure spending, and sought to end the communist insurgency, formally declaring the Communist Party of the Philippines-New Peoples Army (CPP-NPA) as a terrorist group, creating a reintegration program for former rebels, and granting amnesty to eligible members. The administration made peace with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, agreeing to expand and empower autonomy in Muslim areas, replacing the ARMM with the more powerful Bangsamoro region. The opposition was wiped out in the 2019 midterms, where all of its senatorial candidates lost, and only a handful of winners in the lower house. The Duterte government has largely continued Aquino's economic policies, including those focused on the poor. Its political policies have shown a shift towards illiberal democracy, with the politicization of legal institutions and less regard for checks and balances.


title: Political history of the Philippines

text: Former senator and son of the late Ferdinand Marcos, Ferdinand Marcos Jr won the 2022 elections. This marked the family's return to Malacañang 36 years after the People Power Revolution which drove their family to exile. Duterte's daughter Sara Duterte also won as vice president. On 30 June 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.


title: Screech owl

text: Screech owls are typical owls (Strigidae) belonging to the genus Megascops with 23 living species. For most of the 20th century, this genus was merged with the Old World scops owls in "Otus", but nowadays it is again considered separately based on a range of behavioral, biogeographical, morphological, and DNA sequence data.


title: Screech owl

text: Screech owls are restricted to the Americas. Some species formerly placed with them are nowadays considered more distinct (see below for details).


title: Screech owl

text: Similar to other owls, the screech owl females are larger than the males of their species. They have a compact size and shape. They are small and agile, and about 7 to 10 inches tall and have a wingspan around 18 to 24 inches. They have prominent, wide-set feather tufts with bright yellow/green eyes. They have different brownish hues with whitish, patterned underside. This coloration helps them get camouflage against the tree bark.


title: Screech owl

text: Screech owls hunt from perches in semiopen landscapes. They prefer areas that contain old trees with hollows; these are home to their prey, which includes insects, reptiles, small mammals such as bats and mice, and small birds. Screech owls have a good sense of hearing, which helps them locate their prey in any habitat. They also possess well-developed raptorial claws and a curved bill, both of which are used for tearing their prey into pieces small enough to swallow easily. They usually carry their prey back to their nests, presumably to guard against the chance of losing their meal to a larger raptor.


title: Screech owl

text: Screech owls are primarily solitary. During the late winter breeding season, however, males make nests in cavities, sometimes reusing abandoned nests of other animals, to try to attract females. The females select their mate based on the quality of the cavity and the food located inside. During the incubation period, the male feeds the female. These birds are monogamous, with biparental care. The young of most screech owls are altricial to semialtricial.


title: Screech owl

text: Northern screech owls are found in eastern states, such as New Jersey and New York. The screech owls are named for their piercing calls. Their normal territorial call is not a hoot as with some owls, but a trill consisting of more than four individual calls per second given in rapid succession (although the sound does not resemble screeching or screaming). They also have a kind of "song" used in courtship, and as a duet, between members of a pair. Calls differ widely between species in type and pitch, and in the field are often the first indication of these birds' presence, as well as the most reliable means to distinguish between species. The distinctness of many species of screech owls was first realized when vastly differing calls of externally similar birds from adjacent regions were noted.


title: Screech owl

text: The genus "Megascops" was introduced by German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1848. The type species is the eastern screech owl ("Megascops asio"). The evolutionary relationships of the scops and screech owls are not entirely clear. What is certain is that they are very closely related; they may be considered sister lineages which fill essentially the same ecological niche in their allopatric ranges. A screech owl fossil from the Late Pliocene of Kansas (which is almost identical to eastern and western screech owls) indicates a longstanding presence of these birds in the Americas, while coeval scops owl fossils very similar to the Eurasian scops owl have been found at S'Onix on Majorca. The scops and screech owl lineage probably evolved at some time during the Miocene (like most other genera of typical owls), and the three (see below) modern lineages separated perhaps roughly 5 million years ago. Note, no reliable estimate of divergence time is known, as "Otus" and "Megascops" are osteologically very similar, as is to be expected from a group that has apparently conserved its ecomorphology since before its evolutionary radiation. Like almost all scops and screech owls today, their common ancestor was in all probability already a small owl, with ear tufts and at least the upper tarsus ("leg") feathered.


title: Screech owl

text: However that may be, the hypothesis that the group evolved from Old World stock is tentatively supported by cytochrome "b" sequence data. The screech owls also have a different placement of the procoracoid (less of an anterior incline) and coracoid bones compared to other New World owls.


title: Screech owl

text: While late-19th-century ornithologists knew little of the variation of these birds, which often live in far-off places, with every new taxon described a few differences between the Old and New World "scops" owls became more and more prominent. Namely, the scops owls give a whistling call or a row of high-pitched hoots with fewer than four individual hoots per second. This call is given in social interaction or when the owl tries to scare away other animals. The screech owls, though, are named for their piercing trills of more than four individual notes per second, and as noted above, they also have a kind of song, which is absent in the scops owls. A few other differences are seen, such as brown coloration below being common in scops owls and almost never seen in screech owls, but the difference in vocalizations is most striking.


title: Screech owl

text: By the mid-19th century, "Otus" was becoming identified as encompassing more than one genus. First, in 1848, the screech owls were split off as "Megascops". Subsequently, the highly apomorphic white-throated screech owl of the Andes was placed in the monotypic genus "Macabra" in 1854. "Gymnasio" was established in the same year for the Puerto Rican owl, and the bare-legged owl (or "Cuban screech owl") was separated in "Gymnoglaux" the following year; the latter genus was sometimes merged with "Gymnasio" by later authors.


title: Screech owl

text: By the early 20th century, the lumping together of taxa had come to be preferred. The third edition of the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) checklist in 1910, placed the screech owls back in "Otus". Although this move was never unequivocally accepted, it was the dominant throughout most of the 20th century. In 1988, attempts to resolve this were made by re-establishing all those genera split some 140 years earlier at subgenus rank inside "Otus". Still, the diversity and distinctness of the group failed to come together in a good evolutionary and phylogenetic picture, and until the availability of DNA sequence data,t this could not be resolved. In the mid- to late 1990s, preliminary studies of mtDNA cytochrome "b" across a wide range of owls found that even the treatment as subgenera was probably unsustainable and suggested that most of the genera proposed around 1850 should be accepted. Though some debate arose about the reliability of these findings at first, they have been confirmed by subsequent studies. In 2003, the AOU formally accepted the genus "Megascops" again.


title: Screech owl

text: The bare-legged owl was also confirmed as distinct enough to warrant separation in its own genus. Furthermore, the white-throated screech owl was recognized as part of an ancient lineage of "Megascops" – including also the whiskered screech owl and the tropical screech owl, which previously were considered to be of unclear relationships – and indeed its call structure is not too dissimilar from the latter. Its distinct coloration, approximated in the southern whiskered screech owl ("Megascops trichopsis mesamericanus"), is thus likely the result of strong genetic drift.


title: Screech owl

text: Additionally, a population of the tropical screech owl from northern Colombia has recently been proposed as the Santa Marta screech owl ("Megascops gilesi") to the IOC.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Jessica Dominique Marais (born 29 January 1985) is a South African-born Australian actress best known for her roles on Australian television in "Packed to the Rafters" and "Love Child". She also co-starred on the American drama series "Magic City".


title: Jessica Marais

text: Born in Johannesburg, South Africa, Marais and her family lived in Canada and New Zealand before relocating to Perth, Western Australia, when she was nine. Six months after arriving in Australia, Marais' father Tony died from a heart attack while returning from a family picnic. Marais and her younger sister Clara were raised by her mother Karen. She attended a Catholic co-educational school John XXIII College in Claremont for a year.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Jessica attended the National Institute of Dramatic Art where she graduated in 2007. NIDA appearances included Ophelia in William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Charity in Sweet Charity. While still completing her final year she won the role in Packed to the Rafters, along with co-star and fellow NIDA graduate Hugh Sheridan.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Marais was attending NIDA when she was cast in the role of Rachel Rafter on the television series "Packed to the Rafters". The series became a success and was instantly renewed. In February 2011 it was announced that Marais had left the show, with her final episode airing on 23 August 2011. Marais starred in the series from Season One until Season Four from 2008 to 2012. Marais made cameo appearances in the final episode of season 4 on 20 March 2012 and in the series finale on 2 July 2013. After initially agreeing to reprise the role of Rachel Rafter in Back to the Rafters, which premiered on Amazon Prime Video on 17 September 2021, she pulled out before filming began for personal reasons.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Marais also starred in Rai Fazio's film "Two Fists, One Heart" with fellow Perth actor Tim Minchin and Daniel Amalm which was released in March 2009. Marais guest-starred in the American series, Legend of the Seeker filmed in Auckland New Zealand, playing the role of the Mord'Sith Denna.


title: Jessica Marais

text: After departing "Packed to the Rafters", Marais relocated to Los Angeles to pursue a career in Hollywood. Marais then went to Miami, to film US drama, "Magic City". The series lasted two seasons.


title: Jessica Marais

text: After relocating back to Australia, Marais portrayed Australian transgender entertainer and activist Carlotta in a biographic telefilm for ABCTV Australia. Its worldwide premiere was on 19 June 2014. It was the No. 10 show of the night, and nationally won its timeslot with 811,000 viewers. Also in 2014, Marais had the lead role on Channel Nine's Love Child, where she played the character Dr Joan Millar. She has since appeared on all four seasons of this show.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Since 2016, Marais had the lead role in Channel Ten's drama "The Wrong Girl". Marais was nominated for the Gold Logie in 2017 and 2018


title: Jessica Marais

text: Marais was engaged to former "Packed to the Rafters" co-star James Stewart in 2009. However, in May 2015 Marais announced that she and Stewart had ended their 5-year engagement amicably.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Marais and Stewart have a daughter together born in May 2012. Marais was reported as saying she would return to work filming the second series of "Magic City" while Stewart would be the baby's full-time caregiver.


title: Jessica Marais

text: Her first success at the Logies was in 2009, when she won the Logie for "Most Popular New Female Talent" and the prestigious Graham Kennedy Award for "Most Outstanding New Talent" for her role on "Packed to the Rafters". For her role on this show, she was nominated for the Gold Logie in 2011 and nominated for "Most Popular Actress" in 2010, 2011 and 2012.


title: Jessica Marais

text: In 2015, she was nominated for the "Most Outstanding Actress" for her role in "Carlotta", and also nominated for the "Most Popular Actress" award for her roles in "Carlotta" and "Love Child".


title: Jessica Marais

text: Marais won "Most Popular Actress" in 2016 (for "Love Child") and 2017 (for "Love Child" and "The Wrong Girl"). Also in 2017, she was nominated for the Gold Logie and "Most Outstanding Actress" in 2017 (also for her role in "Love Child").


title: Todd Frazier

text: Todd Brian Frazier (born February 12, 1986), nicknamed "The Toddfather", is an American former professional baseball third baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, New York Yankees, Texas Rangers, New York Mets, and Pittsburgh Pirates. Frazier is 6'2", 215 lbs, and right-handed.


title: Todd Frazier

text: Todd Frazier was born in Point Pleasant, New Jersey, as the youngest of three boys and of partial Scottish ancestry from his father's side. He grew up in Toms River, New Jersey, a fact that has been mentioned so frequently by the baseball media that it has become a meme in some online baseball communities.


title: Todd Frazier

text: He was a member of the 1996 Junior Pee-Wee National Champions in football. He played high school baseball at Toms River High School South. He was drafted by the Colorado Rockies in the 37th round of the 2004 draft but did not sign.


title: Todd Frazier

text: At the age of 12 and measuring 5 feet 2 inches and , Frazier was a star on the Toms River East American Little League All-Star team that won the New Jersey state championship and then the US East regional championship, to advance to the 1998 Little League World Series in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Dubbed the "Beasts of the East" for their skill, power and lucky-charm, stuffed gorilla, the team went undefeated in the tournament, and Frazier saved his best performance for the world championship game against the Far East and International-champion Kashima Little League from Kashima, Ibaraki, Japan, on August 29 at Howard J. Lamade Stadium. Beginning the game at shortstop, not only did he go 4–4 with a leadoff home run, but he was also the winning pitcher and recorded the game-winning strikeout that sealed a 12–9 Toms River win and the world championship – the first American Little League world championship since 1993.


title: Todd Frazier

text: To celebrate their world championship, the Toms River team was invited by the New York Yankees to Yankee Stadium on September 1, 1998, as the Yankees faced the Oakland Athletics, and each Toms River player was introduced publicly to the crowd and invited to stand next to his Yankee position counterpart during the national anthem, which meant that Frazier, as shortstop, was standing next to New Jersey–born Derek Jeter.


title: Todd Frazier

text: Frazier attended Rutgers University and played college baseball for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights. In 2005 and 2006, he played collegiate summer baseball for the Chatham A's of the Cape Cod Baseball League. In 2007, he started all 63 games for Rutgers, posting a .377 batting average, a .502 on-base percentage, and a .757 slugging percentage. He won Big East player of the year in 2007 and was named a Rivals.com All-American. Frazier finished in the top six all-time in every major single-season offensive category at Rutgers except triples. He set records for home runs, runs scored (87), walks (62), doubles (24) and total bases (187). He also finished second in slugging percentage (.757), second in at-bats (247), tied for third in RBI (65), fifth in hits (93) and tied for sixth in stolen bases (25). He is one of 3 Rutgers players picked in the 1st round of the MLB Draft since 1966. Frazier joined Bud White (1966) and Bobby Brownlie (2002) when he was selected with the 34th overall pick in the first round of the 2007 MLB First-Year Player Draft. Since then, Rutgers only has had two players picked in the top 10 rounds, including fourth-rounder Patrick Kivlehan (2013), who played with the Cincinnati Reds in 2017.


title: Todd Frazier

text: The Cincinnati Reds selected Frazier with the 34th overall selection of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft. On July 11, 2007, Frazier made his professional debut as a designated hitter for the Billings Mustangs—the Reds' Rookie-Advanced farm team in the Pioneer League—going 2-for-4 with two singles, an RBI and a run scored. Frazier finished the 2007 season with the Dayton Dragons.


title: Todd Frazier

text: Frazier played multiple positions for the Louisville Bats, the Reds' AAA team in the International League. He also spent the 2010 preseason as a non-roster invitee to the Reds' training camp. After the 2010 season, he was added to the Reds' 40-man roster.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 23, 2011, Frazier and Matt Maloney were called up to the majors, with Edinson Vólquez and Jordan Smith optioned to Louisville. Frazier struck out in his first major league plate appearance facing Michael Stutes while pinch-hitting for Maloney.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 24, 2011, Frazier was optioned back to Louisville to add an extra relief pitcher, Carlos Fisher.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 31, 2011, Frazier hit his first career home run, a solo shot off of Barry Zito's 1–1 hanging curveball. On May 16, 2012, Frazier hit two home runs against the New York Mets. On May 23, 2012, he hit a walk-off home run in the bottom of the ninth against the Atlanta Braves.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 27, 2012, Frazier homered off of the Colorado Rockies' Jamie Moyer in a 7–5 Reds' win. The home run was unusual because Frazier's bat slipped out of his hands as he was swinging. The same day, he had saved the life of a man choking on a piece of steak by administering the Heimlich maneuver. Of the latter experience, he said, "I gave two pumps and it came out . . . It was pretty surreal. I have never done that before."


title: Todd Frazier

text: On November 5, 2012, Frazier was named the Players Choice Awards National League Outstanding Rookie by the MLB Players Association. On April 18, 2013, Frazier hit a homer for Reds' honorary batboy Teddy Kremer, an adult with Down syndrome.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 6, 2014, Frazier was named a National League All-Star for the first time in his career, along with teammates Johnny Cueto, Aroldis Chapman and Devin Mesoraco and later Alfredo Simón. On July 8, he was selected to participate in the Home Run Derby. In the Derby, where Frazier's brother Charlie served as his pitcher, he won the National League bracket and represented the NL in the final, where he lost to defending champ Yoenis Céspedes.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On February 8, 2015 Frazier and the Reds reached an agreement on a two-year, $12 million contract. The deal paid Frazier $4.5 million in 2015, including a signing bonus, and $7.5 million in 2016.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 12, 2015 the Reds announced that Frazier would serve as the 2015 Major League Baseball All-Star Game spokesperson.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 13, 2015, Frazier won the 2015 MLB Home Run Derby on his home field in Cincinnati. Frazier beat the 2012 Derby champion Prince Fielder in the first round and defeated Blue Jays third baseman Josh Donaldson in the second round and then beat the Los Angeles Dodgers' rookie centerfielder Joc Pederson in the final round. He became the first hometown participant to win the derby since Ryne Sandberg won as a Chicago Cub in 1990.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On December 16, 2015, Frazier was traded to the Chicago White Sox as part of a three team trade that sent Scott Schebler, José Peraza, and Brandon Dixon to the Cincinnati Reds and Frankie Montas, Micah Johnson, and Trayce Thompson to the Los Angeles Dodgers.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 11, 2016, Frazier made an astounding play in the seats behind the third base line. In recoil, he suffered an apparent facial injury and left the game. The injury wasn't serious; however it required 5 stitches by the lower lip.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 11, 2016, Frazier placed second in the 2016 MLB Home Run Derby at Petco Park in San Diego, losing to Giancarlo Stanton 20–13 in the final round. Frazier's total of 42 home runs, and Stanton's total of 61 home runs in the 2016 Derby make them the top two hitters of all time in a single Derby.


title: Todd Frazier

text: In his only full season in Chicago, Frazier finished with career highs in home runs, runs batted in and walks despite hitting a career low .225 in 158 games. In his second season through 81 games, Frazier hit 16 home runs with 44 RBIs while hitting .207. For the season, he had the lowest batting average on balls in play (.236) of all major league players, and had the highest fly ball percentage (48.7%) and the lowest line drive percentage (15.7%) of all major league hitters. Frazier signed a one-year, $12-million contract with the White Sox on January 13, 2017.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 18, 2017, the White Sox traded Frazier, Tommy Kahnle, and David Robertson to the New York Yankees for Blake Rutherford, Tyler Clippard, Ian Clarkin, and Tito Polo. Upon Frazier's arrival in New York, he changed his jersey number from No. 21 to No. 29, as No. 21 was unofficially retired by the Yankees for outfielder Paul O'Neill (the Yankees retired O'Neill's number in 2022). Frazier had worn No. 21 throughout his entire career in honor of O'Neill, as he had grown up a Yankees fan in New Jersey. Frazier had stated that he hoped to speak to O'Neill to gain permission to wear the number; however, clubhouse manager Rob Cucuzza told Frazier that it would not happen.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On July 25, 2017, against his former team, the Cincinnati Reds, Frazier hit into a run-scoring triple play in his first home at-bat as a Yankee. Frazier hit his first home run as a Yankee on July 26 against the Reds. He finished the 2017 season hitting .213 with 26 home runs and 77 RBI with the White Sox and Yankees. With the Yankees, Frazier developed into a fan favorite and played a key role in the clubhouse as the team's emotional leader during their postseason run.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On May 3, 2018, Frazier claimed that umpires were doing a worse job of calling balls and strikes in 2018 than in previous seasons and asked for a meeting with MLB commissioner Rob Manfred to discuss his frustration. "It's rubbing everybody the wrong way," Frazier said. "You have to be better than that." MLB said it had no comment on Frazier's remarks.


title: Todd Frazier

text: The Mets placed Frazier on the disabled list on May 8 after he suffered the first hamstring injury of his career. Frazier was activated from the disabled list on June 5 after appearing in three rehab games with the Triple-A Las Vegas 51s. He was placed on the disabled list on July 9 for the second time in the season with a rib cage injury. He finished the season hitting .213 for the second straight season with 18 home runs and 59 runs batted in.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On September 6, 2019, Frazier recorded his 1,000th career hit, a third inning single off Zach Eflin of the Philadelphia Phillies at Citi Field.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On January 15, 2020, Frazier signed a one-year deal with the Texas Rangers. In 31 games for Texas in 2020, Frazier slashed .241/.322/.380 with 2 home runs and 7 RBI in 108 at-bats.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On August 31, 2020, the Rangers traded Frazier to the Mets in exchange for a player to be named later, who was, on December 18, 2020, named Ryder Ryan. On September 18, 2020, he made his MLB pitching debut. He threw a scoreless inning against the Atlanta Braves. Offensively, Frazier finished the 2020 season hitting .236/.302/.382 with 4 home runs and 12 RBIs over 45 games between the Rangers and the Mets.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On October 28, 2020, the Mets declined Frazier's option for the 2021 season, making him a free agent.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On February 19, 2021, Frazier signed a minor league contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates organization that included an invitation to spring training. On March 26, Frazier opted out of his minor league contract and became a free agent. On March 30, Frazier re-signed with the Pirates on a new minor league deal. On April 22, Frazier was selected to the active roster. Frazier was designated for assignment on May 10 after hitting only .086/.200/.114 in 40 plate appearances. On May 13, Frazier was outrighted to Triple-A, but rejected the assignment and elected free agency.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On June 9, 2021, Frazier signed with the Sussex County Miners of the Frontier League, to help prepare for the 2020 Summer Olympics (contested in 2021). He played in 6 games, going 6 for 21 with 1 home run and 6 RBIs.


title: Todd Frazier

text: In May 2021, Frazier played for the United States national baseball team during qualifying for baseball at the 2020 Summer Olympics. After the team qualified, he was named to the Olympics roster on July 2. The team went on to win silver, falling to Japan in the gold-medal game.


title: Todd Frazier

text: On December 14, 2012, Frazier married his longtime girlfriend Jackie Verdon, a former Rutgers gymnast, who is also a New Jersey native. The couple have three children. The family resides in Toms River, where his name graces the Little League field called Frazier Field House.


title: Todd Frazier

text: The Frazier family has Scottish ancestry. Todd has two older brothers who also played professional baseball. Jeff Frazier played in nine major league games in 2010 for the Detroit Tigers and spent a total of nine seasons with the Detroit Tigers, Seattle Mariners, Washington Nationals and the Chicago White Sox organizations without returning to the Major Leagues. Charlie Frazier played for six seasons in the Florida Marlins organization.


title: Todd Frazier

text: Frazier is a fan of fellow New Jerseyan Frank Sinatra, and often chooses Sinatra's songs to play when he walks up to the batter's box before an at-bat.


title: Ableton

text: Ableton AG is a German music software company that produces and distributes the production and performance program Ableton Live and a collection of related instruments and sample libraries, as well as their own hardware controller Ableton Push. Ableton's office is located in the Prenzlauer Berg district of Berlin, Germany, with a second office in Pasadena, California.


title: Ableton

text: Ableton was founded in 1999 by Gerhard Behles and Robert Henke, who together formed the group Monolake, and software engineer Bernd Roggendorf. After Behles' work on granular synthesis for Native Instruments' Reaktor, as well as earlier software using a Silicon Graphics workstation at the Technical University of Berlin, Live was first released as commercial software in 2001. Behles remains the chief executive officer of Ableton.


title: Ableton

text: In March 2007, Ableton announced it was beginning a collaboration with Cycling '74, producers of Max/MSP. This collaboration is not directly based on Live or Max/MSP, but rather combines the two companies' strengths in a new product.


title: Ableton

text: In January 2009, the Ableton/Cycling '74 product "Max for Live" was announced. "Max for Live" makes it possible to create Max/MSP patches directly inside of Live. The patches act like other plug-ins in Live do, supporting preset saving, automation, and other features. It is possible to create both customized hardware plug-ins and patches as well as actions within those plug-ins that control every aspect of Live, essentially anything that can be clicked with a mouse.


title: Ableton

text: Ableton holds many music production sessions and seminars to learn to use their software, and licenses "certified Ableton trainers."


title: Ableton

text: In April 2015, Ableton published the hardcover book "Making Music: 74 Creative Strategies for Electronic Music Producers" written by Dennis DeSantis who is the Head of Documentation at Ableton and formerly a sound designer for Native Instruments. The work is organized according to three main categories: Problems of Beginning, Problems of Progressing, and Problems of Finishing and aims primarily to address "the non-technical aspects of the process of making music." While it shows images only of Ableton Live, the information is not specific to Ableton Live.


title: Ableton

text: In June 2017, Ableton acquired Cycling '74, developers of the digital signal processing environment Max/MSP and its integrated version Max for Live.


title: Ableton

text: In the first quarter of 2018, Ableton Live 10 was officially released, and the release of the new version added some new features to Ableton Push 2, including a new melodic step sequencing layout and MIDI note view.


title: Ableton

text: In late 2020, Ableton officially announced Ableton Live 11 for 2021 Q1 and was released on 23 February 2021.


title: Ableton

text: Ableton Live is a digital audio workstation developed by Ableton and is currently in its eleventh version. There are four versions of the software, of which three are available for purchase: Live 11 Standard (the core software for music performance and creation), Live 11 Suite (Ableton Live, Max for Live + all of Ableton's software instruments/effects), Live 11 Intro (an introductory version of Live with track and effect limitations), and Live Lite (currently at version 11) that comes bundled free with a number of hardware and applications but is not available to buy separately. Ableton Live is designed to be used with a wide range of USB and MIDI controllers, as well as instruments and virtual instruments.


title: Ableton

text: In March 2013, the company released the Push controller for Live 9 in cooperation with Akai Professional. It gives access to most performing elements within the digital audio workstation from the one unit, playing notes on a device or instrument, sequencing melodic notes and parameters, and triggering clips via a 64 pad matrix. In November 2015, Ableton released the second iteration of the Push, Ableton Push 2, which features an onboard display and better integration with the Live software.


title: Ableton

text: Operator is a software synthesizer developed by Ableton, first released in 2005. It runs exclusively in Ableton Live, and is included with the Suite version of the program; Live Lite users can purchase Operator separately for 99 USD. It uses a hybrid of frequency modulation (FM), subtractive, and additive synthesis with four oscillators, and has been used by artists including Skrillex and Monolake.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Zanesville is a city in and the county seat of Muskingum County, Ohio, United States. It is located east of Columbus and had a population of 24,765 as of the 2020 census, down from 25,487 as of the 2010 census. Historically the state capital of Ohio, Zanesville anchors the Zanesville micropolitan statistical area (population 86,183), and is part of the greater Columbus-Marion-Zanesville combined statistical area.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Zanesville was named after Ebenezer Zane (1747–1811), who had blazed Zane's Trace, a pioneer trail from Wheeling, Virginia (now in West Virginia) to Maysville, Kentucky through present-day Ohio. In 1797, he remitted land as payment to his son-in-law, John McIntire (1759–1815), at the point where Zane's Trace met the Muskingum River. With the assistance of Zane, McIntire platted the town, opened an inn and ferry by 1799. In 1801, Zanesville was officially renamed, formerly Westbourne, the chosen name for the settlement by Zane.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: From 1810 to 1812, the city was the second state capital of Ohio. The National Road courses through Zanesville as U.S. Route 40. The city grew quickly in the 1820s–1850s. The city and the city of Putnam (eastern side of Muskingum River) from the 1840s until the Civil War broke out was part of the 'Underground Railroad'. In excess of 5,000 Union soldiers, along with hundreds of townsfolk, were stationed in the Zanesville area to protect the city in 1863 during Morgan's Raid.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: After the Civil War, the city grew in size and gained prominence in the State for manufacturing and textiles. The city was also notoriously known for its bootlegging activities in the Prohibition era. From the 1820s until the 1970s, Downtown Zanesville was the premiere economic center of the city with various factories, offices, small to large stores, many small/large hotels, over a dozen stage/movie theaters, nearly twenty churches, and nearby neighborhoods (inhabited mainly by persons of Irish or German ethnicity).


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: In 1872, Zanesville annexed the adjacent community of Putnam. It is now the Putnam Historic District of Zanesville.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The city was historically known as a center for pottery manufacturing; in the first half of the 20th century, more than a dozen potteries operated in the city and the surrounding areas. Bolstered by ample local clay deposits and rivers, the area produced both art pottery and functional, utilitarian pottery. Notable pottery manufacturers that operated in the area included the S.A. Weller Pottery Company, J. B. Owens Pottery Company, Roseville Pottery Company, American Encaustic Tiling Company, and the Mosaic Tile Company. The city peaked economically in the 1950s, and like many cities experienced a post-industrial decline. The city today has a relatively high level of chronic poverty and unemployment and a relatively low level of labor force participation and educational attainment.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Since the 1970s, the downtown has been on the decline with mainly banks, law offices, churches and small shops, but the city continues to work on its image and business potential.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Zanesville is located along the Muskingum River at its confluence with the Licking River. It is located west of Cambridge and east of Columbus.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The area has important deposits of clay which were exploited by a number of pottery companies in the first half of the twentieth century, including Roseville pottery, Weller pottery, the J. B. Owens Pottery Company, the Zanesville Stoneware Company, the Mosaic Tile Company, the American Encaustic Tiling Company, and the T.B. Townsend Brick Yard under the ownership of T.B. Townsend.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: In the 1950s, Zanesville was known for its population of light-skinned blacks who could "pass" (be admitted to whites-only places). This characteristic was due to a history of racial intermixing dating back to the role of Zanesville as a stop on the Underground Railroad.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 25,487 people, 10,864 households, and 6,176 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 12,385 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.4% White, 9.7% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 4.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: There were 10,864 households, of which 31.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.1% were married couples living together, 19.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 36.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.97.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The median age in the city was 36.3 years. 25.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.5% were from 45 to 64; and 15.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.6% male and 53.4% female.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 25,586 people, 10,572 households, and 6,438 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,276.8 people per square mile (878.9/km). There were 11,662 housing units at an average density of 1,037.8 per square mile (400.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 85.48% White, 10.76% African American, 0.40% Native American, 0.23% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.42% from other races, and 2.70% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.79% of the population.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: There were 10,572 households, out of which 30.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.5% were married couples living together, 18.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.1% were non-families. 33.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.99.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 20.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.3 males.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The median income for a household in the city was $26,642, and the median income for a family was $31,932. Males had a median income of $27,902 versus $20,142 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,192. About 19.3% of families and 22.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.3% of those under age 18 and 14.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: A three-way bridge called the "Y-Bridge" spans the confluence of the Licking and the Muskingum rivers. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, it is one of few bridges of its type in the United States. Its unique shape led pilot Amelia Earhart to describe Zanesville as "the most recognizable city in the country". It has been rebuilt numerous times since the 1850s.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Erected in 1874, the Muskingum County Courthouse is located in Zanesville on US Route 40, the National Road and Main Street. The bell in the courthouse was manufactured by the same company that made the Liberty Bell.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Lock #10 in downtown Zanesville features a "double lock". The Muskingum River Parkway and its 160-year-old navigation system were designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: A colony of artists are located throughout downtown Zanesville; two galleries opened on Main Street in 2007.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Outdoor art includes murals depicting local heritage and honoring war veterans. One mural is a panorama of downtown with an emphasis on the Y-Bridge. The John McIntire Library has an outdoor rubbing wall that tells the history of Zanesville and Muskingum County, using ceramic tiles with historical inserts.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The Freight Shops on Market Street are restaurants and retail stores located withing abandoned railroad structures.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Zanesville is served by the Muskingum County Library System. The library includes the Muskingum County Historical Society's records.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The city government is a Mayor/Council (10 members) elected form of government. Zanesville Police Department was formed in 1865 with 6 officers. Today the department has over 55 officers and 40 more support staff. The City Fire Department became fully paid staff in 1879. This department today has over 45 members working 24 on & 48 hours off, staffing 3 stations.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: The city is served by Zanesville Municipal Airport, built during World War II, and opened near the end. It has two runways. The airport had commercial flights from the late 1940s until the early 1970s.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 40 (which closely follows the path of the older National Road), pass through Zanesville and run roughly parallel to each other. From the southwest, US 22 approaches from Cincinnati. North-south state highways 60 and 93 pass through Zanesville. Other state routes include 666, 555, 719, and 146.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: In 2016, the Good Samaritan campus and the Bethesda campus merged to form Genesis Hospital. The Good Samaritan campus was closed and demolished.


title: Zanesville, Ohio

text: "Lorena" was a campfire song during the American Civil War. The song was based on an ill-advised love affair that took place in Zanesville in the late 1850s. The song has been sung in many Westerns and Civil War movies, and John Ford used the song as background in some movies.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1920)

text: The first "South Dakota" class was a group of six battleships that were laid down in 1920 for the U.S. Navy, but were never completed; designed to achieve , they represented an attempt to catch up with the increasing fleet speeds of its main rivals, the British Royal Navy and Imperial Japanese Navy.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1920)

text: The "South Dakota"s were authorized in 1917, but work was postponed so that the U.S. Navy could incorporate information gained from the Battle of Jutland, fought in mid-1916, in their design. Work was further postponed to give destroyers and other small fighting vessels priority as they were needed urgently to fight German U-boats in the North Atlantic. Construction started only in 1920. As the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 both restricted the total battleship tonnage allowed the U.S. Navy, and limited individual ship size to , construction was halted in early 1922. The unfinished hulls were scrapped the following year, the guns were transferred to the U.S. Army and their boilers and armor were used to modernize older battleships.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1920)

text: Before World War I began in August 1914, the Navy was not well funded by the U.S. Congress, which had failed to heed the General Board's recommendation of a building program of two battleships per year. The election of President Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and his appointment of Josephus Daniels as Secretary of the Navy did nothing to change that as neither man believed that additional expenditures on the Navy were worthwhile. The start of the war began to change that attitude and, in early 1915, the General Board called for construction of four battleships in Fiscal Year (FY) 1916, although the Committee on Naval Affairs rejected that recommendation on the basis that it was not prudent to make changes to the existing program before enough had been learned from the experiences of the war. In parallel with this there arose a belief that a victorious Imperial Germany might be able to invade the United States, including a movie that showed victorious Germans executing Civil War veterans, and that the Navy was unprepared to deal with such a threat.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1920)

text: Events abroad like the Japanese Twenty-One Demands on China in early 1915, German attempts to begin unrestricted submarine warfare and the sinking of the "Lusitania" in May exposed US weaknesses to the public eye. They caused Wilson to reconsider his position and he ordered the Secretaries of the Army and Navy to plan for mobilization in July. The General Board argued that the Navy should be the equal to the strongest navy in the world, that of the British, not just to the most likely enemy, Imperial Germany, and advocated for construction of 10 battleships over five years, together with battlecruisers and smaller ships. Congress was debating the appropriation bill while the Battle of Jutland occurred in at the end of May 1916 and the British victory confirmed the value of the battleship in eyes of the Congressmen. They compressed the General Board's program into three years with four ships in FY 1917 and three in each of the following years. The first four ships, which became the "Colorado"-class, were only modest improvements over the preceding , but the changed attitude towards battleships allowed the General Board to propose much more powerful, and expensive, ships for the last two batches. The maximum price was set at $21,000,000.