title: Rishta Likhenge Hum Naya

text: It follows the life of a 30-year-old girl Diya, who sacrificed 12 years of her life by fulfilling a dying man's wish on his deathbed by becoming the caretaker of his heir and son, Ratan Maan Singh. She shares no relationship with Ratan or his family and there is no greed which drives her to do this. Set against the royal canvas of Rajasthan, the show challenges the conventional perception of men being the protector of women. Ratan is constantly being targeted by attackers, and it is up to Diya to find the person behind the attacks who might as well be part of the family. The show is about Diya, a 30-year-old Rajput woman of the Kshatrani caste who gave up 12 years of her life to protect Ratan, a 21-year-old heir to the Rajput throne who lives in London after his parents' death in an accident and returns to Surajgarh to become the king.


title: Rishta Likhenge Hum Naya

text: Since Diya's duties get over, she decides to marry Abhay Singh Rathore, her fiancé but he leaves her. Ratan learns his late father wanted him to be with Diya, so he marries her reluctantly. Ratan finds it hard to fulfill his responsibilities to Diya, also due to the nine-year age gap between them. More problems arise when Yash marries Mohana, Arpita's daughter. Ratan decides to divorce Diya, only after helping her win a case against Abhay and Arpita. Diya then realizes her love for Ratan. Another problem arises when a man claims that he is the real Ratan Maan Singh and tries to influence the entire family against Ratan. His truth is revealed, as he tries to assassinate the entire family. Ratan then realizes his love for Diya, and they work together with their family to eliminate the terrorist. The show ends revealing that Diya is pregnant with Ratan's child and Mohana is pregnant with Yash's child.


title: Rishta Likhenge Hum Naya

text: The cast has already been finalised. While some characters from Pehredaar Piya Ki series are being carried over into this new series, new cast members have joined them, too. Rohit Suchanti has replaced child actor Affan Khan as a recast of Ratan Singh followed by Siddharth Shivpuri, Gauri Singh and Khalid Siddiqui. Siddharth Shivpuri, then decided to quit the show, and is being replaced by Puneet Sharma. The serial is set in the western India state of Rajasthan in the city of Bikaner & Machkund of Dholpur.


title: Psalm 119

text: Psalm 119 is the 119th psalm of the Book of Psalms, beginning in the English of the King James Version: "Blessed are the undefiled in the way, who walk in the law of the Lord". The Book of Psalms is in the third section of the Hebrew Bible, the "Khetuvim", and a book of the Christian Old Testament. The psalm, which is anonymous, is referred to in Hebrew by its opening words, ""Ashrei temimei derech"" ("happy are those whose way is perfect"). In Latin, it is known as "Beati inmaculati in via qui ambulant in lege Domini".


title: Psalm 119

text: The psalm is a hymn psalm and an acrostic poem, in which each set of eight verses begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The theme of the verses is the prayer of one who delights in and lives by the Torah, the sacred law. Psalms 1, 19 and this psalm may be referred to as "the psalms of the Law".


title: Psalm 119

text: In the slightly different numbering system used in the Greek Septuagint and Latin Vulgate translations of the Bible, this psalm is Psalm 118. With 176 verses, the psalm is the longest psalm as well as the longest chapter in the Bible.


title: Psalm 119

text: The psalm forms a regular part of Jewish, Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and other Protestant liturgies. It has often been set to music. British politician William Wilberforce would recite the entire Psalm while walking back from Parliament, through Hyde Park, to his home.


title: Psalm 119

text: The English version in the King James Bible can be seen at . Versions which mark the original section divisions include the American Standard Version, the New International Version and the New King James Version. The Good News Translation has a sub-heading for each stanza, although biblical commentator C. S. Rodd considers this practice "misleading" because it suggests that "each stanza expresses a special theme".


title: Psalm 119

text: Psalm 119 is one of several acrostic poems found in the Bible. Its 176 verses are divided into 22 stanzas, one for each of the 22 characters that make up the Hebrew alphabet. In the Hebrew text, each of the eight verses of each stanza begins with the same Hebrew letter. This feature was not maintained in the Septuagint, except that many manuscripts have placed at the beginning of each stanza the name of the corresponding Hebrew letter (for example, ʾalef the first stanza, the last is taw).


title: Psalm 119

text: Because of this structure, the Psalm was one of the main occurrences of the Hebrew alphabet in the texts of the medieval and modern West.


title: Psalm 119

text: Each of the 22 sections of 8 verses is subheaded with the name of a letter in the Hebrew alphabet. These subheadings are spelled very differently amongst the various Bible text versions, even amongst the translations into different foreign languages. Their antiquated spellings shown in the Authorized King James Version of 1611 were written with influences of Latin and German medieval theological scholarship—forms which greatly differ from the standard modern-day renditions.


title: Psalm 119

text: This psalm is one of about a dozen alphabetic acrostic poems in the Bible. Its 176 verses are divided into twenty-two stanzas, one stanza for each letter of the Hebrew alphabet; within each stanza, each of the eight verses begins (in Hebrew) with that letter. The name of God (Yahweh/Jehovah) appears twenty-four times.


title: Psalm 119

text: Employed in almost every verse of the psalm is a synonym for the Torah, such as "dabar" ("word, promise"), "mishpatim" ("rulings"), etc. Rodd identifies 8 such words, generally translated as 'law', 'promise', 'word', 'statutes', 'commandments', 'ordinances', 'decrees', and 'precepts' in the New Revised Standard Version. However, he considers "unlikely" the possibility explored by some scholars that all eight words were originally to be found in every stanza.


title: Psalm 119

text: The acrostic form and the use of the Torah words constitute the framework for an elaborate prayer. The grounds for the prayer are established in the first two stanzas ("alef" and "beth"): the Torah is held up as a source of blessing and right conduct, and the psalmist pledges to dedicate himself to the law. The prayer proper begins in the third stanza ("gimel", v. 17). Like many other psalms, this prayer includes dramatic lament (e.g. verses 81–88), joyous praise (e.g. verses 45–48) and prayers for life, deliverance and vindication (e.g. verses 132–34). What makes Psalm 119 unique is the way that these requests are continually and explicitly grounded in the gift of the Torah and the psalmist's loyalty to it.


title: Psalm 119

text: The first and fifth verses in a stanza often state the same theme followed by a statement of opposition, affliction or conflict, and the final (eighth) verse tends to be a transition introducing the next stanza. Several dozen prayers are incorporated into the Psalm, e.g. "Open my eyes that I may behold wondrous things out of your law." Themes include opposition by man, affliction, delight in the law and the goodness of God, which sometimes run into each other: "I know, O Lord, that your rules are righteous, and that in faithfulness you have afflicted me" (v. 75), or "If your law had not been my delight, I would have perished in my affliction" (v. 92). It ends with an appeal to God to seek his servant who strayed.


title: Psalm 119

text: The psalm (118 in the Septuagint) figures prominently in the worship of the Eastern Orthodox Church. There is a tradition that King David used this psalm to teach his young son Solomon the alphabet—but not just the alphabet for writing letters: the alphabet of the spiritual life.


title: Psalm 119

text: The psalm comprises an entire Kathisma (division of the Psalter) in Orthodox liturgical practice. In Orthodox monasteries it is read daily at the Midnight Office: "At midnight I arose to give thanks unto Thee for the judgments of Thy righteousness" (v. 62). It is read at Matins on Saturdays and is also chanted on many Sundays throughout the year. A major portion of Matins on Holy Saturday comprises chanting the entire psalm as a threnody, divided into three parts (stases) with Praises (Greek: "Enkomia") interspersed between each verse. This chanting is done as all stand holding candles around a catafalque over which has been placed the Epitaphion (a shroud embroidered with the figure of Christ laid out for burial).


title: Psalm 119

text: The psalm is also chanted with special solemnity at Orthodox funeral services and on the various All-Souls Days occurring throughout the year, with "Alleluia" chanted between each verse. Its use here is a reflection of the chanting done on Holy Saturday. "Alleluia" is chanted between the verses to signify the victory over death accomplished by Christ's death and Resurrection, and the eternal reward promised to the faithful.


title: Psalm 119

text: The Psalm contains several dozen prayers and several themes run through it. God's goodness in the midst of affliction and delight in God's law. God is seen sovereignly "inclining ones heart" and the Psalmist "inclines his heart" to the statutes.


title: Psalm 119

text: The Rule of Saint Benedict assigned this psalm to four minor canonical hours on Sundays and three on Mondays. The sections corresponding to the first four letters of the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet are used at Prime, the following sets of three sections at Terce, Sext and None on Sundays. The remaining sections corresponding to the last nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet, are assigned to Terce, Sext and None on Mondays.


title: Psalm 119

text: The 1568 Roman Breviary of Pope Pius V has Psalm 119 recited in its entirety every day: the sections corresponding to the first four letters of the Hebrew alphabet at Prime, and the others in sets of six sections each at Terce, Sext and None respectively.


title: Psalm 119

text: In the 1910 reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X, Psalm 119 is recited only on Sundays, divided as in the arrangement of Pius V.


title: Psalm 119

text: Since the reform of the Roman Rite liturgy in the wake of the Second Vatican Council, the Liturgy of the Hours has a section of Psalm 119, corresponding to a single letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in the midday canonical hour on each day of the four-week cycle except on Monday of the first week (when the second half of Psalm 19 (18), which is similar in theme, is used instead) and on Friday of the third week (when the Passion Psalm 22 (21) is used). In addition, a section of Psalm 119 is used at Saturday Lauds in weeks 1 and 3, and another section at Vespers of Saturday of week 1.


title: Psalm 119

text: In the Roman Rite Mass, portions of Psalm 119 are used a responsorial psalm on Sundays 6 and 17 of Year A of the three-year cycle of Sunday readings, on Saturday of the first week in Lent and on the third Monday in Eastertide. It is also used on five days of Year I of the two-year cycle of Ordinary Time weekday readings and fifteen days of Year II. A portion is also used on the feast of a Doctor of the Church.


title: Psalm 119

text: In the Church of England's "Book of Common Prayer", this psalm is appointed to be read in sections between the 24th and 26th days of the month.


title: Psalm 119

text: A complete English version of Psalm 119 from the King James Bible was completed by Frederick Steinruck, Michael Misiaszek, and Michael Owens.


title: Psalm 119

text: In Protestant Christianity, various metrical settings of Psalm 119 have been published, including "O God, My Strength and Fortitude" by Thomas Sternhold, which appeared in the "Scottish Psalter" of 1564. The Psalm is put to music in "The Book of Psalms for Worship", published by Crown and Covenant Publications.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: High visibility of the star cluster Pleiades in the night sky and its position along the ecliptic (which approximates to the solar system's common planetary plane) has given it importance in many cultures, ancient and modern. Its heliacal rising, which moves through the seasons over millennia (see precession) was nonetheless a date of folklore or ritual for various ancestral groups, so too its yearly heliacal setting.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: As noted by scholar Stith Thompson, the constellation was "nearly always imagined" as a group of seven sisters, and their myths explain why there are only six. Some scientists suggest that these may come from observations back when Pleione was further from Atlas and more visible as a separate star as far back as 100,000 BC.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Tuareg Berbers of the northern Sahara call the Pleiades "Cat iheḍ" (pronounced: shat ihed) (or "-ahăḍ"). This Berber name means: "daughters of the night". To many other Berbers it is Tagemmunt ("the group").


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: "Cat ahăḍ as uḍănăt, ttukayeɣ ttegmyeɣ, anwar daɣ ttsasseɣ. As d-gmaḍent, ttukayeɣ ttegmyeɣ tabruq ttelseɣ."


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Meaning: When the Pleiades "fall" with the sun on the west, it still roughly (at J2000) means the hot, dry summer is coming. When they rise from the east with the sun, the cold somewhat rainy season is coming. Nomads and others need to brace for these.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Old Testament, the Pleiades appear (untranslated as כימה, "Khima") thrice. Mention follows (or precedes) of nearby Orion, a bright, anthropomorphic constellation: ; ; and . The first two are references about their creation. The third (taken in the context of following verses) stresses their ongoing nature in the night sky; God is speaking directly to Job and challenges him, asking if he can bind the chains of the Pleiades — the implication being that Job cannot, but God can.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Talmud (Berakhot 58b) suggests understanding כימה as כמאה "ke' me-ah" (kimah), "about one hundred" stars in the Pleiades star cluster. Like most astronomical figures in rabbinic writing, the Jewish sages pointed to this as having come from Mount Sinai.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki ("Rashi", 1040–1105) suggested even more stars within the cluster when he commented on the Talmud with a question, "What is meant by Kimah?” It is then understood that the Talmud was suggesting hundreds of stars in the Pleiades cluster, and that only the first hundred are mentioned due to them being the most important.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: According to Jewish folklore, when two fallen angels named Azazel and Shemhazai made it to the earth, they fell strongly in love with the women of humankind. Shemhazai found a maiden named Istehar who swore she would give herself to him if he told her the sacred name which granted him the power to fly to Heaven. He revealed it to her, but she flew up to Heaven, never to fulfill her promise, thus she was placed in the constellation Pleiades, although she is also associated with the planet Venus.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Arabic the Pleiades are known as "al-Thurayya" الثريا, the first main consonant becoming a morpheme into outlying linguistic zones north and east, and is mentioned in Islamic literature. Muhammad made mention of the Pleiades.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Some scholars of Islam suggested that the Pleiades are the "star" mentioned in Sura An-Najm ("The Star") of the Quran.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The name was borrowed into Persian and Turkish as a female given name, and is in use throughout the Middle East (for example Princess Soraya of Iran and ). It eponymises the Thuraya satellite phone system of the United Arab Emirates.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Turkish the Pleiades are known as "Ülker". According to the Middle Turkic lexicographer Kaşgarlı Mahmud, writing in the 11th century, "ülker çerig" refers to a military ambush ("çerig" meaning 'troops in battle formation'): "The army is broken up into detachments posted in various places," and when one detachment falls back the others follow after it, and by this device "(the enemy) is often routed." Thus "ülker çerig" literally means 'an army made up of a group of detachments', which forms an apt simile for a star cluster. Ülker is also a unisex given name, a surname and the name of a food company best known for its chocolates.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Farsi the Pleiades is primarily known as "Parvin" (pronounced "parveen"). It too is a common given name of Iranians, Afghanis and some Pakistanis (for example Parvin E'tesami).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Pleiades has gained, in a few tongues, several creative derivations of its French quite well-known, non-stellar meaning: "multitude".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Greek mythology, the stars of Pleiades represented the Seven Sisters. The constellation was also described as ἑπτάποροι "heptaporoi", by poet Aratus.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: To the Vikings, the Pleiades were Freyja's hens, and their name in many old European languages such as Hungarian compares them to a hen with chicks. In contemporary Danish the cluster is known as "Syvstjernen", "the Seven Star".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The astrological Pleiades were described in "Three Books of Occult Philosophy" by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (Köln, 1533, but published manuscript as early as 1510).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Western astrology they represent coping with sorrow and were considered a single one of the medieval fixed stars. As such, they are associated with quartz and fennel.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: To the Bronze Age people of Europe, such as the Celts (and probably considerably earlier), the Pleiades were associated with mourning and with funerals, since at that time in history, on the cross-quarter day between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice (see Samhain, also Halloween or All Souls Day), which was a festival devoted to the remembrance of the dead, the cluster rose in the eastern sky as the sun's light faded in the evening. It was from this acronychal rising that the Pleiades became associated with tears and mourning. As a result of precession over the centuries, the Pleiades no longer marked the festival, but the association has nevertheless persisted, and may account for the significance of the Pleiades astrologically.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Baltic languages the name for this constellation is Sietynas in Lithuanian and Sietiņš in Latvian which is derived from "sietas" meaning "a sieve". In Lithuanian folk songs this constellation is often personified as a benevolent brother who helps orphan girls to marry or walks soldiers along the fields. But in Lithuanian folk tales as well as Latvian folk songs this constellation is usually depicted as an inanimate object, a sieve which gets stolen by the devil from the thunder god or is used to conjure light rain by thunder's wife and children.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Ethnographer Svend Grundtvig collected a folkloric account of the myth of the Pleiades in Danish folklore ("The Pleiades, or the Seven Stars"). In this variant, six brothers travel the world to learn a trade and, with their combined help, rescue a kidnapped princess from a dwarf. Unable to choose which brother she likes best, God allows the seven to pass out in their sleep and turns them into the seven stars of the constellation.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In historical Russian treatises about astronomy, the constellation was known as "semizvedie", as well as "vlasozelisci". Another Russian name to the constellation is "Volosozhary" or "Volosynia", related by some scholars to the word "volosy" ('wool'), and to Volos a.k.a. "Veles (god)".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Ukrainian traditional folklore the Pleiades are known as Стожари (Stozhary), Волосожари (Volosozhary), or Баби-Звізди (Baby-Zvizdy).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: 'Stozhary' can be etymologically traced to "стожарня" (stozharnya) meaning a 'granary', 'storehouse for hay and crops', or can also be reduced to the root "сто-жар" ('sto-zhar'), meaning 'hundredfold glowing' or "a hundred embers".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: 'Volosozhary' (the ones whose hair is glowing), or 'Baby-Zvizdy' (female-stars) refer to the female tribal deities. According to the legend, seven maids lived long ago. They used to dance the traditional round dances and sing the glorious songs to honor the gods. After their death the gods turned them into water nymphs, and, having taken them to the Heavens, settled them upon the seven stars, where they dance their round dances (symbolic for moving the time) to this day. (see article in Ukrainian Wikipedia)


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The constellation of the Pleiades is known by several names in Belarusian tradition, such as "Sitechko" ('a sieve'), and, in a legend from the Horvats, there are seven "vil" ('spirits of deceased maidens') who dance around in a circle. Further studies by researcher Tsimafei Avilin show the main names of the constellation in Belarusian: "Sieve" (Sita or, rarely, Rešata, and variations) and "The Hens" (Kuročka and variations).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Serbian folklore, the Pleiades can be called "Vlašići" (“children of Vlas"), a title possibly connected to Slavic deity Veles. The members of this asterism, considered to be "seven starry brothers", each receive an individual name: in one version, duos Mika and Mioka, Raka and Raoka, Orisav and Borisav, and the last Milisav; in another, Vole and Voleta, Rale and Raleta, Mile and Mileta and Pržožak; in a third, Mile and Mileta, Rade and Radeta, Bore and Boreta and Prigimaz.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a version collected by Vuk Karadzic and published in the "Archiv für slavische Philologie" with the title "Die Plejaden", a pair of brothers, Dragoman and Milan, lose their sister to a dragon and try to get her back. The dragon kills them. Years later, their mother gives birth to another son, named Busan. The boy suckles on his mother's breast for 7 years, becomes immensely strong and goes to kill the dragon. He rescues his sister and resurrects his brothers. Milan and Dragoman marry princesses, and the first fathers seven golden-haired children. The children, however, die in their sleep and are elevated to the sky as the Pleiades.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In another version by Karadzic, translated as "Abermals die Plejaden" ("Once again, the Pleiades"), a human prince recruits the services of five brothers, sons of a "dragon-woman", to rescue a princess. After the mission, they quarrel about who gets to keep the princess. Their mother solves the quarrel by taking the princess as their sister. The narration then tells that these are the seven stars of the Pleiades, also known in Serbian as "Vlašići".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: It was common among the indigenous peoples of the Americas to measure keenness of vision by the number of stars the viewer could see in the Pleiades, a practice which was also used in historical Europe, especially in Greece. According to scholarship, some of the themes in their Pleiades stories involve dancing, a punishment inflicted on the characters, or the characters escaping to the sky.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In the ancient Andes, the Pleiades were associated with abundance, because they return to the Southern Hemisphere sky each year at harvest-time. In Quechua they are called "Qullqa" (storehouse).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a tale collected in Belknap, attributed to the Assiniboine, seven youths discuss among themselves what they could change into. They decide to transform into stars by climbing a spiderweb.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Dutch cartographer Claudius de Goeje reported that the Pleiades constellation among the Arawak is named "wīwa yó-koro" and marks the beginning of the year. De Goeje also states that the Pleiades as the beginning of the year occurred "with all the tribes of Guiana".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: According to Anthony Aveni ancient Aztecs of Mexico and Central America based their calendar upon the Pleiades. Their year began when priests first remarked the asterism heliacal rising in the east, immediately before the sun's dawn light obliterated the view of the stars. Aztecs called the Pleiades (; Classical Nahuatl for "marketplace". Compare ).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Paul Goble, a British-American author who often depicted Native American stories, tells a Blackfoot legend that he says is told by other tribes as well. In the story, the Pleiades are orphans ("Lost Boys") that were not cared for by the people, so they became stars. Sun Man is angered by the mistreatment of the children and punishes the people with a drought, causing the buffalo to disappear, until the dogs, the only friends of the orphans, intercede on behalf of the people. Because the buffalo are not available while the Lost Boys are in the skies, the cosmic setting of the Pleiades was an assembly signal for Blackfoot hunter to travel to their hunting grounds to conduct the large-scale hunts, culminating in slaughters at buffalo jumps, that characterized their culture.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a Caddo tale, compiled by Frances Jenkins Olcott, a mother has seven boys who did not want to work. One night, their mother sent them to bed without supper and, in the next morning, without breakfast. The boys, who knew magic song, began to dance around their house and slowly make their ascent to the heavens, to become the Seven Stars, which can only be seen in winter.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A Cherokee myth (similar to that of the Onondaga people) indicates that seven boys who would not do their ceremonial chores and wanted only to play, ran around and around the ceremonial ball court in a circle, and rose up into the sky. Only six of the boys made it to the sky; the seventh was caught by his mother and fell to the ground with such force that he sank into the ground. A pine tree grew over his resting place.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A Cheyenne myth "The Girl Who Married a Dog", states that the group of seven stars known as the Pleiades originated from seven puppies which a Cheyenne chief's daughter gave birth to after mysteriously being visited by a dog in human form to whom she vowed "Wherever you go, I go".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Hopi determined the passage of time for nighttime rituals in the winter by observing the Pleiades ("Tsöötsöqam") and Orion's belt ("Hotòmqam") through a kiva entrance hatch as they passed overhead. The Pleiades were depicted in a mural on one kiva wall.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A tale attributed to the Iroquois people tells that the Pleiades were six boys who danced atop a hill to the tune a seventh was singing. On a certain occasion, they danced so fast and so light they began to ascend to the skies, and thus became the constellation.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Kiowa of North America legend of the Seven Star Girls links the origin of the Pleiades to Devils Tower. The seven little girls were chased by bears, and climbed a low rock. They begged the rock to save them, and it grew higher and higher until they were pushed up into the sky. The seven girls became the Pleiades and the grooves on Devils Tower are the marks of the bear's claws.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Lakota Tribe of North America had a legend that linked the origin of the Pleiades to Devils Tower. According to the Seris (of northwestern Mexico), these stars are seven women who are giving birth. The constellation is known as "Cmaamc", which is apparently an archaic plural of the noun "cmaam" "woman".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Monache people tell of six wives who loved onions more than their husbands and now live happily in "sky country".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The early Monte Alto Culture, and others in Guatemala such as Ujuxte and Takalik Abaj, made their early observatories using the Pleiades and "Eta Draconis" as reference; they were called "the seven sisters", and thought to be their original land.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A Nez Perce myth about this constellation mirrors the ancient Greek myths about the Lost Pleiades. In the Nez Perce version the Pleiades is also a group of sisters, however the story itself is somewhat different. One sister falls in love with a man and, following his death, is so absorbed by her own grief that she tells her sisters about him. They mock her and tell her how silly it is of her to feel sad for the human after his death, and she in return keeps her growing sadness to herself, eventually becoming so ashamed and miserable about her own feelings that she pulls the sky over her face like a veil, blocking herself from view. This myth explains why there are only six of the seven stars visible to the naked eye.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Pleiades ("dilγéhé") play a major role in Navajo folklore and ritual. In the Navajo creation story, Upward-reachingway, "dilγéhé" was the first constellation placed in the sky by Black God. When Black God entered the hogan of creation, the Pleiades were on his ankle; he stamped his foot and they moved to his knee, then to his ankle, then to his shoulder, and finally to his left temple. The seven stars of "dilγéhé" are depicted on ceremonial masks of Black God, in sand paintings and on ceremonial gourd rattles.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Ojibwe people of North America believe they came from "Bagone-giizhig" "Hole in the Sky". They traveled in a space ship that lead the way to Earth on a Spiders web beam of light through the portal known as the 7 sisters star system.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Onondaga people's version of the story has lazy children who prefer to dance over their daily chores ignoring the warnings of the Bright Shining Old Man.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a tale attributed to Pacific Coast indigenous populations, the Pleiades are a family of seven sisters who, fed up with their husbands (all brothers) not sharing with them their game, want to be changed into stars. The husband of the youngest sister, the youngest of the seven brothers, accompanies his spouse and transforms into the Taurus constellation.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Skidi Pawnee consider the Pleiades to be seven brothers. They observed the seven brothers, as well as Corona Borealis, the Chiefs, through the smoke hole of Pawnee lodges to determine the time of night.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A second tale tells the Pleiades are six brothers who rescue their sister, who becomes the seventh star of the constellation.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Shasta people tell a story of the children of racoon killed by coyote avenging their father's death and then rising into the sky to form the Pleiades. The smallest star in the cluster is said to be coyote's youngest who aided the young racoons.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a tale from the Tachi people, the Pleiades are five sisters who lived in sky and marry a man named Flea. When he is ailed by an itch, they no longer like him and plan to leave him. He follows them to the sky.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In a tale attributed to the Wyandot people, seven Singing Maidens, daughters of the Sun and the Moon, who live in Sky Land, descend to Earth and dance with human children. Their father, wrathful at their disobedience, banishes them to another part of the sky. In another tale, the Pleiades are seven Star Sisters who descend to Earth in a basket. One day, a human hunter captures the youngest by her girdle while their sisters escape in the basket. The maiden promises to become the hunter's wife, but before he must accompany her to the sky.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: To the Ban Raji people, who live semi-nomadically across western Nepal and Uttarakhand, the Pleiades are the "Seven sisters-in-law, and brother-in-law" ("Hatai halyou daa Salla"). They hold or held that when they can first make them out annually over the mountains straddling the upper Kali they feel happy to see their ancient kin. This is about eight hours afternoon by local, traditional time standards.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The earliest recorded reference to the Pleiades may be in Chinese astronomical literature dating from 2357 BCE. For agricultural tribes in the northern hemisphere, the course of the Pleiades indicated the beginning and ending of the growing seasons. In Chinese constellations they are 昴 "mao", the "Hairy Head" of the white tiger of the West.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Indian astrology the Pleiades were known as the nakshatra which in Sanskrit is translated as "the cutters". The Pleiades are called the "star of fire," and their ruling deity is the fire god Agni. It is one of the most prominent of the nakshatra and is associated with anger and stubbornness. Karthigai (கார்த்திகை) in Tamil refers to the six wives of the seven rishis (sages), the seventh being Arundhati the wife of Vasistha which relates to the star Alcor in Ursa Major. The six stars in the Pleiades correspond to six wives, while the faithful wife Arundhati stuck with Sage Vasistha in Ursa Major. The six wives fell in love with Agni, hence the name Pleiades (star of fire).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Japan, the Pleiades are known as 昴 "Subaru" which means "coming together" or cluster in Japanese and have given their name to the car manufacturer whose logo incorporates six stars to represent the five companies that merged into one. Subaru Telescope, located in Mauna Kea Observatory on Hawaii, is also named after the Pleiades.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Korea, the Pleiades are known as 묘성, "myo seong", or 昴星, with the suffix, 성 or 星 meaning star. It also goes by many other names, directly transliterated from english (플레이아데스 pronounced "pleiades") and translated literally (일곱으로 된 한 벌 or 7인조 referring to "seven sisters").


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The cluster, known as "Bintang Tujuh" ("seven stars") or "Bintang Puyuh" ("sparrow stars") in Malay, is a marker in the traditional rice planting season in Kedah for sowing paddy seeds.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In the island of Java, the asterism is known in Javanese as "Lintang Kartika" or "Gugus Kartika" ("Kartika cluster"), a direct influence from the ancient Hindu Javanese. Influenced by Hinduism, the stars represent the seven princesses, which is represented in the court dance of Bedhaya Ketawang of the royal palaces of Surakarta. The dance is performed once per year, on the second day of the Javanese month of Ruwah (during May) and is performed by the nine females, relatives or wives of the Susuhunan (prince) of Surakarta before a private audience in the inner circle of the Sultanate family. Another name for Pleiades in Java is "Wuluh".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In northern Java, its rising marks the arrival of the "mangsa kapitu" ("seventh season"), which marks the beginning of rice planting season.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Pleiades was once of most asterisms that used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called "worong-porongngé bintoéng pitu", meaning "cluster of seven stars"


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In the Philippines the Pleiades are known as "Moroporo", meaning either “the boiling lights” or a flock of birds. Its appearance signified a new agricultural season, and thus starts the preparation for the new planting season.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Thailand the Pleiades are known as (ดาวลูกไก่) or the "Chick Stars", from a Thai folk tale. The story tells that a poor elderly couple who lived in a forest had raised a family of chickens: a mother hen and her six (or alternately seven) chicks. One day a monk arrived at the couple's home during his Dhutanga journey. Worried that they had no suitable food to offer him, the elderly couple contemplated cooking the mother hen. The hen overheard the conversation and rushed back to the coop to say farewell to her children. She told them to take care of themselves, and that her death would repay the kindness of the elderly couple, who had taken care of all of them for so long. As the mother hen's feathers were being burned over a fire, the chicks threw themselves into the fire to die along with their mother. The deity, impressed by and in remembrance of their love, immortalized the seven chickens as the stars of the Pleiades. In tellings of the story in which there were only six chicks, the mother is included but often includes only the seven chicks.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Motif Index of Polynesian Narratives locates stories about the genesis of the Pleiades in New Zealand, Cooks and in Rotuma. The myth of the Pleiades in South Pacific Islands is related to "Matariki", and the stars were originally one.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Depending on the cultural/language group, there are several stories or songlines, regarding the origins of the Pleiades among Aboriginal Australian peoples, usually referred to as the Seven Sisters.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In the western desert region and cultural bloc, they are said to be seven sisters fleeing from the unwelcome attentions of a man represented by some of the stars in Orion, the hunter. In these stories, the man is called Nyiru or Nirunja, and the Seven Sisters songline known as Kungkarangkalpa. The seven sisters story often features in the artwork of the region.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: A legend of the Wurundjeri people of south-eastern Australia has it that they are the fire of seven Karatgurk sisters. These women were the first to know fire-making and each carried live coals on the end of their digging sticks. They refused to share these coals with anybody and were ultimately tricked into giving up their secret by Crow, who brought fire to mankind. After this, they were swept into the night sky. Their glowing fire sticks became the bright stars of the Pleiades cluster.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Wirangu people of the west coast of South Australia have a creation story embodied in a songline of great significance based on the Pleiades. In the story, the hunter (the Orion constellation) is named Tgilby. Tgilby, after falling in love with the seven sisters, known as Yugarilya, chases them out of the sky, onto and across the earth. He chases them as the Yugarilya chase a snake, Dyunu.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: There is an analogous holiday in Hawaiʻi known as Makahiki. The makahiki season begins with a new moon following the rising of the pleiades (or makali`i) just after sunset instead of the heliacal rising.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Hawaiian creation chant known as the Kumulipo also begins with reference to the pleiades (known as the makali`i).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Occurring June 20 – June 22, the winter solstice ("Te Maruaroa o Takurua") is seen by the New Zealand Māori as the middle of the winter season. It follows directly after the first sighting of "Matariki" (The Pleiades) and "Puanga/Puaka" (Rigel) in the dawn sky, an event which marked the beginning of the New Year and was said to be when the Sun turned from his northern journey with his winter-bride "Takurua" (Sirius) and began his journey back to his summer-bride "Hine Raumati".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: C. Maxwell Churchward transcribed a tale from the Rotuma about the origin of the Pleiades he dubbed "The Two Sisters Who Became Constellations", or in the original language "Sianpual'etaf ma Sianpual'ekia"' ("Sianpual'etaf and Sianpual'ekia"). In this tale, two sisters, the older Sianpual'etaf, ("Girl Shining In The-Light") and the younger Sianpual'ekia ("Girl Shining In The-Sunset-Glow"), escape from their cruel husbands and become constellation: the older becomes "The Little Eyes" and the younger "The Fan".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Samoa, the Pleiades constellation is called "Matalii" or "Mataalii", meaning "Eyes of the Chiefs".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Swahili (of East Africa) they are called "kilimia" (Proto-Bantu "ki-dimida" in Bantu areas E, F, G, J, L and S) which comes from the verb "-lima" meaning "dig" or "cultivate" as their visibility was taken as a sign to prepare digging as the onset of the rain was near.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In related Sesotho (of far Southern Africa's Basotho (people of Sotho)) the Pleiades are called "Seleme se setshehadi" ("the female planter"). Its disappearance in April (the 10th month) and the appearance of the star Achernar signals the beginning of the cold season. Like many neighbours, the Basotho associate its visibility with agriculture and plenty.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The 19th century astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler proposed the Central Sun Hypothesis, according to which all stars revolve around the star Alcyone, in the Pleiades. Based on this hypothesis, the Jehovah's Witnesses denomination taught until the 1950s that Alcyone was likely to be the site of the throne of God.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Theosophy, it is believed the "Seven Stars of the Pleiades" focus the spiritual energy of the Seven Rays from the "Galactic Logos" to the "Seven Stars of the Great Bear", then to Sirius, then to the Sun, then to the god of Earth (Sanat Kumara) and finally through the seven Masters of the Seven Rays to us.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In Ufology some believers describe Nordic alien extraterrestrials (called Pleiadeans) as originating from this system.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The name of the constellation inspired a group of Alexandrian poets, the Alexandrian Pleiad, then the French literary movement La Pléiade.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The "Netted Stars" known as Remmirath in "The Fellowship of the Ring" by J. R. R. Tolkien are likely a reference to the Pleiades, given their appearance and proximity to a red star called Borgil (identified with Aldebaran) and the constellation Menelvagor of the Shining Belt (Orion). As in real life, Remmirath rise before Borgil and Menelvagor.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Children's book author Edith Ogden Harrison gave the myth of the Pleiades a literary treatment in her book "Prince Silverwings, and other fairy tales", as the tale of "The Cloud Maidens". The story tells of the courtship of one of the Seven Sisters by the legendary Man in the Moon. Unfortunately, the Cloud Maiden is banished to Earth and becomes the "Maid of the Mist".


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Another etiological tale, from a Slavic source, is "The Seven Stars": a princess is kidnapped by a dragon, so the high chamberlain seeks a "Dragon-mother" and her sons, who each possess extraordinary abilities, to rescue her. At the end of the tale, the rescuers and the chamberlain enter a dispute on who should have the princess, but the "Dragon-mother" suggests they should treasure her as a sister, and to keep protecting her. As such, the seven are elevated to the sky as "The Seven Stars" (the Pleiades).


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: The Irish writer Lucinda Riley has published a series of books about "The seven sisters" that is based on the Pleiades of the ancient Greek mythology.


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: In New Age lore, some believe that Sun and the Earth will pass through a Photon belt from the Pleiades, causing a cataclysm and/or initiating a spiritual transition (referred to variously as a "shift in consciousness," the "Great Shift," the "Shift of the Ages").


title: Pleiades in folklore and literature

text: Barbara Marciniak, author of "Bringers of the Dawn", is one of the authors who contributes to the New Age mythos of Pleiadian ET beings who are linked to human ancestry.


title: The Science of Interstellar

text: The Science of Interstellar is a non-fiction book by American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate Kip Thorne, with a foreword by Christopher Nolan. The book was initially published on November 7, 2014 by W. W. Norton & Company. This is his second full-size book for non-scientists after "Black Holes and Time Warps", released in 1994. "The Science of Interstellar" is a follow-up text for Nolan's 2014 film "Interstellar", starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, and Jessica Chastain.


title: The Science of Interstellar

text: Kip Thorne was the scientific consultant and an executive producer for the movie. In this book he explains the scientific concepts behind the film's cosmological ideas.


title: Basque nationalism

text: Basque nationalism ( ; ; ) is a form of nationalism that asserts that Basques, an ethnic group indigenous to the western Pyrenees, are a nation and promotes the political unity of the Basques, today scattered between Spain and France. Since its inception in the late 19th century, Basque nationalism has included separatist movements.


title: Basque nationalism

text: Basque nationalism, spanning three different regions in two states (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre in Spain, and the French Basque Country in France) is "irredentist in nature" as it favours political unification of all the Basque-speaking provinces.


title: Basque nationalism

text: Basque nationalism is rooted in Carlism and the loss, by the laws of 1839 and 1876, of the Ancien Régime relationship between the Spanish Basque provinces and the crown of Spain. During this period, the reactionary and the liberal brand of the pro-"fueros" movement pleaded for the maintenance of the fueros system and territorial autonomy against the centralizing pressures from liberal or conservative governments in Madrid. The Spanish government suppressed the "fueros" after the Third Carlist War.


title: Basque nationalism

text: The fueros were the native decision making and justice system issued from consuetudinary law prevailing in the Basque territories and Pyrenees. They are first recorded in the Kingdom of Navarre, confirming its charter system also across the western Basque territories during the High Middle Ages. In the wake of Castile's conquest of Gipuzkoa, Álava and Durango (1200), the fueros were partially ratified by the kings of Castile and acted as part of the Basque legal system dealing with matters regarding the political ties of the Basque districts with the crown. The Fueros guaranteed the Basques a separate position in Spain with their own tax and political status. While its corpus is extensive, prerogatives contained in them set out for one that Basques were not subject to direct levee to the Castilian army, although many volunteered.


title: Basque nationalism

text: The native Basque institutions and laws were abolished in 1876 after the Third Carlist War (called the Second in the Basque context), and replaced by the Basque Economic Agreements. The levelling process with other Spanish regions disquieted the Basques. According to Sabino Arana's views, the Biscayan (and Basque) personality was being diluted in the idea of an exclusive Spanish nation fostered by centralist authorities in Madrid. Arana was inspired by his brother Luis, a co-designer of the Basque flag "ikurriña" (1895), and a major nationalist figure after Sabino's death (1903).


title: Basque nationalism

text: Arana felt that not only the Basque personality was endangered but also its former religious institutions, like Church or the Society of Jesus, which still often spoke in Basque to its parishioners, unlike school or administration. Sabino characterized Catholicism as a sort of shelter for Basque personality. This became a point of contention with other personalities holding like views and clustering around Arana's manifesto "Bizkaya por su independencia" (1892). Later industrialist and prominent Basque nationalist Ramon de la Sota dismissed Sabino's positions of Catholicism as inherent to the national issue.


title: Basque nationalism

text: In 1893, the Gamazada popular uprising erupted in Navarre against the breach by the Spanish government of several foundations of the treaties ending the Carlist Wars (1841, 1876). Arana eagerly supported the Navarrese outbreak by travelling to the territory and participating. The widespread protest in Navarre sparked solidarity in Biscay. In 1893, after a support meeting held in Gernika attended by pro-"fueros" personalities, a group led by Arana overtly blamed Spain for the current state of matters, going on to set a Spanish flag ablaze. This rebellion, called the "Sanrocada", is held as the beginning of political Basque nationalism.


title: Basque nationalism

text: In 1895, the Basque Nationalist Party was founded around Arana (PNV in its Spanish acronym, EAJ in Basque). His nationalism shifted from a focus on Biscay to the rest of Basque territories. The program of Arana was specified as follows:


title: Basque nationalism

text: By the end of the 19th century, Arana differed clearly from the Carlists, his initial background. He accompanied his views with an ideology centred on the purity of the Basque race and its alleged moral supremacy over other Spaniards (a derivation of the system of "limpieza de sangre" of Modern-Age Spain), and deep opposition to the mass-immigration of other Spaniards to the Basque Country. The immigration had started after the boom of manufacturing related to the ore exportation to England and privatization of communal lands and exploitations (mines) as the "fueros" were lost.


title: Basque nationalism

text: Arana died in 1903 months after releasing a controversial manifesto renouncing his former tenets while in prison for supporting Cuban independence, and just months after the Basque leader congratulated US president Theodore Roosevelt for its support to Cuba. The nature of that document is still subject to discussion. Luis Arana took the reins of the Basque Nationalist Party.


title: Basque nationalism

text: In the early 20th century, Basque nationalism, developed from a nucleus of enthusiasts (non-native Basque speakers themselves) in Bilbao to incorporate the agrarian Carlists in Biscay, and Gipuzkoa. The seeds of Seminal Basque nationalism bloomed also in Navarre and Álava early on (Aranzadi, Irujo, Agirre, etc.) on the heat of the "Gamazada" (1893-1894).


title: Basque nationalism

text: The movement survived without major problems the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera under the guise of cultural and athletic associations. The Basque Nationalist Party split in the early 20s, and "Comunión Nacionalista Vasca" was created. Basque nationalists allied with Carlism in support of the Catholic Church as a barrier against leftist anti-clericalism in most of the Basque provinces, although alliances started to change with the coming of the Second Spanish Republic (1931).


title: Basque nationalism

text: By the start of the Second Spanish Republic, a small cluster of secularist Basque nationalists had sown the seeds of the EAE-ANV, while PNV clung to its traditionalist Catholicism. However, failure by a Carlist faction to back up the Basque statute in 1932 and the radicalization of their anti-Republican discourse, opened the Basque nationalists to new alliances with Republican and leftist parties, gradually shifting to a Christian-Democrat position willing to some sort of compromise with the left.


title: Basque nationalism

text: In 1936, the main part of the Christian-Democrat PNV sided with the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War. The promise of autonomy was valued over the ideological differences, especially on the religious matter, and PNV decided to support the legal republican government. After stopping the far-right military rebels in Intxorta (Biscay-Gipuzkoa border), autonomy was achieved in October 1936. A republican autonomous Basque government was established, with José Antonio Agirre (PNV) as Lehendakari (president) and ministers from the PNV and other republican parties (mainly leftist Spanish parties).


title: Basque nationalism

text: However, in 1937, roughly halfway through the war, Basque troops, then under control of the Autonomous Basque Government surrendered in an action brokered by the Basque church and the Vatican in Santoña to the Italian allies of General Franco on condition that the Basque heavy industry and economy was left untouched.


title: Basque nationalism

text: For many leftists in Spain, the surrender of Basque troops in Santoña (Santander) is known as the "Treason of Santoña". Many of the nationalist Basque soldiers were pardoned if they joined the Francoist army in the rest of the Northern front. Basque nationalists submitted, went underground, or were sent to prison, and the movement's political leaders fled. Small groups escaped to the Americas, France and Benelux, of which only a minority returned after the restoration of democracy in Spain in the late seventies, or before.


title: Basque nationalism

text: During World War II, the exiled PNV government attempted to join the Allies and settled itself in New York to gain American recognition and support, but soon after the war finished, Franco became an American ally in the context of the Cold War, depriving the PNV of any chance of power in the Basque Country.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: Anthurium andraeanum is a flowering plant species in the family Araceae that is native to Colombia and Ecuador. A winner of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, it is one of the plants listed in the NASA Clean Air Study as effective in removing formaldehyde, xylene, toluene, and ammonia from the air.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: Common names for plants in the genus "Anthurium" include flamingo flower, tailflower, painter's palette, oilcloth flower, and laceleaf. Its name comes from the Greek words "anthos", meaning flower, and "oura", meaning a tail, referring to the spadix.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: It is a monocotyledonous perennial, preferring warm, shady and humid climates, such as tropical rainforests. Its most characteristic feature as an ornamental is its brightly colored spathe leaf, and the protruding inflorescence called the spadix.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: It is a short erected plant with whole, cardioid or heart-shaped leaves, generally reflexed, cordate base, apex acuminate or cuspid, which are borne by a cylindrical petiole 30–40 cm long.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: The spathe is cartilage-waxy, brightly coloured (red, pink) and 8–15 cm long, excluding the inflorescence (the spadix), which is 7–9 cm long, similar to a candle-holder, white or yellow in colour, is erected, and bears many small hermaphroditic flowers. These include a perianth with four segments and stamens with a compressed mesh. Flowering extends throughout the year.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: Native to Ecuador and southwestern Colombia, it is also naturalised in other parts of the world. It is found in the Caribbean and Réunion. It is grown as an ornamental plant in the form of many hybrids or horticultural varieties. It is commonly used to make bouquets.


title: Anthurium andraeanum

text: The whole plant is toxic. It contains saponins and crystals of calcium oxalate, in fine needles, able to penetrate the mucous membranes and provokes painful irritations. It is toxic to all mammals: a mouth-worn fragment can cause severe irritation of the mouth and throat. Contact with a human causes erythema, blisters, and if ingested, salivation, difficulty in swallowing and vomiting.


title: Bryan Craig

text: Bryan Allen Craig (born October 27, 1991) is an American actor. He is best known for playing Morgan Corinthos in the soap opera "General Hospital".


title: Bryan Craig

text: Craig was born in Boca Raton, Florida, in 1991 to Lissett Craig & Donnie Craig, he has a younger brother named Bradley Allen Craig. His first acting role was at age fourteen in the 2005 movie "Off the Chain". He later left Florida to pursue an acting career in Los Angeles.


title: Bryan Craig

text: After moving to Los Angeles, Craig was cast as Justin in the 2011 film "Christmas Spirit". He next appeared on "The Nine Lives of Chloe King in 2011, and had a recurring role on "Bucket & Skinner's Epic Adventures" from 2011 to 2012.


title: Bryan Craig

text: On April 17, 2013, ABC confirmed that Craig had been cast in the role of Morgan Corinthos on "General Hospital". He began taping his first scenes on April 15. Craig later told "Soap Opera Digest" that he was hesitant to do a soap. However, the role of Morgan changed his mind about daytime. It was his parents who convinced him to sign a three-year contract. Angela Durrell of "TV Source" described the character of Morgan as "[s]ensitive and emotionally wounded." Morgan craves "strong ties" and stability. Mara Levinsky described Craig's Morgan as "impulsive" and "imperfect." Michael Logan described Craig's Morgan as a "marvelous muddle of puppy awkwardness and testy testosterone." When asked about his character's "casual and low-key," wardrobe, despite his family being filthy rich, Craig said Morgan is all about quick cash, but "far from snooty." He is the kind of guy that sleeps all day, and eats pizza for breakfast. His sense of style reflects his laid back personality. Susan Hornik described Craig's Morgan as a "Prince Harry-esque, bad boy." Since taking on the role of Morgan, Craig has been nominated at the Daytime Emmy Awards in the category of Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series, and won the award in 2016. On September 15, 2016, Craig announced via Instagram that he had decided to exit the series.


title: Bryan Craig

text: After leaving "General Hospital", Craig appeared in the recurring role of Sgt Adam Coogan in The CW series "Valor" from 2017 to 2018. In 2019, he began starring as Javi Mendoza in the ABC drama "Grand Hotel".


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Lincoln Ross Hall OAM (19 December 195520 March 2012) was a veteran Australian mountain climber, adventurer, author and philanthropist. Lincoln was part of the first Australian expedition to climb Mount Everest in 1984, which successfully forged a new route. He reached the summit of the mountain on his second attempt in 2006, miraculously surviving the night at on descent, after his family was told he had died.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Lincoln Hall was the author of seven books, a founding member of the philanthropic organisation the Australian Himalayan Foundation and a speaker who shared his climbing experiences with audiences around the world.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: In 1987 Lincoln Hall was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia for service to mountaineering and in 2010 he won the Australian Geographic Society's Lifetime of Adventure award. He was a life member of the Australian National University Mountaineering Club. Lincoln Ross Hall died of mesothelioma aged 56 on 20 March 2012.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall was born in Canberra, Australia and went to Telopea Park High School. He studied Zoology at the Australian National University and learned to climb at climbing crags in the Australian Capital Territory, most notably Booroomba Rocks (where he pioneered a number of classic routes). He developed his ice climbing skills in the Snowy Mountains at Blue Lake and trained to climb by traversing the walls of buildings at his university campus.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall had his real start with mountaineering when he participated in the Australian National University Mountaineering Club expeditions to New Zealand from 1975 to 1978. This culminated in the ANUMC 1978 expedition to the Himalayan peak Dunagiri () in India. Hall and his climbing partner Tim Macartney-Snape (Australia) were invited by expedition leader Peter Cocker to join him at Col Camp so the pair could force through a route through to the summit ridge. They did so then made an audacious push for the summit after spending a night out on the mountain. Hall was pivotal in the successful summit bid by Macartney-Snape.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: The pair descended through an electrical storm, however Hall spent another night out on the mountain. Cocker ascended during the night and met him at the top of the fixed ropes and accompanied him back to Col Camp. The ANUMC team then raced Hall down to Base Camp where he was helicoptered to a Military Hospital near Delhi. This was at the time possibly the highest helicopter rescue in the Himalayas.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: The successful Dunagiri trip by the ANUMC forged the Hall and Macartney-Snape partnership, setting the stage for their Himalayan mountaineering careers including their 1984 Mount Everest expedition.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: After Dunagiri, Hall participated in and led numerous climbing adventures around the world, including many first ascents by Australian climbers. Amongst these were two expeditions to climb Mount Everest in Nepal (including the first Australian ascent in 1984); the first ascent of Mount Minto in the Admiralty Mountains of Antarctica (1998); and ascents of other notable peaks including Annapurna II (7963m) in Nepal, Makalu (8481m) on the China-Nepal border, and Carstensz Pyramid in Irian Jaya, Indonesia.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Lincoln Hall narrowly survived after his ascent of Mount Everest in 2006. He was left for dead at an altitude of 8700m while descending from the summit on 25 May 2006. He had fallen ill from a form of altitude sickness, probably cerebral edema, that caused him to hallucinate and become confused. According to reports, Hall's Sherpa guides attempted to rescue him for hours. However, as night began to fall their oxygen supplies diminished and snow blindness set in. Expedition leader Alexander Abramov eventually ordered the guides to leave the apparently dead Hall on the mountain and return to camp. A statement was later released announcing his death to his friends and family.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: However, the next morning, 12 hours later, Hall was found still alive by a team making a summit attempt. The team consisted of team leader Daniel Mazur (U.S.), Andrew Brash (Canada), Myles Osborne (UK), and Jangbu Sherpa (Nepal). Osborne described the scene just below the Second Step:


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: "Sitting to our left, about two feet from a 10,000 foot drop, was a man. Not dead, not sleeping, but sitting cross legged, in the process of changing his shirt. He had his down suit unzipped to the waist, his arms out of the sleeves, was wearing no hat, no gloves, no sunglasses, had no oxygen mask, regulator, ice axe, oxygen, no sleeping bag, no mattress, no food nor water bottle. 'I imagine you're surprised to see me here', he said. Now, this was a moment of total disbelief to us all. Here was a gentleman, apparently lucid, who had spent the night without oxygen at 8600m, without proper equipment and barely clothed. And ALIVE."


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: A rescue effort that mountain observers described as "unprecedented in scale" then swung into action. Mazur and his team abandoned their summit attempt to stay with Hall, who was badly frostbitten and delusional from the effects of severe cerebral edema. At the same time, Abramov dispatched a rescue team of 12 Sherpas guides from the base camp. The rescue team comprised Ongshu Sherpa, Nima Wangde Sherpa, Passang Sherpa, Furba Rushakj Sherpa, Dawa Tenzing Sherpa, Dorjee Sherpa, Mingma Sherpa, Mingma Dorjee Sherpa, Pemba Sherpa, Pemba Nuru Sherpa, Passang Gaylgen Sherpa, and Lakcha Sherpa.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall was brought down the mountain, walking the last part of the way to Everest's North Col where he was treated by a Russian doctor Andrey Selivanov. He arrived at Advanced Base Camp the next day in reasonably good health although suffering from frostbite and the lingering effects of cerebral edema. He lost the tips of his fingers and a toe to frostbite.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall's survival and rescue came shortly after the death of UK climber David Sharp on the mountain. Initially, no attempt was made to rescue Sharp. While he was unconscious but still alive, other climbers passed him and continued on their own ascents. However, unlike David Sharp, Hall was conscious and able to walk, two factors that allowed for his rescue. The case had raised concerns, including comments from Sir Edmund Hillary. Dan Mazur said of his team abandoning their summit attempt, "The summit is still there and we can go back. Lincoln only has one life."


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: He remained close with Myles Osborne, who sacrificed his only attempt on Everest to aid Hall. Osborne says Hall was "a great guy, really laid back, with a penchant for bad jokes."


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: "Dateline NBC" aired "Left for Dead on Mount Everest", an Emmy Award-nominated documentary special, in 2006.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall wrote two books about his experience: "Dead Lucky: Life after death on Mount Everest" (2007) and "Alive In The Death Zone: Mount Everest Survival" (2008).


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: A second documentary, "Miracle on Everest", based on Hall's book "Dead Lucky", premiered in 2008 on National Geographic Channel in the USA and on ABC1 in Australia.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall's story was later featured in the "I Shouldn't Be Alive" episode, "Left for Dead on Everest" (16 February 2011).


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Hall died on 20 March 2012 at the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Sydney, after suffering from mesothelioma. He had been exposed to asbestos while working as a builder in the 1960s.


title: Lincoln Hall (climber)

text: Friend and fellow mountaineer Greg Mortimer, who was with Lincoln at the end, said: "It was very peaceful in the end, around 11:45 last night. Lincoln got into quiet, rhythmic breathing—it was almost meditative—and then he quietly slipped away". Hall lived in the Blue Mountains in New South Wales with his wife and two sons, who survived him.


title: First Dates

text: First Dates is a British reality television programme that has aired on Channel 4 since 20 June 2013. The programme has been narrated by Brian Protheroe since 2015.


title: First Dates

text: The programme was filmed at the Paternoster Chop House restaurant in Paternoster Square, central London from 2013 to 2020, showing many people on dates, all of whom have not met each other before. At the end of the date, the couples are interviewed together and asked whether they would like to see each other again. The restaurant is closed to the public while filming takes place. The restaurant is fitted with 42 "Pan–tilt–zoom" cameras and there are at least 70 crew members on set during filming, which lasts 15 hours a day. Each diner is given £25 towards the cost of their meal.


title: First Dates

text: The spin-off show, "First Dates Hotel", follows the same TV format with contestants meeting for the first time in a hotel restaurant, but if the date goes well, the couples are offered the opportunity to check in for the night. The first series was filmed at Le Vieux Castillon in Castillon-du-Gard offering idyllic settings with a variety of activities for the successful second daters, and added sommelier Xavier Chapelou to Fred Sirieix's team. The second series was filmed at Aquapetra Resort & Spa in Campania near Naples, Italy.


title: First Dates

text: In 2020 it was announced that filming would move to Manchester for Series 16. The specific location was later confirmed in January 2021, when it was announced that the sixteenth series would begin airing on 19 January 2021, in the new location of The Refinery, located in Spinningfields, in Manchester.


title: First Dates

text: Another spin-off show, "Teen First Dates" began airing on E4 on 22 February 2021 and consisted of 6 episodes. Each episode was also available to stream on All 4. Following the same format as the parent show and also taking place at "Spinningfields", it follows 16-19 year olds as they begin dating for the first time.


title: First Dates

text: Since series 3 (2015) the restaurant's maître d'hôtel Fred Sirieix offers pieces to camera on the nature of love, romance and dating. When not filming for "First Dates", he was the general manager at restaurant Galvin at Windows, although he left in December 2019 after 14 years.


title: First Dates

text: The waiting staff and barman do not work in the restaurant full-time, but are recruited for when the series is being filmed.


title: First Dates

text: CiCi Coleman is an actor who trained at New York Film Academy, whilst barman Merlin Griffiths is a pub landlord who has previously worked as a global brand ambassador for Bombay Sapphire gin. Griffiths also works alongside co-bartender Fiona Beck who as well as working in the First Dates restaurant, has a career in advertising, and has also worked as a model in the past and has featured in fashion shows in Paris, Barcelona and New York. The waiting staff are joined by Grant Urquhart, David Marc and Daniella Kalita.


title: First Dates

text: The format created in the United Kingdom has been adapted in Belgium, Finland, Netherlands, Canada, Germany, Australia, Spain, Ireland, New Zealand, Italy, Poland, USA, France, Brazil, Israel, Sweden, Norway, Argentina, Portugal, Austria and South Africa.


title: Van Wilder: Freshman Year

text: National Lampoon's Van Wilder: Freshman Year is the third film in the Van Wilder series, following "Van Wilder" and "". "Freshman Year" is a prequel to the first film. It was released straight-to-DVD in 2009. The film was directed by Harvey Glazer and stars Jonathan Bennett, in the titular role of a young Van Wilder, Kristin Cavallari, Jerry Shea, and Steve Talley.


title: Van Wilder: Freshman Year

text: Van Wilder, (Jonathan Bennett), has graduated from high school. Planning to go on a road trip to Amsterdam with his dad, (Linden Ashby), when plans are cut short by his dad, who as it turns out, is busy with work, leaving Van to go it alone. Following in the family tradition, Van ends up attending Coolidge College where his family has their name, literally, on one of the buildings, Wilder Hall. However, when he gets there, Coolidge is no longer the laid-back school of his dad's time, but a military-based institution run by Dean Reardon (Kurt Fuller).


title: Van Wilder: Freshman Year

text: Reardon, a military man who despises senior Wilder, wants to take his aggression out on young Mr. Wilder. He can't force him out because his dad is a wealthy alumni with close ties to the school, so he tries to make Van's life a living hell. Hilarity and hijinks ensue when Van turns a one-bed dorm room into a two-bedroom (by breaking down a wall). His roommate is Farley (Nestor Aaron Absera), a pothead from Jamaica. Against the rules, the boys decide to throw a party on campus, with such activities as making out, drugs, alcohol, sex, along with everything else considered 'fun' by the raucous Van Wilder. The only person to show up at the party is Yu Dum Fok (Jerry Shea). The boys then encounter a group of prudish girls led by Eve (Meredith Giangrande).


title: Van Wilder: Freshman Year

text: After Eve throws sacramental wine on them, Van pulls a prank during church. Reardon knows Van is behind the prank, so he has his ROTC students, Dirk (Steve Talley) and his closeted sidekick, Corporal Benedict (Nick Nicotera), interrogate Van, trying to make him crack. Van falls for Dirk's girlfriend, Kaitlin (Kristin Cavallari), causing Dirk to get even angrier. Kaitlin thinks, lives, and breathes the military, and believes in chastity before marriage. After playing a military game with Reardon that results in him stepping down as dean and being tasered, Van and Kaitlin end up together and Van decides to finish college. The film ends as Van leaves Dirk and Benedict tied to each other in their underwear.


title: Van Wilder: Freshman Year

text: "Van Wilder: Freshman Year" was released on DVD on July 14, 2009. As of November 2011, 226,168 DVD units have been sold, bringing in $2,994,116 in revenue.


title: Harry Danner

text: Raised in Springfield Township, Pennsylvania, Danner attended George School (graduated 1957) and Dickinson College.


title: Harry Danner

text: He is the brother of actress Blythe Danner and violin maker William Moennig, and the uncle of actresses Gwyneth Paltrow and Katherine Moennig. He is married to opera director Dorothy Danner, née Frank, and the father of Hillary Danner. While stationed at Fort Myer, Virginia, he appeared as Lieutenant Cable in the American Light Opera Company production of "South Pacific", 1963 at Trinity Theatre in Georgetown.


title: Harry Danner

text: In 1967, he performed in four concerts during dinners at the White House which were attended by President Lyndon B. Johnson.


title: Harry Danner

text: In 1970, Danner began his career as an opera singer with performances as Rodolfo in "La bohème" at both the New York City Opera and the Lake George Opera.


title: Harry Danner

text: In 1971 he made his debut at the San Francisco Opera as the Duke of Mantua in Giuseppe Verdi's "Rigoletto" with Robert Mosley in the title role. He returned to San Francisco twice more during his career, portraying Curly in Carlisle Floyd's "Of Mice and Men" in 1974, and a soldier in the United States premiere of Viktor Ullmann's "Der Kaiser von Atlantis" in 1977.


title: Harry Danner

text: In 1972, Danner performed the role of Leutold in Rossini's "William Tell" with the Opera Orchestra of New York. In 1973 he starred in the Kennedy Center's production of Sigmund Romberg's "The Student Prince".


title: Harry Danner

text: He continued with the production when it went on national tour the following year. In 1977 he portrayed Jolidon to Roberta Peters' Sonia in "The Merry Widow" at the Valley Forge Music Fair. In 1979 he portrayed Prince Florian in the Opera Company of Philadelphia's production of John Philip Sousa's "The Free Lance". In 1980 he made his debut with the Opera Company of Boston as Alfred in "Die Fledermaus". He returned there the following year as the Major Domo/Landlord in "Der Rosenkavalier".


title: Harry Danner

text: He returned to Lake George for the 1980–81 season to portray Sam Polk in Carlisle Floyd's "Susannah".


title: Harry Danner

text: Danner has appeared as a guest star on several television programs, including "Ally McBeal", "Chicago Hope", "", "NYPD Blue", "Scrubs", and "Touched by an Angel". He has also appeared in films like "The Wedding Planner" and "Van Wilder".


title: Ridda Wars

text: The Ridda Wars () were a series of military campaigns launched by the first caliph Abu Bakr against rebellious Arabian tribes. They began shortly after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632 and concluded the next year, with all battles won by the Rashidun Caliphate. These wars secured the caliphate's control over Arabia and restored its nascent prestige.


title: Ridda Wars

text: During Muhammad's lifetime, many Arab rebels declared themselves prophets. After Muhammad died in June 632, Abu Bakr was elected as the caliph of the Muslim community at Saqifah. The next day, he launched a successful expedition into the Byzantine Syria. Meanwhile in Arabia, the self-proclaimed prophets started to cause mischief and arranged rebellions against Abu Bakr. The first attack on the caliphate was done by Tulayha, who prepared an army in an attempt to capture Medina, the capital of the caliphate. This was a major failure as Tulayha's forces were crushed in Zhuqissa. In the battle, Tulayha retreated and then again attacked the Muslims at Abraq and Buzakha, both were unsuccessful attempts. After the defeat, Tulayha became a Muslim, though this was not enough to stop the rise of more self-proclaimed prophets.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In September 632, Banu Azd's chief Laqit prepared an army to attack Oman. However, the commander Hudayfa's forces defeated Laqit and his army. The next month, attacks were faced in Northern Arabia and Yemen, though they were easily defeated. Few months later, Banu Hanifa's chief Musaylimah, with an army 40,000 soldiers, killed a large amount of Muslims in the Battle of Yamama, many of them being "hafiz". The last major attack was done by the powerful tribe of Kinda in Hadhramaut in January 633. The campaigns came to end in June 633 as Abu Bakr successfully united all tribes of Arabia.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The Rashidun Caliphate secured its control by defeating the rebel tribes. These military campaigns are regarded by historians as Abu Bakr's greatest political and military triumph. These wars also cemented Khalid ibn al-Walid's reputation as a great tactician and cavalry commander. A detailed reconstruction of the events is complicated by the frequently contradictory and tendentious accounts found in primary sources.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In May 632, Muhammad ordered a large expedition to be prepared against the Byzantine Empire in order to avenge the martyrs of the Battle of Mu'tah. He appointed Usama ibn Zayd, the son of Zayd ibn Harithah who was killed in the Battle at Mu'tah, as commander of this force so he could avenge the death of his father. However, as Muhammad was ailing, the expedition was delayed. In June 632, Muhammad died and Abu Bakr was chosen as the caliph at Saqifah.


title: Ridda Wars

text: On the first day of his caliphate, Abu Bakr ordered the army of Usama to prepare for march. Abu Bakr was under great pressure regarding this expedition due to rising rebellion, people who withheld zakat and apostasy across Arabia, but he was determined. Before his march, Usama sent Umar to Abu Bakr and is reported to have said:


title: Ridda Wars

text: On June 26, 632, the army of Usama broke camp and moved out. After leaving Medina, Usama marched to Tabuk where most of the tribes in the region opposed him fiercely, but were defeated. Usama raided far and wide in the region of Northern Arabia, starting with the Quza'a, and then made his way to Dawmatu l-Jandal (modern Al Jawf, Saudi Arabia). Usama next marched to Mu'tah, attacked the Christian Arabs of the tribes of Banu Kalb and the Ghassanids in a small battle. Then he returned to Medina, bringing with him a large number of captives and a considerable amount of wealth, part of which comprised the spoils of war and part taxation of the re-conquered tribes. The Islamic army remained out of Medina for 40 days. This expedition became notable in Islam history since the eighteen year old Usama were appointed as overall commander, leading veterans and high ranked Companions of the Prophet such as Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Sa'id ibn Zayd, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, and Qatada ibn al-Nu'man as his subordinates.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Usama expedition succeeded to force several rebel tribes resubmitted to Medinian rule and claimed that they re-accepted Islam. The Quza'a remained rebellious and unrepentant, but 'Amr ibn al-'As later attacked them and forced them to surrender again.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Meanwhile, the apostates from Ghatafan clan from Qays tribe attempted several times to capture Mecca, which still loyal to Islam, before joining the apostate leader on the north, Tulayha of the Banu Asad.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In the fourth week of August 632, Abu Bakr moved to Zhu Qissa with all available fighting forces. There he planned his strategy, in what would later be called the Campaign of Apostasy, to deal with the various enemies who occupied the rest of Arabia. The battles which he had fought recently against the apostate concentrations at Zhu Qissa and Abraq were in the nature of defensive actions to protect Medina and discourage further offensives by the enemy. These actions enabled Abu Bakr to secure a base from which he could fight the major campaign that lay ahead, thus gaining time for the preparation and launching of his main forces.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Abu Bakr had to fight not one but several enemies: Tulayha at Buzakha, Malik bin Nuwaira at Butah, and Musaylima at Yamamah. He had to deal with widespread apostasy on the eastern and southern coasts of Arabia: in Bahrain, in Oman, in Mahra, in Hadhramaut and in Yemen. There was apostasy in the region south and east of Mecca and by the Quza'a in northern Arabia.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Abu Bakr formed the army into several corps, the strongest of which was commanded by Khalid ibn Walid and assigned to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to subdue the less dangerous apostate tribes, and were dispatched after Khalid, according to the outcome of his operations. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear west-central Arabia (the area nearest to Medina), then tackle Malik bin Nuwaira, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous and powerful enemy: the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylima.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In July 632, Abu Bakr sent envoys to the enemy tribes, calling upon them to remain loyal to Islam and continue to pay their "zakat". This demand was rejected by the rebellious tribes. The self-proclaimed prophet Tulayha reinforced an army at Zhu Qissa, a city about thirty miles east of Medina. From there, Tulayha and his forces were preparing to launch an attack on Medina.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Abu Bakr received intelligence of the rebel movements, and immediately prepared for the defence of Medina. Ibn Kathir recorded that Abu Bakr immediately formed newly organised elite guard unit al-Ḥaras wa al-Shurṭa to defend Medina. Veteran companions like Ali ibn Abi Talib, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam were appointed as commanders of these units. The Haras wa'l Shurta troops rode their camels to the mountain passes of Medina at night, intercepting the Apostate coalition assault forces, until the enemy retreated to Dhu Qisha.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The following day, Abu Bakr marched the garrison troops from Medina with the main army and moved towards Dhu Hussa. As the riding military camels were all with Usama's army, he could only muster pack camels as mounts. These pack camels, being untrained for battle, bolted when Hibal, the apostate commander at Zhu Hussa, made a surprise attack from the hills; as a result, the Muslims cannot control their untrained Camels and decided to retreat toward Medina, and the apostates recaptured the outposts that they lost a few days earlier. At Medina, Abu Bakr reorganised the army for battle and attacked the apostates during the night, taking them by surprise. The apostates retreated from Dhu Hussa to Dhu Qissa. The defeated apostate tribes retreated to Abraq, where more clansmen of the Ghatfan, the Hawazin, and the Tayy were gathered. Abu Bakr left a residual force under the command of An-Numan ibn Muqarrin at Dhu Qissa and returned with his main army to Medina.


title: Ridda Wars

text: On 4 August 632, Usama's army returned to Medina. Abu Bakr ordered Usama to rest and resupply his men there for future operations. Meanwhile, in the second week of August 632, Abu Bakr moved his army to Zhu Qissa. Merging An-Numan ibn Muqarrin's remaining forces with his own, Abu Bakr then moved to Abraq, where the retreated rebels had gathered. The following morning, Abu Bakr led his forces to Dhu Qissa, with the composition Abu Bakr himself at lead the center, while Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin ride in the right flank, Abdullah ibn Muqrin on the left flank, and Suwaid ibn Muqrin positioned in the rear. The Medinan forces drove the rebel tribes, capturing Dhu Qissa on 1 August 632. The remaining rebels retreated to Buzakha, where Tulayha had moved with his army from Samira.


title: Ridda Wars

text: On receiving intelligence of the Muslim preparations, Tulayha too prepared for battle, and was further reinforced by the contingents of the allied tribes. Before dispatching Khalid against Tulayha, Abu Bakr sought to reduce the latter's strength. Nothing could be done about the tribes of Bani Assad and Banu Ghatafan, which stood solidly behind Tulayha, but the Tayy were not so staunch in their support of Tulayha, and their chief, Adi ibn Hatim, was a devout Muslim. Adi was appointed by Abu Bakr to negotiate with the tribal elders to withdraw their contingent from Tulayha's army. The negotiations were a success, and Adi brought with him 500 horsemen of his tribe to reinforce Khalid's army. Khalid next marched against another apostate tribe, Jadila. Here again Adi ibn Hatim offered his services to persuade the tribe to submit without bloodshed. Bani Jadila submitted, and their 1000 warriors joined Khalid's army.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Khalid, now much stronger than when he had left Zhu Qissa, marched for Buzakha. There, in mid-September 632 CE, he defeated Tulayha in the Battle of Buzakha. The remnants of Tulayha's army retreated to Ghamra, 20 miles from Buzakha, and were defeated in the Battle of Ghamra in the third week of September.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Several tribes submitted to the Caliph after Khalid's decisive victories. Moving south from Buzakha, Khalid reached Naqra in October, with an army now 6000 strong, and defeated the rebel tribe of Banu Saleem in the Battle of Naqra. In the third week of October, Khalid defeated a tribal chieftess, Salma, in the battle of Zafar. Afterwards he moved to Najd against the rebel tribe of Banu Tamim and their Sheikh Malik ibn Nuwayrah.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The caliph distributed the available manpower among 11 main corps, each under its own commander, and bearing its own standard. The available manpower was distributed among these corps, and while some commanders were given immediate missions, others were given missions to be launched later. The commanders and their assigned objectives were:


title: Ridda Wars

text: As soon as the organisation of the corps was complete, Khalid marched off, to be followed a little later by Ikrimah and 'Amr ibn al-'As. The other corps were held back by the caliph and dispatched weeks and even months later, according to the progress of Khalid's operations against the hard core of enemy opposition.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Before the various corps left Zhu Qissa, however, envoys were sent by Abu Bakr to all apostate tribes in a final attempt to induce them to submit.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Apostasy and rebellion in central Arabia was led by Musaylima, a self-proclaimed prophet, in the fertile region of Yamamah. He was mainly supported by the powerful tribe of Banu Hanifa. At Buzakha in north central Arabia, another self-proclaimed prophet, Tulayha, a tribal chief of Banu Asad, led the rebellion against Medina aided by the allied tribes of Banu Ghatafan, the Hawazin, and the Tayy.


title: Ridda Wars

text: At Najd, on learning of Khalid's decisive victories against apostates in Buzakha, many clans of Banu Tamim hastened to visit Khalid, but the Bani Yarbu', a branch of Bani Tamim, under their chief, Malik ibn Nuwayrah, hung back. Malik was a chief of some distinction: a warrior, noted for his generosity, and a famous poet. Bravery, generosity, and poetry were the three qualities most admired among the Arabs.


title: Ridda Wars

text: At the time of Muhammad, he had been appointed as a tax collector for the tribe of Banu Tamim. As soon as Malik heard of the death of Muhammad, he gave back all the tax to his tribespeople, saying, "Now you are the owner of your wealth." Most scholars agreed that he was adhering to the normal beliefs of the Arabs of his time in which they could cease to pledge their allegiance to a tribe upon the death of its Sheikh.


title: Ridda Wars

text: His riders were stopped by Khalid's army at the town of Buttah. Khalid asked them about the pact they signed with the self-proclaimed prophetess Sajjah; they responded it was merely for revenge against their enemies.


title: Ridda Wars

text: When Khalid reached Najd he found no opposing army. He sent his cavalry to nearby villages and ordered them to call the Azaan (call to prayer) to each party they met. Zirrar bin Azwar, a squadron leader, arrested the family of Malik, claiming they did not answer the call to prayer.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Malik avoided direct contact with Khalid's army and ordered his followers to scatter, and he and his family apparently moved away across the desert. He refused to give zakat, differentiating between prayer and zakat.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Nevertheless, Malik was accused of rebellion against the state of Medina. He was also to be charged for his entering into the alliance with Sajjah against the Caliphate. Malik was arrested along with those of his clan.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Malik was asked by Khalid about his crimes, and responded, "your master said this, your master said that", referring to Muhammad. Khalid declared Malik a rebel apostate and ordered his execution.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, one of the corps commanders, was instructed to make contact with Musaylima at Yamamah, but not to engage until Khalid joined him. Abu Bakr's intention in giving Ikrimah this mission was to tie Musaylima down at Yamamah, thereby freeing Khalid to deal with the apostate tribes of north-central Arabia without interference.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Meanwhile, Abu Bakr sent Shurhabil's corps to reinforce Ikrimah at Yamamah. Ikrimah, however, in early September 632, attacked Musaylima's forces before the reinforcements arrived, and was defeated. He reported his actions to Abu Bakr, who, both pained and angered by the rashness of Ikrimah and his disobedience, ordered him to proceed with his force to Oman to assist Hudaifa; once Hudaifa had completed his task, he was to march to Mahra to help Arfaja, and thereafter go to Yemen to help Muhajir.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Meanwhile, Abu Bakr sent orders to Khalid to march against Musaylima. Shurhabil's corps, stationed at Yamamah, was to reinforce Khalid's corps. In addition to this Abu Bakr assembled a fresh army of Ansar and Muhajireen in Medina that joined Khalid's corps at Butah before the combined force set out for Yamamah.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Though Abu Bakr had instructed Shurhabil not to engage Musaylima's forces until Khalid's arrival, Shurhabil engaged Musaylima's forces anyway and was defeated, too. Khalid linked up with the remnants of Shurhabil's corps early in December 632.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The combined force of Muslims, now 13,000 strong, finally defeated Musaylima's army in the Battle of Yamama, which was fought in the third week of December. The fortified city of Yamamah surrendered peacefully later that week.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Khalid established his headquarters at Yamamah, from which he despatched columns throughout the plain of Aqraba to subdue the region around Yamamah. Thereafter, all of central Arabia submitted to Medina.


title: Ridda Wars

text: What remained of the apostasy in the less vital areas of Arabia was rooted out by the Muslims in a series of well-planned campaigns within five months.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In mid-September 632, Abu Bakr dispatched Hudaifa bin Mihsan's corps to tackle the apostasy in Oman, where the dominant tribe of Azd had revolted under their chief Laqeet bin Malik, known more commonly as "Dhu'l-Taj" ("the Crowned One"). According to some reports, he also claimed prophethood.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Hudaifa entered Oman, but not having sufficient strength to fight Dhu'l-Taj, he requested reinforcements from the Caliph, who sent Ikrimah from Yamamah to aid him in late September. The combined forces then defeated Dhu'l-Taj at a battle at Dibba, one of Dhu'l-Taj's strongholds, in November. Dhu'l-Taj himself was killed in the battle.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Hudaifa was appointed governor of Oman, and set about the re-establishment of law and order. Ikrimah, having no local administrative responsibility, used his corps to subdue the area around Daba, and, in a number of small actions, succeeded in breaking the resistance of those Azd who had continued to defy the authority of Medina.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Some time in October 632, Amr's corps was dispatched to the Syrian border to subdue the apostate tribes—most importantly, the Quza'a and the Wadi'a (a part of the Bani Kalb)--in the region around Tabuk and Daumat-ul-Jandal (Al-Jawf). Amr was not able to beat the tribes into submission until Shurhabil joined him in January after the Battle of Yamamah.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The Yemen had been the first province to rebel against the authority of Islam when the tribe of Ans rose in arms under the leadership of its chief and self-proclaimed prophet Al-Aswad Al-Ansi, the Black One. Yemen was controlled then by Al-Abna', a group descended from the Sasanian Persian garrison in Sanaa. When Badhan died, his son Shahr partially became governor of Yemen but was killed by Al-Aswad. Al-Aswad was later killed by Fayruz al-Daylami, also an abna' member, who was sent by Muhammad, and thereafter Fairoz acted as governor of Yemen at San'a.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In the later phase after the death of Aswad al-Ansi, two Yemenite chieftains, Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib and his nephew, Qays ibn Makshuh revolted against Fairuz. At first, Amr and Qays supported the caliphate suppression of Aswad rebellion. However, both Amr and Qays later revolted against the caliphate as both did not agree with new administrator appointed by the caliph, thus they seceded from leadership of Farwah, who acted as their regions governor at the time. Amr and Qays ibn Maksuh then conspired to kill three caliphate deputies in Yemen.


title: Ridda Wars

text: A caliphate commander Al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya lead the Al-Abna' opposing Qays.<ref name="The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 10 The Conquest of Arabia: The Riddah Wars A.D. 632-633/A.H. 11"></ref> Ultimately, the forces of Qays and Amr were defeated by the force of Ikrima ibn Abi Jahl. Amr and Qays were said to be captured by Fayruz al-Daylami. According to the record of Usd al-ghabah fi marifat al-Saḥabah, Amr came to Medina as prisoner, guarded by a caliphate soldier named Al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya. Amr then was brought before caliph Abu Bakar, who invited him to believe in Islam again, which Amr agreed upon. Thus, Amr was pardoned by the caliph.


title: Ridda Wars

text: From Oman, following the orders of Abu Bakr, Ikrimah marched to Mahra to join Arfaja bin Harthama. As Arfaja had not yet arrived, Ikrimah, instead of waiting for him, tackled the local rebels on his own.


title: Ridda Wars

text: At Jairut, Ikrimah met two rebel armies preparing for battle. Here he persuaded the weaker to embrace Islam and then joined up with them to defeat their opponents.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Having re-established Islam in Mahra, Ikrimah moved his corps to Abyan, where he rested his men and awaited further developments.


title: Ridda Wars

text: After the Battle of Yamamah, Abu Bakr sent Ala bin Al Hadhrami's corps against the rebels of Bahrain. Ala arrived in Bahrain to find the apostate forces gathered at Hajr and entrenched in a strong position. Ala mounted a surprise attack one night and captured the city. The rebels retreated to the coastal regions, where they made one more stand but were decisively defeated. Most of them surrendered and reverted to Islam. This operation was completed at about the end of January 633.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The last of the great revolts of the apostasy was that of the powerful tribe of Kinda, which inhabited the region of Najran, Hadhramaut, and eastern Yemen. They did not break into revolt until January 633.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Ziyad bin Lubaid, Muslim governor of Hadhramaut, operated against them and raided Riyaz, after which the whole of the Kinda broke into revolt under al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and prepared for war. However, the strength of the two forces, "i.e." apostate and Muslim, was so well balanced that neither side felt able to start serious hostilities. Ziyad waited for reinforcements before attacking the rebels.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Reinforcements were on the way. al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya, the last of the corps commanders to be despatched by Abu Bakr, defeated some rebel tribes in Najran, south-eastern Arabia, and was directed by Abu Bakr to march to Hadhramaut and join Ziyad against the Kinda. The Caliph also instructed Ikrimah, who was at Abyan, to join Ziyad and Muhajir's forces.


title: Ridda Wars

text: In late January 633 the forces of Muhajir and Ziyad combined at Zafar, capital of Hadhramaut, under the overall command of the former, and defeated al-Ash'ath, who retreated to the fortified town of Nujair.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Just after this battle the corps of Ikrimah also arrived. The three Muslim corps, under the overall command of Muhajir, advanced on Nujair and laid siege to the fortified city.


title: Ridda Wars

text: Nujair was captured some time in mid-February 633. With the defeat of the Kinda at Nujair the last of the great apostate movements collapsed. Arabia was safe for Islam.


title: Ridda Wars

text: The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the 11th year of the Hijra. The year 12 Hijri dawned on March 18, 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. This campaign was Abu Bakr's greatest political and military triumph, and was a complete success.