title: Matt Prater

text: On July 2, 2012, Prater re-signed with the Broncos on a four-year contract after the Broncos placed a franchise tag on him. In Week 4, against the Oakland Raiders, he converted four extra point attempts and three field goal attempts to earn AFC Special Teams Player of the Week. On the 2012 season, he converted all 55 extra point attempts to go along with 26-of-32 field goal attempts.


title: Matt Prater

text: On October 6, 2013, when the Broncos faced the Dallas Cowboys, with a 48–48 score with two seconds left in regulation, Prater kicked the game-winning 28 yard field goal, to allow a Broncos 51–48 victory, as Denver went 5–0 for the first time since 2009. On December 8, Prater set a new NFL record by successfully kicking a 64-yard field goal against the Tennessee Titans as time expired in the first half. Prater also set a new NFL record for extra points in a single season, with 75. He earned AFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors for the performance. In the against the New England Patriots, he converted all four field goal attempts in the 26–16 victory. He appeared in his first Super Bowl in the following game, a 43–8 loss to the Seattle Seahawks.


title: Matt Prater

text: Prater began the season with a four-game suspension for violating the NFL's substance abuse policy. On October 3, 2014, Prater was released by the Broncos after they decided to stick with his replacement Brandon McManus.


title: Matt Prater

text: On October 7, 2014, the Detroit Lions signed him to a one-year deal. Prater was Detroit's third kicker in only a little over a month after Nate Freese and Alex Henery had struggles in the kicking game. In Prater's debut as a Lion, he only made one of three attempts on a rather windy day at TCF Bank Stadium, but the Lions still got the win over the Minnesota Vikings. Two weeks later, Prater missed a game-winning 43 yard field goal against the Atlanta Falcons in London, but due to a delay of game penalty on Detroit, was allowed to re-kick from 48 yards out from which he converted, winning the game for the Lions. He finished the year converting 21 field goals on 26 attempts.


title: Matt Prater

text: On March 6, 2015, the Lions re-signed Prater to a three-year, $9 million contract extension. In Week 6 against the Chicago Bears, Prater kicked a 37-yard field goal in overtime to win the game, 37–34. In a game against the Chicago Bears on January 3, 2016, Prater made a 59-yard field goal, which set a Detroit Lions franchise record for the longest field goal. Overall, on the 2015 season, he finished with converting 36-of-39 extra point attempts and 22-of-24 field goal attempts.


title: Matt Prater

text: Prater was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 9 when he converted three field goal attempts, including a 58-yard attempt with 0:02 left to send the game into overtime, where the Lions would beat the Minnesota Vikings. Prater was also named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 12 when he converted the game tying and game winning attempts to beat the Minnesota Vikings in the final two minutes. To cap off his performances, Prater won NFC Special Teams Player of the Month going 8-for-8 on field goals with two over 50 yards. He once again earned Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 13 when he made five field goals, including a 52-yarder, in a 28–13 win over the Saints. Prater was named to his second Pro Bowl as an alternate for Atlanta Falcons kicker Matt Bryant after the 2016 season. He finished the 2016 season converting 31-of-33 extra point attempts to go along with 31-of-36 field goal attempts.


title: Matt Prater

text: In Week 1, Prater had to take over punting duties after Kasey Redfern left with an injury early in the game. He kicked a 58-yard field goal, went 2-for-2 on extra points and punted four times with an average of 35 yards in a 35–23 win over the Arizona Cardinals, earning him NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. Prater was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Month for September after making all six of his field goal attempts, including four conversions from 55 yards and longer. This gave Prater an NFL record seven straight field goals of 55 yards or longer without a miss, going back to 2016. Prater has also converted 14 consecutive 50+ yard field goals going back to last season, which is also an NFL record. Both streaks ended when Prater missed on a 59-yard attempt the following week against the Minnesota Vikings. On October 25, 2017, Prater signed a three-year contract extension with the Lions. Overall, he finished the 2017 season converting 40-of-41 extra point attempts to go along with 30-of-35 field goal attempts as the Lions went 9–7.


title: Matt Prater

text: In Week 17 against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field, Prater threw a 14-yard touchdown to Levine Toilolo on a fake field goal attempt. He added a field goal and four extra points in a 31–0 win over the Packers, earning him NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. He finished the 2018 season converting all 30 extra point attempts to go along with 28-of-32 field goal attempts as the Lions went 6–10.


title: Matt Prater

text: In the 2019 season, Prater finished 35 of 36 on extra point attempts and 26 of 31 on field goal attempts as the Lions went 3–12–1.


title: Matt Prater

text: In Week 3 against the Arizona Cardinals, Prater finished the game with two extra points and four field goals made, including the game winner during the 26–23 win. He was named the NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his performance in Week 3. In Week 10 against the Washington Football Team, Prater kicked a 59-yard field goal as time expired to win the game 30–27, earning his second NFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors of the season. On January 3, 2021, Prater set the new NFL record for most career field goals of 50-yards or more. In the 2020 season, Prater converted converting 21-of-28 field goal attempts and 38-of-41 extra point attempts.


title: Matt Prater

text: On March 17, 2021, Prater signed with the Arizona Cardinals on a two–year deal. On September 26, 2021, on the last play of the first half, Prater attempted to break his record 64 yard field goal from 2013 with a wouldbe record 68 yard field goal, but the kick fell short and was returned 109 yards for a touchdown by Jamal Agnew. Later that day, Baltimore Ravens kicker Justin Tucker broke Prater's record with a game winning 66 yard field goal on the last play of the Ravens' game against the Detroit Lions. In Week 6, Prater made three field goals and all four extra points in a 37-14 win against the Cleveland Browns. For his performance he was awarded NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. In Week 17, Prater connected on all four field goal attempts and one extra point, accounting for 13 points, in a 25-22 win over the Cowboys, earning NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. in the 2021 season, Prater converted 30 of 37 field-goal attempts and 47 of 49 extra point attempts.


title: Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver

text: Rick Jaffa (born May 8, 1956) and Amanda Silver (born May 24, 1963) are an American married screenwriting and film production duo.


title: Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver

text: They are best known for having written and co-produced the 2011 science-fiction film "Rise of the Planet of the Apes", a commercially and critically successful reboot of the "Planet of the Apes" franchise for which they were nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Writing. They were also co-writers/producers of its 2014 sequel "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes", and they produced the third installment, "War for the Planet of the Apes", in 2017.


title: Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver

text: They co-wrote "Jurassic World" and the screen story of "In the Heart of the Sea", both 2015 films. In 2013, they were announced to be the co-writers of James Cameron's "", released in 2022.


title: Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver

text: Jaffa and Silver have been married since 1989 and have two children. Silver is the sister of actor Michael B. Silver and the granddaughter of screenwriter and producer Sidney Buchman. In 2015, she was named one of the "Most Influential Women In Hollywood" by "Elle Magazine".


title: Kimiko Kasai

text: Kimiko was born in Kyoto, Japan in 1945. She first became interested in jazz at the age of 13 after hearing Chris Connor's song "All About Ronnie" on the radio. At age 16 she moved to Tokyo and started performing in jazz clubs. Her first recording was with Japanese pianist Yuzuru Sera in 1968


title: Kimiko Kasai

text: Kimiko's first album as a solo artist was entitled "Just Friends" in 1970. In the following year, Kimiko sang the advertising jingle of "Cup Noodles," a brand of the world's first instant cup noodle ramen. In June 1972, she signed on an exclusive contract with CBS/Sony, and recorded "Satin Doll" with support of Gil Evans during Evans' first visitation to Japan.


title: Kimiko Kasai

text: Later she recorded many albums in collaboration with musicians in the jazz field, such as Teo Macero, Lee Konitz, Stan Getz, Paulinho Da Costa, Billy Higgins, Cedar Walton and Herbie Hancock.


title: Kimiko Kasai

text: Kimiko was married to drummer Hiroshi Murakami. In 1990 she married Richard Rudolph and currently resides in Santa Monica and Tokyo, Japan.


title: Navy Pier

text: Navy Pier is a pier on the shoreline of Lake Michigan, located in the Streeterville neighborhood of the Near North Side community area in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Navy Pier encompasses over of parks, gardens, shops, restaurants, family attractions and exhibition facilities and is one of the top destinations in the Midwestern United States, drawing over nine million visitors annually. It is one of the most visited attractions in the entire Midwest and is Chicago's second-most visited tourist attraction.


title: Navy Pier

text: Navy Pier opened to the public on July 15, 1916. Originally known as the "Municipal Pier", the pier was built by Charles Sumner Frost, a nationally known architect, with a design based on the 1909 Plan of Chicago by Daniel Burnham and Edward H. Bennett Its original purpose was to serve as a dock for freights, passenger traffic, and indoor and outdoor recreation; events like expositions and pageants were held there.


title: Navy Pier

text: In mid-1918, the pier was also used as a jail for draft dodgers. In 1927, the pier was renamed Navy Pier to honor the naval veterans who served in World War I.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1941, during World War II, the pier became a training center for the United States Navy; about 10,000 people worked, trained and lived there. The pier contained a 2,500-seat theater, gym, 12-chair barber shop, tailor, cobbler shops, soda fountain and a vast kitchen and hospital.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1946, as the Navy was winding down from its mission, the University of Illinois at Chicago held classes at the pier. As the maximum capacity was exceeded, the school outgrew the pier and the university relocated to Circle Campus in 1965. After the university left, the Navy Pier became underutilized.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1959, the St. Lawrence Seaway opened and increased commercial shipping activity at the pier for a short time, though business died down and left for more modern facilities at Lake Calumet.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1976, the East End buildings were renovated and for a brief period the pier was alive again, home to summer events like ChicagoFest. But maintenance was not done and the pier went into decline.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1989, the City of Chicago had the Urban Land Institute (ULI) reimagine uses for the pier. The Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority (MPEA) was created; its responsibility was to manage and operate Navy Pier as well as McCormick Place. The MPEA undertook the redevelopment, incorporating some of ULI's recommendations.


title: Navy Pier

text: In 1995, Navy Pier was redesigned and introduced to the public as a mixed-use venue incorporating retail, dining, entertainment and cultural spaces.


title: Navy Pier

text: Efforts to update Navy Pier for the 21st century began on January 13, 2006, when the Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority released a proposal for a major renovation of the pier, which including a monorail, a 260-foot (79 m) spokeless Ferris wheel, a roller coaster, floating hotel, and a water park with a Great Lakes theme. The plan would have included nearly double the current parking and a replacement theater with a greater capacity. At the time of the announcement, a price tag of $2 billion was announced.


title: Navy Pier

text: Following the reorganization of the agency that runs Navy Pier and McCormick Place, a new study was commissioned to reinvigorate the upgrade process. The new study, by the Urban Land Institute, was released on November 11, 2010 and recommended a more modest set of enhancements aimed at retaining the pier's role as a public space, rather than turning it into a theme park. Suggested elements include a concert venue, an enlarged Chicago Shakespeare Theater space, new restaurants, a renovated commercial area around the pier's entrance and additional park-like features to bring people closer to the lake. More grandiose possibilities, including the enlarged Ferris wheel and a hotel, are mentioned as more remote possibilities.


title: Navy Pier

text: In March 2012, a competition led to selection of a design concept presented by a team led by James Corner of James Corner Field Operations that focuses on the pier's role as a waterfront promenade. In 2013, the Authority announced plans to carry out the first elements of a streamlined version of that concept, with reworked streetscape and a wider pedestrian space, moving tour-boat moorings to improve the view from a new central stairway centered on the Ferris wheel. Work began on the redevelopment plan, called "The Centennial Vision," during the winter of 2013–2014. The purpose of the plan is to fulfill the mission to keep Navy Pier as a world-class public space and to renovate the pier so it will have more evening and year-round entertainment and more compelling landscape and design features. The Polk Family Foundation (founded by Sol Polk) donated $20 million to the redevelopment effort; the park and fountain at the entrance to the pier was named the Polk Brothers Park and Fountain.


title: Navy Pier

text: A new Ferris wheel for the pier was announced on June 23, 2015. It is tall, taller than its predecessor. Rides now last twelve minutes instead of seven and feature three revolutions. The new wheel has brighter lights and opened in May 2016.


title: Navy Pier

text: "The Centennial Vision"'s first phase was completed in summer 2016. Work included the redesign of the Pier's public spaces, known as Pierscape, and improvements to the interior of the Family Pavilion and South Arcade. Phase I projects included the transformation of South Dock into a more engaging, greener space, conversion of the South Arcade indoor walkway into a Chicago-themed food experience and creation of a lighted water fountain/ice skating rink in Polk Bros Park. In November 2016, Phase I development achieved Gold certification under the Sustainable SITES Initiative (SITES) rating system, based on its expanded green spaces, improved pedestrian access, energy efficiency, innovative storm water management, and use of recycled local materials.


title: Navy Pier

text: Phase II projects include the development of a seven-story, 240-room hotel, adjacent to the south side of Festival Hall; marquee additions to the East End Plaza, including a proposed arched, elevated overlook walkway and reflective water feature; a Welcome Pavilion in Polk Bros Park with 4,000 square feet for guest services and programmatic space; a seasonal ice rink within the footprint of the Polk Bros Park's fountain and plaza; and a short-term, north-side boat docking facility for use by recreational boaters seasonally.


title: Navy Pier

text: There are many outdoor attractions at the Navy Pier Park, such as the Pepsi Wave Swinger, Light Tower Ride, Remote Control Boats(now removed along with fountain around the Wave Swinger), Teacups and the Carousel. New for 2021 is Drop Tower, an S&S Double Shot relocated from the closed Pleasure Island.


title: Navy Pier

text: Amazing Chicago's Funhouse Maze is on the pier. It is a self-paced, full sensory maze experience where a person navigates their way through of tunnels and mazes.


title: Navy Pier

text: Crystal Gardens is a one-acre, botanical garden inside the pier. It is a six-story glass atrium with a 50-foot arched ceiling.


title: Navy Pier

text: The Chicago Children's Museum is a part of the pier, with many different exhibits and activities for both children and adults to enjoy.


title: Navy Pier

text: Chicago Shakespeare Theater, a theater that performs Shakespeare's productions, is located there. The pier also houses an IMAX theater that opened in 1995, featuring a 60 by 80 foot screen in an auditorium with 395 seats, though operator AMC Theatres announced in March 2021 that the theater was permanently closed.


title: Navy Pier

text: The original Ferris wheel was retired on September 27, 2015. The new ferris wheel which replaced it is a DW60 from Dutch Wheels, the Netherlands-based company that built the pier's former wheel. The state-of-the-art DW60 is the first of its kind in the U.S. with similar wheels currently in operation in Hong Kong and Baku, Azerbaijan. Significant features include two-sided cars that allow for easy loading and unloading, a fortified structure to withstand winds of and safety glass capable of weathering intense storms. The new Ferris Wheel was unveiled on May 27, 2016. Around April of 2019, the pier’s original carousel that had operated since 1995 was dismantled and removed. This was due to the original carousel’s mechanism breaking due to cold weather in early 2019. Around late May into June, a new carousel was installed in the site of the original. This new carousel had previously operated at Dorney Park from 1986-2016 under the name Chance Carousel.


title: Navy Pier

text: Navy Pier hosts sightseeing tours from companies such as Seadog Ventures, Shoreline Sightseeing cruises and Water Taxi service, and the tall ship "Windy". There are also dinner cruises by Entertainment Cruises on their ships the "Spirit of Chicago", "Odyssey II", and "Mystic Blue". The pier has fireworks on Wednesday and Saturday nights during the summer and Saturday nights during the fall.


title: Navy Pier

text: Many outdoor art installations are displayed on the pier. The anchor from the naval vessel USS "Chicago" (CA-136/CG-11) is on display at the far end. Other installations include a statue of actor Bob Newhart on a couch as seen on "The Bob Newhart Show", the "Captain On The Helm" statue dedicated to maritime captains, and the "Crack the Whip" sculpture of eight children at play holding hands by J. Seward Johnson Jr.


title: Navy Pier

text: The Festival Halls can be used for sporting events. Festival Halls A and B can be turned into a 170,000 square foot competition arena. Gymnastics meets have been held in the Festival Halls.


title: Navy Pier

text: The halls were used to represent Atlantic City, New Jersey, in the 1986 movie "The Color of Money" for the 9-Ball Championship.


title: Navy Pier

text: In the film "Divergent", the pier and Ferris wheel are shown abandoned and decayed in a future Chicago and it is stated that they were abandoned by choice a long time before. The Dauntless members play capture the flag in the park. Tris and Four climb the Ferris wheel to spot the opposing team. In the book, the opposing team hides the flag in a park near Navy Pier, while in the film version, the flag is hidden in a tower of the Chicago Children's Museum building.


title: Navy Pier

text: The album/DVD "A Long Day's Night" by Blue Oyster Cult was recorded live at Navy Pier/Skyline Stage on June 21, 2002.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Rotterdam was subjected to heavy aerial bombardment by the "Luftwaffe" during the German invasion of the Netherlands in World War II. The objective was to support the German troops fighting in the city, break Dutch resistance and force the Dutch army to surrender. Bombing began at the outset of hostilities on 10 May and culminated with the destruction of the entire historic city centre on 14 May, an event sometimes referred to as the Rotterdam Blitz. According to an official list published in 2022 at least 1,150 people were killed (with 711 deaths in the 14 May bombing alone) and 85,000 more were left homeless.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The psychological and physical success of the raid, from the German perspective, led the "Oberkommando der Luftwaffe" (OKL) to threaten to destroy the city of Utrecht if the Dutch command did not surrender. The Dutch surrendered in the late afternoon of 14 May, signing the capitulation early the next morning.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The strategic location of the Netherlands between the United Kingdom and Germany made it ideal for the basing of German air and naval forces to be used in attacks on the British Isles. The Netherlands had firmly opted for neutrality throughout the First World War and had planned to do the same for the Second World War. It had refused armaments from France, making the case that they wanted no association with either side. While armament production was slightly increased after the German invasion of Denmark in April 1940, the Netherlands had only 35 modern wheeled armoured fighting vehicles, five tracked armoured fighting vehicles, 135 aircraft, and 280,000 soldiers, while Germany committed 159 tanks, 1,200 modern aircraft, and around 150,000 soldiers to the Dutch theatre alone.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: With a significant military advantage, the German leadership intended to expedite the conquest of the country by first taking control of key military and strategic targets, such as airfields, bridges, and roads, and then using them to gain control of the remainder of the country. The first German plans to invade the Netherlands were articulated on 9 October 1939, when Hitler ordered that "Preparations should be made for offensive action on the northern flank of the Western Front crossing the area of Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands." The attack was to be carried out as quickly and as forcefully as possible. Hitler ordered German intelligence officers to capture Dutch army uniforms and use them to gain detailed information on Dutch defensive preparations.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The "Wehrmacht" launched its invasion of the Netherlands in the early hours of 10 May 1940. The attack started with the "Luftwaffe" crossing through Dutch airspace, giving the impression that Britain was the ultimate target. Instead, the aircraft turned around over the North Sea and returned to attack from the west, dropping paratroopers at Valkenburg and Ockenburg airfields, near the seat of government and Royal Palace in the Hague, starting the Battle for the Hague. While Germany had planned to take control swiftly using that strategy, the assault on The Hague failed. However, bridges were taken at the Moerdijk, Dort and Rotterdam, which allowed armoured forces to enter the core region of the "Fortress Holland" on 13 May.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The situation in Rotterdam on the morning of 13 May 1940 was a stalemate as it had been over the previous three days. Dutch garrison forces under Colonel P.W. Scharroo held the north bank of the Nieuwe Maas river, which runs through the city and prevented the Germans from crossing; German forces included airlanding and airborne forces of General Kurt Student and newly-arrived ground forces under General Schmidt, based on the 9th "Panzer" Division and the "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler", a motorized SS regiment.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: A Dutch counterattack led by a Dutch marine company had failed to recapture the Willemsbrug traffic bridge, the key crossing. Several efforts by the Dutch Army Aviation Brigade to destroy the bridge also failed.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: General Schmidt had planned a combined assault the next day, 14 May, using tanks of the 9th "Panzer" supported by flame throwers, SS troops and combat engineers. The airlanding troops were to make an amphibious crossing of the river upstream and then a flank attack through the Kralingen district. The attack was to be preceded by artillery bombardment, while Gen. Schmidt had requested the support of the "Luftwaffe" in the form of a "Gruppe" (about 25 aircraft) of Junkers Ju 87 dive-bombers, specifically for a precision raid.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Schmidt's request for air support reached the staff of "Luftflotte" 2 in Berlin. Instead of precision bombers, Schmidt got carpet bombing by Heinkel He 111 bombers besides a "Gruppe" of Stukas focussing on some strategic targets. The carpet bombing had been ordered by Hermann Göring, to force a Dutch national capitulation.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The bombing was initially scheduled for 13 May but the Germans were unable to carry out the operation because of low clouds. Instead, they were to bomb the city on the following day. At roughly 10:30 on 14 May General Rudolf Schmidt issued an ultimatum to the Dutch commander, Colonel Scharroo:To the Commander of Rotterdam


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The continuing opposition to the offensive of German troops in the open city of Rotterdam forces me to take appropriate measures should this resistance not be ceased immediately. This may well result in the complete destruction of the city. I petition you - as a man of responsibility - to endeavour everything within your powers to prevent the town of having to bear such a huge price. As a token of agreement I request you to send us an authorised negotiator by return. Should within two hours after the hand-over of this ultimatum no official reply be received, I will be forced to execute the most extreme measures of destruction.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The commander of the German troops.The Mayor of Rotterdam, Pieter Oud consulted with his aldermen and concluded that there was simply not enough time to evacuate the city within the two hour period the Germans had set. Mayor Oud pleaded with Scharroo to surrender. However, Scharroo was not happy with the integrity of the letter as it had not been signed by anyone on the German side; therefore, he refused to seriously consider the surrender. He replied asking for further details:To the commander of the German troops.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: I am in receipt of your letter. Subject letter has not been duly signed and did not mention name and rank of its originator. Prior to seriously considering your proposal, the letter should be duly signed and mention your name and rank.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Colonel, commander of the Dutch troops in Rotterdam, P.W. ScharrooOn receipt of Scharroo's letter, Schmidt sent a telegram to the 2nd "Luftflotte" (responsible for the air raid) stating:Airstrike postponed due to ongoing negotiations. Return to stand-by status.That was received by the 2nd "Luftflotte" at 12:42, but the message was not given to the bombers.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: As Schmidt was handing over his second signed ultimatum to the Dutch negotiators, the sound of aircraft engines was heard overhead. Schmidt was shocked; however, it had also been arranged that red flares were to be shot into the sky by the Wehrmacht if the negotiations had begun. If the bombers saw the red flares, they would know to turn back. However, there were two groups of bombers flying towards the city. One group - the larger of the two - had 54 Heinkel He 111s flying in from the northeast, while the smaller group (36 He-111s) was flying in from the south. As the Germans had captured only the southern parts of the city, there were no flares fired in the north. In addition, there was a large smoke cloud obscuring the southern part of the city, which made it harder to see the flares. The smaller group saw the flares and most of their planes turned back, and the larger group never saw the flares and proceeded to destroy the city. General Schmidt exclaimed, "My God, this is a catastrophe!" In total, 1,150 50-kilogram (110 lb) and 158 250-kilogram (550 lb) bombs were dropped on the city, mainly in the residential areas of Kralingen and the medieval city centre. Most of them struck buildings, which immediately went up in flames. The fires across the city centre spread uncontrollably and, in the subsequent days, were aggravated as the wind grew stronger; they merged to become a firestorm. Reports stated that 900 people had reported been killed, and of the city centre had been destroyed. 24,978 homes, 24 churches, 2,320 stores, 775 warehouses and 62 schools were destroyed. Schmidt sent a conciliatory message to the Dutch commander General Winkelman, who surrendered shortly afterwards at Rijsoord, a village southeast of Rotterdam. The school where the Dutch capitulated was later turned into a small museum.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The telegraphed message from Schmidt to halt the bombers and put them on standby was confirmed as received by the 2nd "Luftflotte" at 12:42. The commander of "Luftflotte 2", Field Marshal Albert Kesselring was interviewed about the event during the Nuremberg Trials by Leon Goldensohn, who recalled:Kesselring admitted that the conditions were such that an attack could have been called off, but still clung, rather unreasonably, to the idea that it was tactically indicated because he had been ordered to do so, and he was not a politician but a soldierKesselring stated that he had not known about the capitulation, but that is contradicted by the evidence that his headquarters had received the message at 12:42, roughly 40 minutes before the bombs started to fall. Yet, at Nuremberg, both Göring and Kesselring of the Luftwaffe defended the bombing on the grounds that Rotterdam had been not an open city but one stoutly defended by the Dutch. In his memoirs, written while he was he was in prison for war crimes, Kesselring gave his account:On the morning of 13 May, Student kept calling for bomber support against enemy strongpoints inside Rotterdam and the point of main effort at the bridges where the parachutists were held up. At 14:00 hours the sortie in question was flown, and its success finally led to the capitulation of Holland on 14 May 1940General Student requested only strikes against enemy strongpoints, not carpet-bombing of the city. Kesselring also states in his memoirs that he spent hours in heated argument with Goring on how the attacks were to be carried out, if at all. The arguments happened before the bombers took off and so that cannot be used as an excuse for why he did not get in contact with the bombers.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The fact was that he had already admitted at Nuremberg that he was for the attack since he wanted 'to present a firm attitude and secure an immediate peace' or take 'severe measures'. Kesselring further states:As a result I repeatedly warned the bomber wing-commander to pay particular attention to the flares and signals displayed in the battle area and to keep in constant wireless contact with the Air-landing Group.With that in mind, it is unlikely that the bombers would have reeled in their antennas until a few minutes before releasing their bombs. The argument that the antennas were reeled in is contradicted also by the fact that Kesselring quotes "Oberst" Lӓckner (the commander of the bombers) in his memoirs:Shortly before the take-off a message came through from Air command saying that Student had called upon Rotterdam to surrender and ordering us to attack an alternative target in case Rotterdam should have surrendered in the meantime (during the approach flight) ― "Oberst" LӓcknerThat invalidates the argument that the bombers had reeled in their antennas because the bombers had not taken off. That indicates that Kesselring must have made the decision to attack Rotterdam regardless of the negotiations.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The Dutch military had no effective means of stopping the bombers (the Dutch Air Force had practically ceased to exist, and its anti-aircraft guns had been moved to The Hague), so when another similar ultimatum was given in which the Germans threatened to bomb the city of Utrecht, the Dutch supreme command decided to capitulate in the late afternoon, rather than risk the destruction of another city. Through Allied and international news media, Dutch and British sources informed the public that the raid on Rotterdam had been on an open city in which 30,000 civilians were killed (the real number of civilians who were killed was around 900) "and character[ised] the German demolition of the old city as an act of unmitigated barbarism." The number of casualties was relatively small, because thousands of civilians had either fled to safer parts of Rotterdam, or they had fled to other cities, during the previous four days of bombing and warfare. The German weekly "Die Mühle" ("The Windmill") stated that the Dutch government was to blame for turning Rotterdam into a fortress, despite multiple summons to evacuate. It also claimed that the old city was ignited by Dutch bombs and incendiary devices.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The United Kingdom had followed a policy of only bombing military targets and infrastructure, such as ports and railways, because it considered them militarily important. While the British government acknowledged the fact that the bombing of Germany would cause civilian casualties, it renounced the deliberate bombing of civilian property outside combat zones, which, after the fall of Poland, meant German areas which were located east of the Rhine, as a military tactic. That policy was abandoned on 15 May 1940, one day after the Rotterdam Blitz, when the RAF was directed to attack targets which were located in the Ruhr, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets that aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces that were self-illuminating at night. The first RAF raid on the interior of Germany took place on the night of 15/16 May 1940.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The extent of the damage from the bombardment and the resulting fire caused an almost immediate decision to demolish the entire city centre with the exception of the Laurenskerk church, the De Noord mill, the Beurs trade centre, the Rotterdam old city hall () and the Rotterdam old central post office (). Despite the disaster, the city's destruction was regarded as the perfect opportunity to redress many of the problems of industrial pre-war Rotterdam, such as crowded, impoverished neighborhoods, and to introduce broad-scale, modernising changes in the urban fabric, which had previously been too radical in the built-up city. There seemed to be no thought of nostalgically rebuilding the old city, as it would be at the expense of a more modern future. That ran counter to the decision taken in other European cities destroyed during the war, such as Warsaw, for which the Polish government spent considerable resources on reconstructing historical buildings and quarters and restoring them to their prewar appearance.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: W.G. Witteveen, director of the Port Authority, was instructed to draw up plans for the reconstruction within four days of the bombing, and presented his plan to the city council in less than a month. The first plan essentially used most of the old city's structure and layout, but it integrated them into a new plan with widened streets and sidewalks. The largest and most controversial change in the layout was to move the main dike of the city alongside the riverbank, so as to protect the low-lying Waterstad area from flooding. That was met with criticism from the newly-formed Inner Circle of the Rotterdam Club, which promoted integrating the city with the Maas (Meuse), and claimed that the dike would create a marked separation from it.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: A number of new or previously-incomplete projects, such as the Maastunnel and Rotterdamsche bank, were to be completed in accordance with Witteveen's plan, and the projects kept the Dutch people in work during the German occupation of the city until all construction was halted in 1942. Herman van der Horst's 1952 documentary "Houen zo!" presents a vision of some of the projects.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Meanwhile, Witteveen's successor Cornelius van Traa drafted a completely new reconstruction plan, the "Basisplan voor de Herbouw van de Binnenstad", which was adopted in 1946. Van Traa's plan was a much more radical rebuild, doing away with the old layout and replacing them with a collection of principles rather than such a rigid structural design. The "Basisplan" placed a high emphasis on broad open spaces and promoted the river's special integration with the city through two significant elements: the Maas Boulevard, which reimagined the newly--moved dike as a tree-lined street 80 wide, and the Window to the River, a visual corridor running from the harbour to the centre of the city. Both were meant to show the workings of the harbour to the city's people.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Because reconstruction work began so rapidly after the bombing,the city had again by 1950 retained its reputation as the fastest loading and unloading harbour in the world.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Around the same time, the city centre of Rotterdam had shifted north-west as a result of temporary shopping centres, which had been set up on the edge of the devastated city, and new shopping centre projects like the Lijnbaan were expressing the radical new concepts of the "Basisplan", through low, wide open streets set beside tall slab-like buildings. Rotterdam's urban form was more American than other Dutch cities, based on US plans, with a large collection of high-rise elements and the Maas boulevard and Window to the River functioning primarily as conduits for motor vehicles. In later years, Rotterdam architect Kees Christiaanse wrote:


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: The larger-scale 'wholesale-quantity' approach was equally used for hospitals and parks (such as Dijkzigt Hospital and Zuider Park) as retail centres, but close attention was still paid to creating human-scale walkable promenades, especially that of the Lijnbaan, which presented broad sunny walkways for shoppers and spectators, and tried new retail techniques such as open glass walls to blend interior and exterior.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: While urban reconstruction can be fraught with complexity and conflict, Rotterdam's status as a 'working' harbour city meant it did not receive the same resistance to rebuilding as a cultural or political centre (as Amsterdam or The Hague) might have. However, there was still significant movement of people away from the city centre during Rotterdam's reconstruction to purpose-built neighbourhoods such as De Horsten and Hoogvliet, which are now inhabited by mainly lower-income households.


title: German bombing of Rotterdam

text: Today, van Traa's "Basisplan" has been almost completely replaced with newer projects. For example, The Maritime Museum blocks the Window to the River, and Piet Blom's Cube Houses create another barrier between the city and the river, where in the Basisplan there was to be a connection between them. The Euromast Tower, which was built in 1960, is a related attempt to create a visual link between the city and the port, seemingly one of the last architectural structures that is related to van Traa's "Basisplan" before later attempts like the Boompjes Boulevard in 1991.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: In the Philippines, Filipino Mestizo (; Filipino/) or colloquially Tisoy, is a name used to refer to people of mixed native Filipino and any foreign ancestry. The word "mestizo" itself is of Spanish origin; it was first used in the Americas to describe people of mixed Native American and European ancestry. The Chinese Mestizos being the biggest Mestizo population, while the Spanish Mestizo being less yet a very socially significant or prestigious minority. They are very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: A Spanish expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565 started a period of Spanish colonization of the Philippines which lasted for 333 years. The Roman Catholic Church played an important role in the Spanish colonization of the Philippines beyond the preaching of the Catholic faith. Spanish missionaries contributed to education, healthcare, scientific research and even public works. The Spanish government and religious missionaries studied the native Filipino languages and published the first grammars and dictionaries of Tagalog, the Bisayan languages and others. In the earlier period, Roman Catholic rituals were adapted to native beliefs and values. As a result, a folk Roman Catholicism developed in the Philippines. European settlers from Spain and Mexico immigrated to the islands and their offspring (of either pure Spanish, or mixed Spanish and Native descent) adopted the culture of their parents and grandparents. Most Filipinos of Spanish descent in the Philippines are of Basque ancestry Some families still privately use Spanish in the households. In addition, Chavacano (a creole language based largely on the Spanish) is widely spoken in Zamboanga and neighboring regions, as well as Cavite and Ternate. Spanish era periodicals record that as much as one-third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon possessed varying degrees of Spanish admixture. In addition to Manila, select cities such as Bacolod, Cebu, Iloilo or Zamboanga which had important military fortifications and commercial ports during the Spanish era also had sizable Mestizo communities.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Even before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, the Chinese had traded with the natives of the Philippines. During the colonial period, there was an increase in the number of Chinese immigrants in the Philippines. The Spaniards restricted the activities of the Chinese and confined them to the Parián which was located near Intramuros. Most of the Chinese residents earned their livelihood as traders.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Initially, many of the Chinese who arrived during the Spanish period were Cantonese or Taishanese, who worked as laborers, but there were also Hokkienese, who entered the retail trade and now currently make up most of the Chinese Filipino population. The Chinese residents of the islands were encouraged to intermarry with other native or Spanish Filipinos and convert to Roman Catholicism. Both native Filipinos and Chinese who lacked surnames were encouraged to adopt one from the "Catálogo alfabético de apellidos", an alphabetical list of Spanish family names, introduced by the government in the mid-19th century.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: During the United States colonial period, the Chinese Exclusion Act of the United States was also applied to the Philippines. Despite this, many were still able to find ways to migrate into the Philippines during the era.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: After the Second World War and the victory of the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, many refugees who fled from Mainland China settled in the Philippines. These groups in the 20th century formed the bulk of the current population of Chinese Filipinos. After the Philippines achieved full sovereignty on 4 July 1946, Chinese immigrants became naturalized Filipino citizens, while the children of these new citizens who were born in the country acquired Filipino citizenship from birth.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. "Mestizos de Sangley"—Filipinos with at least some Chinese ancestry descended from the Spanish colonial era—comprise 18–27% of the Philippine population. There are roughly 1.5 million Filipinos with pure Chinese ancestry, or about 1.6% of the population.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Except for the many Chinese migration waves, the history of racial mixture in the Philippines occurred on a smaller scale than other Spanish territories in Americas after and during the Spanish colonial period from the 16th to the 19th century. This ethno-religious social stratification schema was similar to the "casta" system used in Hispanic America, with some major differences.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The system was used for taxation purposes, with "indios" and "negritos" who lived within the colony paying a base tax, "mestizos de sangley" paying double the base tax, "sangleys" paying quadruple; "blancos", however, paid no tax . The tax system was abolished after the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in 1898, and the term ""Filipino"" was used to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of ancestry.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The Spanish deliberately implemented incentives to entangle the various races together to stop rebellion:


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the" (native) "Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a" (native) "Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a" (native) "Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a" (native) "Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a" (native) "Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and" (native) "Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a" (native) "Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted" (native) "Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible.'


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Persons classified as "blancos" (whites) and those with Spanish ancestry were subdivided into the "peninsulares" (persons of pure Spanish descent born "in Spain"); "insulares" (persons of pure Spanish descent born "in the Philippines" i.e. criollos); "mestizos de español" (persons of mixed Autronesian and Spanish ancestry), and "tornatrás" (persons of mixed Austronesian, Chinese, and Spanish ancestry).


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Persons of pure or mostly Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Hispanic America were classified as "Americanos". Mestizos and mulattoes born in Hispanic America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such. Mulattos usually came as indentured servants to the "Americanos". Philippine-born children of mestizos and mulattoes from Hispanic America were classified based on patrilineal descent.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The indigenous peoples of the Philippines were referred to as "Indios" (for those of pure Austronesian descent) and negritos. "Indio" was a general term applied to native Austronesians as a legal classification; it was only applied to Christianised natives who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies. Persons who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and areas with a large Spanish concentration were classified as such: "naturales" were baptised Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. Unbaptised Austronesians and Aetas who lived in the towns were classified as "salvajes" (savages) or "infieles" (infidels). "Remontados" ("those who went to the mountains") and "tulisanes" (bandits) were Austronesians and Aetas who refused to live in towns and moved upland. They were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in everyday life as well as determinant of social class.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The Spanish legally classified the Aetas as <nowiki>"negritos"</nowiki>, based on their appearance. The word term would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianised Aetas who lived in the colony and unbaptised Aetas who lived in tribes outside of the colony were classified "negrito". Christianised Aetas who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for "indios". Persons of Aeta descent were also viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes beyond settlements and resisted conversion to Christianity.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The fluid nature of racial integration in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was recorded by many travelers and public figures at the time, who were favorably impressed by the lack of racial discrimination, as compared to the situation in other European colonies.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Among them was Sir John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong and a well-seasoned traveler who had written several books about the different cultures in Asia. He described the situation as "admirable" during a visit to the Philippines in the 1870s:


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: The lines separating entire classes and races, appeared to me less marked than in the Oriental colonies. I have seen on the same table, Spaniards, Mestizos (Chinos cristianos) and Indios, priests and military. There is no doubt that having one Religion forms great bonding. And more so to the eyes of one that has been observing the repulsion and differences due to race in many parts of Asia. And from one (like myself) who knows that race is the great divider of society, the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is indeed admirable.""


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Another foreign witness was English engineer, Frederic H. Sawyer, who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years. His impression was that as far as racial integration and harmony was concerned, the situation in the Philippines was not equaled by any other colonial power:


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: ... Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony, and do not know where I could find a colony in which Europeans mixes as much socially with the natives. Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount to salute the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into a bottomless pit.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: In modern times, many of the descendants of the above Filipino mestizos may technically be classified as "Tornatrás", but due to the term's obsolescence in mainstream usage, most Filipino mestizo descendants would usually regard themselves or identify as either just "mestizo" or just simply ""Filipino"". In modern times, the descendants of the Filipino mestizos are still very active in the politics of the Philippines, especially controlling the bulk of the country's political families and compose a considerable part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeois, whereas the modern Chinese Filipino community and the few remaining Spanish Filipino families both contribute major shares in the Philippine economy, of which a majority of the Philippines' richest billionaires are usually either of Chinese Filipino background, such as the Sy family (SM Group, BDO, etc.), Gokongwei family (JG Summit, Robinsons, etc.), Lucio Tan & family (LT Group, Philippine Airlines (PAL), etc.), Tony Tan Caktiong & family (Jollibee Corp.), Ramon Ang & family (San Miguel Corp. (SMC)), and many more, or a few of Spanish Filipino background, such as Zobel de Ayala family (Ayala Corp.), Razon family (International Container Terminal Services, Inc. (ICTSI), Solaire, etc.), Aboitiz family (Aboitiz Equity Ventures, Aboitiz Power, etc.), etc.


title: Filipino Mestizos

text: Today, the word "mestizo" is shortened as "tisoy" just as is the word Pinoy for Filipino. It is used for all Filipinos with foreign ancestry, particularly those born in the diaspora or as children of recent immigrants.


title: Citation index

text: A citation index is a kind of bibliographic index, an index of citations between publications, allowing the user to easily establish which later documents cite which earlier documents. A form of citation index is first found in 12th-century Hebrew religious literature. Legal citation indexes are found in the 18th century and were made popular by citators such as Shepard's Citations (1873). In 1961, Eugene Garfield's Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers published in academic journals, first the "Science Citation Index" (SCI), and later the "Social Sciences Citation Index" (SSCI) and the "Arts and Humanities Citation Index" (AHCI). American Chemical Society converted its printed Chemical Abstract Service (established in 1907) into internet-accessible SciFinder in 2008. The first automated citation indexing was done by CiteSeer in 1997 and was patented. Other sources for such data include Google Scholar, Microsoft Academic, Elsevier's Scopus, and the National Institutes of Health's "iCite".


title: Citation index

text: The earliest known citation index is an index of biblical citations in rabbinic literature, the "Mafteah ha-Derashot", attributed to Maimonides and probably dating to the 12th century. It is organized alphabetically by biblical phrase. Later biblical citation indexes are in the order of the canonical text. These citation indices were used both for general and for legal study. The Talmudic citation index "En Mishpat" (1714) even included a symbol to indicate whether a Talmudic decision had been overridden, just as in the 19th-century "Shepard's Citations". Unlike modern scholarly citation indexes, only references to one work, the Bible, were indexed.


title: Citation index

text: In English legal literature, volumes of judicial reports included lists of cases cited in that volume starting with "Raymond's Reports" (1743) and followed by "Douglas's Reports" (1783). Simon Greenleaf (1821) published an alphabetical list of cases with notes on later decisions affecting the precedential authority of the original decision. These early tables of legal citations ("citators") were followed by a more complete, book length index, Labatt's "Table of Cases...California..." (1860) and in 1872 by Wait's "Table of Cases...New York...". The most important and best-known citation index for legal cases was released in 1873 with the publication of Shepard's Citations.


title: Citation index

text: William Adair, a former president of "Shepard's Citations", suggested in 1920 that citation indexes could serve as a tool for tracking science and engineering literature. After learning that Eugene Garfield held a similar opinion, Adair corresponded with Garfield in 1953. The correspondence prompted Garfield to examine "Shepard's Citations" index as a model that could be extended to the sciences. Two years later Garfield published “Citation indexes for science” in the journal "Science". In 1959, Garfield started a consulting business, the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), in Philadelphia and began a correspondence with Joshua Lederberg about the idea. In 1961 Garfield received a grant from the U.S. National Institutes of Health to compile a citation index for Genetics. To do so, Garfield's team gathered 1.4 million citations from 613 journals. From this work, Garfield and the ISI produced the first version of the "Science Citation Index", published as a book in 1963.


title: Citation index

text: Each of these offer an index of citations between publications and a mechanism to establish which documents cite which other documents. They are not open-access and differ widely in cost: Web of Science and Scopus are available by subscription (generally to libraries).


title: Citation index

text: Clarivate Analytics' Web of Science (WoS) and Elsevier's Scopus databases are synonymous with data on international research, and considered as the two most trusted or authoritative sources of bibliometric data for peer-reviewed global research knowledge across disciplines. They are both also used widely for the purposes of researcher evaluation and promotion, institutional impact (for example the role of WoS in the UK Research Excellence Framework 2021), and international league tables (Bibliographic data from Scopus represents more than 36% of assessment criteria in the THE rankings). But while these databases are generally agreed to contain rigorously-assessed, high quality research, they do not represent the sum of current global research knowledge.


title: Citation index

text: It is often mentioned in popular science articles that the research output of countries in South America, Asia, and Africa are disappointingly low. Sub-Saharan Africa is cited as an example for having "13.5% of the global population but less than 1% of global research output". This fact is based on data from a World Bank/Elsevier report from 2012 which relies on data from Scopus. Research outputs in this context refers to papers specifically published in peer-reviewed journals that are indexed in Scopus. Similarly, many others have analysed putatively global or international collaborations and mobility using the even more selective WoS database. Research outputs in this context refers to papers specifically published in peer-reviewed journals that are indexed either in Scopus or WoS.


title: Citation index

text: Both WoS and Scopus are considered highly selective. Both are commercial enterprises, whose standards and assessment criteria are mostly controlled by panels in North America and Western Europe. The same is true for more comprehensive databases such as Ulrich's Web which lists as many as 70,000 journals, while Scopus has fewer than 50% of these, and WoS has fewer than 25%. While Scopus is larger and geographically broader than WoS, it still only covers a fraction of journal publishing outside North America and Europe. For example, it reports a coverage of over 2,000 journals in Asia ("230% more than the nearest competitor"), which may seem impressive until you consider that in Indonesia alone there are more than 7,000 journals listed on the government's Garuda portal (of which more than 1,300 are currently listed on DOAJ); whilst at least 2,500 Japanese journals listed on the J-Stage platform. Similarly, Scopus claims to have about 700 journals listed from Latin America, in comparison with SciELO's 1,285 active journal count; but that's just the tip of the iceberg judging by the 1,300+ DOAJ-listed journals in Brazil alone. Furthermore, the editorial boards of the journals contained in Wos and Scopus databases are integrated by researchers from western Europe and North America. For example, in the journal "Human Geography", 41% of editorial board members are from the United States, and 37.8% from the UK. Similarly,) studied ten leading marketing journals in WoS and Scopus databases, and concluded that 85.3% of their editorial board members are based in the United States. It comes as no surprise that the research that gets published in these journals is the one that fits the editorial boards' world view.


title: Citation index

text: Comparison with subject-specific indexes has further revealed the geographical and topic bias – for example Ciarli found that by comparing the coverage of rice research in CAB Abstracts (an agriculture and global health database) with WoS and Scopus, the latter "may strongly under-represent the scientific production by developing countries, and over-represent that by industrialised countries", and this is likely to apply to other fields of agriculture. This under-representation of applied research in Africa, Asia, and South America may have an additional negative effect on framing research strategies and policy development in these countries. The overpromotion of these databases diminishes the important role of "local" and "regional" journals for researchers who want to publish and read locally-relevant content. Some researchers deliberately bypass "high impact" journals when they want to publish locally useful or important research in favour of outlets that will reach their key audience quicker, and in other cases to be able to publish in their native language.


title: Citation index

text: Furthermore, the odds are stacked against researchers for whom English is a foreign language. 95% of WoS journals are English consider the use of English language a hegemonic and unreflective linguistic practice. The consequences include that non-native speakers spend part of their budget on translation and correction and invest a significant amount of time and effort on subsequent corrections, making publishing in English a burden. A far-reaching consequence of the use of English as the "lingua franca" of science is in knowledge production, because its use benefits "worldviews, social, cultural, and political interests of the English-speaking center" ( p. 123).


title: Citation index

text: The small proportion of research from South East Asia, Africa, and Latin America which makes it into WoS and Scopus journals is not attributable to a lack of effort or quality of research; but due to hidden and invisible epistemic and structural barriers (Chan 2019). These are a reflection of "deeper historical and structural power that had positioned former colonial masters as the centers of knowledge production, while relegating former colonies to peripheral roles" (Chan 2018). Many North American and European journals demonstrate conscious and unconscious bias against researchers from other parts of the world. Many of these journals call themselves "international" but represent interests, authors, and even references only in their own languages. Therefore, researchers in non-European or North American countries commonly get rejected because their research is said to be "not internationally significant" or only of "local interest" (the wrong "local"). This reflects the current concept of "international" as limited to a Euro/Anglophone-centric way of knowledge production. In other words, "the ongoing internationalisation has not meant academic interaction and exchange of knowledge, but the dominance of the leading Anglophone journals in which international debates occurs and gains recognition" (, p. 8).


title: Citation index

text: Clarivate Analytics have made some positive steps to broaden the scope of WoS, integrating the SciELO citation index – a move not without criticism – and through the creation of the Emerging Sources Index (ESI), which has allowed database access to many more international titles. However, there is still a lot of work to be done to recognise and amplify the growing body of research literature generated by those outside North America and Europe. The Royal Society have previously identified that "traditional metrics do not fully capture the dynamics of the emerging global science landscape", and that academia needs to develop more sophisticated data and impact measures to provide a richer understanding of the global scientific knowledge that is available to us.


title: Citation index

text: Academia has not yet built digital infrastructures which are equal, comprehensive, multi-lingual and allows fair participation in knowledge creation. One way to bridge this gap is with discipline- and region-specific preprint repositories such as AfricArXiv and InarXiv. Open access advocates recommend to remain critical of those "global" research databases that have been built in Europe or Northern America and be wary of those who celebrate these products act as a representation of the global sum of human scholarly knowledge. Finally, let us also be aware of the geopolitical impact that such systematic discrimination has on knowledge production, and the inclusion and representation of marginalised research demographics within the global research landscape.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: Osmium tetroxide (also osmium(VIII) oxide) is the chemical compound with the formula OsO. The compound is noteworthy for its many uses, despite its toxicity and the rarity of osmium. It also has a number of unusual properties, one being that the solid is volatile. The compound is colourless, but most samples appear yellow. This is most likely due to the presence of the impurity OsO, which is yellow-brown in colour. In biology, its property of binding to lipids has made it a widely-used stain in electron microscopy.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: Osmium(VIII) oxide forms monoclinic crystals. It has a characteristic acrid chlorine-like odor. The element name osmium is derived from "osme", Greek for "odor". OsO is volatile: it sublimes at room temperature. It is soluble in a wide range of organic solvents. It is also moderately soluble in water, with which it reacts reversibly to form osmic acid (see below). "Pure" osmium(VIII) oxide is probably colourless and it has been suggested that its yellow hue is due to osmium dioxide (OsO) impurities. The osmium tetroxide molecule is tetrahedral and therefore non-polar. This nonpolarity helps OsO penetrate charged cell membranes. OsO is 518 times more soluble in carbon tetrachloride than in water.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: The osmium of OsO has an oxidation number of VIII; however, the metal does not possess a corresponding 8+ charge as the bonding in the compound is largely covalent in character (the ionization energy required to produce a formal 8+ charge also far exceeds the energies available in normal chemical reactions). The osmium atom has eight valence electrons (6s, 5d) with double bonds to the four oxide ligands resulting in a 16 electron complex. This is isoelectronic with permanganate and chromate ions.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is formed slowly when osmium powder reacts with O at ambient temperature. Reaction of bulk solid requires heating to 400 °C.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: Alkenes add to OsO to give diolate species that hydrolyze to "cis"-diols. The net process is called dihydroxylation. This proceeds via a [3 + 2] cycloaddition reaction between the OsO and alkene to form an intermediate osmate ester which rapidly hydrolyses to yield the vicinal diol. As the oxygen atoms are added in a concerted step, the resulting stereochemistry is "cis".


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is expensive and highly toxic, making it an unappealing reagent to use in stoichiometric amounts. However its reactions are made catalytic by adding reoxidants to reoxidise the Os(VI) by-product back to Os(VIII). Typical reagents include HO (Milas hydroxylation), N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (Upjohn dihydroxylation) and KFe(CN)/water. These reoxidants do not react with the alkenes on their own. Other osmium compounds can be used as catalysts, including osmate(VI) salts ([OsO(OH))], and osmium trichloride hydrate (OsCl·"x"HO). These species oxidise to osmium(VIII) in the presence of such oxidants.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: Lewis bases such as tertiary amines and pyridines increase the rate of dihydroxylation. This "ligand-acceleration" arises via the formation of adduct OsOL, which adds more rapidly to the alkene. If the amine is chiral, then the dihydroxylation can proceed with enantioselectivity (see Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation). OsO does not react with most carbohydrates.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: The process can be extended to give two aldehydes in the Lemieux–Johnson oxidation, which uses periodate to achieve diol cleavage and to regenerate the catalytic loading of OsO. This process is equivalent to that of ozonolysis.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is a Lewis acid and a mild oxidant. It reacts with alkaline aqueous solution to give the perosmate anion . This species is easily reduced to osmate anion, .


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: When the Lewis base is an amine, adducts are also formed. Thus OsO can be stored in the form of osmeth, in which OsO is complexed with hexamine. Osmeth can be dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (THF) and diluted in an aqueous buffer solution to make a dilute (0.25%) working solution of OsO.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is very soluble in tert-butyl alcohol. In solution, it is readily reduced by hydrogen to osmium metal. The suspended osmium metal can be used to catalyze hydrogenation of a wide variety of organic chemicals containing double or triple bonds.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO undergoes "reductive carbonylation" with carbon monoxide in methanol at 400 K and 200 sbar to produce the triangular cluster Os(CO):


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: In organic synthesis OsO is widely used to oxidize alkenes to the vicinal diols, adding two hydroxyl groups at the same side (syn addition). See reaction and mechanism above. This reaction has been made both catalytic (Upjohn dihydroxylation) and asymmetric (Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation).


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: Osmium(VIII) oxide is also used in catalytic amounts in the Sharpless oxyamination to give vicinal amino-alcohols.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: In combination with sodium periodate, OsO is used for the oxidative cleavage of alkenes (Lemieux-Johnson oxidation) when the periodate serves both to cleave the diol formed by dihydroxylation, and to reoxidize the OsO back to OsO. The net transformation is identical to that produced by ozonolysis. Below an example from the total synthesis of Isosteviol.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is a widely used staining agent used in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to provide contrast to the image. This staining method is known in the literature as the OTO (Osmium Tetraoxide) method, or osmium impregnation technique or simply as osmium staining. As a lipid stain, it is also useful in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as an alternative to sputter coating. It embeds a heavy metal directly into cell membranes, creating a high electron scattering rate without the need for coating the membrane with a layer of metal, which can obscure details of the cell membrane. In the staining of the plasma membrane, osmium(VIII) oxide binds phospholipid head regions, thus creating contrast with the neighbouring protoplasm (cytoplasm). Additionally, osmium(VIII) oxide is also used for fixing biological samples in conjunction with HgCl. Its rapid killing abilities are used to quickly kill live specimens such as protozoa. OsO stabilizes many proteins by transforming them into gels without destroying structural features. Tissue proteins that are stabilized by OsO are not coagulated by alcohols during dehydration. Osmium(VIII) oxide is also used as a stain for lipids in optical microscopy. OsO also stains the human cornea (see safety considerations).


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: It is also used to stain copolymers preferentially, the best known example being block copolymers where one phase can be stained so as to show the microstructure of the material. For example, styrene-butadiene block copolymers have a central polybutadiene chain with polystyrene end caps. When treated with OsO, the butadiene matrix reacts preferentially and so absorbs the oxide. The presence of a heavy metal is sufficient to block the electron beam, so the polystyrene domains are seen clearly in thin films in TEM.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is an intermediate in the extraction of osmium from its ores. Osmium-containing residues are treated with sodium peroxide (NaO) forming Na[OsO(OH)], which is soluble. When exposed to chlorine, this salt gives OsO. In the final stages of refining, crude OsO is dissolved in alcoholic NaOH forming Na[OsO(OH)], which, when treated with NHCl, to give (NH)[OsOCl]. This salt is reduced under hydrogen to give osmium.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO allowed for the confirmation of the soccer ball model of buckminsterfullerene, a 60-atom carbon allotrope. The adduct, formed from a derivative of OsO, was C(OsO)(4-"tert"-butylpyridine). The adduct broke the fullerene's symmetry, allowing for crystallization and confirmation of the structure of C by X-ray crystallography.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO is highly poisonous. In particular, inhalation at concentrations well below those at which a smell can be perceived can lead to pulmonary edema and subsequent death. Noticeable symptoms can take hours to appear after exposure.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: OsO will irreversibly stain the human cornea, which can lead to blindness. The permissible exposure limit for osmium(VIII) oxide (8 hour time-weighted average) is 2 µg/m. Osmium(VIII) oxide can penetrate plastics and food packaging, and therefore must be stored in glass under refrigeration.


title: Osmium tetroxide

text: On April 6, 2004 British intelligence sources believed they had foiled a plot by al-Qaeda sympathizers to detonate a bomb involving OsO. Experts interviewed by "New Scientist" affirmed osmium(VIII) oxide's toxicity, although some highlighted the difficulties of using it in a weapon: osmium(VIII) oxide is very expensive, it may be destroyed by a blast, and remaining toxic fumes may also be dispersed by a blast.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The 2022 Euroformula Open Championship was a multi-event motor racing championship for single-seater open wheel formula racing cars held across Europe. The championship featured drivers competing in Euroformula Open Championship specification Dallara 320 chassis cars. It was the ninth Euroformula Open Championship season.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: Oliver Goethe, driving for Team Motopark, took the drivers' championship at Barcelona. Vladislav Lomko came second and won the rookie championship, while his team CryptoTower Racing clinched its second teams' title.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: A provisional eight-round calendar was announced at the penultimate round of the 2021 championship, on 24 September 2021. On 30 November 2021, the calendar changed: Imola remained on the calendar instead of Mugello, Estoril replaced Portimao, and the Pau Grand Prix returned to the calendar after a two-year hiatus; featuring two instead of the usual three races.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The ninth Euroformula Open season began at Circuito do Estoril with Oliver Goethe taking pole position. The front duo both had bad starts, allowing Christian Mansell to take the lead. Behind him, Vladislav Lomko soon overtook Sebastian Øgaard for second, before Goethe followed through, salvaging a podium in the end after having dropped as low as eighth place during the race. Alex Peroni started race two from pole, while Goethe had a bad start again and had to climb up the order. At half distance, he overtook Øgaard and Frederick Lubin and started closing up on Peroni. The pair made contact while fighting, with Peroni dropping to fourth. Goethe was handed a penalty, but had a big enough margin to still win. The last race was won by Øgaard, who led from lights to flag, resisting attacks from Lubin and eventually coming out 0.1 seconds ahead. Third was Mansell, who overtook Lomko at the start to achieve his second podium. Goethe's fourth place earned him the championship lead, three points from Øgaard.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: Next up was the return of Circuit de Pau-Ville, and Goethe won pole for both races. The Saturday race saw the polesitter pull away and Mansell in third overtake Lomko to gain second. Nicola Marinangeli was the first to crash around the narrow track, bringing out a safety car around the halfway point. Following the restart, the gaps between the drivers began to grow again, before Lubin and Nico Pino collided into turn one on the last lap, leaving the leading trio untouched. Sunday's race was the Pau Grand Prix, and this time Lomko had a better start. He quickly passed poleman Goethe, before Mansell, Josh Mason and Filip Ugran followed him through. The leading duo began pulling away and Lomko looked to have the race under control. Goethe had climb back up the order; a great overtake on Ugran and Mason crashing out saw him finish in third at the end. A win and a podium helped Goethe extend his championship lead to 19 points over Mansell, with Øgaard's anonymous weekend dropping him to fourth.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: Two weeks later, Circuit Paul Ricard hosted round three and Mansell was fastest in qualifying. Goethe started race one alongside him and was promoted to the lead when Mansell got hit and spun around by Øgaard. From then on, Goethe led Lomko and Ugran to the finish, while Mansell was able to salvage fourth place. Race two had Mansell and Marinangeli battle for the lead all through the first lap, before Marinangeli got attacked by Goethe, allowing Mansell to gap them. Goethe overtook Marinangeli and closed up on the leader, but was not able to pass him. Marinangeli eventually dropped down the field, and Lomko completed the podium. Race three saw a remarkable charge by Goethe. who started fifth, was already in the lead by lap three and then left the field behind him. Mansell had a similar rise, from fourth to second, but was not able to keep up with Goethe. Lomko was third once again. Goethe's two wins and one second place grew his championship advantage over Mansell to 35 points.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The championship went to Spa-Francorchamps next, and this time Goethe was back on top for qualifying. Mansell started race one in third and overtook Ugran and Goethe into La Source, before Goethe used the slipstream down Kemmel Straight to retake the lead. He did not look back and won the race. Mansell remained in second, resisting pressure from Mason in third. Øgaard started race two from pole, but the big movers were once again Mansell, who was into the lead from fourth by lap two, and Goethe, who was second two laps later. A few laps of battling for the lead ended with Goethe once again driving past and away. Third was Lomko, benefitting from multiple penalties for Mason. Race three saw Goethe completing a perfect weekend, this time charging up from sixth on the grid. One of his overtakes earned him a time penalty, but in the end his advantage was enough to lead Mason and Lomko home. Three wins plus a handful of bonus points handed Goethe a sizable 66-point margin over Mansell.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The Hungaroring weekend saw the departure of Van Amersfoort Racing, reducing the grid to ten entries. Lomko won qualifying and race one began with a three-car battle for the lead that allowed Goethe past second-placed Lubin. On lap three, Goethe moved past Lomko into the race lead and continued on to his fifth straight win. Ayrton Simmons was on pole alongside Mason for race two, and his slow start allowed Mason to take a lead he would not relinquish afterwards. Mansell also overtook Simmons, but was not able to close up to Mason. Simmons remained in third and took his maiden podium. Race three began with three cars stalling, with polesitter Simmons one of them, so Mansell inherited the lead. Goethe behind him could not get past, but Mansell had to fight off Francesco Simonazzi, who had surged up from seventh. He could not find a way by, but still earned his first podium in car racing. Both championship contestants won a race, and the gap remained steady at 69 points.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: Only eight cars were on the grid in Imola, where Goethe was back in qualifying form and took pole. The first race saw no change in the top three on the grid, with Goethe, Lomko and Mansell all finishing where they started. Goethe was put under investigation for driving standards, but no further action was taken. Race two was more eventful, as right at the start a three-wide moment sent Mansell into the gravel and to the back. That gave Lomko second place, and when polesitter Mason had to pit for damage, Lomko was in the lead. Fights behind him ended Alex García's race and meant Lomko could pull out a gap and finish first, ahead of Lubin and Goethe. Mason was on pole again for the last race and this time, he made no mistakes. He held off Lubin at the start and when the latter was overtaken by Mansell, Mason did the same against the Australian to win. Goethe's ninth win of the season meant he outscored Mansell again, albeit only by six points, growing his advantage to 75 points.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: Goethe showed his one-lap pace again at the Red Bull Ring and took another pole position. Race one was wet and wheelspin for Goethe at the start gave Lomko the race lead. He retook it into turn three, and Lomko had to worry about Mansell, who then took second place. Shortly after, the race was red-flagged for a rain shower and ended early. The second race saw Mason force leader Simmons off the track, which enabled Lomko to come through and take the lead. Mason and Lomko both earned penalties for separate offenses, as well as Simonazzi, who came through in the final stages of the race to finish second, ahead of Mason. Simonazzi then started the final race from pole, but was quickly passed by Lubin and Lomko. This order remained until the last lap, where the leaders made contact, giving Lubin a puncture and allowing Simonazzi and Goethe through. The Italian took his and BVM Racing's first ever win. Goethe was now 89 points ahead of Mansell, who had Lomko closing up in third, 17 points behind.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The eighth round of the season in Monza saw Lomko braving the wet conditions to win qualifying. The rest of the field was not able to keep up with him as he pulled away in the wet first race. Lubin passed the slow-starting Mansell off the line to get second, and Goethe had a spin while trying to gain a podium that sent him back to sixth. Race two polesitter Goethe missed the start with a technical issue and had to start a lap down, promoting Mason to the lead who led until the chequered flag. Mansell was in second, before a collision with Simonazzi saw him crash, flip his car on top and slide into the gravel. After the following red flag, Lomko and García came through to round out the podium. Race three was won by Lomko ahead of Mason and Lubin, and Goethe made another mistake to finish fifth. Two wins for Lomko, a rare off weekend for Goethe and two non-scores for Mansell meant the title went to the final round at Barcelona and Lomko overtook Mansell for second in the standings, 63 points behind Goethe.


title: 2022 Euroformula Open Championship

text: The season finale was held at Barcelona-Catalunya, and no one could stop Goethe clinching the title. He first took pole in qualifying, started the first race by holding off the rest of the field and then set off to win by a considerable margin ahead of Simonazzi and Mansell. Second in the standings was Lomko, who cemented his place in the standings by winning the second race, which he led from pole while the returning Simmons got by Lubin at the start to finish second. The last race of the year saw Lubin get his first win in the category by overtaking poleman Lomko around the outside of turn one. Champion-elect Goethe completed the podium of a race where only eight cars took to the grid, seven less than the previous low point for a season finale. The departure of Van Amersfoort Racing saw the remaining rounds struggle to reach double-digit entry numbers. With concerns arising around the health and future of the championship at the end of the season, meetings took place to discuss a new series to replace it.


title: Barbara Nichols

text: Barbara Marie Nickerauer (December 10, 1928 – October 5, 1976), known professionally as Barbara Nichols, was an American actress who often played brassy or comic roles in films in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Barbara Nichols

text: Nichols was born Barbara Marie Nickerauer to George and Julia Nickerauer and was raised in Queens, New York.


title: Barbara Nichols

text: Early in her career, Nichols was a showgirl when a club owner offered her a much higher salary to become a striptease performer. She declined the offer, keeping her focus on becoming an actress. She began modeling for cheesecake magazines in the late 1940s and eventually was considered a minor rival to Marilyn Monroe. On Broadway, she appeared in the 1952 revival of "Pal Joey" (she also appeared in the 1957 film version) and in "Let It Ride" (1961). In the mid 1950s, she moved to Hollywood and began appearing in showy supporting roles in A-films, such as "Miracle in the Rain" (1956), "The King and Four Queens" (1956), "The Naked and the Dead" (1958), "The Pajama Game" (1957), "Sweet Smell of Success" (1957), "That Kind of Woman" (1958), and "Where the Boys Are" (1960), with high profile actors, including Clark Gable, Susan Hayward, Sophia Loren, and Doris Day. One of her few starring roles was in the 1965 science-fiction film "The Human Duplicators". Her final film was "Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood" in 1976.


title: Barbara Nichols

text: Nichols was also a frequent guest star on many television series, including "It's a Great Life", "The Jack Benny Television Show", "The Twilight Zone" (in the episode "Twenty Two"), "The Untouchables", "The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters", "Going My Way", "Batman" (episodes 35 and 36), "Hawaii Five-O", "Green Acres" and "The Beverly Hillbillies".


title: Barbara Nichols

text: Nichols died on October 5, 1976, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles from liver failure due to complications of a damaged spleen and liver reportedly sustained in separate automobile accidents many years earlier. She is interred at Pinelawn Memorial Park in Farmingdale, New York.


title: Peter Guinness (actor)

text: He has appeared in over fifty television productions and over ten films. Though not credited in the television section below, he appeared in a leading role in the first "Zen" (2011) series as Tito Spadola, a former prisoner seeking revenge for false imprisonment. Guinness has also appeared onstage in an adaptation of "The Pianist".


title: Upset (competition)

text: An upset occurs in a competition, frequently in electoral politics or sports, when the party popularly expected to win (the "favorite"), either loses to or draws/ties a game with an underdog whom the majority expects to lose, defying the conventional wisdom. If it happens in a cup competition, it is sometimes referred to as a "cupset" (a portmanteau, combining the words "cup" and "upset"). It is often used in reference to beating the betting odds in sports, or beating the opinion polls in electoral politics.


title: Upset (competition)

text: The meaning of the word "upset" has long included "an overthrowing or overturn of ideas, plans, etc." (see OED definition 6b), from which the sports definition almost surely derived. "Upset" also once referred to "a curved part of a bridle-bit, fitting over the tongue of the horse", (now the port of a curb bit) but, even though the modern sports meaning of "upset" was first used far more for horse races than for any other competition, there is no evidence of a connection


title: Upset (competition)

text: In 2002, George Thompson, a lexicographic researcher, used the full-text online search capabilities of "The New York Times" databases to trace the usage of the verb "to upset" and the noun "upset". The latter was seen in usage as early as 1877.


title: Upset (competition)

text: Thompson's research debunked one popular theory of the term's origin, namely that it was first used after the surprising defeat of the horse Man o' War by the racehorse Upset in 1919 (the loss was the only one in Man o' War's career) .


title: Upset (competition)

text: The term pre-dates that 1919 Thoroughbred race by at least several decades. In its sports coverage immediately following Upset's victory, "the Washington Post" wrote, "One might make all sorts of puns about it being an upset."


title: Upset (competition)

text: The name of the horse "Upset" came from the "trouble" or "distress" meaning of the word (as shown by the parallelism of the name of Upset's stablemate, Regret).


title: Upset (competition)

text: Below is a selection of major upsets from a variety of popular sports around the world. It is not meant to be comprehensive, merely representative.


title: Upset (competition)

text: Below is a list of national elections which have extensively been described as upsets by a number of major media sources. It is not meant to be comprehensive, merely representative.


title: Double negative

text: A double negative is a construction occurring when two forms of grammatical negation are used in the same sentence. Multiple negation is the more general term referring to the occurrence of more than one negative in a clause. In some languages, double negatives cancel one another and produce an affirmative; in other languages, doubled negatives intensify the negation. Languages where multiple negatives affirm each other are said to have negative concord or emphatic negation. Portuguese, Persian, French, Russian, Greek, Spanish, Old English, Italian, Afrikaans, Hebrew are examples of negative-concord languages. This is also true of many vernacular dialects of modern English. Chinese, Latin, German, Dutch, Japanese, Swedish and modern Standard English are examples of languages that do not have negative concord. Typologically, it occurs in a minority of languages.


title: Double negative

text: Languages without negative concord typically have negative polarity items that are used in place of additional negatives when another negating word already occurs. Examples are "ever", "anything" and "anyone" in the sentence "I haven't ever owed anything to anyone" (cf. "I haven't never owed nothing to no one" in negative-concord dialects of English, and "" in Portuguese, lit. "Never have I owed nothing to no one", or "" in Italian). Note that negative polarity can be triggered not only by direct negatives such as "not" or "never", but also by words such as "doubt" or "hardly" ("I doubt he has ever owed anything to anyone" or "He has hardly ever owed anything to anyone").


title: Double negative

text: Because standard English does not have negative concord but many varieties and registers of English do, and because most English speakers can speak or comprehend across varieties and registers, double negatives as collocations are functionally auto-antonymic (contranymic) in English; for example, a collocation such as "ain't nothin" or "not nothing" can mean either "something" or "nothing", and its disambiguation is resolved via the contexts of register, variety, locution, and content of ideas.


title: Double negative

text: Stylistically, in English, double negatives can sometimes be used for affirmation (e.g. "I'm not feeling unwell"), an understatement of the positive ("I'm feeling well"). The rhetorical term for this is litotes.


title: Double negative

text: When two negatives are used in one independent clause, in standard English the negatives are understood to cancel one another and produce a weakened affirmative (see the Robert Lowth citation below): this is known as litotes. However, depending on how such a sentence is constructed, in some dialects if a verb or adverb is in between two negatives then the latter negative is assumed to be intensifying the former thus adding weight or feeling to the negative clause of the sentence. For this reason, it is difficult to portray double negatives in writing as the level of intonation to add weight in one's speech is lost. A double negative intensifier does not necessarily require the prescribed steps, and can easily be ascertained by the mood or intonation of the speaker. Compare


title: Double negative

text: These two sentences would be different in how they are communicated by speech. Any assumption would be correct, and the first sentence can be just as right or wrong in intensifying a negative as it is in cancelling it out; thereby rendering the sentence's meaning ambiguous. Since there is no adverb or verb to support the latter negative, the usage here is ambiguous and lies totally on the context behind the sentence. In light of punctuation, the second sentence can be viewed as the intensifier; and the former being a statement thus an admonishment.


title: Double negative

text: In Standard English, two negatives are understood to resolve to a positive. This rule was observed as early as 1762, when Bishop Robert Lowth wrote "A Short Introduction to English Grammar with Critical Notes". For instance, "I don't disagree" could mean "I certainly agree", "I agree", "I sort of agree", "I don't understand your point of view (POV)", "I have no opinion", and so on; it is a form of "weasel words". Further statements are necessary to resolve which particular meaning was intended.


title: Double negative

text: This is opposed to the single negative "I don't agree", which typically means "I disagree". However, the statement "I don't completely disagree" is a similar double negative to "I don't disagree" but needs little or no clarification.


title: Double negative

text: With the meaning "I completely agree", Lowth would have been referring to litotes wherein two negatives simply cancel each other out. However, the usage of intensifying negatives and examples are presented in his work, which could also imply he wanted either usage of double negatives abolished. Because of this ambiguity, double negatives are frequently employed when making back-handed compliments. The phrase "Mr. Jones wasn't incompetent." will seldom mean "Mr. Jones was very competent" since the speaker would've found a more flattering way to say so. Instead, some kind of problem is implied, though Mr. Jones possesses basic competence at his tasks.


title: Double negative

text: Discussing English grammar, the term "double negative" is often, though not universally, applied to the non-standard use of a second negative as an intensifier to a negation.


title: Double negative

text: Double negatives are usually associated with regional and ethnical dialects such as Southern American English, African American Vernacular English, and various British regional dialects. Indeed, they were used in Middle English: for example, Chaucer made extensive use of double, triple, and even quadruple negatives in his "Canterbury Tales". About the Friar, he writes "" ("There never was no man nowhere so virtuous"). About the Knight, "" ("He never yet no vileness didn't say / In all his life to no manner of man").


title: Double negative

text: Following the battle of Marston Moor, Oliver Cromwell quoted his nephew's dying words in a letter to the boy's father Valentine Walton: "A little after, he said one thing lay upon his spirit. I asked him what it was. He told me it was that God had not suffered him to be no more the executioner of His enemies." Although this particular letter has often been reprinted, it is frequently changed to read "not ... to be any more" instead.


title: Double negative

text: Whereas some double negatives may resolve to a positive, in some dialects others resolve to intensify the negative clause within a sentence. For example:


title: Double negative

text: The key to understanding the former examples and knowing whether a double negative is intensive or negative is finding a verb between the two negatives. If a verb is present between the two, the latter negative becomes an intensifier which does not negate the former. In the first example, the verb "to go" separates the two negatives; therefore the latter negative does not negate the already negated verb. Indeed, the word 'nowhere' is thus being used as an adverb and does not negate the argument of the sentence. Double negatives such as "I don't want to know no more" contrast with Romance languages such as French in "Je ne veux pas savoir."


title: Double negative

text: An exception is when the second negative is stressed, as in "I'm not doing ; I'm thinking." A sentence can otherwise usually only become positive through consecutive uses of negatives, such as those prescribed in the later examples, where a clause is void of a verb and lacks an adverb to intensify it. Two of them also use emphasis to make the meaning clearer. The last example is a popular example of a double negative that resolves to a positive. This is because the verb 'to doubt' has no intensifier which effectively resolves a sentence to a positive. Had we added an adverb thus: