title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "Orinoco Flow" was the final track written for the album, but it was one that Enya recalled was difficult to work on, which involved several breaks from recording before coming back to it several weeks after. She later pointed out the absence of deadlines to complete the album, as granted in her contract with Warner, which allowed the song to be developed over a period of time until "we were able at the end to listen to it and say 'this is good'". It originated from a riff she had developed after Nicky suggested playing a melody in five octaves; they left the arrangement as it was, until they realised the album needed one more track. The song developed around the initial riff, itself becoming part of the chorus hook. An earlier version of the song contained no middle eight and had the line "Sail away..." after every line that Dickins later said "drove me crazy", but recognised its potential if it was worked on. Its pizzicato introduction, which has been compared to Andy Williams' 1963 single "Can't Get Used to Losing You", was the genesis of Roma's inspiration for the song's lyrics after she had heard the introduction as she looked out of the studio window and saw her children skipping. Dickins and Cullum are referenced in the lyrics in the lines: "We can steer, we can near with Rob Dickins at the wheel. We can sigh, say goodbye, Ross and his dependencies", the latter being a reference to the region of Antarctica known as Ross Dependency. Dickins only found out about it after the album had been pressed, which embarrassed him at first and initially wanted it changed, but soon warmed to it after the single went to number one. "All these years later", he said, "if I hear that line ... I can't help smiling."


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "Evening Falls..." is a track that Roma described as "a song of a spirit travelling". It is based on a ghost story that Roma had heard about a woman who had recurring dreams of a house in America, only to accidentally come across it years later in England. Upon entering the house, its inhabitants become frightened of the woman as they explain she had haunted the house each time she dreamed about it. Nicky thought a melody Enya had written suited the story, which led to Roma writing a lyric inspired by it.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "River" is an instrumental that was named by Nicky after the music conjured the image of a river in his mind. He knew Enya had the final decision over song titles, but she liked his suggestion and went with it. The track was recorded in roughly ten minutes with Enya playing directly to tape. Nicky spoke about Enya's style of composing for song: "There are five synths midi'd but then she plays chords over these random arpeggiators with notes popping in and out where you don't expect them. Somehow she makes that work". A PPG Wave keyboard was used afterwards for additional sounds.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "The Longships" makes reference to the longship war boats used by the Vikings, who invaded Ireland in AD 795 and settled in Dublin by AD 841.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "Na Laetha Geal M'óige", translated from Irish as "The Brighter Days of My Youth", is about the reminiscence of the days during Enya's childhood, and receives a dedication in Irish to her grandparents.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: The sleeve to "Watermark" was illustrated to a design painted by graphic designer Laurence Dunmore. The cover image of Enya was shot by David Hiscook with additional photography by Russel Yamy, with "layers and layers of imagery" hand-drawn on top. Dickins realised its sleeve design was an important aspect in its marketing campaign to ensure the album's success as it was "not the kind of music that slots easily into Radio 1 ... It had to be the kind of sleeve you'd fall in love with ... And I think it works that way – the effect in window displays is stunning." Enya was "very happy" with the cover, calling it "very classic" and "in taste with the music", not portraying her as the latest "girl on the scene" when compared to other female solo artists at the time, such as Madonna and Kylie Minogue. The artwork provided the inspiration to the music video for "Orinoco Flow". Dickins decided against the inclusion of a detailed set of liner notes and lyrics with their translations as it encouraged the listener to conjure up their own images and understanding when they play it, a decision that Enya supported.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: To generate interest in the album, Warner organised a private album launch reception at the Serpentine Gallery within Hyde Park and the Westbury Hotel in London, one week prior to its release. "Watermark" was released on 19 September 1988 in the United Kingdom; its release in the United States followed on 10 January 1989 by Geffen Records The album was a success on the charts, entering the UK Albums Chart at number 46 for the week of 15 October 1988 before a three-week climb to its peak of number five. In its initial run the album spent 54 weeks on the chart, returning each year from 1989 to 1995 for a total 99 weeks. In the United States, it debuted the "Billboard" 200 chart at number 100, the week of 4 February 1989. The album had a steady climb, and reached its peak at 25 on the week ending 22 April 1989. It was present on the chart for a total of 39 weeks. On the "Billboard" New Age Albums chart, the album reached its peak position of number two during its 286-week stay. Elsewhere, the album went to number one in New Zealand and Switzerland.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: By January 1989, "Watermark" had sold over 20,000 copies in Ireland and 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Five years later, the album was certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 1.2 million copies. In the United States, "Watermark" sold 500,000 copies in its first four months of release. After 7 years, the album was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of four million copies. It sold one million copies in the country between March 1995 and March 1996. In November 2008, "Billboard" reported the album had sold 3,877,571 copies in the United States according to figures tracked by Nielsen SoundScan since 1991. By 1994, the album spent 165 weeks on spanish charts and sold 300,000 copies in Spain. Worldwide, the album has sold an estimated 8 million copies.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: Enya released four singles from "Watermark" between 1988 and 1991. "Orinoco Flow" was the lead single, released on 3 October 1988 and entered the United Kingdom singles chart at twenty-nine. It climbed to number five in its second week before it reached number one in its third, staying at the top for three consecutive weeks. The single was certified silver by the BPI for 250,000 copies sold in its first month of release. Dickins observed that some of the public were confused on the song's title and were asking shop staff for "Sail Away", so he ordered to have the title changed on subsequent pressings to "Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)". The single became a crossover hit in the United States after the single gained airplay on progressive rock, Top 40, and new age format radio stations. "Evening Falls..." was released on 12 December 1988, and peaked at number three in Ireland and number 20 in the United Kingdom. "Storms in Africa" followed on 5 June 1989, and reached number 12 in Ireland and 41 in the United Kingdom. In 1991, after "Exile" was used on the soundtracks of "Green Card" (1990) and "L.A. Story" (1991), it was released as the album's fourth single. A music video was produced for each single with Michael Geoghegan as director, and included on the video compilation "Moonshadows", released on VHS and LaserDisc by Warner Music Vision and Warner Reprise Video in 1991.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: Enya embarked on a worldwide media tour which lasted from September 1988 to May 1989 and included press, radio and television interviews and appearances, record signings, and lip-sync performances of songs from "Watermark". Among her performances included "Orinoco Flow" on the British music show "Top of the Pops" on 19 October 1988, and "Storms in Africa" at the 1989 World Music Awards in Monte Carlo.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: At the 32nd Grammy Awards in 1990, "Orinoco Flow" was nominated for Best New Age Performance and Best Music Video.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: "Watermark" received generally positive reviews from critics. In an April 1988 review, "Hot Press" reporter Liam Fay wrote the album is "A lifetime's worth of sights, sounds and experiences condescend into an orderly and lucid aural aquarium". He praised her orchestral-like vocals on "Cursum Perficio", the instrumentation on "Storms in Africa", "The Longships", and "Exile", and the "exquisite liqueous pop" of "Orinoco Flow" which, as he predicted, "should be a hit single". Fay was aware that lyrics in such types of music can be the weak point, but deemed Roma's lyrics are "integral and are ideally sculpted to allow Enya's voice to float between the gaps and pauses". Fay also felt "Na Laetha Geal M'óige", "On Your Shore", and "Evening Falls..." sound "too hymn-like for their own good", and pale in comparison to the rest of the album and Ryan's production "reveals a different hue" each time one listens to it. Joe Brown praised it in "The Washington Post", calling it "a lovely collection of quasi-mystical pop" that is "somewhere outside of the pop mainstream but steering clear of the sugary shoals of New Age". He described "Orinoco Flow" as "lushly romantic" and praised the production on "Evening Falls..." and "Miss Clare Remembers", which evoke a "cathedral ambience, with multitracked choirs and shimmering echo".


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: A review by Bill Henderson was printed in the "Orlando Sentinel", with Henderson giving the album four stars out of five and writing: "Delicate. That adjective describes the melodies of Enya" whose "art becomes the sum of its parts – as light as a whisper, yet as strong as a scream". He compared her methods to English singer Claire Hamill but "much better", and praised her personal songs like "On Your Shore" to invite the listener to recall homes of their past, "a bittersweet journey". While the instrumental tracks to him are "simple and pleasant musical ideas", they are overshadowed by her vocal tracks, as "Her singing is so strong that it is painfully obvious when she isn't". He deemed "Na Laetha Geal M'oige" "one of the most beautiful melodies recorded by anyone recently" that is sung with such conviction, the Irish lyrics do not affect the music.


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: The November 1988 edition of "Top" magazine, run by Tower Records, included a review by Simon Young who thought Enya had produced "a fine, peaceful New Age album, which works best when her voice-from-heaven is matched with subtle electronic pools of sound and layer upon layer of breathy, Clannadesque backing vocals". Jonathan Takiff, for the "Philadelphia Daily News", started his review with: "When this old world starts getting you down, just lay on ... "Watermark" ... and drift away to a blissful state", of which Enya brings a "fusion of old sod balladry and modem technology to another plateau, with a magical, mysterious brew that could be dubbed "New Age Irish" or "Celtic Ambient"". Takiff picked "Orinoco Flow" as the stand out song, and called "River" a "blissful instrumental". He concluded with: "There's nothing uptempo to ever jar the hypnotic ebb and flow. Just lay back and let this music roll all over you." In a review printed in "The Boston Globe", Steve Morse called the record a "series of lush dreamscapes that team the vocal beauty of Irish traditional song with multitracked synthesizer tones", and compared it to works from fellow ambient and new age artists Jean-Michel Jarre, Vangelis and Brian Eno. Its sound, he thought, is "beautiful" and noticed a recurrence of the imagery of water throughout. Morse concluded, "This is an album of atmospheres – true mood music for the soul".


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: Helena Mulkerns in "Rolling Stone" called the album "a rich mood piece of broad proportions" and "a glorious aural mosaic". The title track "sails the listener gently into an ebb-and-flow movement that permeates the album" that contains multi-vocals she described as "distinctive" and "striking". She thought Roma's lyrics were "unornamented but compelling", and that its mutli-lingual touches "enrich" the listening experience without becoming too dominating. Kristine McKenna, in the "Los Angeles Times", wrote a critical review, describing it as "a portentous pastiche that's drawn comparisons to ecclesiastical choir and Gregorian chant, but in fact sounds like nothing more than unusually windy New Age music" that "makes for bland, bloodless music ideal for elevators; this is a record about sound rather than lyrics, melody, or any of the other things that invest music with emotion and ideas." In "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau labelled the album a "must to avoid" and said Enya exploits popular music's "old reliable women-are-angels scam" while "humanizing technology, perpetrating banal verse in three languages (I'm guessing about the Gaelic after reading the English and figuring out the Latin), and mentioning Africa, the Orinoco, and other deep dark faraway places".


title: Watermark (Enya album)

text: In a retrospective review for AllMusic, critic Ned Raggett said the record "established her as the unexpected queen of gentle, Celtic-tinged new age music" with a subtlety that produced strong tracks as a result.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Abraham Jebediah "Abe" Simpson II, better known as Grampa, is a recurring character in the animated television series "The Simpsons". He made his first appearance in the episode entitled "Grandpa and the Kids", a one-minute Simpsons short on "The Tracey Ullman Show", before the debut of the television show in 1989.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Grampa Simpson is voiced by Dan Castellaneta, who also voices his son, Homer Simpson. He is the paternal grandfather of Bart, Lisa and Maggie Simpson. In the 1,000th issue of "Entertainment Weekly", Grampa was selected as the "Grandpa for The Perfect TV Family". Grampa Simpson is a World War II veteran and retired farmer who was later sent to the Springfield Retirement Castle by Homer. He is known for his long, rambling, often incoherent and irrelevant stories and senility.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Grampa Simpson is the father to Homer Simpson, father-in-law to Marge Simpson and the paternal grandfather to siblings Bart, Lisa and Maggie. Grampa has also fathered two illegitimate children; a daughter named Abbey by a British woman named Edwina while in the United Kingdom during World War II, and Herbert Powell by a carnival prostitute. Grampa has an older brother named Cyrus, who lives in Tahiti and has multiple native wives. He also has a younger brother named Chet, who owns an unsuccessful shrimp company. Other siblings of his include Hubert, Tyrone, Fester, Bill, and Hortense. Grampa was briefly married to Amber, the same woman Homer married on a drinking binge in Las Vegas. Grampa has also been briefly married to Marge's sister, Selma Bouvier, and was once romantically linked to Marge's mother, Jacqueline Bouvier (his son's mother-in-law). Grampa Simpson is also married to Rita LaFleur.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Almost all of Grampa's biographical information is supplied by himself and seems to be made up, although this could be likely due to his old age. Many of his stories seem to be wildly inaccurate, often physically or historically impossible, and occasionally inconsistent even with each other, suggesting that Grampa is quite senile. It is unknown where Grampa was born. He claims that he came to America as a boy from the "old country", but he cannot remember which country it was, although most likely it was the United Kingdom or Ireland. Grampa was raised in New York City with his parents, Orville J. Simpson and Yuma Hickman. He gives his age as 83 in the Season 17 episode "Million Dollar Abie," while in "Grampy Can Ya Hear Me" (season 29), the family celebrates his 87th birthday, although he is canonically 83. In the Season 25 episode "The Winter of His Content," Homer states that Grampa's father is still alive. His age remains the same over the years, therefore, he has been a member of the Interbellum Generation, Greatest Generation, and now the Silent Generation.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Grampa is a veteran of World War II, where he served as Master Sergeant of the Flying Hellfish unit. At the very end of the war in Europe, Grampa's unit "liberated" a stash of priceless art from surrendering German forces. The Flying Hellfish formed a tontine and buried the art in a trunk at sea. Decades later, Montgomery Burns, the second surviving member of the unit, tried to murder Grampa in order to get the art, prompting Grampa to violate the tontine. When Grampa and Bart retrieved the art from Mr. Burns, the State Department arrived to return the art to its rightful owner. Grampa was a hated wrestler named "Glamorous Godfrey" in the 1950s, revealed in the episode "Gorgeous Grampa", starring him and Mr. Burns.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Homer's mother, Mona Simpson, was married to Grampa for several years. According to "Let's Go Fly a Coot", they met in the 1950s and hooked up on the day Grampa allegedly broke the sound barrier. She became entranced with the hippie lifestyle after seeing Joe Namath's hair on television. She became a fugitive from justice after she abetted in the sabotage of a biological weapons research lab owned by Mr. Burns to deliberately poison everyone in Springfield. To explain this to his then-six-year-old son, Grampa said that Mona died while Homer was at the movies. Grampa has a poor, but sometimes loving relationship with his son, who placed him in a nursing home as soon as he could, despite Grampa selling his house in order to provide Homer with a mortgage. It is recurringly suggested that, while caring, Grampa was a strict disciplinarian who could be very controlling, neglectful, and even emotionally abusive towards Homer when he was growing up and he still had not forgiven him for that. After Mona left Homer at a young age and ran off with a jester, Grampa brought up Homer by himself. In the season four episode, "The Front", Grampa tells Roger Myers Jr., head of Itchy and Scratchy studios, that he worked as a cranberry silo night watchman for forty years.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: The Simpson family will often do their best to avoid unnecessary contact with Grampa. A running gag in the show usually has Grampa in a cameo episode appearance where he wonders where everyone is or wishes to be noticed by the family. One example of this was when the family thought they left something on the plane in the episode "Fear of Flying", which is revealed to be Grampa. Despite this, Homer has shown feelings of love for his father from time to time.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Matt Groening, creator of "The Simpsons", wanted to have a character that was "really cranky" and old, and who complained a lot and invented stories to tell to children, so he created Grampa. After naming the main characters after his own family members (except for Bart, an anagram of "brat", which he substituted for his own name), Groening refused to name Grampa after his grandfather, Abraham Groening. He left it to the writers to choose a name and they ironically chose "Abraham", although not knowing that it was also the name of Groening's grandfather. Grampa first appeared in the Simpsons short "Grandpa and the Kids", which premiered on "The Tracey Ullman Show" on January 10, 1988. In the short, Grampa tells his grandchildren stories of "the good old days". When they stop paying attention to him, he feigns his own death to recapture their attention.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: "The Simpsons" writer Al Jean commented that Grampa is often the focus of pointed jokes about old people. He said the reason for that is because the staff is trying to illustrate how society mistreats the elderly, "and some of it is because people over 55 never watch our show". Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, former writers on the show, said that they liked to write episodes about Grampa because they are "obsessed" with old people. Weinstein commented that they "both love [old people] and seem to really hate them at the same time". He also said that he "enjoys" writing for characters such as Grampa and Mr. Burns because of their "out-datedness", and because he gets to use dictionaries for looking up "old time slang".


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Grampa's voice is performed by Dan Castellaneta, who also voices numerous other characters, including Homer Simpson, Krusty the Clown, Barney Gumble, Groundskeeper Willie, Mayor Quimby and Hans Moleman. Castellaneta was part of the regular cast of "The Tracey Ullman Show" and had previously done some voice-over work in Chicago alongside his wife Deb Lacusta. Castellaneta likes to stay in character during recording sessions, and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it. The episode "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy" (season six, 1994) featured many interactions between Grampa and Homer, so Castellaneta therefore had to talk to himself when he recorded the voices for that episode. Castellaneta said it is hard for him to do Grampa's voice because it is "wheezy and airy".


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Nancy Basile of About.com named Grampa the fifth best character of "The Simpsons", calling him a "perfect stereotypical old person". In the 1000th issue of "Entertainment Weekly", Grampa was selected as the "Grandpa for The Perfect TV Family". Joe Rhodes of "TV Guide" considered Grampa's most memorable line to be "If I'm not back at the home by nine, they declare me legally dead and collect my insurance." Dan Castellaneta has won two Primetime Emmy Awards in the Outstanding Voice-Over Performance category for voicing various characters, including Grampa. The first was awarded in 1992 for the episode "Lisa's Pony", and the second in 2004 for "Today I Am A Clown". In 2010, Castellaneta was nominated for the award for voicing Grampa and Homer in the episode "Thursdays with Abie".


title: Grampa Simpson

text: "The Simpsons" writer David Mirkin said that one of his favorite jokes on the show is the one where Grampa cycles down the street in high speed and shouts that he feels young again, and is then knocked flying from his bicycle after a doll's head flies into the spokes and falls into an open grave. In a review of the Grampa-centric episode "Lady Bouvier's Lover", Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict said that he is "never terribly interested" in episodes that revolve around Grampa, because he believes Grampa is "great as a background character, but less so when he takes center stage." DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson said in a review of the same episode that Grampa is "always fun" and "it’s nice to see him in an ebullient mood, at least for a while."


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Mirkin thinks it is hard to make a "boring" and "tedious" character, such as Grampa, funny. He believes that what ultimately makes Grampa funny is that the things he says are "actually funny" in the context of the boredom and the tedium. Anne-Marie Barry and Chris Yuill, the authors of the book "Understanding the Sociology of Health", commented that in episodes in which Grampa appears, the comedy content is often generated by Grampa falling asleep at "inopportune" moments or "embarking" on long rambling stories about his youth. "Instances such as these match popular stereotypes that all old people are 'demented' and in poor health," they wrote.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Alan S. Brown and Chris Logan wrote in "The Psychology of The Simpsons" that Grampa has the least amount of "power" in the Simpson family, and that he is treated as little more than a child and is often ignored. The family frequently laughs at his "failing" memory and his "ineffectual" attempts to get what he wants. They added that Grampa is left behind, forgotten, and rarely invited to spend time with the family. The authors commented that he is "not without influence, but he certainly does not play the traditional grandfather role in the family hierarchy."


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Brown and Logan also wrote that Grampa had a considerable influence in the formation of Homer's character, and that flashbacks in "The Simpsons" show what an "angry", "critical" father he was to Homer. "He yelled, used corporal punishment, and constantly belittled Homer's attempts to have fun, date, and excel at various activities," they added. The authors said that Homer tries "in vain" to repair his relationship with Grampa and continuously seeks for his approval, but Grampa continues to be "as critical as ever". However, in some episodes, he does show a loving side to Homer. Such as the episode "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy", he and Homer watch the farm burn, or the episode "To Cur with Love", where he does everything to protect Homer's dog from Mr Burns in a flashback. In his book "Understanding the Psychology of Diversity", author Bruce Evan Blaine wrote that Grampa is typically portrayed as a "doddering", "senile", and "dependent" person who is a "trivial" and "often disposable figure" in his son's life.


title: Grampa Simpson

text: Playmates Toys created two Grampa Simpson action figures for the World of Springfield series. The first, released in May 2000, depicts Grampa in his usual appearance. The second, "Sunday Grampa", was released in June 2002, and depicts Grampa in his Sunday church clothes. Alongside the television series, Grampa regularly appears in issues of "Simpsons Comics", which were first published on November 29, 1993. The final issue was published on October 17, 2018. Grampa also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride, launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood.


title: Hildesheim

text: Hildesheim (; ; ) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany with 101,693 inhabitants. It is in the district of Hildesheim, about southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste River, a small tributary of the Leine River.


title: Hildesheim

text: The Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Pious founded the Bishopric of Hildesheim in 815 and created the first settlement with a chapel on the so called "Domhügel".


title: Hildesheim

text: Hildesheim is situated on autobahn route 7, and hence is at the connection point of the North (Hamburg and beyond) with the South of Europe.


title: Hildesheim

text: With the Hildesheim Cathedral and the St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.


title: Hildesheim

text: According to tradition, the city was named after its notorious founder "Hildwin." The city is one of the oldest cities in Northern Germany, became the seat of the Bishopric of Hildesheim in 815 and may have been founded when the bishop moved from Elze to the ford across the River Innerste, which was an important market on the Hellweg trade route. The settlement around the cathedral very quickly developed into a town and was granted market rights by King Otto III in 983. Originally the market was held in a street called "Alter Markt" (Old Market) which still exists today. The first marketplace was laid out around the church St. Andreas. When the city grew further, a larger market place became necessary. The present market place of Hildesheim was laid out at the beginning of the 13th century when the city had about 5,000 inhabitants.


title: Hildesheim

text: When Hildesheim obtained city status in 1249, it was one of the biggest cities in Northern Germany. For four centuries the clergy ruled Hildesheim, before a town Hall was built and the citizens gained some influence and independence. Construction of the present Town Hall started in 1268. In 1367 Hildesheim became a member of the Hanseatic League. A war between the citizens and their bishop cost dearly in 1519–23 when they engaged in a feud.


title: Hildesheim

text: Hildesheim became Lutheran in 1542, and only the cathedral and a few other buildings remained in Imperial (Roman Catholic) hands. Several villages around the city remained Roman Catholic as well.


title: Hildesheim

text: During the Thirty Years' War, Hildesheim was besieged and occupied several times: in 1628 and 1632 by imperial troops; and in 1634 by troops from Brunswick and Lüneburg.


title: Hildesheim

text: In 1813, after the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Kingdom of Hanover, which was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia as a province after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. In 1868 a highly valuable trove of about 70 Roman silver vessels for eating and drinking, the so-called Hildesheim Treasure, was unearthed by Prussian soldiers.


title: Hildesheim

text: In the beginning of WWII, roundups of the Jewish population began, with hundreds of Hildesheim's Jews being deported to concentration camps. The city was heavily damaged by air raids in 1945, especially on 22 March. Although it had little military significance, two months before the end of the war in Europe the historic city was bombed as part of the Area Bombing Directive in order to undermine the morale of the German people. 28.5% of the houses were completely destroyed and 44.7% damaged. 26.8% of the houses remained undamaged. The centre, which had retained its medieval character until then, was almost levelled. The city as a whole was destroyed by 20 - 30%. As in many cities, priority was given to rapid building of badly needed housing, and concrete structures took the place of the destroyed buildings. Most of the major churches, two of them now UNESCO World Heritage Sites, were rebuilt in the original style soon after the war. During the war, valuable world heritage materials had been hidden in the basement of the city wall.


title: Hildesheim

text: In 1978, the University of Hildesheim was founded. In the 1980s a reconstruction of the historic centre began. Some of the unattractive concrete buildings around the market place were torn down and replaced by replicas of the original buildings. In the autumn of 2007, a decision was made to reconstruct the "Umgestülpter Zuckerhut" (Upended Sugarloaf), an iconic half-timbered house famous for its unusual shape. In 2015 the city and the diocese celebrates their 1200 anniversary with the Day of Lower Saxony.


title: Hildesheim

text: In 1542 most of the inhabitants became Lutherans. Today, 28.5% of the inhabitants identify themselves as Roman Catholics (Hildesheim Diocese) and 38.3% as Protestants (Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover). 33.0% of the inhabitants are adherents of other religions or do not have a religion at all. Up until 2015 the Serbian Orthodox Bishop of Germany had his seat in Himmelsthür (a locality of Hildesheim), before the seat moved to Frankfurt and, in 2018, to Düsseldorf.


title: Hildesheim

text: Other places of interest include the theatre, offering opera, operetta and musicals, drama, ballet and concerts.


title: Hildesheim

text: Hildesheim has an efficient traffic infrastructure: it is a regional hub for national roads and railway (Hildesheim Hauptbahnhof is served by InterCityExpress services), is connected to the motorway (Autobahn), has a harbour on the Mittellandkanal (canal) and Hildesheim Betriebsgesellschaft Airfield.


title: Hildesheim

text: There are many secondary schools (Gymnasiums, comprehensive schools and subject-specific secondary schools): Gymnasium Andreanum, Gymnasium Marienschule, Gymnasium Josephinum Hildesheim, Scharnhorstgymnasium Hildesheim, Goethegymnasium Hildesheim, Michelsenschule, Gymnasium Himmelsthür. Further: Freie Waldorfschule Hildesheim, Robert-Bosch-Gesamtschule. Friedrich-List-Schule (Fachgymnasium Wirtschaft), Herman-Nohl-Schule (Fachgymnasium Gesundheit und Soziales), Walter-Gropius-Schule (Berufsbildende Schule), Werner-von-Siemens-Schule (Fachgymnasium Technik), Elisabeth-von-Rantzau-Schule (Fachakademie für Sozialmanagement).


title: Hildesheim

text: Tertiary Education can be achieved at the "University of Hildesheim" or "Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaft und Kunst" (HAWK), a co-operation with the cities of Holzminden and Göttingen.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: Specific absorption rate (SAR) is a measure of the rate at which energy is absorbed per unit mass by a human body when exposed to a radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field. It can also refer to absorption of other forms of energy by tissue, including ultrasound. It is defined as the power absorbed per mass of tissue and has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg).


title: Specific absorption rate

text: SAR is usually averaged either over the whole body, or over a small sample volume (typically 1 g or 10 g of tissue). The value cited is then the maximum level measured in the body part studied over the stated volume or mass.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: SAR measures exposure to fields between 100 kHz and 10 GHz (known as radio waves). It is commonly used to measure power absorbed from mobile phones and during MRI scans. The value will depend heavily on the geometry of the part of the body that is exposed to the RF energy, and on the exact location and geometry of the RF source. Thus tests must be made with each specific source, such as a mobile phone model, and at the intended position of use.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: When measuring the SAR due to a mobile phone the phone is placed against a representation of a human head (a "SAR Phantom") in a talk position. The SAR value is then measured at the location that has the highest absorption rate in the entire head, which in the case of a mobile phone is often as close to the phone's antenna as possible. Measurements are made for different positions on both sides of the head and at different frequencies representing the frequency bands at which the device can transmit. Depending on the size and capabilities of the phone, additional testing may also be required to represent usage of the device while placed close to the user's body and/or extremities. Various governments have defined maximum SAR levels for RF energy emitted by mobile devices:


title: Specific absorption rate

text: SAR values are heavily dependent on the size of the averaging volume. Without information about the averaging volume used, comparisons between different measurements cannot be made. Thus, the European 10-gram ratings should be compared among themselves, and the American 1-gram ratings should only be compared among themselves.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: To check SAR on your mobile phone, review the documentation provided with the phone, dial *#07# (only works on some models) or visit the manufacturer's website.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: For Magnetic Resonance Imaging the limits (described in IEC 60601-2-33) are slightly more complicated:


title: Specific absorption rate

text: FIRST LEVEL CONTROLLED OPERATING MODE: Partial body SAR = 10 W/kg – (6 W/kg * exposed patient mass / patient mass)


title: Specific absorption rate

text: (c) In cases where the orbit is in the field of a small local RF transmit coil, care should be taken to ensure that the temperature rise is limited to 1 °C.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: SAR limits set by law do not consider that the human body is particularly sensitive to the power peaks or frequencies responsible for the microwave hearing effect. Frey reports that the microwave hearing effect occurs with average power density exposures of 400 μW/cm, well below SAR limits (as set by government regulations).


title: Specific absorption rate

text: In comparison to the short term, relatively intensive exposures described above, for long term environmental exposure of the general public there is a limit of 0.08 W/kg averaged over the whole body. A whole-body average SAR of 0.4 W/kg has been chosen as the restriction that provides adequate protection for occupational exposure. An additional safety factor of 5 is introduced for exposure of the public, giving an average whole-body SAR limit of 0.08 W/kg.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: The FCC Guide, "Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) For Cell Phones: What It Means For You," after detailing the limitations of SAR values, offers the following "bottom line" editorial:


title: Specific absorption rate

text: In order to find out possible advantages and the interaction mechanisms of Electromagnetic fields (EMF), the minimum SAR (or intensity) that could have biological effect (MSBE) would be much more valuable in comparison to studying high intensity fields. Such studies can possibly shed light on thresholds of non-ionizing radiation effects and cell capabilities (e.g., oxidative response). In addition, it is more likely to reduce the complexity of the EMF interaction targets in cell cultures by lowering the exposure power, which at least reduces the overall rise in temperature. This parameter might differ regarding the case under study and depends on the physical and biological conditions of the exposed target.


title: Specific absorption rate

text: The FCC regulations for SAR are contained in 47 C.F.R. 1.1307(b), 1.1310, 2.1091, 2.1093 and also discussed in OET Bulletin No. 56, ""Questions and Answers About the Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields.""


title: New Game!

text: New Game! (stylized as NEW GAME!) is a Japanese four-panel manga series by Shōtarō Tokunō, which was serialized in Houbunsha's "seinen" manga magazine "Manga Time Kirara Carat" from January 2013 to August 2021 and is licensed in English by Seven Seas Entertainment. An anime television series adaptation by Doga Kobo aired in Japan between July and September 2016, with a second season airing between July and September 2017. A video game developed by 5pb. was released in January 2017.


title: New Game!

text: Having been inspired by the character designs of a particular video game when she was younger, Aoba Suzukaze, a high school graduate, begins working as a character designer for the video game's developer, Eagle Jump. As she works on modelling and designing characters for video games in development, she becomes acquainted with her colleagues in the character design department, as well as those from within the company.


title: New Game!

text: The original manga by Shōtarō Tokunō began serialization in Houbunsha's "Manga Time Kirara Carat" magazine from January 28, 2013. Houbunsha has published thirteen "tankōbon" volumes since February 27, 2014. The fifth volume, subtitled "The Spinoff!", takes place prior to the main series and features content not included in the magazine serialization. Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the series in North America. Three comic anthologies were released from August 2016 to August 2017. The series ended in "Manga Time Kirara Carat" October 2021 issue on August 27, 2021.


title: New Game!

text: A 12-episode anime television series adaptation aired in Japan between July 4 and September 19, 2016 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. The anime is produced by Doga Kobo, with Yoshiyuki Fujiwara as the director and Fumihiko Shimo as the series' script supervisor, featuring character designs by Ai Kikuchi. An original video animation (OVA) episode was made available for those who purchased all six Blu-ray/DVD volumes of the series, released between September 28, 2016 and February 24, 2017. The opening and ending themes respectively are and "Now Loading!!!", both performed by Fourfolium (Yūki Takada, Megumi Yamaguchi, Ayumi Takeo, and Megumi Toda). A second season titled "New Game!!" (stylized as NEW GAME!!) was announced in February 2017, and aired in Japan between July 11 and September 26, 2017 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. The second season's opening theme is "Step by Step Up ↑↑↑↑" while the ending themes are "Jumpin' Jump Up!!!!" for the first six episodes and for episode seven onwards, all performed by Fourfolium. The series is licensed in North America by Crunchyroll, and Funimation dubbed and released it on home video.


title: New Game!

text: A visual novel developed by 5pb., titled "New Game!: The Challenge Stage", was released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita in Japan on January 26, 2017. Characters from the series also appear alongside other "Manga Time Kirara" characters in the 2017 mobile role-playing game "Kirara Fantasia".


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The Trinity (, also called The Hospitality of Abraham) is an icon created by Russian painter Andrei Rublev in the 15th century. It is his most famous work and the most famous of all Russian icons, and it is regarded as one of the highest achievements of Russian art. Scholars believe that it is one of only two works of art (the other being the Dormition Cathedral frescoes in Vladimir) that can be attributed to Rublev with any sort of certainty.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: "The Trinity" depicts the three angels who visited Abraham at the Oak of Mamre (), but the painting is full of symbolism and is interpreted as an icon of the Holy Trinity. At the time of Rublev, the Holy Trinity was the embodiment of spiritual unity, peace, harmony, mutual love and humility.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The icon was commissioned to honour Saint Sergius of Radonezh of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, near Moscow, now in the town of Sergiyev Posad. Little is known about "The Trinity"'s history, and art historians make suggestions based on only the few known facts. Even the authorship of Rublev has been questioned. Various authors suggest different dates, such as 1408–1425, 1422–1423 or 1420–1427. The official version states 1411 or 1425–27.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Under orders of the Kremlin and against the will of restorers, "The Trinity" has been moved to the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, the spiritual center of the Russian Orthodox church. Curators have warned that moving "The Trinity" risks damaging it as it requires a precise temperature and humidity. Before this, the icon was kept at the Tretyakov Gallery since 1929.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: "The Trinity" was painted on a vertically aligned board. It depicts three angels sitting at a table. On the table, there is a cup containing the head of a calf. In the background, Rublev painted a house (supposedly Abraham's house), a tree (the Oak of Mamre), and a mountain (Mount Moriah). The figures of angels are arranged so that the lines of their bodies form a full circle. The middle angel and the one on the left bless the cup with a hand gesture. There is no action or movement in the painting. The figures gaze into eternity in the state of motionless contemplation. There are sealed traces of nails from the icon's riza (metal protective cover) on the margins, halos and around the cup.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The icon is based on a story from the Book of Genesis called "Abraham and Sarah's Hospitality" or "The Hospitality of Abraham" (§18). It says that the biblical Patriarch Abraham 'was sitting at the door of his tent in the heat of the day' by the Oak of Mamre and saw three men standing in front of him, who in the next chapter were revealed as angels. 'When he saw them, Abraham ran from the tent door to meet them and bowed himself to the earth.' Abraham ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf, and set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate (). One of the angels told Abraham that Sarah would soon give birth to a son.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The subject of "The Trinity" received various interpretations at different time periods, but by the 19th–20th century the consensus among scholars was the following: the three angels who visited Abraham represented the Christian Trinity, "one God in three persons" – the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Art critics believe that Andrei Rublev's icon was created in accordance with this concept. In his effort to uncover the doctrine of the Trinity, Rublev abandoned most of the traditional plot elements which were typically included in the paintings of the "Abraham and Sarah's Hospitality" story. He did not paint Abraham, Sarah, the scene of calf's slaughter, nor did he give any details on the meal. The angels were depicted as talking, not eating. "The gestures of angels, smooth and restrained, demonstrate the sublime nature of their conversation". The silent communion of the three angels is the centre of the composition.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: In Rublev's icon, the form that most clearly represents the idea of the consubstantiality of the Trinity's three hypostases is a circle. It is the foundation of the composition. At the same time, the angels are not inserted into the circle, but create it instead, thus our eyes can't stop at any of the three figures and rather dwell inside this limited space. The impactful center of the composition is the cup with the calf's head. It hints at the crucifixion sacrifice and serves as the reminder of the Eucharist (the left and the right angels' figures make a silhouette that resembles a cup). Around the cup, which is placed on the table, the silent dialogue of gestures takes place.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The left angel symbolizes God the Father. He blesses the cup, yet his hand is painted in a distance, as if he passes the cup to the central angel. Viktor Lazarev suggests that the central angel represents Jesus Christ, who in turn blesses the cup as well and accepts it with a bow as if saying "My Father, if it is possible, may this cup be taken from me. Yet not as I will, but as you will". () The nature of each of the three hypostases is revealed through their symbolic attributes, i.e. the house, the tree, and the mountain. The starting point of the divine administration is the creative Will of God, therefore Rublev places the Abraham's house above the corresponding angel's head. The Oak of Mamre can be interpreted as the tree of life, and it serves as a reminder of the Jesus's death on the cross and his subsequent resurrection, which opened the way to eternal life. The Oak is located in the centre, above the angel who symbolizes Jesus. Finally, the mountain is a symbol of the spiritual ascent, which mankind accomplishes with the help of the Holy Spirit. The unity of the Trinity's three hypostases expresses unity and love between all things: "That they may all be one, just as you, Father, are in me, and I in you, that they also may be in us, so that the world may believe that you have sent me." ()


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The wings of two angels, the Father and the Son, interlap. The blue colour of the Son's robe symbolizes divinity, the brown colour represents earth, his humanity, and the gold speaks of kingship of God. The wings of the Holy Spirit do not touch the Son's wings, they are imperceptibly divided by the Son's spear. The blue colour of the Holy Spirit's robe symbolizes divinity, the green colour represents new life. The poses and the inclinations of the Holy Spirit and the Son's heads demonstrate their submission to the Father, yet their placement on the thrones at the same level symbolizes equality.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: According to Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius records as of 1575, the icon was "covered with gold" at the order of Ivan the Terrible, i.e. a golden riza was commissioned by him and added to the icon. The golden riza was renewed in 1600 during the tsardom of Boris Godunov. A new riza copied that of Ivan the Terrible, while the original was moved to the new copy of "The Trinity" painted specifically for that purpose. In 1626 Michael I ordered golden tsatas with enamel and gemstones to be added to the riza. In the 18th century the gilded silver stamped angel attires were added. Another copy of the riza was made in 1926–28. Both copies are now kept in the Trinity Lavra's Trinity Cathedral iconostasis.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The dating of "The Trinity" is uncertain. There is not much historical data on the subject, and even at the beginning of the 20th century historians did not dare to claim any facts and could only make guesses and assumptions. The icon was first mentioned in 1551 in "The Book of One Hundred Chapters", the collection of Church laws and regulations made by the Stoglavy Synod. Among other things, "The Book" stated the Synod's decisions that had been made about the iconography of the Holy Trinity, in particular the details that were considered canonically necessary for such icons, such as crosses and halos.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: ... the icon painter [has] to paint icons from the ancient examples, as did the Greek icon painters, and as did Rublev and other predecessors...()


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: It is evident from this text that participants of the Stoglavy Synod were aware of some "Trinity" icon which had been created by Andrei Rublev and which, in their opinion, corresponded with every church canon and could be taken as a model example.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The next known source that mentions "The Trinity" is "The Legend of the Saint Icon Painters" () compiled at the end of 17th century—the beginning of the 18th century. It contains a lot of semi-legendary stories, including a mention that Nikon of Radonezh, the pupil of Sergius of Radonezh, asked Andrei Rublev "to paint the image of the Holy Trinity to honour the father Sergius". Unfortunately this late source is viewed by most historians as unreliable. However, due to lack of other facts, this version of "The Trinity"'s making is generally accepted. The question of when the conversation with Nikon occurred remains open.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The original wooden Trinity Church, located on the territory of the Trinity Lavra, burned down in 1411, and Nikon of Radonezh decided to build a new church. By 1425 the stone Trinity Cathedral was erected, which still stands today. It is believed that Nikon, who became the prior after the death of Sergius of Radonezh, sensed his forthcoming death, and invited Andrei Rublev and Daniel Chorny to finish the decoration of the recently built cathedral. The icon painters were supposed to make the frescos and create the many-tiered iconostasis. But neither "Life of St. Sergius", the hagiographical account of his life, nor "Life of St. Nikon" mention "The Trinity" icon, it is only written the decoration of the Cathedral in 1425–1427.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: This dating is based on the dates of the construction of both churches. Nevertheless, art critics, taking into account the style of the icon, do not consider the matter resolved. Igor Grabar dated "The Trinity" 1408–1425, Yulia Lebedeva suggested 1422–1423, Valentina Antonova suggested 1420–1427. It is unknown if "The Trinity" was created during Rublev's peak of creativity in 1408—1420 or late in his life. Style analysis shows that it could have been created around 1408, because it is stylistically similar to his frescoes in the Dormition Cathedral (created roughly at the same time). On the other hand, "The Trinity" demonstrates firmness and perfection which was unmatched even by the best of Trinity Cathedral's icons painted between 1425 and 1427.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The Soviet historian Vladimir Plugin had a theory that the icon had nothing to do with Nikon of Radonezh, but was brought to the Trinity Lavra by Ivan the Terrible. He theorized that all previous scholars after the famous historian Alexander Gorsky made the wrong assumption that Ivan the Terrible only "covered with gold" the icon that had already been kept at the Trinity Lavra. Plugin said that the icon was brought to the Lavra by Ivan himself, and that "The Trinity" had been created much earlier, probably 150 years prior to that date. However, in 1998 Boris Kloss pointed out that the so-called "Troitsk Story of the Siege of Kazan", written before June 1553, contains a clear reference to the fact that Ivan the Terrible only "decorated" the existing icon for the Lavra.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Rublev was first called the author of a "Trinity" icon in the middle of the 16th-century text "The Book of One Hundred Chapters". Scholars can be quite certain that by the mid-16th century, Rublev was considered to be the author of an icon with such name. The Russian ethnographer Ivan Snegiryov made a suggestion that "The Trinity" kept in the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius was in fact the icon of Rublev, who then was one of the few Russian icon painters known by name. The idea gained popularity among scholars and by 1905, it was predominate. "The Trinity" is still generally accepted as his work.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Nevertheless, after cleaning of the icon art critics were so amazed by its beauty that some theories arose about it being created by an Italian painter. The first person to make the suggestion was Dmitry Rovinsky even before the cleaning, but his idea "was immediately extinguished by the note from metropolitan Philaret; and again, on the basis of the legend, the icon was attributed to Rublev. It continued to serve to those who studied this painter's style as one of his main works of art". Dmitry Aynalov, Nikolai Sychyov and then Nikolay Punin all compared "The Trinity" to the works of Giotto and Duccio. Viktor Lazarev compared it to the works of Piero della Francesca. However, they most likely intended to point out the high quality of the painting because none of them claimed that it was created under the influence of the Italians. Viktor Lazarev sums it up: "In the light of recent analysis we can definitely state that Rublev was not familiar with the works of Italian art and therefore could not borrow anything from that. His main source was the Byzantine art of the Palaiologos era, in particular the paintings created in its capital, Constantinople. The elegance of his angels, the inclined heads motive, the rectangular shape of the meal were derived exactly from there".


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: According to the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius archives, the icon was kept in the Trinity Cathedral since 1575. It took the main place (to the right of the royal doors) in the bottom tier of the iconostasis. It was one of the most revered icons in the monastery, attracting generous donations from the reigning monarchs (first Ivan the Terrible, then Boris Godunov and his family), but the main object of veneration in the monastery was Sergius of Radonezh's relics. Until the end of 1904, "The Trinity" was hidden from the eyes under the heavy golden riza, which left only the faces and the hands of the angels (the so-called "face image") open.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: At the turn of the 19th and 20th century, Russian iconography was "discovered" by art historians as a form of art. Icons were taken out of the rizas that used to cover them almost completely except for faces and hands, and then cleaned. The clearing was necessary because the icons were traditionally coated with a layer of drying oil. Under normal conditions, the drying oil fully darkened in 30–90 years. A new icon could be painted over the darkened layer. Usually, it had the same theme but the style was changed accordingly to the new aesthetic principles of that time. In some cases, the new painter kept the proportions and the composition of the original, but in other cases, the painter copied the theme but made adjustments to the proportions of the figures and the poses and changed other details. It was called the "icon renewal" (). "The Trinity" was under "renewal" four or five times. The first renewal probably happened during the tsardom of Boris Godunov. The next was most likely finished by 1635, with the renewal of all monumental paintings and the iconostasis of the Trinity Lavra. Art historians attribute most of the damage of the layer of paint to that period. The damage done by pumice is especially visible on the angels' clothing and the background. "The Trinity" was further renewed in 1777 at the times of the Metropolitan Platon, when the whole iconostasis was remade. Vasily Guryanov stated that it was renewed two more times in 1835 and 1854: by the Palekh school painters and by the artist I. M. Malyshev, respectively.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: At the beginning of the 20th century many icons were cleaned one by one, and many of them turned out to be masterpieces. Eventually scholars became interested in "The Trinity" from the Trinity Lavra. Compared to other icons such as the Theotokos of Vladimir or Our Lady of Kazan "The Trinity" was not particularly revered, because there was nothing special about it, it was not "miracle-working" or "myrrh streaming", and it didn't become a source for a large number of copies. However it had a certain reputation due to the fact that it was believed to be the very icon from "The Book of One Hundred Chapters". As Andrei Rublev's name appeared in "The Book" as well, he was held in high regard among the Christian believers. A lot of different icons and frescoes were attributed to him, e.g. the frescoes in the Church of the Dormition in Gorodok. The cleaning of "The Trinity" could theoretically reveal a perfect example of his style and help with the examination of the other icons that were attributed to him on the basis of legends or common belief.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Invited by the prior of the Trinity Lavra in the spring of 1904, Vasily Guryanov took the icon out from the iconostasis, removed the riza and then cleaned it from the "renewals" and the drying oil. Ilya Ostroukhov recommended him for the job. He was helped by V. A. Tyulin and A. I. Izraztsov. After removing the riza, Guryanov did not find out Rublev's painting, but discovered the results of all the "renewals". Rublev's art was underneath them. He wrote: "When the golden riza was removed from this icon, we saw a perfectly painted icon. The background and the margins were coloured brown, golden inscription were new. All angels' clothes were repainted in a lilac tone and whitewashed not with paint, but with gold; the table, the mountain and the house were repainted… There were only faces left on which it was possible to evaluate that this icon was ancient, but even they were shaded by brown oil paint.". As it became clear during another restoration in 1919, Guryanov didn't reach the original layer in some places. After Guryanov removed three upper layers, the last of which was painted in the Palekh school style, he revealed the original layer. Both the restorer and the eyewitnesses of the occasion were stunned. Instead of dark smoky tones of drying oil and brown-toned clothing that was typical for iconography of that time, they saw bright colours and transparent clothing that reminded them of the 14th-century Italian frescoes and icons. Then he repainted the icon according to his own views on how it should look like. After that "The Trinity" was returned to the iconostasis.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Guryanov's effort was panned even by his contemporaries. In 1915 Nikolai Sychyov pointed out that his restoration actually hid the work of art from us. It had to be liquidated later. Y. Malkov summed up:


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Only the painting's exposure in 1918 can be called "a restoration" in the modern scientific meaning of this word (and even that cannot be said without some reservations); all previous works on "The Trinity" were, in fact, only "renewals", including the "restoration" that took place in 1904—1905 under the guidance of V. P. Guryanov... No doubt, the restorers consciously tried to strengthen all the graphic and linear structure of the icon, with rough augmentation of the figures' contours, clothes, halos. There was even an obvious meddling in the "inner sanctum", the "face image" area, where insufficiently cleaned remains of the author's.. lines...(which were already rather schematically reproduced by the latest renewals of the 16—19th centuries) were literally rumpled and absorbed by the rigid graphics of V. P. Guryanov and his assistants.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: As soon as the icon returned to the Trinity Cathedral's iconostasis, it darkened again very quickly. It was necessary to open it again. The Ancient Paintings Cleaning Committee of Russia took charge of the restoration in 1918. Yury Olsufyev was the leader of the team which also included Igor Grabar, Alexander Anisimov, Alexis Gritchenko, and the Works of Art Protection Committee under the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, which included Yury Olsufyev himself, Pavel Florensky, and Pavel Kapterev. Restoration work commenced on 28 November 28, 1918 and lasted until 2 January 2, 1919. It was carried out by I. Suslov, V. Tyulin, and G. Chirikov. All stages of the cleaning were recorded in detail in the "Diary". Based on this records and Yury Olsufyev's personal observations, the summary of the works called "Protocol No. 1" was created in 1925. These documents are kept in the Tretyakov Gallery archives. Some details and lines were restored, others were found damaged beyond restoration.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Problems with the safe-keeping of "The Trinity" started in 1918–19 immediately after its cleaning. Twice a year, in spring and in autumn, humidity in the Trinity Cathedral increased and the icon was transferred to the so-called First Icon Depository. The continued changes in temperature and humidity affected its condition.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Before the October Revolution "The Trinity" remained in the Trinity Cathedral, but after the Soviet government sent it to the recently founded Central National Restoration Workshop. On 20 April 1920 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree called "About the Conversion of the Historical and Artistic Valuables of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius into a Museum" (). It handed the Lavra itself and all its collections over to the jurisdiction of the National Education Commissariat "for the purpose of democratization of artistic and historical buildings by transformation of said buildings and collections into museums". "The Trinity" ended up in the Zagorsk National Park & Museum of History and Arts. In 1929 the icon arrived to the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, while the copy made by Nikolai Baranov replaced the original in the iconostasis.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The icon is kept in Andrei Rublev's room of the Tretyakov Gallery. It has left the Gallery only twice. First it happened in 1941 during World War II evacuation. It was temporarily moved to the Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theatre in Novosibirsk. On 17 May 1945 "The Trinity" was returned to the Tretyakov Gallery. In May 2007 "The Trinity" was is taken out for the "Europe-Russia-Europe" exhibition, but a piece of the board was dislocated and had to be fixed and reinforced. Since 1997 the icon is moved every Pentecost from Andrei Rublev's room to the Tretyakov Gallery's church. It is placed under a special show-window with perfect temperature and humidity conditions. The first President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin had an idea of handing the icon over back to the Church. However Valentin Yanin with an assistance of Yuri Melentyev, the Minister of Culture at that time, managed to meet with the President and made him change his mind. The matter concluded with a decree published in the "Rossiyskaya Gazeta", "The Trinity" was declared a property of the Tretyakov Gallery forever.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: In 2008 Levon Nersesyan, one of the Gallery staff members, revealed that Patriarch Alexy had requested the icon to be brought to the Lavra for the religious holiday in the summer of 2009. Most scholars agreed that the climate inside the Cathedral is completely unsuitable for the icon keeping, that candles, frankincense and the transportation could destroy it. The only person who supported the move was the director of the Gallery. All the other staff, art critics and art historians were against it. The director was accused of committing a misfeasance. Valentin Yanin said: ""The Trinity" is an outstanding work of art, a national patrimony, which should be available to people of all beliefs regardless of their religion. Outstanding works of art are supposed to be kept not inside churches for a narrow circle of parishioners to see, but in public museums." In July 2022 however, it was temporarily moved to the Lavra, despite art critics and restorers concerns about potential damage.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The present condition of "The Trinity" differs from its original condition. Changes were made to it at least as early as 1600, and most probably even earlier. The condition closest to the original one that the restorers managed to achieve was after the restoration of 1918. That restoration revealed most of Rublev's original work, but numerous traces of the work of Guryanov and of other centuries were preserved. The present surface is a combination of layers created during various time periods. The icon is presently strengthened by "shponkas", i. e. small dowels that are used specifically for icons.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: Until July 2022, "The Trinity" was kept in a special glass cabinet in the museum under constant humidity and temperature conditions.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The Tretyakov Gallery reported the present condition as "stable". There are persistent gaps between the ground and paint layers, especially in the margins. The primary problem is a vertical crack passing through the surface in the front, which a rupture between the first and second ground boards at an unknown time caused. Guryanov recorded the crack during his cleaning: a 1905 photograph depicts the crack as already present.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The crack became noticeable in 1931 and was partially fixed in the spring of 1931. At that time, the gap reached 2 mm at the top part of the icon and 1 mm on the face of the right angel. Yury Olsufyev attempted repair by moving the icon to a special room with artificially induced high humidity of "circa" 70%. The gap between the boards closed almost completely in 1–5 months. By the summer of 1931 the progress of narrowing the gap via exposure to the humidity ceased. It was then decided to strengthen the layer of gesso and the layer of paint with mastic, and fill the gap with it.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: The restorers could not be certain how different layers of paint of different times might have reacted to the slightest ambient changes. The slightest climatic change may still cause unpredictable damage. The committee of restorers of the Tretyakov Gallery deliberated at length on various suggestions of how to further strengthen the icon, and on 10 November 2008 the committee concluded that the present, stable condition of the icon is not to be interfered with in any circumstance.


title: Trinity (Andrei Rublev)

text: There are two consecrated copies of "The Trinity". By the Orthodox church tradition, the consecrated copy of an icon and the original (also called the "protograph") are completely interchangeable.


title: Innatism

text: Innatism is a philosophical and epistemological doctrine that the mind is born with ideas, knowledge, and beliefs. Therefore, the mind is not a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth, which contrasts with and was contested by early empiricists such as John Locke. Innatism asserts that not all knowledge is gained from experience and the senses. Plato and René Descartes were prominent philosophers in the development of innatism. Both philosophers emphasize that experiences are the key to unlocking this knowledge but not the source of the knowledge itself—essentially, no knowledge is derived exclusively from experience.


title: Innatism

text: "Innatism" and "nativism" are generally synonymous terms referring to the notion of preexisting ideas in the mind. However, more specifically, innatism refers to the philosophy of Plato and Descartes, who assumed that God or a similar being or process placed innate ideas and principles in the human mind.


title: Innatism

text: Nativism represents an adaptation of this, grounded in the fields of genetics, cognitive psychology, and psycholinguistics. Nativists hold that innate beliefs are in some way genetically programmed in our mind—they are the phenotypes of certain genotypes that all humans share in common.


title: Innatism

text: Nativism is a modern view rooted in innatism. The advocates of nativism are mainly philosophers who also work in the field of cognitive psychology or psycholinguistics: most notably Noam Chomsky and Jerry Fodor (although the latter adopted a more critical attitude toward nativism in his later writings). The nativist's general objection against empiricism is still the same as was raised by the rationalists; the human mind of a newborn child is not a "tabula rasa" but is equipped with an inborn structure.


title: Innatism

text: In philosophy and psychology, an innate idea is knowledge or a concept that is considered universal to all humanity; it is something people are born with rather than something learned through experience.


title: Innatism

text: It is a controversial doctrine and can be considered an aspect of the nature versus nurture debate as it relates to the question of human cognition.


title: Innatism

text: Although individual human beings vary in many ways (culturally, racially, linguistically, and so on), innate ideas are the same for everyone everywhere. For example, the philosopher René Descartes theorized that knowledge of God is innate in everybody. Philosophers such as Descartes and Plato were rationalists. Other philosophers, most notably the empiricists, were critical of innate ideas and denied they existed.


title: Innatism

text: The debate over innate ideas is central to the conflict between rationalists (who believed certain ideas exist independently of experience) and empiricists (who believed knowledge is derived from experience).


title: Innatism

text: Many believe the German philosopher Immanuel Kant synthesized these two early modern traditions in his philosophical thought.


title: Innatism

text: Plato argues that if there are certain concepts that we know to be true but did not learn from experience, then it must be because we have an innate knowledge of it and that this knowledge must have been gained before birth. In Plato's "Meno", he recalls a situation where his mentor Socrates questioned a slave boy about a geometry. Though the slave boy had no previous experience with geometry, he was able answer correctly. Plato reasoned that this was possible because Socrates' questions sparked the innate knowledge of math the boy had from birth.


title: Innatism

text: Descartes conveys the idea that innate knowledge or ideas is something inborn such as one would say, that a certain disease might be 'innate' to signify that a person might be at risk of contracting such a disease. He suggests that something that is 'innate' is effectively present from birth and while it may not reveal itself then, is more than likely to present itself later in life. Descartes’ comparison of innate knowledge to an innate disease, whose symptoms may only show up later in life, unless prohibited by a factor like age or puberty, suggests that if an event occurs prohibiting someone from exhibiting an innate behaviour or knowledge, it doesn't mean the knowledge did not exist at all but rather it wasn't expressed – they were not able to acquire that knowledge. In other words, innate beliefs, ideas and knowledge require experiences to be triggered or they may never be expressed. Experiences are not the source of knowledge as proposed by John Locke, but catalysts to the uncovering of knowledge.


title: Innatism

text: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz suggested that we are born with certain innate ideas, the most identifiable of these being mathematical truisms. The idea that "1 + 1 = 2" is evident to us without the necessity for empirical evidence. Leibniz argues that empiricism can only show us that concepts are true in the present; the observation of one apple and then another in one instance, and in that instance only, leads to the conclusion that one and another equals two. However, the suggestion that one and another will always equal two requires an innate idea, as that would be a suggestion of things unwitnessed.


title: Innatism

text: Leibniz called such concepts as mathematical truisms "necessary truths". Another example of such may be the phrase, "what is, is" or "it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be". Leibniz argues that such truisms are universally assented to (acknowledged by all to be true); this being the case, it must be due to their status as innate ideas. Often there are ideas that are acknowledged as necessarily true but are not universally assented to. Leibniz would suggest that this is simply because the person in question has not become aware of the innate idea, not because they do not possess it. Leibniz argues that empirical evidence can serve to bring to the surface certain principles that are already innately embedded in our minds. This is similar to needing to hear only the first few notes in order to recall the rest of the melody.


title: Innatism

text: The main antagonist to the concept of innate ideas is John Locke, a contemporary of Leibniz. Locke argued that the mind is in fact devoid of all knowledge or ideas at birth; it is a blank sheet or "tabula rasa". He argued that all our ideas are constructed in the mind via a process of constant composition and decomposition of the input that we receive through our senses.


title: Innatism

text: Locke, in "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", suggests that the concept of universal assent in fact proves nothing, except perhaps that everyone is in agreement; in short universal assent proves that there is universal assent and nothing else. Moreover, Locke goes on to suggest that in fact there "is" no universal assent. Even a phrase such as "What is, is" is not universally assented to; infants and severely handicapped adults do not generally acknowledge this truism. Locke also attacks the idea that an innate idea can be imprinted on the mind without the owner realizing it. For Locke, such reasoning would allow one to conclude the absurd: “all the Truths a Man ever comes to know, will, by this account, be, every one of them, innate.” To return to the musical analogy, we may not be able to recall the entire melody until we hear the first few notes, but we were aware of the fact that we knew the melody and that upon hearing the first few notes we would be able to recall the rest.


title: Innatism

text: Locke ends his attack upon innate ideas by suggesting that the mind is a "tabula rasa" or "blank slate", and that all ideas come from experience; all our knowledge is founded in sensory experience.


title: Innatism

text: Essentially, the same knowledge thought to be "a priori" by Leibniz is in fact, according to Locke, the result of empirical knowledge, which has a lost origin [been forgotten] in respect to the inquirer. However, the inquirer is not cognizant of this fact; thus, he experiences what he believes to be "a priori" knowledge.


title: Innatism

text: 1) The theory of innate knowledge is excessive. Even innatists accept that most of our knowledge is learned through experience, but if that can be extended to account for all knowledge, we learn colour through seeing it, so therefore, there is no need for a theory about an innate understanding of colour.


title: Innatism

text: 2) No ideas are universally held. Do we all possess the idea of God? Do we all believe in justice and beauty? Do we all understand the law of identity? If not, it may not be the case that we have acquired these ideas through impressions/experience/social interaction (this is the children's and idiot's criticism).


title: Innatism

text: 3) Even if there are some universally agreed statements, it is just the ability of the human brain to organize learned ideas/words, that is, innate. An "ability to organize" is not the same as "possessing propositional knowledge" (e.g., a computer with no saved files has all the operations programmed in but has an empty memory).


title: Innatism

text: In his "Meno", Plato raises an important epistemological quandary: How is it that we have certain ideas which are not conclusively derivable from our environments? Noam Chomsky has taken this problem as a philosophical framework for the scientific enquiry into innatism. His linguistic theory, which derives from 18th century classical-liberal thinkers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt, attempts to explain in cognitive terms how we can develop knowledge of systems which are said, by supporters of innatism, to be too rich and complex to be derived from our environment. One such example is our linguistic faculty. Our linguistic systems contain a systemic complexity which supposedly could not be empirically derived: the environment seems too poor, variable and indeterminate, according to Chomsky, to explain the extraordinary ability to learn complex concepts possessed by very young children. Essentially, their accurate grammatical knowledge cannot have originated from their experiences as their experiences are not adequate. It follows that humans must be born with a universal innate grammar, which is determinate and has a highly organized directive component, and enables the language learner to ascertain and categorize language heard into a system. Chomsky states that the ability to learn how to properly construct sentences or know which sentences are grammatically incorrect is an ability gained from innate knowledge. Noam Chomsky cites as evidence for this theory, the apparent invariability, according to his views, of human languages at a fundamental level. In this way, linguistics may provide a window into the human mind, and establish scientific theories of innateness which otherwise would remain merely speculative.


title: Innatism

text: One implication of Noam Chomsky's innatism, if correct, is that at least a part of human knowledge consists in cognitive predispositions, which are triggered and developed by the environment, but not determined by it. Chomsky suggests that we can look at how a belief is acquired as an input-output situation. He supports the doctrine of innatism as he states that human beliefs gathered from sensory experience are much richer and complex than the experience itself. He asserts that the extra information gathered is from the mind itself as it cannot solely be from experiences. Humans derive excess amount of information from their environment so some of that information must be pre-determined.


title: Innatism

text: Parallels can then be drawn, on a purely speculative level, between our moral faculties and language, as has been done by sociobiologists such as E. O. Wilson and evolutionary psychologists such as Steven Pinker. The relative consistency of fundamental notions of morality across cultures seems to produce convincing evidence for these theories. In psychology, notions of archetypes such as those developed by Carl Jung, suggest determinate identity perceptions.


title: Innatism

text: Evidence for innatism is being found by neuroscientists working on the Blue Brain Project. They discovered that neurons transmit signals despite an individual's experience. It had been previously assumed that neuronal circuits are made when the experience of an individual is imprinted in the brain, making memories. Researchers at Blue Brain discovered a network of about fifty neurons which they believed were building blocks of more complex knowledge but contained basic innate knowledge that could be combined in different more complex ways to give way to acquired knowledge, like memory.


title: Innatism

text: Scientists ran tests on the neuronal circuits of several rats and ascertained that if the neuronal circuits had only been formed based on an individual's experience, the tests would bring about very different characteristics for each rat. However, the rats all displayed similar characteristics which suggests that their neuronal circuits must have been established previously to their experiences – it must be inborn and created prior to their experiences. The Blue Brain Project research suggests that some of the "building blocks" of knowledge are genetic and present at birth.


title: Innatism

text: There are two ways in which animals can gain knowledge. The first of these two ways is learning. This is when an animal gathers information about its surrounding environment and then proceeds to use this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it has learned not to eat this again. The second way that an animal can acquire knowledge is through innate knowledge. This knowledge is genetically inherited. The animal automatically knows it without any prior experience. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it. In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true.


title: Innatism

text: In a changing environment, an animal must constantly be gaining new information in order to survive. However, in a stable environment this same individual need only to gather the information it needs once and rely on it for the duration of its life. Therefore, there are different scenarios in which learning or innate knowledge is better suited.


title: Innatism

text: Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of having it determined whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighed the benefit of having it, then the individual would not have evolved to learn in this scenario; instead, non-learning would evolve. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighed the cost of obtaining it, then the animal would be far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.


title: Innatism

text: Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs then learning would simply be unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario – and because learning could prove to be disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information – non-learning evolves. However, if an environment were in a constant state of change then learning would also prove to be disadvantageous. Anything learned would immediately become irrelevant because of the changing environment. The learned information would no longer apply. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning would evolve.


title: Innatism

text: However, in environments where change occurs but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing and adapts to changes in the environment as opposed to innate knowledge.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: The Cadillac Sixty Special is a name used by Cadillac to denote a special model since the 1938 Harley Earl–Bill Mitchell–designed extended wheelbase derivative of the Series 60, often referred to as the Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Sixty Special designation was reserved for some of Cadillac's most luxurious vehicles. It was offered as a four-door sedan and briefly as a four-door hardtop. This exclusivity was reflected in the introduction of the exclusive Fleetwood Sixty Special Brougham d'Elegance in 1973 and the Fleetwood Sixty Special Brougham Talisman in 1974, and it was offered as one trim package below the Series 70 limousine. The Sixty Special name was temporarily retired in 1976 but returned again in 1987 and continued through 1993.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: For 1938, the Harley Earl-Bill Mitchell designed Sixty Special was added between Cadillac's lowest-priced line of cars, the "Series 60", and the "Senior" large-bodied Cadillacs and it replaced the Series 65. Although all first-generation 60 Specials were built at the Fleetwood Plant, the 60 Special was marketed as a Fisher Body car in 1938 and 1939.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: The new four-door sedan, designed to look like a convertible sedan, showcased trend-setting features including a completely integrated, coupe-like trunk (which launched "three-box" sedan styling); no running boards (which all makes soon followed); convertible-style doors with bright metal window frames (Bill Mitchell called the '38 60 Special "the first hardtop"); a "four-window" canopy with more glass area than any Cadillac before; a steeply-raked windshield and four front-hinged doors. Contrary to what was then prevailing practice for luxury automobiles, the new Sixty Special was intended as an owner-driven car, rather than a chauffeur-driven one.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: It was built on a wheelbase - longer than the standard Series 60 cars. The new Sixty Special utilized a unique "X" frame underneath, which allowed the . car to sit within its frame. This not only gave the new Cadillac the stiffest chassis on the market, but it was also 3 inches lower than other Cadillacs - with no sacrifice in headroom. The disappearance of running boards along the side and its lack of a heavy belt line molding made the sleek car appear even lower. More important, it allowed shoulder and hip room to increase by over 5 inches without an increase in overall width. When combined with the brand-new column-mounted shift lever, the cars offered true six passenger comfort. The Sixty Special was powered by Cadillac's standard , V8 engine.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: In its debut year, 3,703 Sixty Specials were delivered, at a base cost of US$2,090 ($ in dollars ) - it was a success in every measure. The new Sixty Special outsold every other Cadillac model in its first year accounting for 39% of all Cadillacs sold. In 1938, aside from the standard 4-door sedan, two prototype models were built on the Sixty Special body - two very dashing four-door convertibles (one owned by GM executive, Larry Fisher, which was demolished by Harley Earl in a traffic accident and one sent to Europe, which was later recalled and consumed by GM Engineering in structural tests in preparation for the 1940 "Torpedo" bodies), plus one Sixty-Special coupe (driven personally for two years by GM President, Bill Knudsen).


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: A not well-received new front end, which was patterned on the Lincoln Zephyr and lacked the visual punch expected by Cadillac buyers, a modest change in trim level, and some new options appeared for Sixty Special in 1939. First among the new options was a retractable metal panel above the front seat called a "Sunshine Turret-Top Roof", a predecessor to the type of sunroof that would not become more commonplace until the mid 1970s. The sliding roof, patented by GM's Ternstedt Hardware division, was unlatched and slid back into a recess built into the rear portion of the main roof where it would lock in place. Second was an optional retractable division glass in between the front and rear seats. This partition did not have a header in the roof, only channels between the door posts for the retractable glass to travel. The 1938 price of $2,090 remained for 1939 as well. More than 5,500 Sixty Specials were built for 1939, accounting for 40% of all Cadillacs sold, but only 280 of them were equipped with the sun roof option (of those 280 sun roof optioned cars, 55 of them were also equipped with the retractable glass partition). Special orders in 1939 included a convertible sedan built on the Sixty Special chassis for Prince Frederik of Denmark.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: Starting in 1940, and for the remainder of its existence, the Sixty Special would be Fleetwood marketed, enjoying higher-priced molding, trim and upholstery like the Series 75 and 90. Thus it took over the Series 70's place, which was dropped for the 1938 model year, as Cadillac's most luxurious owner-driven large model, a role it would fill through 1976. For 1940, the price (for the third year in a row) and general styling remained the same, with only modest trim changes. Of special note is that 1940 was the last year that side-mounted spare tires (optional on all Cadillacs, including Sixty Special) were offered. The Sixty Special line expanded to four models this year: Touring Sedan (the base model), Imperial sedan (priced at $2,230, it featured a retractable glass partition between the front and rear seats), and two open-front Town Car models (one style with a painted roof, the other with a leather-covered roof). These two very formal cars had a removable roof section over the front seat and a glass division window. Of the Sixty Specials built in 1940, 4,242 of them were the Touring model. There were 113 Imperials (including 3 that were also equipped with the sun roof), and lastly, only 15 Town Car models. Of the 15, 9 had the painted metal roof (priced at $3,465), and 6 were the formal leather-covered roof version (priced at $3,820).


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: 1941 was the last year of Harley Earl and Bill Mitchell's original Sixty Special design, as an all-new 1942 model was in the works. Many consider the 1941 to the most beautiful of this series, though Mitchell himself favored the clean lines of the original 1938 model. For the first time, Cadillac had its own front end design—the wider than high "tombstone" grille with a forward-jutting center section flanked by flat side sections — that would identify Cadillacs for years to come; the new grille appeared as a horizontally-oriented rectangle when viewed head-on hence the nickname. Other changes were longer front fenders that terminated with extension caps attached to the front doors, fully engulfed the lowered, widely positioned headlights and (in concert with a new hood) filled the formerly vacant area adjacent to the engine compartment; the rear fenders now held full skirts as standard. For 1941, the wheelbase was reduced by , down to . Sixty Specials showed a $105 price increase (for the first time) to $2,195. Power was still supplied by the same Cadillac engine as before, but was now rated at . Production totals include 3,878 Touring sedans (including 185 with the sun roof option), and 220 Imperial sedans (now priced at $2,345). Only 1 Sixty Special Town Car was made this year and used on the auto show circuit before being purchased by film director, Cecil B. DeMille. Featuring the leather-covered roof, it was the last one to come from Cadillac-Fleetwood.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: There were nearly 17,900 Sixty Specials made from 1938 to 1941, including about a dozen custom bodied versions.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: The completely new Sixty Special for 1942 was longer and lower than the 1941 model, and now riding an exclusive wheelbase of , longer than any other non-limousine Cadillac. This marked the beginning of what would become a central characteristic of the Sixty Special. For 28 of the next 34 model years of its existence the Sixty Special would feature a uniquely stretched GM C-Body with noticeably greater legroom and headroom.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: Through 1948, Cadillac advertised the Sixty Special as a five-passenger car. The new design was more streamlined and less upright in appearance versus its predecessor, featuring "pontoon" fenders front and rear; this was the year that the bumper "bullets" were introduced which would remain a Cadillac styling feature through 1958. The unique, separate bright metal window frames were dropped in favor of bright metal window surrounds on conventional style doors. The slow-selling Sunshine Roof (sun roof) option was discontinued at the end of the 1941 model year, and would not reappear in a Cadillac until the 1970 Eldorado. Rear compartment wood-grained door caps now blended into a fixed rear bulkhead just behind the front seat (on all vehicles with or without a glass partition), emphasizing front and rear compartment separation. While the model-specific interior was luxuriously outfitted, Cadillac largely depended on trim to differentiate the exterior of Sixty Special from the shorter but similarly styled Series 62 Touring Sedan. Decorative chrome louvers - which would become a Sixty Special trademark ornament for years to come - were mounted in three locations on the 1942 model: behind the wheel well openings on the front and rear fenders, as well as mounted on the roof behind the rear door opening. In addition to the louvered trim, the Sixty Special had a wider "C-pillar" than other models. Just two variants were now available in the Sixty Special series – the standard sedan priced at $2,435 and a $2,589 Imperial sedan which featured an electrically adjustable glass partition between the front and rear seats. Productions totals include 1,684 standard sedans and an additional 190 Imperial sedans. Because of World War II, Cadillac ended automobile production in February 1942 and began assembling military equipment.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: The 1946 Sixty Special was now very similar to the C-body Series 62, though a mild wheelbase stretch added more room to the rear seat area. The 1946 model showed few changes from the 1942 model, including a mild grille redesign and new bumpers. Parking lamps and turn signals were now mounted below the headlights. This was the first year the "V" was used underneath the Cadillac crest (the last vehicle to use this emblem would be the 1984 DeVille). Only one model remained in the Sixty Special lineup – the $3,054 standard sedan. Both sets of fender-mounted chrome louvers were gone, but roof-mounted ones remained. Cadillac now used a negative-ground battery on a 6-volt system. Sixty Special would only reach 5,700 units for 1946, as it did not go into production until later in the model year. An electric clock was standard.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: Few changes greeted Sixty Special for 1947, as an all-new design was coming in 1948. Cadillac's famed "sombrero" wheel covers – in bright stainless steel - debuted this year. Behind the redesigned grille was the same engine that Cadillac had been using since 1936, now rated at . Bright metal stone shields – mounted on the forward edge of the rear fenders - replaced the black rubber pieces used on the 1946 model. The new grille was made up of five bars versus the previous six. Lastly, Cadillac script nameplates replaced the block letters used previously. Price was up to $3,195 – a pretty substantial jump from the 1942 price of $2,435 considering it was practically the same vehicle. Despite the steep price hike, production hit a new height at 8,500 units, but this represented only 14% of Cadillac's sales, down sharply from the 40% share they had represented in 1939. This was largely due to the tremendous sales success of the Series 62, whose low, runningboardless bodies, with broad shoulder room, had been inspired by the original Sixty Special.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: Nearly every model was redesigned for 1948, including the $3,820 Sixty Special. With all-new sheet metal, but still riding an exclusive 133-inch wheelbase, the luxurious Sixty Special weighed in at 4,370 pounds shipping weight (over 4,500 pounds curb weight). Inside, window lifts and a two-way adjustable bench seat with hydro-electric assist were standard equipment; the system utilized a central electrically driven pump that provided pressurized fluid to hydraulic cylinders attached to the seat and window regulators. A clever rainbow-shaped instrument cluster which put all the gauges directly above the steering column in front of the driver was used for 1948 only, while a new curved dashboard design added to passenger roominess. The roof-mounted decorative chrome louvers and individually framed side door glass (a Sixty Special design element since 1938) were carried over to this latest model as well. With trim inspired by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the new Sixty Special featured simulated side-scoops and curious tail-fins - resembling the P-38's vertical stabilizers.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: 1949 brought new power to Cadillac, in the form of the OHV V8 engine. This new powerplant featured a short-stroke, high-compression design that provided both quiet, economical operation and smooth, high performance. Although the engine was smaller and shorter than its predecessor, it was more powerful and 188 pounds lighter. With near-annual improvements, this engine was used through the 1955 model year. A new grille was in order for 1949 – this one wider and more substantial than the previous year; the bottom and middle horizontal members framing the bright trim surrounding the parking lights and wrapping around the front fenders. The unusual 1948 instrument panel was replaced by a simplified, more conventional but less exciting arrangement. With only a slight price increase, the $3,859 Sixty Special was now advertised as a six-passenger car, and sales reached a record 11,399 units. 1949 was the last year Sixty Special used a two-piece windshield with a vertical divider mounted in the center. Four Cadillacs were custom-made this year for the General Motors Automobile Show in New York. Three of them used the Sixty Special body – including a two-door pillar-less hardtop, the first "Coupe DeVille", built on a 133-inch Sixty Special wheelbase. The other two were specially outfitted and equipped standard Sixty Special sedans. The fourth car built for the show was a stock 1949 Cadillac Series 62 convertible – but with a custom western motif interior.


title: Cadillac Sixty Special

text: Throughout the 1950s, the Sixty Special would continue as a stretched and optioned-up version of the Cadillac Series 62, but lost the manual transmission.