title: Bird intelligence

text: In addition to reversal learning, personality, and hormone levels, further research suggests that diet may also correlate with associative learning performance. Bonaparte "et al." demonstrated that high-protein diets in zebra finches correlated with better associative learning. The researchers showed that high-diet treatment was associated with larger head width, tarsus length, and body mass in the treated males. In subsequent testing, researchers showed that high-diet and larger head-to-tarsus ratio correlated with better performance on an associative learning task. The researchers used associative learning as a correlate of cognition to support that nutritional stress during development can negatively impact cognitive development which in turn may reduce reproductive success. One such way that poor diet may affect reproductive success is through song learning. According to the developmental stress hypothesis, zebra finches learn songs during a stressful period of development and their ability to learn complex songs reflects their adequate development.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Contradicting results by Kriengwatana "et al." found that low food diet in zebra finches prior to nutritional independence (that is, before the birds are able to feed themselves) enhanced spatial associative learning, impaired memory, and had no effect on neophobia. They also failed to find a correlation between physiological growth and associative learning. Though Bonaparte "et al." focused on protein content whereas Kriengwatana "et al." focused on quantity of food, the results seem contradictory. Further research should be conducted to clarify the relationship between diet and associative learning.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Associative learning may vary across species depending on their ecology. According to Clayton and Krebs, there are differences in associative learning and memory between food-storing and non-storing birds. In their experiment, food-storing jays and marsh tits and non-storing jackdaws and blue tits were introduced to seven sites, one of which contained a food reward. For the first phase of the experiment, the bird randomly searched for the reward between the seven sites, until it found it and was allowed to partially consume the food item. All species performed equally well in this first task. For the second phase of the experiment, the sites were hidden again and the birds had to return to the previously rewarding site to obtain the remainder of the food item. The researchers found that food-storing birds performed better in phase two than non-storing birds. While food-storing birds preferentially returned to the rewarding sites, non-storing birds preferentially returned to previously visited sites, regardless of the presence of a reward. If the food reward was visible in phase one, there was no difference in performance between storers and non-storers. These results show that memory following associative learning, as opposed to just learning itself, can vary with ecological lifestyle.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Associative learning correlates with age in Australian magpies according to Mirville "et al." In their study, the researchers initially wanted to study the effect of group size on learning. However, they found that group size correlated with the likelihood of interaction with the task, but not with associative learning itself. Instead, they found that age played a role on performance: adults were more successful at completing the associative learning task, but less likely to approach the task initially. Inversely, juveniles were less successful at completing the task, but more likely to approach it. Therefore, adults in larger groups were the most likely individuals to complete the task due to their increased likelihood to both approach and succeed on the task.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Though it may seem universally beneficial to be a fast learner, Madden "et al." suggested that the weight of individuals affected whether or not associative learning was adaptive. The researchers studied common pheasants and showed that heavy birds that performed well on associative tasks had an increased probability of survival to four months old after being released into the wild, whereas light birds that performed well on associative tasks were less likely to survive. The researchers provide two explanations for the effect of weight on the results: perhaps larger individuals are more dominant and benefit from novel resources more than smaller individuals or they simply have a higher survival rate compared to smaller individuals due to bigger food reserves, difficulty for predators to kill them, increased motility, etc. Alternatively, ecological pressures may affect smaller individuals differently. Associative learning might be more costly on smaller individuals, thus reducing their fitness and leading to maladaptive behaviours. Additionally, Madden "et al." found that slow reversal learning in both groups correlated with low survival rate. The researchers suggested a trade-off hypothesis where the cost of reversal learning would inhibit the development of other cognitive abilities. According to Bebus "et al.", there is a negative correlation between associative learning and reversal learning. Perhaps low reversal learning correlates to better survival due to enhanced associative learning. Madden "et al." also suggested this hypothesis but note their skepticism since they could not show the same negative correlation between associative and reversal learning found by Bebus "et al."


title: Bird intelligence

text: In their research, Veit "et al." show that associative learning modified NCL (nidopallium caudolaterale) neuronal activity in crows. To test this, visual cues were presented on a screen for 600ms, followed by a 1000ms delay. After the delay, a red stimulus and a blue stimulus were presented simultaneously and the crows had to choose the correct one. Choosing the correct stimulus was rewarded with a food item. As the crows learned the associations through trial and error, NCL neurons showed increased selective activity for the rewarding stimulus. In other words, a given NCL neuron that fired when the correct stimulus was the red one increased its firing rate selectively when the crow had to choose the red stimulus. This increased firing was observed during the delay period during which the crow was presumably thinking about which stimulus to choose. Additionally, increased NCL activity reflected the crow's increased performance. The researchers suggest that NCL neurons are involved in learning associations as well as making the subsequent behavioural choice for the rewarding stimulus.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Though most research is concerned with visual associative learning, Slater and Hauber showed that birds of prey are also able to learn associations using olfactory cues. In their study, nine individuals from five species of birds of prey learned to pair a neutral olfactory cue to a food reward.


title: Bird intelligence

text: A common test of intelligence is the "detour test", where a glass barrier between the bird and an item such as food is used in the setup. Most mammals discover that the objective is reached by first going away from the target. Whereas domestic fowl fail on this test, many within the crow family are readily able to solve the problem.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Large fruit-eating birds in tropical forests depend on trees which bear fruit at different times of the year. Many species, such as pigeons and hornbills, have been shown to be able to decide upon foraging areas according to the time of the year. Birds that show food hoarding behavior have also shown the ability to recollect the locations of food caches. Nectarivorous birds such as hummingbirds also optimize their foraging by keeping track of the locations of good and bad flowers. Studies of western scrub jays also suggest that birds may be able to plan ahead. They cache food according to future needs and at the risk of not being able to find the food on subsequent days.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Many birds follow strict time schedules in their activities. These are often dependent upon environmental cues. Birds also are sensitive to day length, and this awareness is especially important as a cue for migratory species. The ability to orient themselves during migrations is typically attributed to birds' superior sensory abilities, rather than to intelligence.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Research published in 2008 that was conducted with an Eleonora cockatoo named Snowball has shown that birds can identify the rhythmic beat of man-made music, an ability known as beat induction.


title: Bird intelligence

text: The mirror test gives insight into whether an animal is conscious of itself and able to distinguish itself from other animals by determining whether it possesses or lacks the ability to recognize itself in its own reflection. Mirror self-recognition has been demonstrated in European magpies, making them one of only a few animal species to possess this capability. In 1981, Epstein, Lanza, and Skinner published a paper in the journal "Science" in which they argued that pigeons also pass the mirror test. A pigeon was trained to look in a mirror to find a response key behind it which it then turned to peck—food was the consequence of a correct choice (i.e., the pigeon learned to use a mirror to find critical elements of its environment). Next, the bird was trained to peck at dots placed on its feathers; food was, again, the consequence of touching the dot. This was done without a mirror. Then a small bib was placed on the pigeon—enough to cover a dot placed on its lower belly. A control period without the mirror yielded no pecking at the dot. But when the mirror was shown, the pigeon became active, looked into it, and then tried to peck on the dot under the bib.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Despite this, pigeons are not classified as being able to recognize their reflection, because only trained pigeons have been shown to pass the mirror test. The animal must demonstrate they can pass the test without prior experience or training with the testing procedure.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Some studies have suggested that birds—separated from mammals by over 300 million years of independent evolution—have developed brains capable of primate-like consciousness through a process of convergent evolution. Although avian brains are structurally very different from the brains of cognitively advanced mammals, each has the neural circuitry associated with higher-level consciousness, according to a 2006 analysis of the neuroanatomy of consciousness in birds and mammals. The study acknowledges that similar neural circuitry does not by itself prove consciousness, but notes its consistency with suggestive evidence from experiments on birds' working and episodic memories, sense of object permanence, and theory of mind (both covered below).


title: Bird intelligence

text: Many birds have been shown to be capable of using tools. The definition of a tool has been debated. One proposed definition of tool use was defined by T. B. Jones and A. C. Kamil in 1973 as


title: Bird intelligence

text: By this definition, a bearded vulture (lammergeier) dropping a bone on a rock would not be using a tool since the rock cannot be seen as an extension of the body. However, the use of a rock manipulated using the beak to crack an ostrich egg would qualify the Egyptian vulture as a tool user. , including parrots, corvids, and a range of passerines, have been noted as tool users.


title: Bird intelligence

text: New Caledonian crows have been observed in the wild using sticks with their beaks to extract insects from logs. While young birds in the wild normally learn this technique from elders, a laboratory crow named Betty improvised a hooked tool from a wire with no prior experience, the only known species other than humans to do so. In 2014, a New Caledonian crow named "007" by researchers from the University of Auckland in New Zealand solved an eight-step puzzle to get to some food. Crows also fashion their own tools, the only bird that does so, out of the leaves of pandanus trees. Researchers have discovered that New Caledonian crows don't just use single objects as tools; they can also construct novel compound tools through assemblage of otherwise non-functional elements. The woodpecker finch from the Galapagos Islands also uses simple stick tools to assist it in obtaining food. In captivity, a young Española cactus finch learned to imitate this behavior by watching a woodpecker finch in an adjacent cage.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Carrion crows ("Corvus corone orientalis") in urban Japan and American crows ("C. brachyrhynchos") in the United States have innovated a technique to crack hard-shelled nuts by dropping them onto crosswalks and letting them be run over and cracked by cars. They then retrieve the cracked nuts when the cars are stopped at the red light. Macaws have been shown to utilize rope to fetch items that would normally be difficult to reach. Striated herons ("Butorides striatus") use bait to catch fish.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Using rewards to reinforce responses is often used in laboratories to test intelligence. However, the ability of animals to learn by observation and imitation is considered more significant. Crows have been noted for their ability to learn from each other.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Scientists have discovered that birds know to avoid the plants where toxic animals dwell. A University of Bristol team have shown for the very first time that birds don’t just learn the colours of dangerous prey, they can also learn the appearance of the plants such insects live on.


title: Bird intelligence

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists argued that birds had hyper-developed basal ganglia, with tiny mammalian-like telencephalon structures. Modern studies have refuted this view. The basal ganglia only occupy a small part of the avian brain. Instead, it seems that birds use a different part of their brain, the medio-rostral neostriatum/hyperstriatum ventrale (see also nidopallium), as the seat of their intelligence, and the brain-to-body size ratio of psittacines (parrots) and corvines (birds of the crow family) is actually comparable to that of higher primates. Birds can also have a higher density of neurons, in some cases similar to the number of neurons in mammal brains.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Studies with captive birds have given insight into which birds are the most intelligent. While parrots have the distinction of being able to mimic human speech, studies with the grey parrot have shown that some are able to associate words with their meanings and form simple sentences (see Alex). Parrots and the corvid family of crows, ravens, and jays are considered the most intelligent of birds. Research has shown that these species tend to have the largest high vocal centers. Dr. Harvey J. Karten, a neuroscientist at UCSD who has studied the physiology of birds, has discovered that the lower parts of avian brains are similar to those of humans.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Social life has been considered a driving force for the evolution of intelligence in various types of animals. Many birds have social organizations, and loose aggregations are common. Many corvid species separate into small family groups or "clans" for activities such as nesting and territorial defense. The birds then congregate in massive flocks made up of several different species for migratory purposes. Some birds make use of teamwork while hunting. Predatory birds hunting in pairs have been observed using a "bait and switch" technique, whereby one bird will distract the prey while the other swoops in for the kill.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Social behavior requires individual identification, and most birds appear to be capable of recognizing mates, siblings, and young. Other behaviors such as play and cooperative breeding are also considered indicators of intelligence.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Crows appear to be able to remember who observed them catching food. They also steal food caught by others.


title: Bird intelligence

text: In some fairy-wrens such as the superb and red-backed, males pick flower petals in colors contrasting with their bright nuptial plumage and present them to others of their species that will acknowledge, inspect, and sometimes manipulate the petals. This function seems not linked to sexual or aggressive activity in the short and medium term thereafter, though its function is apparently not aggressive and quite possibly sexual.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Birds communicate with their flockmates through song, calls, and body language. Studies have shown that the intricate territorial songs of some birds must be learned at an early age, and that the memory of the song will serve the bird for the rest of its life. Some bird species are able to communicate in several regional varieties of their songs. For example, the New Zealand saddleback will learn the different song "dialects" of clans of its own species, much as human beings might acquire diverse regional dialects. When a territory-owning male of the species dies, a young male will immediately take his place, singing to prospective mates in the dialect appropriate to the territory he is in. Similarly, around 300 tui songs have been recorded. The greater the competition in the area, it has been suggested, the more likely the birds are to actually create or make their song more complex.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Recent studies indicate that some birds may have an ability to memorize "syntactic" patterns of sounds, and that they can be taught to reject the ones determined to be incorrect by the human trainers. These experiments were carried out by combining whistles, rattles, warbles, and high-frequency motifs.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Evidence that birds can form abstract concepts such as "same vs. different" has been provided by a grey parrot named Alex. Alex was trained by animal psychologist Irene Pepperberg to vocally label more than 100 objects of different colors and shapes and which are made from different materials. Alex could also request or refuse these objects ("I want X") and quantify numbers of them. Alex was also used as a "teacher" for other younger grey parrots in Irene Pepperberg's lab. Alex would observe and listen to the training on many occasions, verbally correcting the younger learning parrot or calling out a correct answer before the learner could give a response.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Macaws, carrion crows, and chickens have been demonstrated to fully comprehend the concept of object permanence at a young age. Macaws will even refute the "A-not-B error". If they are shown an item, especially one with whose purpose they are familiar, they will search logically for where it could be feasibly placed. One test for this was done as follows: a macaw was shown an item; the item was then hidden behind the back of the trainer and placed into a container. Without the macaw seeing, the container it was placed in, along with another container and multiple objects, were spread upon a table simultaneously. The specific container that the item was stored in out of the macaw's sight was one that the macaw had never observed before. The macaw searched this some, then another container, then returning to open the correct container to demonstrate knowledge of and the ability to search for the item.


title: Bird intelligence

text: A study on the little green bee-eater suggests that these birds may be able to see from the point of view of a predator. The brown-necked raven has been observed hunting lizards in complex cooperation with other ravens, demonstrating an apparent understanding of prey behavior. The California scrub jay hides caches of food and will later re-hide food if it was watched by another bird the first time, but only if the bird hiding the food has itself stolen food before from a cache. A male Eurasian jay takes into account which food his bonded partner prefers to eat when feeding her during courtship feeding rituals. Such an ability to see from the point of view of another individual and to attribute motivations and desires had previously been attributed only to the great apes and elephants.


title: Bird intelligence

text: Avian innovation and creativity may lead to more robust populations. Canadian biologist Louis Lefebvre states: "We have to do what we can to prevent habitat destruction and extinction of species, but there's a little bit of hope out there in how the species are able to respond". A 2020 study found that behavioral plasticity is associated with reduced extinction risk in birds.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Humberto Garza Carrillo (born October 20, 1995) is a Mexican professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Humberto. He previously worked under the ring name Último Ninja while wrestling in Mexico. He is a third-generation luchador son of Humberto Garza Jr., grandson of Humberto Garza. He is the nephew of Hector Garza and the cousin of current WWE wrestler Angel Garza.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: On December 16, 2012, Carrillo began his professional wrestling career as Último Ninja when he performed at Wrestling in Monterrey when he teamed up with El Ninja Jr. in a winning effort against Genocida and The Beast. Último Ninja would then wrestle in Mexico for the next six years in other wrestling promotions including Casanova Pro, Nueva Generacion Xtrema, Lucha Libre Del Norte, Lucha Libre Azteca, The Crash Lucha Libre, Chilanga Mask, Empresa Regiomontana de Lucha Libre, RIOT Wrestling Alliance, Promociones MDA and many more. During his career in Mexico, Último Ninja won numerous championships including the PCLL Tag Team Championship, the LyC Tag Team Championship, The Crash Tag Team Champions and the WWA World Middleweight Championship.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Último Ninja has also competed in Pro Wrestling Noah, Baja Stars USA, Martinez Entertainment Lucha Libre Mexicana, and Major League Wrestling.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: On August 23, 2018, Humberto Carrillo started competing for the WWE and signed his official contract on October 18, 2018, along with other recruits. Prior to that, Carrillo had made an appearance on the September 19 edition of "NXT" against Jaxson Ryker in a losing effort.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: On the December 5 edition of "NXT", Carrillo would make his televised return when he teamed with Raul Mendoza in a losing effort against Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake of The Forgotten Sons. On the January 16, 2019 edition of "NXT", Carrillo competed against Johnny Gargano in a losing effort.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: On the January 15, 2019 edition of "205 Live", Carrillo made his main roster debut when he answered the WWE Cruiserweight Champion Buddy Murphy's open challenge in a losing effort. Despite this, General Manager Drake Maverick revealed after the show that Carrillo has joined the 205 Live Roster and will compete at the WWE Worlds Collide Tournament at the Royal Rumble Axxess. At the event, he defeated Zack Gibson in the first round before losing to Velveteen Dream in the quarterfinals. The following week, Carrillo scored his first win on the brand defeating Gran Metalik. On February 5, 2019, Carrillo competed in a fatal four-way elimination match to determine who would challenge Buddy Murphy for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship at Elimination Chamber, which Carrillo lost. On August 27, 2019, Carrillo defeated Oney Lorcan to earn a title shot against Drew Gulak for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship at Clash of Champions. At Clash of Champions, he was defeated by Gulak, in a triple threat match also involving Lince Dorado.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: In October 2019, it was announced that as part of the 2019 draft, Carrillo was drafted to Raw, where he received a push, including a tag team match with former MMA fighter Cain Velasquez in his home country, Mexico. Carrillo made his debut on the October 21 episode, losing to WWE Universal Champion Seth Rollins and had two singles matches against the WWE United States Champion AJ Styles on "Raw" and Crown Jewel. Carrillo would get his first win on the main roster, teaming with Ricochet and Randy Orton to defeat The O.C. (AJ Styles, Karl Anderson, and Luke Gallows) by pinning Styles. This would earn Carrillo a title shot against Styles but he was attacked by The O.C. before the match. On the December 16 episode of Raw, Carrillo competed in a #1 Contender's Gauntlet match for the United States Championship but was defeated by Andrade after he was unable to continue following a DDT on the concrete floor which would sideline him for several weeks. He would return on the January 20, 2020 episode of Raw saving Rey Mysterio from an attack by Andrade thus setting up a match between Carrillo and Andrade for the United States Championship at the Royal Rumble. However, Andrade was able to retain the title. In a rematch the following night on "Raw", Andrade's manager Zelina Vega interfered and got Andrade disqualified, after which Carrillo snapped in a rage, and gave Andrade his own Hammerlock DDT signature move onto the exposed concrete, resulting in Andrade being (kayfabe) written off due to injury.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Following this, Carrillo would begin a feud with his real-life cousin Angel Garza who Vega introduced as her newest protege and proceeded to attack him on the February 3, 2020 episode of "Raw". This set up a match between the two at WWE Super ShowDown, where Carillo was defeated by Garza. On the March 2, 2020 episode of "Raw", Carrillo teamed with Mysterio to defeat Andrade and Garza where he pinned Andrade, earning himself a United States Championship match at Elimination Chamber. At the event, Carrillo was unsuccessful in capturing the United States Championship from Andrade. On the May 4 episode of "Raw", Carrillo participated in a last chance gauntlet match to determine the final competitor in the Money in the Bank ladder match where he entered fifth, defeating Bobby Lashley by disqualification, Angel Garza, and Austin Theory but lost to the returning AJ Styles.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Carrillo then began a feud with Seth Rollins after he injured his friend Rey Mysterio, challenging Rollins's disciple Murphy to a match on the May 18 episode of "Raw" where Carrillo lost. On the May 25 episode of "Raw", Carrillo teamed with Aleister Black where they were defeated by Murphy and Austin Theory after Theory pinned Carrillo. The following week, Carrillo accompanied Black in his match against Rollins where Black was victorious. After the match, Black and Carrillo were attacked by Rollins, Murphy and Theory and both received a Curb Stomp. On the June 29 episode of "Raw", Carillo teamed with Aleister Black where they were defeated by Buddy Murphy and Seth Rollins. After the match, Rollins and Murphy attacked Carillo and Black, which ended with Rollins performing a Curb Stomp on Carillo onto the steel steps. On the July 27 episode of Raw, Carillo returned and faced Murphy where he was defeated. On the September 21 "Raw", Carrillo teamed with Dominik Mysterio and fought Andrade and Angel Garza and Seth Rollins and Murphy in a triple threat tag match for a future Raw Tag Team Championship opportunity but were defeated. Two weeks later on "Raw", Carrillo once again teamed with Mysterio and fought Rollins and Murphy in a losing effort. Following this, Carrillo would wrestle exclusively on "Main Event" for the next several months.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Carrillo returned to television on the April 9, 2021 episode of "SmackDown" participating in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal which he failed to win. On the April 19 episode of "Raw", Carrillo accepted Sheamus' open challenge for the United States Championship, however he was viciously attacked by Sheamus before the match began. The following week, he attacked Sheamus as revenge for what the latter previously did to him. Carrillo would face Sheamus once again on the May 10 episode of "Raw" but ended in referee stoppage after Carrillo injured his knee. On the July 5 episode of "Raw", it would be announced that Carrillo would face Sheamus for the United States title on next weeks episode, and lost.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: On the September 20 episode of "Raw", Carrillo formed a tag team with his cousin Angel Garza, thus turning heel for the first time in his career. The following week on "Raw", Carrillo helped Garza defeat Erik using underhanded tactics, cementing his heel turn in the process. As part of the 2021 Draft, both Carrillo and Garza were drafted to the SmackDown brand. On the November 5 episode of "SmackDown", the team was named Los Lotharios, with both Carrillo and Garza having shortened their ring names, being billed as Humberto and Angel.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Humberto Carrillo is the cousin of Angel Garza, the nephew of Héctor Garza, the grandson of Humberto Garza, the son of Humberto Garza Jr., the grandnephew of Mario Segura, the second cousin of Máscara Púrpura, the second cousin of El Ninja Jr. and the cousin of El Sultán. On April 11, 2019, Carrillo got engaged to his girlfriend Tania Ramirez. On July 27, 2019, Carrillo married Ramirez.


title: Humberto Carrillo

text: Carrillo made his video game debut as a playable character in "WWE 2K20" and later appeared in "WWE 2K Battlegrounds" and "WWE 2K22".


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan (born 15 August 1950), also known mononymously as Bharathi, is an Indian actress known primarily for her work in Kannada cinema and television serials. She began her career in 1966, as a lead actress, with the Kannada movie "Love in Bangalore." In a career spanning over 50 years, Bharathi has appeared in 150 films. Apart from 100 films in Kannada, she has also acted in a handful of Hindi, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam films. In the course of her career, she became known for portrayal of the roles mythological and historical characters, and also that of a student, a romantic and a rural belle. Her role in "Sri Krishnadevaraya" (1970) as Chennambike won her the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actress. In 2017, she was honoured with the Padma Shri by the Government of India.


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi was born in Bhadravathi on 15 August 1950 in the erstwhile Indian state of Mysore (now Karnataka). Her father V. M. Ramachandra Rao was a tailor and mother Bhadravathi Bai was a homemaker. Bharathi studied at Malleswaram Ladies Association (M.L.A) High School and then joined Maharani's Women's Science College in Bengaluru. While she was active in both sports and dance, her ambition at the time was to become a basketball player or an athlete. She even represented Karnataka State Level Throw-ball team during her college days. Destiny willed otherwise. In 1964, photos of her dance performance caught the eye of Kannada actor Kalyan Kumar, who cast her in "Love in Bangalore".


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi married actor Dr. Vishnuvardhan on 27 February 1975 in Bengaluru. They have adopted two daughters: Keerthi and Chandana. Dr. Vishnuvardhan died on 30 December 2009, aged 59 from cardiac arrest.


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Her first Kannada release was "Dudde Doddappa "followed by Love in Bangalore". "Her sensitive portrayal of a singer in "Sandhya Raga" won her critical acclaim and she went on to form a successful romantic pair with Rajkumar. The iconic pair went on to give hit after hit until 1972, very significant among them are Sri Krishnadevaraya", "Bangaaradha Manushya" and "Mayor Muthanna". "She formed a popular pair with Vishnuvardhan (who then became her husband) and they starred in blockbusters like "Bhagya Jyothi", "Makkala Bhagya", "Devara Gudi", "Nagara Hole" and "Bangarada Jinke".


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi was introduced to Hindi cinema by director A. Bhimsingh with "Mehrban" (1967) and "Saadhu Aur Shaitaan" (1968). She acted in several Hindi films like "Ghar Ghar Ki Kahani" opposite Rakesh Roshan, Manoj Kumar's "Purab Aur Paschim" and Hum Tum Aur Woh with Vinod Khanna, Mastana and Mehmood's "Kunwaara Baap" (1974).


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi played supporting roles in two of M. G. Ramachandran's 1966 movies "Nadodi" and "Chandhrodhayam" which elevated her profile in Tamil arena. Later, she graduated to lead heroine roles with "Deiva Cheyal", "Avalukendru Or Manam" and "Thanga Surangam" opposite stars like Muthuraman, Gemini Ganeshan, and Shivaji Ganeshan.


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: After a brief hiatus from the movies she returned to the Kannada screen in 1984 with Puttanna Kanagal's much acclaimed "Runamukthalu" and started her second innings as a lead heroine in slightly more mature roles, going on to star in several movies each with lead actors of the time - Anant Nag ("Maneye Manthralaya", "Shanthi Nivasa)" Prabhakar "(Bandha Mukta)", "(Thaliya Aane)", Ambareesh "(Matsara)" and Rajesh "(Tavaru Mane)". She also starred in several Hindi films in her second innings - Prabhat Khanna's "Uttar Dakshin" (1987), "Izzatdaar" (1990 with Dilip Kumar), "Khel" and "Aao Pyaar Karen".


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: She acted in the Kannada Doordarshan serial "Janani" in the late 90s. In 2012, she appeared as a strict, no-nonsense sessions court judge in T.N. Seetharam's Kannada daily serial "Mukta-Mukta".


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Bharathi has acted in Telugu movies like "Jai Jawan" (1970), "Govula Gopanna" (1968) and "Sipayi Chinnayya" with Akkineni Nageswara Rao and various Malayalam films with many leading actors, mainly in character roles.


title: Bharathi Vishnuvardhan

text: Apart from acting, Bharathi has also been a singer and associate director in the film industry, singing a duet with T.M. Soundarrajan, a Tamil song "Thanga Nilave Nee Illamal" picturised on her and Gemini Ganesan. She sang a Kannada song "Ee Notake Mai Matake" with her husband Vishnuvardhan for the movie "Nagara Hole". She worked as associate director with K. S. L. Swamy for the movies "Karune Illada Kanoonu", "Huli Hejje" and the classic "Malaya Marutha".


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: Armour of God II: Operation Condor (; also known as Operation Condor in the United States and as Superfly in the Philippines) is a 1991 Hong Kong action-adventure film written and directed by Jackie Chan, who also starred in the film. It is the sequel to 1986's "Armour of God".


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: Compared to its predecessor, this film is more akin to the "Indiana Jones" film series in that it features Chan's character Jackie / Condor ("Asian Hawk" in the U.S. release) battling against a former Nazi to retrieve gold from an abandoned German base deep in the Sahara Desert.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: Hong Kong treasure hunter Jackie aka "Asian Hawk", is summoned by Duke Scapio at his mansion in Madrid, Spain, where he is told of a story of a German commander named Hans von Ketterling and his regiment burying 240 tons of gold at a secret base deep in the Sahara Desert in Africa before the end of World War II. The 18 soldiers involved in the operation disappeared under mysterious circumstances. By request from the United Nations, Scapio gives Jackie an unofficial mission to locate the base and recover the gold. Aside from acquiring the key to the base, he is partnered with Ada, an expert in African geography. Upon discovery of the gold, Jackie is promised one percent of the treasure, or roughly 2.5 tons of gold.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: One night, while snooping around the home of one of the base's caretakers, Jackie meets a young German woman named Elsa, after saving her from a couple of Arab men—Amon and Tasza—who are also searching for the gold. The next day, he goes to a renowned locksmith and learns that the key is intricately designed for use with a special code. After evading an army of black cars chasing him across town, Jackie is asked by Elsa to let her join him and Ada on their expedition, as she is in search of von Ketterling, who was her grandfather. Upon their arrival in the Sahara Desert, the expedition team picks up Momoko, a Japanese woman who is searching for the meaning of death.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: Their camp is attacked by black-veiled bandits who kidnap Elsa and Ada. Jackie and Momoko follow the bandits' trail to a slave market, where they save Elsa and Ada from being auctioned off as sex slaves. Meanwhile, the rest of the expedition team is murdered by a group of mercenaries led by a man who uses a wheelchair. After another run-in with Amon and Tasza, Jackie's group returns to their camp to discover their comrades slain, but Momoko recognizes a statue in one of Elsa's grandfather's pictures and leads them to an ancient temple. After bidding Momoko farewell, the trio enters the ruins, where they encounter a band of vicious tribesmen. While running for their lives, they fall through a loose floor of sand into a cavern, which is part of the secret Nazi base.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: They discover the mummified remains of Elsa's grandfather and look through his log book, revealing that the 18 soldiers under von Ketterling ingested cyanide pills and died inside the base upon completion of their mission. However, the trio only counts 17 bodies, with one soldier missing. The man who uses the wheelchair—arriving with his mercenaries and holding Momoko hostage—reveals himself as Adolf, the 18th soldier who murdered Elsa's grandfather after the latter made him a paraplegic for refusing to ingest the cyanide. A furious chase ensues between Jackie's group and the mercenaries throughout the base, which ends with the protagonists getting captured. Upon arriving at the vault, Jackie uses the key and a secret code from Elsa's grandfather's dog tag and opens it, revealing the elevator leading to the gold.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: Upon their discovery of the gold, the mercenaries turn their backs on Adolf with the intent of keeping the treasure to themselves. Adolf in turn locks in all of the mercenaries, except for two who chase Jackie to an underground wind tunnel. While Jackie battles the two mercenaries, Elsa and Ada flip random switches in the control room, activating the tunnel's turbine fan. As the three men hang on for their lives, Elsa and Ada attempt to switch off the fan, but they accidentally trigger the base's self-destruct sequence. Adolf tells the quartet that they can escape by having the turbine blow them through the ventilation duct, but he decides to stay to atone for his sins. The quartet gathers as much gold as they can, but the wind force only sends their bodies upward to the desert surface above before the base completely caves in.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: As the quartet walks across the desert, they once again encounter Amon and Tasza. With their common lack of a water supply, they finally overcome their differences and try to find water in the Sahara desert.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: "Armour of God II: Operation Condor" was filmed primarily in Madrid, Spain, and Morocco. While the opening scenes where Asian Hawk went powered paragliding was shot in Tagaytay over Taal Lake, Cavite, Philippines. The scene where he stole the gem from the cave tribe and escaped by zorbing was shot in Mount Macolod in Cuenca, Batangas.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: The hotel scene where Dodo Cheng is in bath towel and other gun fight scenes in Morocco was shot in Hong Kong on a hill overlooking Sha Tin. Four tons of sand was imported from the Middle East and the entire hotel set was set up. Bangladeshi and Indian extras were hired to act as Moroccans.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: According to his book "", while filming the underground base chase scene, Chan was supposed to swing to a platform with a long chain, but he lost balance and fell to the ground face-first, dislocating his sternum.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: In a 2013 interview with CBC, Chan said he was impressed being recognized even in remote areas in Africa. While shooting the film in Southern Morocco he said: "When I was in...in Morocco, middle of nowhere in the desert, all the children look at me, just, uh, put the drunken master pose. I said, 'Wow...'"


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: "Armour of God II" was released in Hong Kong on 7 February 1991. In the Philippines, the film was released as "Superfly" by First Films on 4 December 1991. "Project A" would later be misleadingly re-released by First Films as its sequel "Superfly 2" on 17 September 1992.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: "Chan" said in his biography that the film cost (), the most expensive Hong Kong film at the time. In its Hong Kong theatrical release, the film grossed HK$39,048,711. It was Hong Kong's second highest-grossing film of 1991.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: It had its North American release in 1997. On 1,523 North American screens on its opening weekend, it grossed US$4,731,751 ($3,088 per screen), on track to a US$10,405,394 final gross. The film grossed US$13,713,829 in territories outside of North America, for a worldwide total of (equivalent to US$53,808,838 adjusted for inflation in 2021).


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: It holds a 71% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 34 reviews with an average rating of 6.5/10.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: The film was originally released in Hong Kong in 1991 with a Cantonese soundtrack and a running time of approximately 106 minutes. An uncut export version of the film was released in the United Kingdom by Entertainment in Video. The VHS was released in 1993, and the DVD in 2001.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: In 1991, Dimension Films acquired the U.S. rights, but did not release the film theatrically until 1997 under the title "Operation Condor", with a newly commissioned English dub/score and 15 minutes deleted from the final cut. This version was released on DVD in 1999.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: In 2004, Intercontinental Video Limited released an uncut version in Hong Kong. The DVD is anamorphic and includes the Cantonese-language soundtrack with English subtitles.


title: Armour of God II: Operation Condor

text: In 2020, 88 Films Ltd released the original Hong Kong version and the previously unreleased extended 117 minute version on Blu-ray in the UK.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The University of Helsinki (, , abbreviated UH) is a public research university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but founded in the city of Turku (in Swedish "Åbo") in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo, at that time part of the Swedish Empire. It is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available. In 2020, around 31,600 students were enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes.


title: University of Helsinki

text: As of 1 August 2005, the university complies with the harmonized structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers bachelor, master, licenciate, and doctoral degrees. Admission to degree programmes is usually determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelor's degrees, and by prior degree results, in the case of master and postgraduate degrees. Entrance is particularly selective (circa 15% of the yearly applicants are admitted). It has been ranked a top 100 university in the world according to the 2016 ARWU, QS and THE rankings.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university is bilingual, with teaching by law provided both in Finnish and Swedish. Since Swedish, albeit an official language of Finland, is a minority language, Finnish is by far the dominating language at the university. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at master, licentiate, and doctoral levels, making it a "de facto" third language of instruction.


title: University of Helsinki

text: Remaining true to its traditionally strong Humboldtian ethos, the University of Helsinki places heavy emphasis on high-quality teaching and research of a top international standard. It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA, the Utrecht Network, and is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities. The university has also received international financial support for global welfare; for example, in September 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense provided the university with more than four million euros in funding for the treatment of MYC genes and breast cancer.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. As the university was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689) in Turku (Sw. Åbo), as the Åbo Kungliga Akademi (), the senior part of the school formed the core of the new university, while the junior year courses formed a grammar school. It was the third university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University and the Academia Gustaviana in Dorpat (predecessor to the University of Tartu in Estonia).


title: University of Helsinki

text: The second period of the university's history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, from 1809 to 1917. As Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Emperor Alexander I expanded the university and allocated substantial funds to it. Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, higher education within the country was moved to Helsinki, the new administrative heart of the Grand Duchy, in 1828, and renamed the "Imperial Alexander University in Finland" in honour of the late benefactor of the university. In the capital the primary task of the university was to educate the Grand Duchy’s civil servants.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The new statutes of the university enacted in 1828 defined the task of the university as promoting the development of "the Sciences and Humanities within Finland and, furthermore, educating the youth for the service of the Emperor and the Fatherland".


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Alexander University was a centre of national life that promoted the birth of an independent Finnish State and the development of Finnish identity. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius, were all involved in the activities of the university. The university became a major center of Finnish cultural, political, and legal life in 19th century Finland, and became a remarkable "primum mobile" of the nationalist and liberal cultural movements, political parties, and student organisations.


title: University of Helsinki

text: In the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines. As the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The third period of the university's history began with the creation of the independent Republic of Finland in 1917, and with the renaming of the university as the "University of Helsinki". Once Finland gained her independence in 1917 the university was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the academic community promoted the international relations of the new state and the development of its economic life. Furthermore, they were actively involved in national politics and the struggle for equality.


title: University of Helsinki

text: In the interwar period the university was the scene of a conflict between those who wanted to advance the usage of Finnish language in the university, to the detriment of Swedish and those who opposed such move. Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish language usage. Swedish People's Party of Finland initiated a campaign collecting 153 914 signatures in defense of the Swedish language that were handed to the parliament and government in October 1934. On an international front academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representations of Finland in their respective countries warning about a weakening of the Nordic unity that would result from diminishing the role of Swedish in the University of Helsinki.


title: University of Helsinki

text: In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. This was manifested, among other things, by international recognitions granted to its professors, such as the Fields Medal received by the mathematician Lars Ahlfors (1936), the Nobel Prize in Chemistry granted to Professor A.I. Virtanen (1945) and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit (1967). In the Continuation War the university was heavily damaged by bombs during a soviet air raid on 27 February 1944.


title: University of Helsinki

text: After World War II, university research focused on improving Finnish living conditions and supporting major changes in the structure of society and business. The university also contributed to the breakthrough of modern technology.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The progress of scientific development created many new disciplines and faculties at the University of Helsinki. At present the university comprises 11 faculties, 500 professors and almost 40,000 students. The university has established as its goal to further its position as one of Europe’s top multidisciplinary research universities.


title: University of Helsinki

text: In March 2014, two people were arrested and in June 2014 sentenced to prison for three years for plotting a mass murder at the university.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university is divided into eleven faculties. They are listed below in the official order used by the university, reflecting both the history of the university and the hierarchy of disciplines at the time when the university was established:


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university also has several independent institutes, such as research centres and libraries, the most notable of which are perhaps the National Library of Finland and Helsinki University Library. Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies is another independent institute within the University of Helsinki, an Institute for Advanced Study, which is modeled upon the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Previous directors include Raimo Väyrynen (2002–2004) and Juha Sihvola (2004–2009).


title: University of Helsinki

text: University of Helsinki is ranked at 82nd in the world by the 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2021, the University of Helsinki is ranked at 98th overall in the world. In 2014 THE–QS World University Rankings list, the University of Helsinki was ranked 67th.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The University of Helsinki offers a wide range of master’s degree programmes, taught entirely in English. The scope of the programmes is 120 ECTS credits, completed with two years of full-time study. Some programmes are organised by the University of Helsinki along with other Finnish and foreign universities. All programmes comply with the national legislation governing university education and are, therefore, recognised globally.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university is located on four main campuses. Originally, the entire university was located in the very centre of Helsinki, but due to the rapid growth of the university since the 1930s, premises have been built and acquired in other areas.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The historical City Centre Campus has been the hub of activity ever since the university moved from Turku to Helsinki in the early 19th century. The campus has a central location and reflects the architectural style of this part of the city. The university buildings in the city center house the Faculties of Theology, Law, Arts, Behavioural Sciences and Social Sciences plus administrative functions. Most of the buildings on the campus have a major architectural significance ranging from the dominating Neo-Classical, through the Jugendstil, to 20th century Modernism.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The City Centre Campus, extending around the historical centre of Helsinki, Senate Square, and Kruununhaka city district, is the administrative heart of the University of Helsinki and has the largest concentration of faculties in Helsinki.


title: University of Helsinki

text: After the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, Emperor Nicholas I ordered the Royal Academy of Turku be moved to the new capital city of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Helsinki, where the Imperial Alexander University in Finland began to operate the next year. Helsinki was to become Finland's window to the world; a European city to which the university belonged as an integral part. Carl Ludvig Engel, architect, was given the assignment of designing an Empire-style main building next to Senate Square, facing the Imperial Senate. The main building was completed in 1832. Thanks to the lessons learnt from the fire of Turku, the library was built separate from other premises. The library and several faculty buildings in the campus were also designed by Engel.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The main building as well as other buildings of the campus were badly damaged during the Soviet bombings in World War II but rebuilt after the war.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The plan concerning the concentration of university facilities dating back to the 1980s, aimed to achieve a closer unity between facilities. The City Centre Campus does not stand out from the rest of the urban environment but is a part of the city, in line with the old university tradition. The university facilities still form a functional and coherent whole, consisting not only of historically valuable buildings, but also of facilities for 20,000 students and 3,000 teachers and other staff.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Kumpula Campus, housing the Faculty of Science, is located four kilometers north from the centre of Helsinki near tram lines 6 and 8. The campus houses the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Statistics, Computer Science, and Geosciences and Geography.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The university departments were located in Kumpula for the first time in 1978 when the City of Helsinki leased the area for the university. A planning competition for the city plan for the area was held a year earlier. In the 1980s, the Accelerator Laboratory of the Department of Physics was quarried into Kumpula rock and the construction of Kumpula Botanical Garden began in 1987. It was not, however, until the 1990s when the construction work proper began, transforming the area into a significant campus.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Chemicum, the building housing the Department of Chemistry and VERIFIN (Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention), and the Physicum, which provides facilities for physics, geology and geography are located on Kumpula campus surrounding a square named after the Finnish Nobel prize winner, A. I. Virtanen. Kumpula Campus Library is also located in the Physicum. The Kumpula Sports Centre is planned for the recreational use of both university staff and students and citizens of Helsinki alike. Completed in 2004, the Exactum provides facilities for seismology, computer science and mathematical subjects, as well as administrative services.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The campus comprises two main parts: the Botanical Garden, surrounding the old building stock of Kumpula manor and the modern new building stock located a couple of hundred metres north of the manor. The greenness of the area makes the dynamic campus stand out as a unique, distinctive complex. The campus offers study and research facilities for 6,000 students and 1,000 teachers. The Finnish Meteorological Institute moved to the area in 2005. That building is known as Dynamicum.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Meilahti Campus, with the Faculty of Medicine, is a part of the Meilahti Hospital District on the edge of the city centre. Just a few kilometres from the City Centre Campus, the Meilahti area has been transformed into a cradle of top research on medicine, 'Medilahti'. Established in the 1930s, the Women's Clinic was accompanied by Finland's leading hospital, Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH) in 1966. The same year saw the completion of facilities for theoretical subject departments on Haartmaninkatu street. The building is now being renovated and extended.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The latest completed facilities in the campus include the National Library of Health Sciences (Terkko) and the research and teaching centre Biomedicum that houses several research institutes including the Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), Neuroscience Center (NC), and Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Ruskeasuo premises, including the Department of Dentistry, Institute for Oral Health, Department of Public Health and Department of Forensic Medicine, also belong to the Meilahti campus. The Meilahti and Ruskeasuo areas form a close-knit complex providing a meeting place for medical education, international top-level research and nursing. The campus is a workplace for 2,000 students and 1,500 teachers.


title: University of Helsinki

text: Thanks to the years-long project to combine the teaching facilities of the Faculty of Medicine, Meilahti is now a functional unity of medicine and health care. The atmosphere in the campus inspires people in their studies, research and international co-operation.


title: University of Helsinki

text: Although the Meilahti campus is intertwined with the rest of Meilahti district, it succeeds in forming a clear-cut campus area with its hospital-type building stock.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Viikki Campus is located in the semi-suburban greenspace of the Viikki area, some 8 kilometres north-east of the city centre. It houses the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosciences, Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy. It is an important concentration in the field of biosciences, even by European standards. Indeed, it is often called the bioscience campus or the "green campus".


title: University of Helsinki

text: In addition to biosciences, the campus is home to a wide range of other life science researchers and students in such fields as environmental science, veterinary medicine, food research and economics. Numerous international research groups also work on the Viikki Campus. The Viikki Campus is the location of four faculties, three independent research institutes (Institute of Biotechnology (BI), Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE) and Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)) and the Viikki Science Library.


title: University of Helsinki

text: It also attracts an increasing number of businesses to the Helsinki Business and Science Park. The Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the Finnish Food Safety Authority, Evira, have also moved to Viikki and negotiations are under way to relocate MTT Agrifood Research Finland to Viikki to complement the Department of Economics and Management.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Viikki Campus unites a multidisciplinary science community of more than 6,500 students and 1,600 teachers, a residential area emphasising ecological values and the natural surroundings, including recreational areas and nature reserves, and forms a unique whole. The campus also has the Viikinlahti conservation area, which is particularly popular among bird watchers.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The National Library of Finland is the foremost research library in Finland and the main branch of the University of Helsinki's library system. The National Library of Finland is the oldest and largest scholarly library in Finland as well as one of the largest independent institutes at the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the collection, description, preservation and accessibility of Finland’s printed national heritage and the unique collections under its care. The National Library also serves as a national service and development centre for the library sector and promotes national and international cooperation in the field.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Main Library of the university is used by students for research and studying. Located a few blocks down the street from the university's main building in the city center, the new Main Library was opened in 2012 in the Kaisa House. The new library merged the undergraduate library and four dispersed faculty libraries of the city center campus to a collection of approximately 1.5 million books. The architecture of the new building, designed by Anttinen Oiva Architects, has been praised and received several awards.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Helsinki University Museum is the museum of the University of Helsinki and was located until June 2014 on "Snellmanninkatu" off the north-east corner of Senate Square. Museums main exhibition moved to the University Main Building in 2015.


title: University of Helsinki

text: Helsinki University Museum was established in 2003 by merging the former University Museum specialising in the history of the University of Helsinki, the Museum of Medical History, the Museum of the History of Veterinary Medicine, the Museum of the History of Dentistry and the Collections of Craft Science. To complement the new conglomeration of museums, the Mineral Cabinet, which today belongs to the Finnish Museum of Natural History, returned to its original location in the Arppeanum building. Each year the museum also holds one or two temporary exhibitions in a specially designed area. Museums exhibition in Arppeanum Building was closed in June 2014. New main exhibition was opened in the Main Building in March 2015.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The University Museum is in charge of the preservation and conservation of the university’s valuable museum collections and property: old tuition and research equipment, furniture and works of art. The museum maintains an index register of all valuables that are kept in the facilities of the university. The museum also provides library, archive and photographic services pertaining to the history of the university and the history of medical science.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Finnish Museum of Natural History is a research institution under the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the national botanical, zoological, geological and paleontological collections consisting of samples from around the world. The collections serve scientific, public informational and educational purposes.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The Student Union of the University of Helsinki ("Helsingin yliopiston ylioppilaskunta", HYY) was founded in 1868. It currently has 32,000 members and is one of the world's wealthiest student organizations, with assets of several hundred million euros. Among other things, it owns a good deal of property in the city centre of Helsinki. The union has been at the centre of student politics from the 19th Century nationalist movements, through the actions of the New Left in the 1960s, up to the present. Its governing assembly consists of parties which are connected to faculty organisations, the Student Nations, and the mainstream political parties.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The student nations are student organisations that provide extra-curricular activities to students. Along with the faculty-based organisations, the nations provide one of the main nodes of student social life. The nations at University of Helsinki have a special legal status in the Universities Act. There are 15 nations at the university, each one representing a historic region or province of Finland, with four of these representing Swedish-speaking regions. Membership is optional.


title: University of Helsinki

text: The chancellor is the highest representative of the University of Helsinki. He is elected by the college, the highest body of staff representation at the university. According to the University Act, the chancellor's task is to promote the sciences and monitor the interests of the university. The chancellor has the right to attend meetings of the Government of Finland on matters concerning the University of Helsinki.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: Adrian Wojnarowski (; born March 4, 1969), nicknamed Woj, is an American sports columnist and reporter. He is an NBA insider for ESPN, having previously covered the NBA for Yahoo! Sports.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: Wojnarowski was born in Bristol, Connecticut on March 4, 1969, of Polish descent. He graduated from Bristol Central High School in 1987. He then went on to attend St. Bonaventure University, where he graduated in 1991. He currently lives in Glen Rock, New Jersey with his wife, Amy, and two children. In May 2022, Wojnarowski received an honorary doctorate from St. Bonaventure University.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: Wojnarowski began his career working for the "Hartford Courant" starting as a high school senior and continuing during breaks from college. After graduating from college, he wrote for some smaller papers before becoming a columnist for the "Fresno Bee" in 1995. On June 20, 2019, Wojnarowski was awarded the inaugural Tony Kubek Award for Media Excellence by the National Polish-American Sports Hall of Fame in Michigan.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: In 1997, he started working for "The Record" in New Jersey. As a result of his work with "The Record", he was named "Columnist of the Year" in 1997 and 2002 by the Associated Press Sports Editors. During this time, he also contributed regularly to ESPN.com. In 2006, he published a "New York Times" best-seller: "The Miracle of St. Anthony: A Season with Coach Bob Hurley and Basketball's Most Improbable Dynasty."


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: In 2007, he left "The Record" and joined Yahoo! Sports full-time. In March 2009, he and Dan Wetzel wrote a story tying the Connecticut Huskies men's basketball program to several recruiting violations. In 2010 the "New York Post" reported that Wojnarowski was being sued by the Penguin Group for failing to meet a deadline for a book covering the life of coach Jim Valvano. Wojnarowski responded that the problem was "a miscommunication between my agent and me" and said that he would be returning the money to Penguin Books.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: Wojnarowski has been widely considered one of the best NBA "scoopers" in the business by fans, especially during the NBA Draft, when Wojnarowski has called the picks and trades involving said picks ahead of time on his Twitter account. His scoops have been referred to as “Woj Bombs”. However, Wojnarowski has been criticized by media critics for his reporting on NBA player LeBron James, being accused of having an apparent bias and relying on anonymous sources. He was listed #1 in Sports Media Watch's "Worst of Sports Media 2010" as a result of this criticism.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: Wojnarowski left Yahoo! Sports for ESPN on July 1, 2017, just before the start of NBA free agency. He made his ESPN debut on the midnight edition of "SportsCenter" earlier that day.


title: Adrian Wojnarowski

text: On July 10, 2020, Republican Senator Josh Hawley wrote a letter to NBA commissioner Adam Silver questioning the propriety of the NBA allowing social justice statements on players' jerseys, but not support for law enforcement or anything critical of the Chinese Communist Party. The NBA has business connections with China. Wojnarowski, copied on the Hawley communication, replied to Hawley via email saying "fuck you". Wojnarowski apologized the same day to Hawley and ESPN; ESPN called Wojnarowski's response "completely unacceptable behavior" and added the network was "addressing it directly with Adrian and specifics of those conversations will remain internal." Two days later, ESPN suspended Wojnarowski without pay. He was due to remain suspended for one to two weeks.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The economy of Cambodia ( ) currently follows an open market system (market economy) and has seen rapid economic progress in the last decade. Cambodia had a GDP of $24.57 billion in 2018. Per capita income, although rapidly increasing, is low compared with most neighboring countries. Cambodia's two largest industries are textiles and tourism, while agricultural activities remain the main source of income for many Cambodians living in rural areas. The service sector is heavily concentrated on trading activities and catering-related services. Recently, Cambodia has reported that oil and natural gas reserves have been found off-shore.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: In 1995, with a GDP of $2.92 billion the government transformed the country's economic system from a planned economy to its present market-driven system. Following those changes, growth was estimated at a value of 7% while inflation dropped from 26% in 1994 to only 6% in 1995. Imports increased due to the influx of foreign aid, and exports, particularly from the country's garment industry, also increased. Although there was a constant economic growth, this growth translated to only about


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: After four years of improving economic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed in 1997–1998 due to the regional economic crisis, civil unrest, and political infighting. Foreign investments declined during this period. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of relative peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Currently, Cambodia's foreign policy focuses on establishing friendly borders with its neighbors (such as Thailand and Vietnam), as well as integrating itself into regional (ASEAN) and global (WTO) trading systems. Some of the obstacles faced by this emerging economy are the need for a better education system and the lack of a skilled workforce; particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which struggles with inadequate basic infrastructure. Nonetheless, Cambodia continues to attract investors because of its low wages, plentiful labor, proximity to Asian raw materials, and favorable tax treatment.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Following its independence from France in 1953, the Cambodian state has undergone five periods of political, social, and economic transformation:


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: In 1989, the State of Cambodia implemented reform policies that transformed the Cambodian economic system from a command economy to an open market one. In line with the economic reformation, private property rights were introduced and state-owned enterprises were privatized. Cambodia also focused on integrating itself into regional and international economic blocs, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations and the World Trade Organization respectively. These policies triggered a growth in the economy, with its national GDP growing at an average of 6.1% before a period of domestic unrest and regional economic instability in 1997 (1997 Asian financial crisis). However, conditions improved and since 1999, the Cambodian economy has continued to grow at an average pace of approximately 6-8% per annum.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: In 2007, Cambodia's gross domestic product grew by an estimated 18.6%. Garment exports rose by almost 8%, while tourist arrivals increased by nearly 35%. With exports decreasing, the 2007 GDP growth was driven largely by consumption and investment. Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows reached US$600 million (7 percent of GDP), slightly more than what the country received in official aid. Domestic investment, driven largely by the private sector, accounted for 23.4 percent of GDP. Export growth, especially to the US, began to slow in late 2007 accompanied by stiffer competition from Vietnam and emerging risks (a slowdown in the US economy and lifting of safeguards on China's exports). US companies were the fifth largest investors in Cambodia, with more than $1.2 billion in investments over the period 1997-2007.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Cambodia was severely damaged by the financial crisis of 2007–2008, and its main economic sector, the garment industry, suffered a 23% drop in exports to the United States and Europe. As a result, 60,000 workers were laid off. However, in the last quarter of 2009 and early 2010, conditions were beginning to improve and the Cambodian economy began to recover. Cambodian exports to the US for the first 11 months of 2012 reached $2.49 billion, a 1 per cent increase year-on-year. Its imports of US goods grew 26 per cent for that period, reaching $213 million. Another factor underscoring the potential of the Cambodian economy is the recent halving of its poverty rate. The poverty rate is 20.5 per cent, meaning that approximately 2.8 million people live below the poverty line.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1986–2020 (with IMF staff estimates in 2021–2026). Inflation below 5% is in green. The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The garment industry represents the largest portion of Cambodia's manufacturing sector, accounting for 80% of the country's exports. In 2012, the exports grew to $4.61 billion up 8% over 2011. In the first half of 2013, the garment industry reported exports worth $1.56 billion. The sector employs 335,400 workers, of which 91% are female.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The sector operates largely on the final phase of garment production, that is turning yarns and fabrics into garments, as the country lacks a strong textile manufacturing base. In 2005, there were fears that the end of the Multi Fibre Arrangement would threaten Cambodia's garment industry; exposing it to stiff competition with China's strong manufacturing capabilities. On the contrary, Cambodia's garment industry at present continues to grow rapidly. This is can be attributed to the country's open economic policy which has drawn in large amounts of foreign investment into this sector of the economy.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: In 2010, 236 garment export-oriented factories were operating and registered with GMAC, the Garment Manufacturers Association in Cambodia, with 93% being foreign direct investment (FDI).


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: As seen in the table above, Cambodia's garment industry is characterized by a small percentage of local ownership. This is a reflection of the deficiency of skilled workers in the country as well as the limited leverage and autonomy Cambodian factories have in strategic decisions. Another characteristic of the industry is the country's competitive advantage as the only country where garment factories are monitored and reported according to national and international standards.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: This has allowed Cambodia to secure its share of quotas for exports to the US through the US-Cambodia Trade Agreement on Textiles and Apparel (1999–2004), which linked market access to labor standards. However, the Cambodian garment industry remains vulnerable to global competition due to a lack of adequate infrastructure, labor unrest, the absence of a domestic textile industry, and almost complete dependence on imported textile material.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: GMAC is establishing a specialized training institute to train garment workers. The institute is in Phnom Penh Special Economic Zone and will be completed by late 2016. It aims to train 1,600 garment workers in the first three years and 240 university students each year as part of a separate program.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Agriculture is the traditional mainstay of the Cambodian economy. Agriculture accounted for 90 percent of GDP in 1985 and employed approximately 80 percent of the work force. Rice is the principal commodity.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Major secondary crops include maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans, sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. The principal commercial crop is rubber. In the 1980s it was an important primary commodity, second only to rice, and one of the country's few sources of foreign exchange.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: In the 1960s, Cambodia was a prominent tourist destination in the Southeast Asian region. Due to protracted periods of civil war, insurgencies, and especially the genocidal regime of the Khmer Rouge (see Khmer Rouge Genocide), Cambodia's tourism industry was reduced to being virtually non-existent. Since the late 1990s, tourism is fast becoming Cambodia's second largest industry, just behind the garment manufacturing. In 2006, Cambodia's tourism sector generated a revenue of US$1.594 billion, which made up approximately 16% of the country's GDP.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Cultural heritage tourism is especially popular in the country, with many foreign tourists visiting the ancient Hindu temple of Angkor Wat located in the Siem Reap province. Other popular tourist attractions include the Royal Palace, Phnom Penh, as well as ecotourism spots such as Tonlé Sap Lake and the Mekong River.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The tourism industry in Cambodia has been perpetuated by the development of important transportation infrastructure; in particular Cambodia's two international airports in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap respectively. To the Cambodian economy, tourism has been a means for accumulation of foreign currency earnings and employment for the Cambodian workforce, with about 250,000 jobs generated in 2006. Meanwhile, challenges to the industry include a leakage of revenue to foreign markets due to a dependence on foreign goods as well as the prevalence of the Child sex tourism industry.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The increase in tourist arrivals has led to growing demand for hotels and other forms of accommodation surrounding tourist hotspots. Siem Reap in particular has seen a construction boom in recent years. The capital Phnom Penh has also witnessed a growth in the construction and real estate sector. Recently, planned projects that have been on the pipeline for several years have been shelved temporarily due to a reduction in foreign investment.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: From 2009, the Cambodian government has allowed foreigners to own condominiums. This has helped in attracting real estate investors from Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and other countries.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The construction sector attracted investment of $2.1 billion in 2012 which is a 72 per cent rise compared with 2011. Construction licenses issued stood at 1,694 projects in 2012, which was 20% lower than 2011 but they were higher in value.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Oil seeps were discovered in Cambodia as early as the 1950s by Russian and Chinese geologists. Development of the industry was delayed, however, by the Vietnam and Cambodian Civil Wars and the political uncertainty that followed. Further discoveries of oil and natural gas deposits offshore in the early 2000s led to renewed domestic and international interest in Cambodia's production possibilities. As of 2013, the US company Chevron, Japanese JOGMEC and other international companies maintained production sites both on shore and off. Chevron alone had invested over US$160 million and drilled 18 wells.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Sok Khavan, acting director general of the Cambodian National Petroleum Authority, estimated that once the contracts are finalized and legal issues resolved, the Cambodian government will receive approximately 70% of the revenues, contributing to an economy in which the GDP is projected to increase five-fold by 2030. In addition, there are 10,000 square miles offshore in the Gulf of Thailand that holds potential reserves of 12-14 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and an unspecified amount of oil. The rights to this territory are currently a subject of dispute between Cambodia and Thailand, further delaying any possible production developments. In early 2013 it was reported that the two countries were close to a deal that would allow joint production to begin.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Cambodia's emerging democracy has received strong international support. Under the mandate of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), $1.72 billion (1.72 G$) was spent in an effort to bring basic security, stability and democratic rule to the country. Various news and media reports suggest that since 1993 the country has been the recipient of some US$10 billion in foreign aid.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: With regards to economic assistance, official donors had pledged $880 million at the Ministerial Conference on the Rehabilitation of Cambodia (MCRRC) in Tokyo in June 1992. In addition to that figure, $119 million was pledged in September 1993 at the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC) meeting in Paris, and $643 million at the March 1994 ICORC meeting in Tokyo.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Cambodia experienced a shortfall in foreign aid in the year 2005 due to the government's failure to pass anti-corruption laws, opening up a single import/export window, increasing its spending on education, and complying with policies of good governance. In response, the government adopted the National Strategic Development Plan for 2006–10 (also known as the “Third Five-Year Plan”). The plan focused on three major areas:


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: There are no significant barriers to bank entry. At the end of 2013, there stood 35 commercial banks of which most have majority foreign ownership. Since 2011 new banks


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Cambodia has significant potential for developing renewable energy. The country, however, remains one of the few countries in the ASEAN region that has not adopted renewable energy targets. To attract more investment in renewable energy Cambodia could adopt targets, improve renewable energy governance, develop a regulatory framework, improve project bankability and facilitate market entry for international investors. Due to high vulnerability to climate change, it is recommended that Cambodia focuses on developing renewable energy away from fossil fuels as part of climate change mitigation measures.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: The announcement from February 12, 2020 was to suspend EBA ("Everything But Arms") trade preferences between EU and Cambodia. The country has known to be the second largest beneficiary from EBA's program. The EU's preliminary conclusion sent to Cambodian government in November 12, 2019 because Cambodia failed to address serious human and labor rights concerns under Human Rights Watch. Moreover, the issue behind ending the opposition party (CNRP) and dropping charges against the leader of CNRP violated the right to freedom of expression.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: Although Cambodia exports mainly garments and products from agriculture and fisheries, it is striving to diversify the economy. There is some evidence of expansion in value-added exports from a low starting point, largely thanks to the manufacture of electrical goods and telecommunications by foreign multinationals implanted in the country. Between 2008 and 2013, high-tech exports climbed from just US$3.8million to US$76.5 million.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: It will be challenging for Cambodia to enhance the technological capacity of the many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) active in agriculture, engineering and the natural sciences. Whereas the large foreign firms in Cambodia that are the main source of value-added exports tend to specialize in electrical machinery and telecommunications, the principal task for science and technology policy will be to facilitate spillovers in terms of skills and innovation capability from these large operators towards smaller firms and across other sectors.


title: Economy of Cambodia

text: There is little evidence that the Law on Patents, Utility Model Certificates and Industrial Designs (2006) has been of practical use, thus far, to any but the larger foreign firms operating in Cambodia. By 2012, 27 patent applications had been filed, all by foreigners. Of the 42 applications for industrial design received up to 2012, 40 had been filed by foreigners. Nevertheless, the law has no doubt encouraged foreign firms to introduce technological improvements to their on-shore production systems, which can only be beneficial.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Brewster County, Texas, United States. The population was 5,905 at the 2010 census. The town has an elevation of , and the surrounding mountain peaks are over above sea level. The university, hospital, library, and retail make Alpine the center of the sprawling but wide open Big Bend area (combined population only 12,500) including Brewster, Presidio, and Jeff Davis counties.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The area had been a campsite for cattlemen tending their herds between 1878 and the spring of 1882, when a town of tents was created by railroad workers and their families. Because the section of the railroad was called Osborne, that was the name of the small community for a brief time. The railroad needed access to water from springs owned by brothers named Daniel and Thomas Murphy, so it entered into an agreement with the Murphys to change the name of the section and settlement to Murphyville in exchange for a contract to use the spring. In November 1883, the Murphys registered a plat for the town of Murphyville with the county clerk of Presidio County.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The town's name was changed to Alpine on February 3, 1888, following a petition by its residents. At this time, a description of the town mentioned a dozen houses, three saloons, a hotel and rooming house, a livery stable, a butcher shop, and a drugstore, which also housed the post office.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine grew very slowly until Sul Ross State Normal College (now Sul Ross State University) was opened in 1920. The development of Big Bend National Park in the 1930s and '40s spurred further growth. The population was estimated at only 396 in 1904, but by 1927, it had risen to 3,000. The 1950 census reported Alpine's population at 5,256, and a high of roughly 6,200 was reached by 1976. In 1990, the population was down to 5,637. In 2000, the population grew modestly to 5,786 and 5,905 by 2010.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The town was always small enough that no one insisted on tearing down old buildings to make parking lots, and it is still too small to interest most big-box store chains. The Holland Hotel, built during a brief mercury mining boom, was designed by Henry Trost, a distinguished regional architect. Today, it helps to anchor a traditional downtown of early 20th-century buildings still occupied by family-owned retailers and restaurants.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The town sits on a high plateau, in the Chihuahua Desert, with the Davis Mountains to the north and the Chisos Mountains to the south. Outcrops of ancient volcanic rocks spread to the northwest. Other layers of rocks have been exposed over time as the mountains were forced up and then eroded. The high elevation cools the desert air in the evenings.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: In the winters, ample sunshine usually warms the days, though the nights can be chilly due to the elevation. In the summer, the fierce sun causes hot days, pleasantly relieved in the evening by the same high elevation. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alpine has a semiarid climate, "BSk" on climate maps.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 6,035 people, 2,886 households, and 1,414 families residing in the city.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: As of the 2000 census, 5,786 people, 2,429 households, and 1,435 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,416.5 people per square mile (547.5/km). The 2,852 housing units averaged 698.2 per square mile (269.9/km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.19% White, 1.33% African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.45% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 15.45% from other races, and 2.70% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 50.31% of the population.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Of the 2,429 households, 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were not families. About 34.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 3.04.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 24.3% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The median income for a household in the city was $23,979, and for a family was $31,658. Males had a median income of $27,720 versus $19,575 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,587. About 15.5% of families and 20.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.3% of those under age 18 and 17.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Sul Ross State University began as a teachers' college in 1920, with its original campus in Alpine. Named for Lawrence Sullivan Ross, a Confederate States Army general during the American Civil War, Texas' 19th governor and later president of the new land grant college which became Texas A&M, it is now a member of the Texas State University System.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The 600-acre main campus on the lower slopes of Hancock Hill contains 20 or so buildings, most designed in Classical Revival style, and all harmoniously faced with red brick and white trim. The hillside gives fine views of the town below and the surrounding mountain ranges. The Bar-SR-Bar brand of the college is whitewashed on stones high above. In 1981, students placed a desk on Hancock Hill and today visitors are invited to hike up to "sign the register".


title: Alpine, Texas

text: About 2,000 students attend here, many living in Lobo Village, which boasts 250 new apartment-style residence units. Both bachelor's and master's programs are available in fields such as behavioral and social sciences, business administration, computer science and mathematics, education, geology, law enforcement, and vocational nursing.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Sul Ross ranked number four in affordability among public universities according to "U.S. News & World Report". It was included in "The Nation's 30 Most Attractive Yet Affordable Campuses", published by AffordableSchools.net, based on its combined qualities of affordability and the beauty of the campus and surrounding area.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Intercollegiate sports include men's and women's basketball, cross country, track and field, and tennis, along with men's baseball and women's softball, men's football and women's soccer, and women's volleyball. The teams are known as the Lobos, and play in the American Southwest Conference.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Sul Ross was the founding home of the National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association in 1949. The Sul Ross Rodeo Club competes in 10 NIRA rodeos each year. The NIRA rodeo hosted in Alpine is a big event for the school and the community.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine Independent School District serves more than 1,000 local students attending Alpine Elementary School, Alpine Middle School, and Alpine High School, in classes from Pre-K, Kindergarten, and first through 12th grades.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: On the Texas Education Agency report card for 2013–2014, the high school, with 277 students in grades 9–12, reached "Met Standard" overall, while receiving Distinction designations in mathematics, social studies, top 25% closing performance gaps, and postsecondary readiness. Notably, average class sizes in Alpine High are only about two-thirds the state average. The Middle School, with 309 students in grades 5–8, also reached "Met Standard", while receiving Distinction designations in mathematics and social Studies.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: School colors are purple and old gold. The high school is home to the Alpine Fightin' Bucks and Lady Bucks. Sports include football, volleyball, cross-country, girls' basketball, boys' basketball, powerlifting, track and field, baseball, softball, golf, athletic training, and tennis. Alpine hosts the Big Bend Mountain Ramble, a "mile-high cross country meet, the highest race in Texas", as well as high-school and junior-high relays.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine Montessori School is a private, nonsectarian, nonprofit school which serves grades pre-K through sixth.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The Museum of the Big Bend on the Sul Ross campus uses world-class exhibits of Native American artifacts, cultural history, geology, paleontology, and Western art to introduce the visitor to the Big Bend region. Subjects include the area's Indian tribes, the Buffalo soldiers, the mining era, the stagecoach, the railroad, and the history of Big Bend National Park. The overview includes historic photographs and short videos. The building was constructed in 1937 with local stone. Funding came from the Texas Centennial Commission and the Works Progress Administration, a federal make-work program during the Depression. Open Tuesday-Sunday, admission is free.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: In 1985 KVLF-AM, the only radio station licensed in Brewster County, was in Alpine. An individual quoted in a Federal Communications Commission report stated that in daylight hours it was possible to get radio from Fort Stockton, Texas.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The local daily paper is "The Alpine Avalanche" which has local news stories and advertisements, and it has almost no coverage of news outside of the area. Additionally Sul Ross students publish the "Skyline" and there is a resort sale publication called "The Lajitas Sun". An FCC report in 1985 stated that while there was readership in the county for the "San Angelo Standard Times" and the "Odessa American", "The two papers seldom carry articles covering the Alpine area."


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Begun by volunteers in 1947, the Alpine Public Library remains an independent entity with its own board of directors, though it is well-supported by the taxpayers of Brewster County and the City of Alpine. The community institution has a staff, with additional work done by volunteers. Special programs, like a science club and computer learning, are aimed at users from preschoolers and teens to parents and retirees.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The Alpine Public Library opened a facility in February, 2012, offering computer use with free Wi-Fi and access to online data, as well as traditional books, magazines, and other periodicals, CDs and DVDs, and a used bookstore, Re-Reads. Located at 805 W. Avenue E, it has a community meeting room, and is open Mon-Sat.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Big Bend Regional Medical Center is a 25-bed facility. Inpatient and outpatient services are provided.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine is home to the Alpine Cowboys independent baseball team. A member of the Pecos League, the Cowboys play their home games at Kokernot Field.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: Alpine is also home to the high school football team the Alpine Fightin Bucks. The Bucks are a class 3A Division I high school football team.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The Brewster County Courthouse and Jail was built in 1887–1888 by Tom Lovett, a local contractor, who apparently designed the buildings, as well (documentation is scarce). Open to visitors, historic photographs are displayed in the great hall.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The red brick courthouse is a fine example of the American Second Empire Style. The rectangular mass has five bays of paired round-arch window openings on the longer north and south facades. The shorter east and west facades have three bays. On three facades, the center bay contains a doorway at ground level, set in a thin, barely protruding pavilion. The second-story windows are slightly taller than the first-floor openings, a trick of the eye making the two-and-a-half-story building seem even taller. The walls are topped by a pressed-tin entablature composed of a frieze and cornice. The mansard roof is marked by steeply hipped pyramidal towers with pressed-tin cresting. The interior retains exemplary pressed-tin ceilings and some original woodwork. A wooden staircase with Eastlake-type details rises to the general courtroom on the second floor.


title: Alpine, Texas

text: The adjoining Brewster County Jail is distinguished by a crenelated brick parapet wall, suggesting "a fortress-like impregnability".