title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: One of the first homesteaders in the area near today's Castle Rock was Jeremiah Gould. He owned about to the south of "the (Castle) Rock." At that time, the settlement consisted of just a few buildings for prospectors, workers, and cowboys. In 1874, Gould donated to the new town, which was also now home to the Douglas County government. Six streets named Elbert, Jerry, Wilcox, Perry, Castle, and Front were laid out to build the actual town of Castle Rock. The courthouse square was defined and about 77 lots, each 50 by , were auctioned off for a total profit of US$3,400.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: During the late 1800s and early 1900s, Castle Rock had a very active rhyolite quarrying industry. Many immigrants arrived in the area to work in the quarries.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: In 1936, the town received a donation of land that included its namesake geographical feature. Men employed by the Works Progress Administration constructed a star atop the butte shortly after Castle Rock received that donation. The star was lit every year from 1936 to 1941. After World War II began, the star was left unlit as a symbol of sacrifice in support of the war effort. On August 14, 1945, shortly after V-J Day, the star was modified into a V-for-victory symbol. On December 7, 1945, the star was lit for the holiday season. It has been lit every year since around the same time.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The town's historic county courthouse, which was built in 1889–1890, burned down on March 11, 1978, the result of arson.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock's municipal government experienced significant financial difficulties during the early 1980s. In 1984, the town's voters approved a charter amendment that authorized the creation of a home-rule charter commission. The home-rule charter was finalized in 1987.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The original Douglas County courthouse was one of seven buildings in Castle Rock that have been added to the National Register of Historic Places. The other buildings include Castle Rock Depot, Castle Rock Elementary School, First National Bank of Douglas County, Samuel Dyer House, Benjamin Hammer House, and Keystone Hotel.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: A dispute about whether the Castle Rock Police Department was required to enforce a civil restraining order was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2005. The court held, in "Town of Castle Rock v. Gonzales", that a municipality cannot be held liable under a federal civil-rights statute, 42 U.S.C. § 1983, for failing to enforce civil restraining orders. The case had arisen from a 1999 murder of three young girls by their father outside the Castle Rock Police Department building. The children were abducted by their father, in violation of the restraining order that had been obtained by their mother, within several hours of being killed. The mother had asked the Castle Rock police to enforce the restraining order,


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: by finding and apprehending the father after he removed the children from her home and before the murders. Castle Rock police officers declined to do so, refusing even to contact the Denver Police Department after the mother notified them that the father had taken the children to an amusement park in that city.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock is located at (39.372212, −104.856090) at an elevation of 6,224 feet (1,897 m). Castle Rock is in central Colorado at the junction of Interstate 25 and State Highway 86, south of downtown Denver and north of Colorado Springs.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The town lies a few miles east of the Rampart Range of the Rocky Mountains on the western edge of the Great Plains. Castle Rock, the butte for which the town is named, is just north of the town center. Other prominent landforms visible from Castle Rock include Dawson Butte, Devils Head, Mount Evans, and Pikes Peak.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: East Plum Creek, a stream within the South Platte River watershed, flows generally north through Castle Rock. Hangman's Gulch, which runs northwest then west around the north side of the town center, drains into East Plum Creek, as do multiple unnamed gulches in the southern and western areas of town. McMurdo Gulch and Mitchell Gulch run north then northeast through eastern Castle Rock and drain into Cherry Creek east of town.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock is in the Colorado Foothills Life Zone. The hillsides are covered with meadows of grass, small plants, scattered juniper trees and open ponderosa pine woodlands. Other trees common in the area include Gambel oak (scrub oak or oak brush) and pinyon pine. Local wildlife includes the American badger, American black bear, bobcat, coyote, Colorado chipmunk, crow, garter snakes, gray fox, mountain cottontail rabbit, mountain lion, mule deer, pocket gopher, porcupine, skunk, and tadpoles. Birds found in the area include the golden eagle, peregrine falcon, sharp-shinned hawk, black-billed magpie, red-tailed hawk, pinyon jay, and western tanager.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Lying within the Front Range Urban Corridor, the town is part of the greater Denver metropolitan area. Castle Rock borders three communities, all to its north; from west to east, they are Castle Pines Village, the city of Castle Pines, and The Pinery. Other nearby communities include Franktown to the east, Larkspur to the south, Perry Park to the southwest, and Sedalia to the northwest.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock has a semiarid climate (Köppen "BSk") with cold, dry, snowy winters, and hot, wetter summers. January is the coldest month, July the hottest, and August the month with the most precipitation.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Statewide, Colorado has experienced an average temperature increase of about over the past half-century. Given its location in the center of the state, it is expected that Castle Rock will experience continuing warming and higher average temperatures through the 21st century as the effects of climate change continue to be felt. Daily minimum temperatures are also expected to continue rising, as they have for the past 30 years. The town will also likely experience less snowfall, earlier snowmelt and runoff during the spring, and increased water uptake by plants.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock encompasses about , with a population of more than 42,000 in town and 70,000 in the surrounding area.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As of the 2010 census, there were 48,231 people, 16,688 households, and 12,974 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 17,626 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 90.7% White, 1.7% Asian, 1.1% African American, 0.6% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 10.0% of the population.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: There were 16,688 households, out of which 48.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.4% were married couples living together, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.3% were non-families. 17.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86, and the average family size was 3.27.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 32.4% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males age 18 and over.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the town was $85,461, and the median income for a family was $95,973. Males had a median income of $66,993 versus $47,087 for females. The per capita income for the town was $34,089. About 4.0% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.2% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock is the 16th most populous municipality in Colorado and is the center of the burgeoning urbanization of the county.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Because of its Front Range location between Denver and its inner suburbs and Colorado Springs, many of Castle Rock's residents commute nearly 20 miles to northern Colorado Springs or the Denver Technological Center, better known as "The Denver Tech Center" (DTC), which is an 18-mile drive north on I-25, with Downtown Denver roughly 30 miles north, and Denver International Airport about 45 miles north.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: In fact, about 80% of Castle Rock residents commute out of town to work. The average one-way commute time for a Castle Rock resident is about 29 minutes, longer than the U.S. average.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: One reason for this is that the town has not yet attracted the variety or extent of employers needed to significantly lower the number of commuters to work outside Castle Rock. The town has relatively little land zoned for industrial or light industrial use, with the vast majority of the land within town limits dedicated to residential construction only.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As of 2011, 78.2% of the population over the age of 16 was in the labor force, 0.4% was in the armed forces, and 77.7% were in the civilian labor force, with 72.6% employed and 5.1% unemployed. The employed civilian labor force was 48.0% in management, business, science, and arts; 25.8% in sales and office occupations; 14.7% in service occupations; 6.4% in natural resources, construction, and maintenance; and 5.2% in production, transportation, and material moving. The three industries employing the largest proportion of the working civilian labor force were educational services, health care, and social assistance (15.5%); professional, scientific, and management, and administrative and waste management services (13.2%); and finance and insurance, and real estate and rental and leasing (12.6%).


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock's cost of living is above average. Compared to a U.S. average of 100, the cost of living index for the town is 137.2.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As of mid-2019, the median home value in the town was $427,537. The median gross monthly rent for an apartment was about $1,461.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The town's housing base continues to grow. About 1,400 permits to build new homes were issued in 2018.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock is a home rule municipality with a council–manager form of government. The Town's governing body is the Town Council, made up of seven members including the mayor and mayor pro-tem. Each councilmember is elected to represent an election district, and the mayor is elected to represent the Town at large. One member, appointed by the council, serves as the mayor pro-tem. Castle Rock voters approved a change to the town charter that authorized an at-large mayor in 2017.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The mayor presides over council meetings and casts one vote, like other councilmembers. The council sets policy for the town, adopts ordinances, approves the town budget, makes major land-use decisions, and appoints key town government staff including the town manager, town attorney, municipal judge, and members of town boards and commissions.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The town manager supervises all departments, prepares and implements the town budget, and works with the council to develop policies and propose new plans.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Tax revenues are used to provide general government, fire, police, parks maintenance and programs, street maintenance and operations, support for recreation, and planning and code enforcement services. The town also provides development services, golf, water, and sewer services to residents through self-supporting enterprise funds. The average annual municipal property tax bill of a Castle Rock resident is $40.66. That is in addition to property taxes assessed by Douglas County and other entities.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As the county seat, Castle Rock is the administrative center of Douglas County. The county courthouse, the Douglas County Justice Center, is north of downtown, and most departments of the county government base their operations in the town.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As of 2013, Castle Rock lies within Colorado's 4th U.S. Congressional District. The town is in the 4th district of the Colorado Senate and the 45th district of the Colorado House of Representatives.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Douglas County School District is based in Castle Rock and operates 18 public schools in the town. These include ten elementary schools, two middle schools, two charter schools, one magnet school, one alternative high school, and two high schools: Castle View High School and Douglas County High School. In addition, there are three private primary schools in Castle Rock.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: School board elections in Douglas County are held in odd-numbered years. In recent years the community has experienced a spirited debate between supporters of significant change in the management of local schools and those who oppose such changes or believe they should advance at a slower pace.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The Douglas County Libraries public library system is based in Castle Rock, co-located with the local branch library, the Philip S. Miller Library, south of downtown. The Miller Library includes the Douglas County History Research Center and offers several educational and recreational programs to the public. Also, it includes Little Free Librarys places scattered throughout, such as in festival park.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Interstate 25 and U.S. Route 87 run concurrently north-south through Castle Rock. U.S. Route 85, also a north-south route, enters the town from the northwest, meeting I-25 at Exit 184; south of the exit, it runs concurrently with I-25 and U.S. 87. Colorado State Highway 86, an east-west route, enters Castle Rock from the east, then turns north and west as Founders Parkway, terminating at its junction with I-25 at Exit 184.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: For local transportation within Castle Rock, the town government sponsors a voucher program for reduced-fare taxi service. This service is available to town residents who are disabled or who do not have access to a vehicle. In addition, the Castle Rock Senior Center offers a shuttle service for resident senior citizens.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock does not participate in the Denver metropolitan area's Regional Transportation District. Municipal voters decided in November 2005 to opt the town out of RTD. As a result, neither bus nor light rail service to Denver or any of its other suburbs is available from Castle Rock.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad each have a freight rail line that runs through Castle Rock. Both lines run parallel to U.S. 85.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The Intermountain Rural Electric Association, based in nearby Sedalia, provides electric power. Black Hills Energy provides natural gas service. Waste Management and other businesses provide trash removal.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The town government's Utilities Department oversees water provision, distribution, and infrastructure maintenance. Historically, nearly all of the water needed by Castle Rock residents was pumped from aquifers below the ground, including the Denver Basin aquifer. Beginning in 2013, when the town developed its first strategic plan for the management of water, Castle Rock has moved toward more use of surface water. Between 2006 and 2018 per capita water use in Castle Rock declined from 137 gallons to 115 gallons.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Starting in 2020, Castle Rock expects to begin treating sink, tap, and toilet water to drinkable water quality standards so that it can be reused. The town aims to achieve a goal of reliance upon renewable water resources for 75% of municipal needs by 2050 and, by 2020, about one-third of all water used in Castle Rock is expected to be from a reusable source.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: As of July 2019 Castle Rock, Denver, and Pitkin County are the first three Colorado municipal or county governments to adopt a state regulation governing greywater reuse.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock has several medical offices, an urgent care, and an emergency room. Castle Rock Adventist Hospital, a full-service hospital, opened on August 1, 2013. The 50-bed hospital offers comprehensive health care to the Douglas County area, with labor and delivery suites, NICU, orthopedic surgery, ICU, and medical imaging.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock is part of the Denver radio and television market. Radio station KJMN is licensed to Castle Rock, but broadcasts from Denver playing a Spanish Adult Hits format on 92.1 FM. Denver radio station 850 KOA, which broadcasts a news/talk and sports format, operates its 50,000 watt transmitter from a site 10 miles northeast of downtown Castle Rock, in the town of Parker. Another Denver station, KAMP (1430 AM), a CBS Sports Radio affiliate with a Sports Radio format, operates its transmitter from Highlands Ranch, 13 miles north of downtown Castle Rock.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: NPR programming can be heard on Colorado Public Radio's KCFR-FM. Castle Rock is also served by the AM signal of KGNU, a non-commercial affiliate of PRI, Pacifica, and the BBC World Service, and which also provides diverse music programming.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Television station KETD, an affiliate of the Estrella TV network, broadcasts on digital channel 46. Licensed to Castle Rock, the station is located near Centennial, Colorado.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Castle Rock's open space and parks comprise 27% the town's total land area ( of parks and open space / total land area). Additionally, there are nearly of soft-surface and paved trails.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Philip S. Miller Park is the largest park project in Castle Rock. "Phase One" of the park was opened to the public on October 25, 2014. It remains under construction. The park is named after a local banker and philanthropist who, with his wife, Jerry, left trust monies to Castle Rock in the mid-1990s. The Phillip S. Miller Activity Center is included in the park's 300 acres.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: The Castle Rock Historical Museum is in the former Denver and Rio Grande Railway depot building on Elbert Street. This building is purported to have been built in 1875. It is made of rhyolite taken from local quarries. The museum depicts how Castle Rock has changed over the years.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: From 1986 through 2006, a professional golf tournament was held in Castle Pines Village. The International, a PGA Tour event, was held in August at the Castle Pines Golf Club.


title: Castle Rock, Colorado

text: Since 1936, every Saturday before Thanksgiving, the Town of Castle Rock lights the electric star upon Castle Rock. A lighting event is held downtown that night and is usually accompanied by a fireworks display. The star remains lit from the week before Thanksgiving to the end of the National Western Stock Show in January. This has changed multiple times, following World War II it was changed to a V, also, the same year as the Denver Broncos being in the Super Bowl, it was changed to orange and blue. Throughout part of the lockdown in early 2020 due to COVID-19, the star was relit as a symbol of unity.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: Plumeria rubra is a deciduous plant species belonging to the genus "Plumeria". Originally native to Mexico, Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, it has been widely cultivated in subtropical and tropical climates worldwide and is a popular garden and park plant, as well as being used in temples and cemeteries. It grows as a spreading tree to high and wide, and is flushed with fragrant flowers of shades of pink, white and yellow over the summer and autumn.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "Plumeria rubra" was one of the many species first described by Carl Linnaeus, and appeared in the 1753 edition of "Species Plantarum". Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin "ruber" "red". The epithets "acuminata", "acutifolia", and "lutea" are seen, but these are invalid. Its common names include frangipani, red paucipan, red-jasmine, red frangipani, common frangipani, temple tree, or simply plumeria.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: The common name “frangipani” comes from an Italian noble family, a sixteenth-century marquess of which invented a plumeria-scented perfume. The genus name honors Charles Plumier, who was a French monk of the Franciscan order, and a botanist.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: In Mexico the common name is or . The name comes from Nahuatl and means “crow’s flower”. "P. rubra" was declared the national flower of Nicaragua in 1971, where it is known as . In Spanish, frangipanis are also referred to as , , and . The term is a Hawaiian one. In the Cook Islands, it is known as . It is grown extensively in southern and western parts of India, where it is named "champa" or a derivative thereof such as "chaaphaa", "champige" etc. It is also referred to as "champa" in Pakistan. In Cambodia it is given the names (also romanised as , meaning 'red'), or , while the French term for the species is . In Sri Lanka, it is known as in Sinhalese. It is known by many names in Brazil, including , , and . Another name it has in Portuguese is . In Myanmar, it is referred to as , , and . In China, it has the common name , and in the United States, it is referred to as "nosegay". In the Philippines, it is known as the "kalachuchi".


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "Plumeria rubra" belongs to the dogbane family and grows as a spreading shrub or small tree to a height of and similar width. It has a thick succulent trunk and sausage-like blunt branches covered with a thin grey bark. The branches are somewhat brittle and when broken, ooze a white latex that can be irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. This latex found in the stem of the plants is in fact toxic, but not deadly unless present in large quantities. The large green leaves can reach long and are arranged alternately and clustered at the end of the branches. The boles of these plants can be up to 25 cm in the wild. It tends to be smaller in cultivation.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: They are deciduous, falling in the cooler months of the year. The flowers are terminal, appearing at the ends of branches over the summer. Often profuse and very prominent, they are strongly fragrant, and have five petals. The flowers give off their fragrance in the morning and in the evening. This fragrance is similar to that of rose, citrus, and cinnamon. The colors range from the common pink to white with shades of yellow in the centre of the flower. Initially tubular before opening out, the flowers are in diameter, and only rarely go on to produce seed - 20-60 winged seeds are contained in a pod. The fruits are cylindrical pods that are rarely found in cultivation.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: Its native range extends from the Baja California cape into central Mexico south through Central America to Colombia and Venezuela in South America. It is cultivated in the tropical regions of the world, and is perhaps naturalized in some parts of India.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: More specifically, "P. rubra" is cultivated in the lowlands and the Yungas in Bolivia, the coastal and Andean regions of Ecuador, and the Amazonian and Andean regions of Peru, where it inhabits disturbed areas. "P. rubra" has been introduced into many countries and islands, including South Africa, Yemen, Chad, and Burundi. It has been found growing everywhere in Myanmar except in very cool mountainous regions. It has been introduced both in China and Pakistan and has been naturalized in the Analamanga & Betsiboka regions of Madagascar. It is native to the Department of Antioquia in Colombia, and is distributed in countries such as Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Mexico, El Salvador, Belize, and, Honduras, along with the West Indies. It is also widely cultivated in Panama.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "P. rubra" generally inhabits hot and rocky areas with dry to moderate rainfall. They can survive in locations with prominent dry seasons, where they can flower on the bare branches, or in more humid conditions, where they can remain evergreen. It can also be found in rocky forests, mountain slopes, and even occasionally on plains or savannas. It occupies elevations of 500 to 1000 meters but can be found up to elevations of 1500 meters.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: The species is cultivated around the world in subtropical and tropical climates. In Australia, it is widely seen in cultivation in Sydney and Perth and warmer frost free climates northwards. In the mainland United States, it tolerates USDA Hardiness zones 10B to 11 (southern coastal California and the southern tip of Florida). It is also grown in Hawaii to an altitude of 2000 m. They tolerate a wide variety of soils, from acid to alkaline and sandy to clay. These plants grow best in dry to medium moisture, well-drained soils in full sun and will bloom through most of the year in tropical areas. They do not grow well in wet soils and in areas with temperatures below during the winter seasons, the plants will stop blooming and shed their leaves. Established plants are also very salt tolerant and tolerate even salt-laden winds. Widely available in nurseries, frangipanis are readily propagated by cuttings of branches taken in cooler months and left to dry for a week or more. As well as gardens and street- and park planting, frangipanis are planted in temples and cemeteries.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "Plumeria rubra" is an important crop in Hawaii, with over 14 million flowers sold to be used in leis there in 2005.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: In temperate areas "P. rubra" must be grown under glass, in a large conservatory or similar, due to its requirement for warm conditions. However it may be placed outside in a sheltered sunny spot during the summer months. In the United Kingdom it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: Some forms in cultivation are hybrids between this species and "Plumeria obtusa"; these have rounded rather than pointed leaves and are less likely to be deciduous. The white and yellow cultivar "Singapore" flowers all year round in Hawaii.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "Coleosporium plumeriae", known as plumeria rust or frangipani rust, is a fungus which attacks young leaves of "P. rubra". It causes a brownish or orange powdery coating or blistering of leaves. It has been recorded from Hawaii and the east coast of Australia. It was first recognised by the French mycologist Narcisse Théophile Patouillard on Guadeloupe Island in the eastern Caribbean in 1902, and had reached Taiwan by 2005.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: The USDA Forestry Service lists Plumeria rubra as a poisonous plant and warns against touching or eating any part of the plant.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: In Cambodia, as with other Plumeria species, "P. rubra" flowers is used for necklaces, as offerings to deities or as decoration for coffins. The leaves of this species are used in the care of sores and made into soothing infusions.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: The flowers and bark of it are also used in traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of fever, bacillary dysentery, pertussis and so on.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "P. rubra" possesses fulvoplumierin, an antibiotic that inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The plant has also been shown to be an antifungal, antiviral, analgesic, antispasmodic, and hypoglycemic. "P. rubra" is also reported to contain agoniadin, plumierid, plumeric acid, cerotinic acid, and lupeol, and the stem possesses an alkaloid called triterpinoid. The plant has been known to promote digestion and excretion, along with respiratory and immune functions. The sap of the plant is used as a laxative and is a remedy for bloating and stomachaches. The bark is said to be purgative and is also used for venereal sores. The flowers can be boiled in water or juice and made into a salad to promote bowel movement, urine flow, and to control gas and phlegm. The flowers are also used in the treatment of asthma.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: On the Molokai island in the Hawaiian archipelago, "P. rubra" is cultivated in order to produce neck garlands (leis). They are also used to make a scented oil in many Pacific islands that include Hawaii. The flowers are used to scent coconut oil. The bark contains faint purplish streaks and the wood is hard and compact with a very fine texture. The wood takes a high polish.


title: Plumeria rubra

text: "Plumeria rubra" is the national flower of Nicaragua, where it is known under the local name ""sacuanjoche"". It is also the village flower of Asan-Maina on Guam.


title: Tolterodine

text: Tolterodine, sold under the brand name Detrol among others, is a medication used to treat frequent urination, urinary incontinence, or urinary urgency. Effects are seen within an hour. It is taken by mouth.


title: Tolterodine

text: Common side effects include headache, dry mouth, constipation, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include angioedema, urinary retention, and QT prolongation. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding are of unclear safety. It works by blocking muscarinic receptors in the bladder thus decreasing bladder contractions.


title: Tolterodine

text: Tolterodine was approved for medical use in 1998. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 271st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Tolterodine

text: Detrusor overactivity (DO, contraction of the muscular bladder wall) is the most common form of urinary incontinence (UI) in older adults. It is characterized by uninhibited bladder contractions causing an uncontrollable urge to void. Urinary frequency, urge incontinence and nocturnal incontinence occur. Abnormal bladder contractions that coincide with the urge to void can be measured by urodynamic studies. Treatment is bladder retraining, pelvic floor therapy or with drugs that inhibit bladder contractions such as oxybutynin and tolterodine.


title: Tolterodine

text: The following reactions have been reported in people who have taken tolterodine since it has become available:


title: Tolterodine

text: Tolterodine acts on M and M subtypes of muscarinic receptors whereas older antimuscarinic treatments for overactive bladder act more specifically on M receptors.


title: Tolterodine

text: Tolterodine, although it acts on all types of receptors, has fewer side effects than oxybutynin (M and M selective, but more so in the parotid than in the bladder) as tolterodine targets the bladder more than other areas of the body.


title: Tolterodine

text: It is marketed by Pfizer in Canada and the United States under the brand name Detrol. In Egypt it is also found under the trade names Tolterodine by Sabaa and Incont L.A. by Adwia.


title: Peter MacNeill

text: Peter MacNeill is a Canadian film and television actor and voice-over artist who has starred in numerous television series and films.


title: Peter MacNeill

text: His film credits have included "The Hanging Garden" (for which MacNeill won a Genie Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1997), "Geraldine's Fortune", "Crash", "Dog Park", "Open Range", "A History of Violence", and "Regression".


title: Peter MacNeill

text: On television, he has had roles in "Queer as Folk" (as Carl Horvath), "Katts and Dog" (as Sgt. Callahan), "Traders" (as Frank Larkin), "The Eleventh Hour" (as Warren Donohue), "" (as Ray Donahue) "Call Me Fitz" (as Ken Fitzpatrick) and, "The" "Good Witch" series (as George O'Hanrahan). He is a two-time Gemini Award winner.


title: Fiat 600

text: The Fiat 600 (, ) is a rear-engine, water-cooled city car, manufactured and marketed by Fiat from 1955 to 1969 — offered in two-door fastback sedan and four-door Multipla mini MPV body styles.


title: Fiat 600

text: Measuring only long, its all-new design was the first unibody and rear-engined Fiat, and was priced the equivalent of about €6,700 or US$7300 in today's money (590,000 lire then). The total number produced from 1955 to 1969 at the Mirafiori plant in Turin was 2,695,197.


title: Fiat 600

text: The 1955 Fiat 600 formed the blueprint for the 2nd generation "Nuova" (New) 500, launched two years later – which was even smaller, at and, although rounder, largely copied the 600s layout and shape. Later, the 600 also formed the platform for the larger 850 saloon, launched in 1964, which coexisted with the 600 in Fiats line-up for five years, until the 600 was cancelled.


title: Fiat 600

text: During the 1950s, '60s, '70s and '80s, many units were built in countries such as Spain (as SEAT 600), where it became the icon of the Spanish miracle and where it was nicknamed "Seiscientos"; Argentina, where it was nicknamed "Fitito" (a diminutive of FIAT) and former Yugoslavia where it was nicknamed "Fića" or "Fićo" (pronounced [fee-cha] and [fee-cho] respectively). Much of the 1974's SEAT / Fiat 133 platform can even be traced back to the Fiat 600.


title: Fiat 600

text: Codenamed "Progetto 100" ("Project 100"), the Fiat 600 mirrored the layout of the Volkswagen Beetle and Renault 4CV of its era. Aimed at being an economical but capable vehicle, its design parameters stipulated a weight of around 450 kg with the ability to carry 4 people and luggage with a cruising speed of no less than 85 km/h. A total of 5 prototypes were built between 1952 and 1954, which all differed from each other. Chassis number 000001 with engine number 000002 is believed to be the sole remaining example, according to a recent report by Quattroruote's "Ruoteclassiche" vintage division. It was powered by an innovative single-cam V2-cylinder engine designed to simplify maintenance and did not feature a clutch pedal. At the official launch in 1955, FIAT engineer, Dante Giacosa declared that the aim had been to create something new, both in the interest of progress and simplification. This prototype, however, did not become the chosen design.


title: Fiat 600

text: The car had hydraulic drum brakes on all four wheels. Suspension was a single double-mounted leafspring—which acts as a stabilizer—between the front wheels coupled to gas-charged shock absorbers, and an independent coil-over-shock absorber setup coupled to semi-trailing arms at the rear. All 600 models had 3-synchro (no synchro on 1st) 4-speed transaxles. Unlike the Volkswagen Beetle or Fiat 500, the Fiat 600 is water-cooled with an ample cabin heater and, while cooling is generally adequate, for high-power modified versions a front-mounted radiator or oil cooler is needed to complement the rear-mounted radiator. All models of the 600 had generators with mechanical external regulators.


title: Fiat 600

text: The top speed ranged from empty with the 633 cc inline-four engine to with the 767 cc version. The car had good ventilation and defrosting systems.


title: Fiat 600

text: A year after its debut, in 1956, a soft-top version was introduced, as well as a six-seater variant—the Fiat 600 Multipla. It was a precursor of current multi-purpose vehicles.


title: Fiat 600

text: The millionth 600 was produced in February 1961, less than six years after the car's launch. At the time when the millionth car was produced, the manufacturer reported it was producing the car at the then remarkable rate of 1,000 a day. As of mid 2017 there were 78 registered as taxed for road use in the UK and 44 registered as SORN (Statutory Off Road Notification).


title: Fiat 600

text: In Spain, the 600 model was made under the make of SEAT, from 1957 to 1973. Up to 797,319 SEAT 600 were made. The Spanish car maker exported them to a number of countries worldwide.


title: Fiat 600

text: SEAT produced various derivatives of the original 600 model some of them with improvements and special fittings like the use of "suicide doors": the SEAT 600 D/E/L Especial an luxury version, the 'Descapotable' cabriolet, the 'Formicheta' commercial version, the 'Múltiple', the 'Savio', the 'Playera', etc.


title: Fiat 600

text: The most interesting version produced between 1964 and 1967 by SEAT is the SEAT 800, the sole four-door derivative of the 600 model which received a longer wheelbase. It was developed in-house by SEAT and produced exclusively by the Spanish car maker without any equivalent model in Fiat's range.


title: Fiat 600

text: In addition, in Spain many car bodybuilders or companies associated with SEAT, manufactured several versions derived from the 600: ?750 Primavera', 'Rany', 'Milton', 'Serra', 'Gredos', 'Avia 50', 'Buggy', 'Siata Minivan', 'Siata Tarraca', etc.


title: Fiat 600

text: The SEAT 600 was the most popular car in Spain of the twentieth century, because it was the first car that any Spaniard could buy and served to definitively motorize the country. It is a fundamental element of the well-known "Spanish miracle", the great industrial development that occurred in the 60s during the Government of General Franco. This great development transformed the country from an agriculture-based economy to the eighth industrial power in the world.


title: Fiat 600

text: The Fiat 600 was also manufactured at Fiat Neckar in Germany between 1956 and 1967. Presented in a first time as Jagst 600, in 1960 with the release of Fiat 600D it became Jagst 770. The model was manufactured until the end of 1967, more than 172,000 copies.


title: Fiat 600

text: In former Yugoslavia the model was much sought after, and was produced under the name Zastava 750 (later 850), nicknamed "Fića" or "Fićo" in Serbo-Croatian, "Fičo" or "Fičko" in Slovene, and "Фиќо/Фичо" ("Fikjo/Ficho") in Macedonian. It was produced by the Zastava factory in Kragujevac, Serbia, from the early 1955 until 1985, during which time it played a major role in motorisation of the country, due to its affordability.


title: Fiat 600

text: The 600 was built as the Fiat 600 R by Sevel in Argentina from 1960 to 1982, with assembly operations also taking place (beginning somewhat later) in Uruguay by Ayax S.A., and in Chile. At first, Someca S.A. built the 600 with rear-hinged doors and the 633 cc engine (28 hp), mainly from parts shipped in from Italy. As a new plant was constructed in the Ferreyra, a suburb of Córdoba, the local parts content steadily increased. In 1962 the 600D was introduced, with a 32 hp (SAE) 767 cc engine. In August 1964, around the same time that the local firm changed its name to Fiat Concord S.A., the second 600D was introduced, with slight changes to its appearance. The suicide doors continued to be used until the April 1965 appearance of the 600E, which also gained some extra power. Early in 1967 the 600E received a slight facelift with bigger headlights, new rims, and a new "grille" in front.


title: Fiat 600

text: In November 1970 the 600R appeared. The external differences were limited to trim, but the interior saw more thorough changes, with a new steering wheel, inner ceiling, and seat coverings. The hubcaps were replaced with tiny rubber caps. The 767 cc 36 hp (SAE) 600 R (thanks to higher compression than the E) was in turn replaced by the 32 hp (DIN) 843 cc (65.0 x 63.5 mm) 600 S in July 1977, a version featuring new bumpers with rubber overriders and a black plastic faux-grille to replace the previous chrome iteration. This version was equipped with an 850 cc engine that could use 88 octane fuel. That engine was adapted in Córdoba from the 903cc engine (93 octanes fuel) which equipped the Fiat 133, originated in Spain which coexisted with 600S until 1982. Top speed was up to 120 km/h in 600S. The 600 was finally replaced by the Fiat 147 in April 1982, which at beginning also used the 903cc engine., after having undergone one last tiny facelift in 1981 (black head and taillight surrounds, a black "shield" up front).


title: Fiat 600

text: In Colombia, it was assembled in the Mazda motor plant of Colombia, Compañía Colombiana Automotriz from 1979 to 1982 with 60% Colombian parts and 40% Serbian parts (from the Zastava 750). Marketed as the Fiat 750Z, colloquially it was called the "topolino".


title: Fiat 600

text: The Fiat 600 Multipla was a four-door MPV based on the Fiat 600's drivetrain and Fiat 1100 front suspensions, that sat up to six people in a footprint just longer than the original Mini Cooper and on the same wheelbase as the 600 saloon. This had been achieved by moving the driver's compartment forward over the front axle, effectively eliminating the boot but giving the body a very minivan-like "one-box", flat-front look.


title: Fiat 600

text: The car debuted at the Brussels Motor Show in January 1956, and was discontinued in the spring of 1967 to be replaced by the Fiat 850 Familiare. The Multipla name was reintroduced in late 1998 for the Fiat Multipla compact minivan.


title: Fiat 600

text: As mentioned, the 600 Multipla used the type "100.000" 663 cc overhead valve inline-four cylinder engine from the 600 saloon, producing or at 4,600 rpm. A shorter final drive ratio was the only change made to the 4-speed manual transmission, with synchromesh on the top three forward gears. Rear trailing arm suspension also came from the 600, while the front double wishbone suspension—complete with coil springs, coaxial hydraulic dampers and anti-roll bar—as well as steering components were sourced from the bigger 1100/103. Other changes included a larger capacity radiator and relocating the fuel tank (which on the regular 600 was housed in the front luggage compartment) to the rear, above the gearbox. The spare wheel was carried inside the cabin, in front of the passenger seat. The manufacturer advertised a top speed of .


title: Fiat 600

text: A 633 cc, RHD Multipla was tested by the British magazine "The Motor" in 1956. It was found to have a top speed of and could accelerate from in 43.0 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £799 including taxes on the UK market.


title: Fiat 600

text: In September 1960 the 600 Multipla benefited from the same mechanical upgrades introduced on the 600 D saloon, the most significant one being an enlarged 767 cc engine, and became the 600 D Multipla.


title: Fiat 600

text: As on the saloon, the "106 D.000" four-cylinder had both larger bore and longer stroke, and produced or 4,800 rpm.


title: Fiat 600

text: In 1956, Fissore designed an open-topped Multipla prototype called the "Marinella" with a wickerwork wraparound bench in the rear.


title: Fiat 600

text: The Fiat 600T is a van derivative of the 600 Multipla. It is powered by a rear-mounted 633 cc 4-cylinder engine.


title: Fiat 600

text: In 1958 Fiat shipped a number of Fiat 600s to the Italian design house Ghia for conversion into the Jolly. Featuring wicker seats and the option of a fringed top to shield its occupants from the Mediterranean sun, these cars were originally made for use on large yachts of the wealthy (Aristotle Onassis owned one).


title: Fiat 600

text: With a cost of nearly double that of a standard "600", they were made in a very limited production. It is believed that fewer than 100 exist today, each one being unique. 32 "Jolly" cars were used as taxis on the island of Catalina off the coast of Los Angeles in the US from 1958 to 1962. Famous Fiat Jolly owners include Aristotle Onassis, Yul Brynner, Grace Kelly, Mary Pickford, Mae West, Gianni Agnelli, Josip Broz Tito and James Inglis. Fiat Jollys are highly sought after by collectors; however, replicas are being made and are being passed off as authentic. A genuine 1960 Fiat Jolly "600" model brought a record price of $170,500 at a collector car auction in Scottsdale, Arizona, in January 2015.


title: Fiat 600

text: Italian tuning company Abarth produced various versions of the Fiat 600 from 1956 to 1970 under a variety of model names, including Abarth 210 A, Fiat-Abarth 750, 850, and 1000. Many suffixes like Granturismo, Berlina, TC, and TCR were also used and many were built with aluminium bodywork by Zagato and other famed Italian "carrozzerie".


title: Fiat 600

text: Abarth competitor Giannini Automobili also produced tuned 600s (as did countless other, smaller modifiers), most famously the Giannini 750 TV, but these never had the impact that Abarth's versions did.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: David Bentley Hart (born 1965) is a writer, philosopher, religious studies scholar, critic, and theologian. A prolific essayist, he has written on topics as diverse as art, literature, baseball, religion, philosophy, consciousness, problem of evil, apocatastasis, theosis, fairies, film, and politics. His fiction includes the books "Roland in Moonlight" and "Kenogaia (A Gnostic Tale)", both published in 2021. Hart also maintains a popular subscription newsletter "Leaves in the Wind" that includes a YouTube channel where he posts conversations with other writers. In 2015, Hart was granted a Templeton Fellowship at the University of Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Study with research focused on the philosophy of mind. His translation of the New Testament was published by Yale in 2017 (with a 2nd edition in 2023). Hart is an Orthodox Christian.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Maryland, his Master of Philosophy degree from the University of Cambridge, and his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy degrees from the University of Virginia. He has taught at the University of Virginia, the University of St. Thomas (Minnesota), Duke Divinity School, and Loyola College in Maryland. He served as visiting professor at Providence College, where he also previously held the Robert J. Randall Chair in Christian Culture. During the 2014–2015 academic year, Hart was Danforth Chair at Saint Louis University in the Department of Theological Studies. In 2015, he was appointed as Templeton Fellow at the University of Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Study.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: As a philosopher and a religious studies scholar, Hart's work engages classical, medieval and continental European philosophy, philosophy of mind, philosophical and systematic theology, patristic texts, South and East Asian culture, religion, literature, philosophy and metaphysics.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Noted for his distinctive, humorous, pyrotechnic and often combative prose style, Hart has been described by the conservative writer Matthew Walther as "our greatest living essayist". He has written essays on subjects as varied as Don Juan, Vladimir Nabokov, Charles Baudelaire, Victor Segalen, Leon Bloy, William Empson, David Jones, and baseball.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Two of his books, "A Splendid Wickedness" (2016) and "The Dream-Child's Progress" (2017), are collections devoted to non-theological essays. They also include several short stories. In 2012, "The Devil and Pierre Gernet", a collection of his fiction, was released by Eerdmans. His short stories have been described as "Borgesian" and are elaborate metaphysical fables, full of wordplay, allusion, and structural puzzles.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart added two books to his fiction works in 2021: "Roland in Moonlight" and "Kenogaia (A Gnostic Tale)". His book "Roland in Moonlight" has a largely autobiographical framework while consisting primarily of dialogs with his dog Roland (pictured here) as well as accounts of his fictional great uncle Aloysius Bentley (1895-1987). Hart had written previously about both Roland and Aloysius in essay form: with Aloysius in 2011 and Roland in 2014. Describing "Roland in Moonlight" for a review in "Church Times", John Saxbee (former Bishop of Lincoln) wrote: "Sometimes, a book defies description or, rather, refuses to settle into a conventional genre. David Bentley Hart’s prodigious mind and imagination has given us just such a book. Perhaps, here, "Sophie’s World" meets "Alice through the Looking-Glass", or "Don Quixote" meets "The Wind in the Willows"."


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart's first major work, "The Beauty of the Infinite", an adaptation of his doctoral thesis, received acclaim from the theologians John Milbank, Janet Soskice, Paul J. Griffiths, and Reinhard Hütter. William Placher said of the book, "I can think of no more brilliant work by an American theologian in the past ten years." Geoffrey Wainwright said, "This magnificent and demanding volume should establish David Bentley Hart, around the world no less than in North America, as one of his generation's leading theologians."


title: David Bentley Hart

text: On May 27, 2011, Hart's book "Atheist Delusions" was awarded the Michael Ramsey Prize in Theology by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, and was praised by the agnostic philosopher Anthony Kenny: “Hart has the gifts of a good advocate. He writes with clarity and force, and he drives his points home again and again. He exposes his opponents’ errors of fact or logic with ruthless precision.”


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Oliver Burkeman, writing in "The Guardian" in January 2014, praised Hart's book "The Experience of God" as "the one theology book all atheists really should read".


title: David Bentley Hart

text: "Roland in Moonlight" was chosen by A.N. Wilson as his November 2021 “Book of the Year” for the "Times Literary Supplement". Wilson described this "dialogue with the author's dog Roland, who turns out to be a philosopher of mind, with a particular bee in his bonnet about the inadequacy of materialist explanations for 'consciousness'" as "probably the dottiest book of the year" while noting that "I KEEP returning to it."


title: David Bentley Hart

text: In 2022, the Catholic Media Association awarded a first place prize to "Kenogaia (A Gnostic Tale)" in the category of “Escapism” for authors from other traditions.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart is married and has one grown son with whom he co-wrote the children's book "The Mystery of Castle MacGorilla". He has two brothers: Addison Hodges Hart (also an author) and Fr. Robert Hart (rector of Saint Benedict's Anglican Catholic Church in Chapel Hill, NC).


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart converted at the age of 18 from high-church Anglicanism to Eastern Orthodoxy. In 2017, Hart served on a special commission of Orthodox theologians for the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I to help compose “For the Life of the World: Toward a Social Ethos of the Orthodox Church” and to coauthor the preface. Hart is regularly invited to work with leaders in his church around the world.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: Hart is a Christian socialist as well as a democratic socialist and an anarcho-communist. Hart has been a member of the Democratic Socialists of America.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: I’m basically an anarchist and communalist. I believe that all that lilies of the field nonsense that Jesus preached was more than a daydream; and I think the longing for strict social hierarchy ...as an antidote to modernity is simply a longing for a reprise of the same sins that created modernity.


title: David Bentley Hart

text: In my heart of hearts, I want to vote for someone whose entire political philosophy is derived from John Ruskin by way of Kenneth Grahame, with lashings of William Cobbett, Gilbert White, and William Morris; failing that, I want to enjoy the luxury of writing in Wendell Berry on every ballot. But the imminent collapse of the civil order of the entire world doth make pragmatists of us all. I long for the day, however, when I can return to my posture of airily insouciant disdain for the whole system and can again cast votes only for hopeless third party candidates with a clear conscience. But I suspect I will die before that day comes.


title: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli

text: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli is a National award winning Indian actress who predominantly works in Tamil and Malayalam films. A post graduate in human resource management from Madras School of Social Work, she joined the English theatre company Evam as a full-time employee, before venturing into the Tamil film industry. She is also a former National Level cricket player, and national Ultimate Frisbee champion.She has won National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in Sivaranjiniyum Innum Sila Pengalum


title: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli

text: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli was born into Tamil family. After completing her master's in social work, specialising in human resources, from the Madras School of Social Work, she worked for a corporate company as an HR professional. As she wanted to pursue "something more creative", she started to work with the theatre group Evam, on their managerial side. Although she never got to act in their plays because of a tight work schedule, she called it "a great platform where I could easily learn how things transformed from paper to performance".


title: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli

text: She joined gymnastics before she was 10 years old and started playing cricket, becoming a part of India's B national cricket team, under which she also played a series against the West Indies. She also pursues Ultimate Frisbee. A member of Chennai Ultimate Frisbee, she has regularly participated at Ultimate Frisbee competitions.


title: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli

text: While selling tickets for one of Evam's plays, director Magizh Thirumeni approached and asked her to play a supporting role in his film "Mundhinam Paartheney". She took leave from work and shot for ten days for the film. After working with director K. Balachander on one of his teleserials, and starting to audition for a role in the TV show, "Dharmayudham", she decided to pursue acting full-time. She quit her job and attended several auditions for different roles in the show, eventually landing the role of Sharada. Her first film in a lead role was the black comedy "Sutta Kadhai". She played a bold tribal girl called Silanthi in the film, which required her to perform stunts as well, and reviews on her performance were positive. Her sole 2014 release was "Angels", which marked her Malayalam debut. Her next Tamil release was "Kallappadam" by debutant director Vadivel. About her role, she said that it was a "well defined and powerful character" and "emotionally very strong". Her portrayal of a retired actress, which Baradwaj Rangan described as the "most fascinating, refreshing character" in the film, was lauded by critics, with Sify stating that "Lakshmi Priya shines in the role". She has also played notable roles in films like "Yagavarayinum Naa Kaakka", "Kalam" and "Maya". she is national award winner also.


title: Picture book

text: A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. With the narrative told primarily through text, they are distinct from comics, which do so primarily through sequential images. The images in picture books can be produced in a range of media, such as oil paints, acrylics, watercolor, and pencil. Picture books often serve as pedagogical resources, aiding with children's language development or understanding of the world.


title: Picture book

text: Three of the earliest works in the format of modern picture books are Heinrich Hoffmann's "Struwwelpeter" from 1845, Benjamin Rabier's "Tintin-Lutin" from 1898 and Beatrix Potter's "The Tale of Peter Rabbit" from 1902. Some of the best-known picture books are Robert McCloskey's "Make Way for Ducklings", Dr. Seuss's "The Cat In The Hat", and Maurice Sendak's "Where the Wild Things Are". The Caldecott Medal (established 1938) is awarded annually for the best American picture book. Since the mid-1960s, several children's literature awards have included a category for picture books.


title: Picture book

text: Picture books are aimed at young children. Many are written with vocabulary a child can understand but not necessarily read. For this reason, picture books tend to have two functions in the lives of children: they are first read to young children by adults, and then children read them themselves once they begin learning to read.


title: Picture book

text: The majority of picture books are constructed in the same way as books for older children and adults, but there are a number of special types.


title: Picture book

text: The genre of picture books is unique because of the complementary relationship between text and art. Picture books have existed since 1658, when the first picture book specifically for children, Orbis Sensualium Pictus, was printed. The genre continues to be popular today. While some picture books are written and illustrated by the same person, others are collaborations between an author and an illustrator. These collaborations give equal power to both and allow each to bring their own creativity to the book.Illustrations can drive the plot or bring the plot to life. Editors of picture books often look carefully for an illustrator that matches the style of the text, while still adding their own artistic value to the book. There must be mutual respect between an author and an illustrator in the creation of a successful picture book.


title: Picture book

text: Picture books can serve as important learning tools for young children. They are often used both in the classroom and at home to help children develop language and creativity skills. A psychology study showed that picture-less picture books have been shown to improve children’s storytelling skills and boost their engagement in books. Additionally, children’s picture books can help children tackle philosophical questions and life concepts. For example, Mac Barnett and Carson Ellis’ picture book What is Love? serves not only as entertainment for children, but as an introduction to important life questions about love and empathy. A study in Australia found that reading postmodern picture books led to better text analysis skills for students. Picture books can also improve young children’s descriptive vocabulary and reading and drawing behaviors at home. The art element of picture books aids with creativity development and engagement with books. Not only can picture books help children develop literacy and creative skills, but they can also help children develop logical thinking and mathematical skills. Math-based stories can help children conceptualize mathematical concepts and develop language skills to discuss math.


title: Picture book

text: The production of illustrated books dates back to the earliest days of bookbinding. Medieval illuminated manuscripts were commissioned by the rich, and drawn by religious scribes. Perhaps the most important tradition of medieval art in regard to the development of picture books is the Poor Man's Bible, which sought to make illustrations of important Biblical events so that they could be understood by the illiterate. These illustrations were generally found either on stained glass windows, or as illuminations in Paupers' Bibles.


title: Picture book

text: "Orbis Pictus" from 1658 by John Amos Comenius was the earliest illustrated book specifically for children. It is something of a children's encyclopedia and is illustrated by woodcuts. "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book" from 1744 by John Newbery was the earliest illustrated storybook marketed as pleasure reading in English. In Japan, "kibyoshi" were picture books from the 18th century, and are seen as a precursor to manga. Examples of 18th-century Japanese picture books include works such as Santō Kyōden's "Shiji no yukikai" (1798).


title: Picture book

text: The German children's books "Struwwelpeter" (literally "Shaggy-Peter") from 1845 by Heinrich Hoffmann, and Max and Moritz from 1865 by Wilhelm Busch, were among the earliest examples of modern picturebook design. Collections of Fairy tales from early nineteenth century, like those by the Brothers Grimm or Hans Christian Andersen were sparsely illustrated, but beginning in the middle of the century, collections were published with images by illustrators like Gustave Doré, Fedor Flinzer, George Cruikshank, Vilhelm Pedersen, Ivan Bilibin and John Bauer. Andrew Lang's twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed. Lewis Carroll's "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", illustrated by John Tenniel in 1866 was one of the first highly successful entertainment books for children.


title: Picture book

text: Toy books were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century, small paper bound books with art dominating the text. These had a larger proportion of pictures to words than earlier books, and many of their pictures were in color. The best of these were illustrated by the triumvirate of English illustrators Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, and Kate Greenaway whose association with colour printer and wood engraver Edmund Evans produced books of great quality. In the late 19th and early 20th century a small number of American and British artists made their living illustrating children's books, like Rose O'Neill, Arthur Rackham, Cicely Mary Barker, Willy Pogany, Edmund Dulac, W. Heath Robinson, Howard Pyle, or Charles Robinson. Generally, these illustrated books had eight to twelve pages of illustrated pictures or plates accompanying a classic children's storybook.


title: Picture book

text: Beatrix Potter's "The Tale of Peter Rabbit" was published in 1902 to immediate success. "Peter Rabbit" was Potter's first of many "The Tale of...," including "The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin", "The Tale of Benjamin Bunny", "The Tale of Tom Kitten", and "The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck", to name but a few which were published in the years leading up to 1910. Swedish author Elsa Beskow wrote and illustrated some forty children's stories and picture books between 1897–1952. Lang's twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed.


title: Picture book

text: In the US, illustrated stories for children appeared in magazines like "Ladies Home Journal", "Good Housekeeping", "Cosmopolitan", and "Woman's Home Companion", intended for mothers to read to their children. Some cheap periodicals appealing to the juvenile reader started to appear in the early twentieth century, often with uncredited illustrations.


title: Picture book

text: Helen Bannerman's "Little Black Sambo" was published in 1899, and went through numerous printings and versions during the first decade of the twentieth century. It was part of a series of small-format books called The Dumpy Books for Children, published by British publisher Grant Richards between 1897 and 1904.


title: Picture book

text: In 1913, Cupples & Leon published a series of 15 "All About" books, emulating the form and size of the Beatrix Potter books, "All About Peter Rabbit", "All About the Three Bears", "All About Mother Goose", and "All About Little Red Hen". The latter, along with several others, was illustrated by Johnny Gruelle. Wanda Gág's "Millions of Cats" was published in 1928 and became the first picture book to receive a Newbery Medal runner-up award. Wanda Gág followed with "The Funny Thing" in 1929, "Snippy and Snappy" in 1931, and then "The ABC Bunny" in 1933, which garnered her a second Newbery runner-up award.


title: Picture book

text: In 1931, Jean de Brunhoff's first Babar book, "The Story of Babar" was published in France, followed by "The Travels of Babar" then "Babar the King". In 1930, Marjorie Flack authored and illustrated "Angus and the Ducks", followed in 1931 by "Angus and The Cats", then in 1932, "Angus Lost". Flack authored another book in 1933, "The Story About Ping", illustrated by Kurt Wiese. The "Elson Basic Reader" was published in 1930 and introduced the public to "Dick and Jane". In 1930 "The Little Engine That Could" was published, illustrated by Lois Lenski. In 1954 it was illustrated anew by George and Doris Hauman. It spawned an entire line of books and related paraphernalia and coined the refrain "I think I can! I think I can!". In 1936, Munro Leaf's "The Story of Ferdinand" was published, illustrated by Robert Lawson. "Ferdinand" was the first picture book to cross over into pop culture. Walt Disney produced an animated feature film along with corresponding merchandising materials. In 1938 to Dorothy Lathrop was awarded the first Caldecott Medal for her illustrations in "Animals of the Bible", written by Helen Dean Fish. Thomas Handforth won the second Caldecott Medal in 1939, for "Mei Li", which he also wrote. Ludwig Bemelmans' "Madeline" was published in 1939 and was selected as a Caldecott Medal runner-up, today known as a Caldecott Honor book.


title: Picture book

text: In 1942, Simon & Schuster began publishing the Little Golden Books, a series of inexpensive, well illustrated, high quality children's books. The eighth book in the series, "The Poky Little Puppy", is the top selling children's book of all time. Many of the books were bestsellers, including "The Poky Little Puppy", "Tootle", "Scuffy the Tugboat", and "The Little Red Hen". Several of the illustrators for the Little Golden Books later became staples within the picture book industry. Corinne Malvern, Tibor Gergely, Gustaf Tenggren, Feodor Rojankovsky, Richard Scarry, Eloise Wilkin, and Garth Williams. In 1947 "Goodnight Moon", written by Margaret Wise Brown and illustrated by Clement Hurd, was published. By 1955, such picture book classics as "Make Way for Ducklings", "The Little House", "Curious George", and "Eloise", had all been published. In 1955 the first book was published in the "Miffy" series by Dutch author and illustrator Dick Bruna.


title: Picture book

text: In 1937, Dr. Seuss (Theodor Seuss Geisel), at the time a successful graphic artist and humorist, published his first book for children, "And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street". It was immediately successful, and Seuss followed up with "The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins" in 1938, followed by "The King's Stilts" in 1939, and "Horton Hatches the Egg" in 1940, all published by Random House. From 1947 to 1956 Seuss had twelve children's picture books published. Dr. Seuss created "The Cat in the Hat" in reaction to a Life magazine article by John Hersey in lamenting the unrealistic children in school primers books. Seuss rigidly limited himself to a small set of words from an elementary school vocabulary list, then crafted a story based upon two randomly selected words—cat and hat. Up until the mid-1950s, there was a degree of separation between illustrated educational books and illustrated picture books. That changed with "The Cat in the Hat" in 1957.


title: Picture book

text: Because of the success of "The Cat in The Hat" an independent publishing company was formed, called Beginner Books. The second book in the series was nearly as popular, "The Cat in the Hat Comes Back", published in 1958. Other books in the series were "Sam and the Firefly" (1958), "Green Eggs and Ham" (1960), "Are You My Mother?" (1960), "Go, Dog. Go!" (1961), "Hop on Pop" (1963), and "Fox in Socks" (1965). Creators in the Beginner Book series were Stan and Jan Berenstain, P. D. Eastman, Roy McKie, and Helen Palmer Geisel (Seuss's wife). The Beginner Books dominated the children's picture book market of the 1960s.


title: Picture book

text: Between 1957 and 1960 Harper & Brothers published a series of sixteen "I Can Read" books. "Little Bear" was the first of the series. Written by Else Holmelund Minarik and illustrated by a then relatively unknown Maurice Sendak, the two collaborated on three other "I Can Read" books over the next three years. From 1958 to 1960, Syd Hoff wrote and illustrated four "I Can Read" books: "Danny and the Dinosaur", "Sammy the Seal", "Julius", and "Oliver".


title: Picture book

text: In 1949 American writer and illustrator Richard Scarry began his career working on the Little Golden Books series. His "Best Word Book Ever" from 1963 has sold 4 million copies. In total Scarry wrote and illustrated more than 250 books, and more than 100 million of his books have been sold worldwide. In 1963, "Where the Wild Things Are" by American writer and illustrator Maurice Sendak was published. It has been adapted into other media several times, including an animated short in 1973, a 1980 opera, and, in 2009, a live-action feature film adaptation directed by Spike Jonze. By 2008 it had sold over 19 million copies worldwide. American illustrator and author Gyo Fujikawa created more than 50 books between 1963 and 1990. Her work has been translated into 17 languages and published in 22 countries. Her most popular books, "Babies" and "Baby Animals", have sold over 1.7 million copies in the U.S. Fujikawa is recognized for being the earliest mainstream illustrator of picture books to include children of many races in her work.


title: Picture book

text: Most of the Moomin books by Finnish author Tove Jansson were novels, but several Moomin picture books were also published between 1952 and 1980, like "Who Will Comfort Toffle?" (1960) and "The Dangerous Journey" (1977). The Barbapapa series of books by Annette Tison and Talus Taylor was published in France in the 1970s. They feature the shapeshifting pink blob Barbapapa and his numerous colorful children. The "Mr. Men" series of 40-some books by English author and illustrated Roger Hargreaves started in 1971. "The Snowman" by Raymond Briggs was published in Britain in 1978 and was entirely wordless. It was made into an Oscar nominated animated cartoon that has been shown every year since on British television.


title: Picture book

text: Japanese author and illustrator Mitsumasa Anno has published a number of picture books, beginning in 1968 with "Mysterious Pictures". In his "Journey" books a tiny character travels through depictions of the culture of various countries. "Everyone Poops" was first published in Japan in 1977, written and illustrated by the prolific children's author Tarō Gomi. It has been translated into several languages. Australian author Margaret Wild has written more than 40 books since 1984 and won several awards. In 1987 the first book was published in the "Where's Wally?" (known as "Where's Waldo?" in the United States and Canada) series by the British illustrator Martin Handford. The books were translated into many languages and the franchise also spawned a TV series, a comic strip and a series of video games. Since 1989 over 20 books have been created in the "Elmer the Patchwork Elephant" series by the British author David McKee. They have been translated in 40 languages and adapted into a children's TV series.


title: Picture book

text: In 1938, the American Library Association (ALA) began presenting the Caldecott Medal for the most distinguished American picture book published in the year, awarded to the book's illustrator. The Caldecott Medal was established as a sister award to the ALA's Newbery Medal, which since 1922 has been awarded to the most distinguished American children's book published in the year. During the mid-forties to early fifties, Caldecott honorees included Marcia Brown, Barbara Cooney, Roger Duvoisin, Berta and Elmer Hader, Robert Lawson, Robert McCloskey, Dr. Seuss, Maurice Sendak, Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire, Leo Politi, Tasha Tudor, and Leonard Weisgard.


title: Picture book

text: The Kate Greenaway Medal was established in the United Kingdom in 1955 in honour of the children's illustrator, Kate Greenaway. The medal is given annually to an outstanding work of illustration in children's literature (not necessarily in a picture book). It is awarded by Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). The Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis (German Youth literature prize) has included a category for picture books since 1965. The IBBY Hans Christian Andersen Award for Illustration has been awarded since 1966. The Boston Globe-Horn Book Award, first presented in 1967, includes a category for picture books. In 2006, the ALA started awarding the Geisel Award, named after Dr. Seuss, to the most distinguished beginning reader book. The award is presented to both the author and illustrator, in "literary and artistic achievements to engage children in reading." The Golden Pinwheel Young Illustrators Award was established in China in 2015. It includes an award for Chinese works and an international award.


title: The Minds of Billy Milligan

text: The Minds of Billy Milligan is a non-fiction novel portraying Billy Milligan, the first person in U.S. history acquitted of a major crime by pleading dissociative identity disorder. The novel was originally published in 1981, written by Hugo Award-winning author Daniel Keyes, who received a bachelor's degree in psychology from Brooklyn College in 1950.


title: The Minds of Billy Milligan

text: The sequel, entitled "The Milligan Wars", was later published in Japan in 1994. According to the author, its release in the United States is tied to the release of the upcoming film adaptation entitled "The Crowded Room".


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain () is a 1999 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film directed by Satish Kaushik and produced by D. Ramanaidu for his production company Suresh Productions. It stars Kajol and Anil Kapoor, with Anupam Kher, Shakti Kapoor and Parmeet Sethi in supporting roles. Written by Jainendra Jain, the film tells the story of Megha (Kajol), the wife of industrialist Vishwanath (Anil Kapoor), who was deceived by him for a one-year contract.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" serves as a remake of Telugu-language film "Pavitra Bandham" (1996). With a budget of , principal photography took place in India and Switzerland and finished in December 1998. Kabir Lal served as the cinematographer, while E.M. Madhavan, Chaitanya Tanna and Marthand K. Venkatesh edited the film. The music was composed by Anu Malik and the lyrics were written by Sameer.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" was released on 21 January 1999 and emerged as a commercial success, with a total gross of worldwide. It received mixed-to-positive critical reviews, with mostly praise directed towards its story and Kajol's performance. For her portrayal, Kajol was nominated for the Best Actress category at the Filmfare Awards, the International Indian Film Academy Awards, the Screen Awards, and the Zee Cine Awards.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Vishwanath is a multi-millionaire industrialist, living with his only son, Vijay. After Vijay completed his education in the United States, Vishwanath forces him to get married but Vijay refuses to, saying that he still wants to be single. Disappointed, Vishwanath (who is suffering from diabetes) tries to convince his son with sweets; it makes Vijay immediately agrees to his demand. Megha, a hardworking girl struggling to support her family, is Vishwanath's personal assistant in his office. Vishwanath asks Megha to quit her job and marry his son, but she refuses when she hears Vijay wants the marriage to be on a contract basis for a year and, if he does not fall in love with his wife in that duration, the marriage will be annulled and Megha will get money as a return. However, Megha's family is in dire financial straits and, so, she has to reconsider this offer.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Vijay and Megha are married. After the marriage, they become friendly with each other and Megha goes out of her way to look after Vijay after he is in a car accident. At the end of the year, however, Vijay decides to annul the marriage, as had been agreed upon, and he regards her as a friend. Megha leaves Vijay and returns home. After the separation, Vijay seems to be enjoying himself; but slowly and eventually, he starts to feel regret after he found the facts that she gets social sanctions for the contract.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: In order to support herself, Megha starts a job in a new company; to her surprise, when the company's managing director arrives, he turns out to be Vijay. He later confesses to her that he is a changed person and wants her back. But, even after repeated persuasion, she disagrees because her faith in him has been shattered. Vijay continues to pursue her. Later, Megha finds out that she is pregnant with Vijay's child. Near the completion of her pregnancy, she along with her family then hold a ceremony for the well-being of her to-be-born child. In the ceremony, which Vishwanath and Vijay attends, Megha reveals that the latter to be her husband and tells all the guests about the marriage-contract. An argument follows; Vijay and his father walk out, followed by all the guests.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Vijay and his friends make a plan to lure Megha to meet him again. His friends tell her that troublemakers Khairati Lal and Yeshwant Kumar, who had once attempted to kill Vijay in the car accident, have escaped from prison. They are out looking for Vijay, who had fired them from his father's company for cheating and fraud. Megha gets anxious and tries to reach Vijay as soon as possible. On the way, she learns that the whole thing was a set-up, when she caught one of Vijay's friends call him by a payphone. Unbeknownst to both Megha and Vijay, the aforementioned criminals, come to kill Vijay. They beat up Vijay and he overpowers them. Khairati stabbed Vijay in the stomach with a broken wine bottle thrice, and Yeshwant with a large knife in his back twice. Enraged, Megha goes to confront Vijay. As soon as she meets him, she accuses him of this act; however, since Lal and Kumar had really come before to kill Vijay, but they ran away when they heard Megha's footsteps, then Vijay staggered towards her, with his stomach pierced by a piece of glass from the bottle and blood pouring from the wound. Megha runs toward him, slips and goes into labour. Vijay, summoning up all his strength, takes Megha to the hospital. There, he is treated for his injuries and she delivers a healthy baby boy. Megha and Vijay recover and get reconciled.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: The film is a remake of Muthyala Subbaiah's 1996 Telugu-language film "Pavitra Bandham", and it marks the producer D. Ramanaidu's return to Hindi cinema after a long hiatus; he had last produced "Taqdeerwala" in 1995. In an interview with Rediff.com, Ramanaidu said that his involvement in the project was a way to prove his mettle as a producer in the Hindi film industry: "As far as Telugu films are concerned, I have achieved whatever I wanted to. I want to hit the jackpot in Bollywood with this film." Anil Kapoor was cast as the antagonist Vijay and Anupam Kher as his father, Vishwanath. According to Kapoor, the role had changed his screen image, and he later stated that he took the part to avoid typecasting. Meanwhile, Kajol was cast as the film's protagonist Megha, her first such role. Interviewed by "The Telegraph", she stated that her role "seemed like a great character on paper, but [it] didn't translate well on screen".


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Satish Kaushik was suggested by Kapoor, who has collaborated with him in several films, including "Mr. India" (1987), "Joshilaay" (1989) and "Ram Lakhan" (1989), to direct this film. Kaushik compared it with his previous directorial ventures—"Roop Ki Rani Choron Ka Raja" (1993) and "Prem" (1995)—and found "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" "very different", explaining that it "emphasised feelings and that the accent here was on treatment"; for instance, the former was dominant with costume and the latter was based on reincarnation. He said, "I do not resort to any gimmicks in ["Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain"]. I'm not playing with camera angles or juggling shots. You will not find 50 dances here... My film has been set against a contemporary backdrop." Jainendra Jain and Bhupati Raja wrote the dialogue and story, respectively.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Principal photography started in Hyderabad and handed by Kabir Lal. Saroj Khan and Chinni Prakash were the choreographers, while Raja was the action director. Its production design was completed by Sharmishta Roy. Some songs were recorded at the Hotel de Rougemont in Switzerland. After filming finished around December 1998, it was edited by E.M. Madhava, Chaitanya Tanna and Marthand K. Venkatesh.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: The soundtrack for "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" was completed by Anu Malik and the lyrics were written by Sameer. It contains nine songs, with vocals performed by Kumar Sanu, Anuradha Paudwal, Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam, Hema Sardesai, Rahul Seth, Anu Malik, Abhijeet Bhattacharya, Shankar Mahadevan and Anuradha Sriram. The album was released on 21 December 1998 by T-Series.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Produced by Suresh Productions and distributed by Melody International, "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" was released on 22 January 1999 and ran at theatres for 25 weeks. It faced strong competition from Rishi Kapoor's "Aa Ab Laut Chalen", Gulzar's "Hu Tu Tu" and Shakeel Norani's "Bade Dilwala", all of which were released on the same day. The film opened to a wide audience, with 190 screens across India, and grossed on its opening day. "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" earned on its first weekend and after its first week. Box Office India estimated the film's total gross at in India and $1.8 million overseas, and concluded its final commercial performance with the verdict "super hit". The film thus emerged as one of the highest-grossing female-led films of the year.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: The world television premiere of "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" happened in October 2000 on Doordarshan. A DVD version was released on 17 July 2007 in a single-disc pack. It was available for streaming on Amazon Prime Video since May 2019.


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: "Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" addressed the issue of prenuptial agreement. It received mixed-to-positive reviews, with critics praising its story, melodramatic climax and the performances, mostly that from Kajol. Sharmila Taliculam, writing for Rediff.com, described the film as a "usual run-of-the-mill story", noting its "sprinkling of drama, comedy, fight [and] romance". She opined that Kajol "manages her role well", with "her eyes [giving] good effect in many scenes", and thought her chemistry with Kapoor managed to "save the film from going downhill in a rush". Taliculam argued that Kapoor's portrayal, which she found "par excellence", would remind the audiences of his roles in "Lamhe" (1991), "Mr. Bechara" (1996) and "Judaai" (1997). A critic from entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama said, ""Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain" is a good enough film if you go for that kind of family tear-jerker." K. N. Vijiyan of the "New Straits Times" shared similar thoughts, saying, "[It] will be a treat for those who love Anil Kapoor and Kajol, and for those who want something different." In a column for the same publication, he added that the story is "quite refreshing".


title: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

text: Planet Bollywood's Anjali Abrol, who gave the film 7 out of 10, called both Kajol and Kapoor's acting "commendable", and further wrote that "Kajol went a bit overboard with her stubbornness, and the audience went from sympathizing with her to being annoyed with her". Abrol also noted the costume and make-up along with Punjabi nuance and Gujarati-language dialogues in the film, but criticised a comedic scene where Satish Kaushik and Johnny Lever do what the critic called as "horrifying telephone war". Conversely, Mukhtar Anjoom of "The Times of India" saw that the comedic scene make the film "clean and enjoyable". Deepa Gahlot thought that the film's story was inspired by Indian mythologies and folk tales. In "Eena Meena Deeka: The Story of Hindi Film Comedy", Sanjit Narwekar said that Kaushik had proved himself as "a leading director" with the film's success.


title: Oruanui eruption

text: The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupō Volcano (also known as the Kawakawa eruption or Kawakawa/Oruanui event) was the world's most recent supereruption.


title: Oruanui eruption

text: With a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8, it is one of the largest eruptions ever to occur in New Zealand. It occurred about 26,500 years ago in the Late Pleistocene and generated approximately of pyroclastic fall deposits, of pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits (mostly ignimbrite) and of primary intracaldera material, equivalent to of magma, totaling of total deposits. The eruption is divided into 10 different phases on the basis of nine mappable fall units and a tenth, poorly preserved but volumetrically dominant fall unit.


title: Oruanui eruption

text: Modern-day Lake Taupō, in area and deep, partly fills the caldera generated during this eruption. A structural collapse is concealed beneath Lake Taupō, while the lake outline at least partly reflects volcano-tectonic collapse. Early eruption phases saw shifting vent positions; development of the caldera to its maximum extent (indicated by lithic lag breccias) occurred during phase 10.


title: Oruanui eruption

text: The Oruanui eruption shows many unusual features: its episodic nature, a wide range of magma-water interaction, and complex interplay of pyroclastic fall and flow deposits. As the eruption occurred through a lake system (Lake Huka) overlying the vent, many of the deposits contain volcanic ash aggregates.


title: Oruanui eruption

text: Tephra from the eruption covered much of the central North Island and is termed Kawakawa-Oruanui, or KOT, tephra. The Oruanui ignimbrite is up to deep. Ashfall affected most of New Zealand, with an ash layer as thick as deposited on the Chatham Islands, away. The local biological impact must have been immense as of ash was deposited from just south of Auckland over the whole of the rest of the North Island and the top of the South Island, both of which were larger in land area as sea levels were considerably lower. The pyroclastic ignimbrite flows certainly destroyed all vegetation they reached. Later erosion and sedimentation had long-lasting effects on the landscape and may have caused the Waikato River to shift from the Hauraki Plains to its current course through the Waikato to the Tasman Sea. Less than 22,500 years ago, Lake Taupō, having filled to about above its current level and draining initially via a Waihora outlet to the northwest, cut through its Oruanui ignimbrite dam near the present Taupō outlet to the northeast at a rate which left no terraces around the lake. About of water was released, leaving boulders of up to at least as far down the Waikato River as Mangakino. The impact has been summarised as:


title: Oruanui eruption

text: The Oruanui eruption ash deposits from the final (tenth) phase have been geochemically matched to Western Antarctic ice core deposits away timed to 25,318 ± 250 years before 1950 and they provide a convenient marker for the last glacial maximum in Antarctica. This ash cloud has been modelled to have taken about two weeks to encircle the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The Edmund Pettus Bridge carries U.S. Route 80 Business (US 80 Bus.) across the Alabama River in Selma, Alabama. Built in 1940, it is named after Edmund Pettus, a former Confederate brigadier general, U.S. senator, and state-level leader ("Grand Dragon") of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan. The bridge is a steel through arch bridge with a central span of . Nine large concrete arches support the bridge and roadway on the east side.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The Edmund Pettus Bridge was the site of the conflict of Bloody Sunday on March 7, 1965, when police attacked Civil Rights Movement demonstrators with horses, billy clubs, and tear gas as they were attempting to march to the state capital, Montgomery. The marchers crossed the bridge again on March 21 and walked to the Capitol building.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The bridge carries four lanes of U.S. Route 80 Business (formerly the mainline U.S. Route 80) over the Alabama River, from Selma on the west side, to points east. The bridge has a total of 11 spans. It has 10 smaller concrete spans, while the main span in the center, over the river, is made of steel. Because Selma is built on a bluff over the river, the west side of the bridge is higher than the east side. The center of the bridge is over the river. In 2011, the bridge was listed as functionally obsolete, meaning that it does not meet current design standards for its current traffic load.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The bridge is named after Edmund Pettus, a lawyer, judge, Confederate brigadier general, state-level leader ("Grand Dragon") of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan, and U.S. senator.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: Because of Pettus' role in supporting slavery and racism in the United States, there have been efforts to rename the bridge, including one coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery marches in 2015. Changing the name would require approval from the Alabama Legislature. One proposed alternative namesake is John Lewis, a civil rights leader who played a prominent role in the Selma to Montgomery marches and later a congressman. Support in honor of Lewis' name increased dramatically following his death in 2020, two months after the murder of George Floyd which led to protests and numerous changes to racially controversial names across the country. Lewis had voiced opposition to changing the name of the bridge before his death. Since then, Congresswoman Terri Sewell, who is U.S. representative of the area encompassing Selma and coauthored the press release in 2015 with John Lewis opposing the renaming of the bridge, has come out supporting the renaming of the bridge, saying "We must confront and reject Alabama’s racist history and come together to implement the bold changes needed to ensure our nation finally lives up to its promise of equality and justice for all."


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: An earlier bridge was built in 1885 by the Milwaukee Bridge & Iron Works one block east of the current bridge to carry traffic over the river at the foot of Washington Street. It was an iron camelback truss bridge with three spans, supported on stone piers. The northernmost span swung open to allow boats to pass. It had to be operated by a bridge tender, whose house remains at the bridge site to the present day.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The Edmund Pettus Bridge was designed by Selma native Henson Stephenson and opened to traffic in 1940.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: In 1965, voting rights for African Americans were a contentious issue. In Selma, voting rolls were 99% White and 1% African American, while the 1960 Census found that the population of Alabama was 30% nonwhite. In February 1965, state troopers and locals in Marion, Alabama, started an armed confrontation with some 400 African-American unarmed demonstrators. Jimmie Lee Jackson was shot in the stomach, and he died eight days later. As word spread of the shooting and of Jackson's condition, the case alarmed civil rights activists, including Martin Luther King Jr. and SCLC's Director of Direct Action James Bevel. Director Bevel planned a peaceful march from Selma to the Alabama capitol building in Montgomery, which first required crossing the Pettus bridge leading out of Selma and onto the state highway.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: On March 7, 1965, armed police attacked the unarmed peaceful civil rights demonstrators attempting to march to the state capital of Montgomery in an incident that became known as Bloody Sunday. Because of the design of the bridge, the protesters were unable to see the police officers on the east side of the bridge until after they had reached the top of the bridge. The protesters first saw the police while at the center of the bridge, above the Alabama River. Upon seeing them, protester Hosea Williams asked his fellow protester John Lewis if he knew how to swim. Despite the danger ahead, the protesters bravely continued marching. They were then attacked and brutally beaten by police and the state troopers on the other side.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: Televised images of the attack presented Americans and international audiences with horrifying images of marchers left bloodied and severely injured, and roused support for the Selma Voting Rights Movement. Amelia Boynton, who had helped organize the march as well as participated in it, was beaten unconscious. A photograph of her lying on Edmund Pettus Bridge appeared on the front page of newspapers and news magazines around the world. In all, 17 marchers were hospitalized and 50 were treated for lesser injuries; the day soon became known as "Bloody Sunday" within the African-American community.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: Since 1965, many marches have commemorated the events of Bloody Sunday. On its 30th anniversary, Rep. John Lewis, former president of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and a prominent activist during the Selma to Montgomery marches, said, "It's gratifying to come back and see the changes that have occurred; to see the number of registered voters and the number of Black elected officials in the state of Alabama to be able to walk with other members of Congress that are African Americans." On the 40th anniversary of Bloody Sunday, over 10,000 people, including Lewis, again marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: The 1996 Summer Olympics torch relay made its way across the bridge on its way to the Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. Andrew Young, a Bloody Sunday organizer who went on to become a U.S. Congressman, Ambassador to the United Nations, and Mayor of Atlanta, carried the Olympic flame across the bridge, accompanied by many public officials in a symbolic showing of the progress of race relations in the Southern United States. When Young spoke at the Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church as part of the torch ceremony, he said, "We couldn't have gone to Atlanta with the Olympic Games if we hadn't come through Selma a long time ago."


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: In March 2015, on the 50th anniversary of Bloody Sunday, U.S. President Barack Obama, the first African-American U.S. president, delivered a speech at the foot of the bridge and then, along with other U.S. political figures such as former U.S. President George W. Bush and Representative John Lewis, and Civil Rights Movement activists such as Amelia Boynton Robinson (at Obama's side in a wheelchair), led a march across the bridge. An estimated 40,000 people attended to commemorate the 1965 march, and to reflect on and speak about its impact on history and continuing efforts to address and improve U.S. civil rights.


title: Edmund Pettus Bridge

text: After civil rights leader and U.S. Congressman John Lewis died in July 2020, calls rose to rename the bridge after him, though Lewis—in an editorial with Representative Terri Sewell—had previously voiced opposition to renaming the bridge, stating: "Keeping the name of the Bridge is not an endorsement of the man who bears its name but rather an acknowledgement that the name of the Bridge today is synonymous with the Voting Rights Movement which changed the face of this nation and the world." Part of the funeral procession for Lewis included transporting his casket across the bridge in a caisson en route to Montgomery, where he lay in repose at the Alabama State Capitol.


title: Bandai Namco Filmworks

text: , previously and still famously known as Sunrise Inc., is a Japanese animation studio founded in September 1972 and is based in Ogikubo, Tokyo. Its former names were also Soeisha, Nippon Sunrise and Sunrise Studio.


title: Bandai Namco Filmworks

text: Its primary division, , is renowned for critically praised and popular original anime series such as "Gundam", "Cowboy Bebop", "Space Runaway Ideon", "Armored Trooper Votoms", "Magic God Hero Legend Wataru", "Yoroiden Samurai Troopers", "Future GPX Cyber Formula", "Crush Gear Turbo", "The Vision of Escaflowne", "Love Live!", "Witch Hunter Robin", "My-HiME", "My-Otome", "Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion", "Tiger & Bunny", and "Cross Ange: Rondo of Angel and Dragon", as well as its numerous adaptations of acclaimed light novels including "Crest of the Stars", "Dirty Pair", "Horizon in the Middle of Nowhere" and "Accel World", and manga such as "City Hunter", "Inuyasha", "Outlaw Star", "Yakitate!! Japan", "Planetes", "Sgt. Frog", "Gin Tama", and "Kekkaishi". Their productions usually feature fluid animation and action sequences and many fans refer to the quality of their work as "Sunrise Smooth".


title: Bandai Namco Filmworks

text: Most of their work are original titles created in-house by their creative staff under a collective pseudonym, Hajime Yatate. They also operated a defunct video-game studio, Sunrise Interactive. Sunrise launched a light-novel publisher, "Yatate Bunko Imprint", on September 30, 2016, to publish original titles and supplement their existing franchises with new materials. Anime created by Sunrise which have won the Animage Anime Grand Prix are "Mobile Suit Gundam" in 1979 and the first half of 1980, "Space Runaway Ideon" in the second half of 1980, "Crusher Joe" (a co-production with Studio Nue) in 1983, "Dirty Pair" in 1985, "Future GPX Cyber Formula" in 1991, "Gundam SEED" in 2002, "Gundam SEED Destiny" in 2004 and 2005, "Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion" in 2006 and 2007 and "Code Geass R2" in 2008, making Sunrise the studio which won the largest number of Animage Awards.


title: Bandai Namco Filmworks

text: According to an interview with Sunrise members, the studio was founded by former members of Mushi Production in 1972 as . Rather than having anime production revolve around a single creator (like Mushi, headed by Osamu Tezuka), Sunrise decided that production should focus on the producers. The market for mainstream anime (such as manga adaptations, sports shows, and adaptations of popular children's stories) was already dominated by existing companies, so Sunrise decided to focus on robot anime, known to be more difficult to animate but which could be used to sell toys.