title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic was concluded at Vienna on 8 November 1968. Since its entry into force on 21 May 1977, in signatory countries ("Contracting Parties") it replaces previous road traffic conventions, notably the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic, in accordance with Article 48 of the convention. As of October 2022, the convention has been ratified by 87 countries, but those who have not ratified the convention may still be parties to the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic. Ireland, Canada, the United States, Cyprus, Iceland, Malta, China and Malaysia are examples of non-signatory countries. Several other countries, such as Spain and Mexico, have signed the convention but have not ratified it.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: One of the main benefits of the convention for motorists is the obligation on signatory countries to recognize the legality of vehicles from other signatory countries. The following requirements must be met when driving outside the country of registration:


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: The convention also addresses minimum mechanical and safety equipment needed to be on board and defines an identification mark (Annex 4) to identify the origin of the vehicle.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: One of the fundamental principles of the Convention has been the concept that a driver is always fully in control and responsible for the behavior of a vehicle in traffic. This requirement is challenged by the development of technology for collision avoidance systems and autonomous driving.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: Since 2021, an automated driving system definition is proposed — in Article 1 of Convention on Road Traffic — as a vehicle system that uses both hardware and software to exercise dynamic control of a vehicle on a sustained basis where Dynamic control is defined as carrying out all the real-time operational and tactical functions required to move the vehicle. This includes controlling the vehicle’s lateral and longitudinal motion, monitoring the road, responding to events in the road traffic, and planning and signalling for manoeuvres.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: According to a British explanatory Memorandum on the Proposal of Amendment to Article 1 and new Article 34 bis of the 1968 Convention on Road Traffic,


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: this amendment should enter into force 18 months following the date of its circulation, on 14 July 2022, unless it is rejected before 13 January 2022.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic is the newest of three conventions that governs International Driving Permits. The other two are the 1926 Paris International Convention relative to Motor Traffic and the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic. When a state is contracting to more than one convention, the newest one terminate and replace previous ones in relation between those states.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: The main regulations about driving licences are in Annex 6 (domestic driving permit) and Annex 7 (International Driving Permit). The currently active version of those is in force in each contracting party since no later than 29 March 2011 (Article 43). According to the 1968 Vienna Convention, an IDP must have an expiration date of no more than three years from its issue date or until the expiration date of national driving permit, whichever is earlier, and it is valid for a period of one year upon the arrival in the foreign country.


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: Prior to 29 March 2011, annex 6 and annex 7 defined forms of driver's licences that are different from those defined after that date. Driving licences issued before 29 March 2011 that match older edition of the annexes are valid until their expiration dates (article 43).


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: Before 29 March 2011 the convention demanded contracting parties to recognise as valid for driving in their territories:


title: Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

text: The broad objective of these international conventions and agreements, the depositary of which is the Secretary-General of the United Nations, is to facilitate international transport while providing for a high level of safety, security, and environmental protection in transport:


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The army of the Kingdom of Macedon was among the greatest military forces of the ancient world. It was created and made formidable by King Philip II of Macedon; previously the army of Macedon had been of little account in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia had been regarded as a second-rate power.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted and refined by Philip II, and he created a uniquely flexible and effective army. By introducing military service as a full-time occupation, Philip was able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks. In a remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one of the finest military machines of the ancient world. Tactical improvements included the latest developments in the deployment of the traditional Greek phalanx made by men such as Epaminondas of Thebes and Iphicrates of Athens. Philip II improved on these military innovators by using both Epaminondas' deeper phalanx and Iphicrates' combination of a longer spear and smaller and lighter shield. However, the Macedonian king also innovated; he introduced the use of a much longer spear, the two-handed pike. The Macedonian pike, the sarissa, gave its wielder many advantages both offensively and defensively. For the first time in Greek warfare, cavalry became a decisive arm in battle. The Macedonian army perfected the co-ordination of different troop types, an early example of combined arms tactics — the heavy infantry phalanx, skirmish infantry, archers, light cavalry and heavy cavalry, and siege engines were all deployed in battle; each troop type being used to its own particular advantage and creating a synergy of mutual support.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The new Macedonian army was an amalgamation of different forces. Macedonians and other Greeks (especially Thessalian cavalry) and a wide range of mercenaries from across the Aegean and Balkans were employed by Phillip. By 338 BC, more than a half of the army for his planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia came from outside the borders of Macedon — from all over the Greek world and the nearby barbarian tribes, such as the Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians. After Philip's death, his successor, Alexander the Great, used the army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Unfortunately, most of the primary historical sources for this period have been lost. As a consequence, scholarship is largely reliant on the works of Diodorus Siculus and Arrian, plus the incomplete writings of Curtius, all of whom lived centuries later than the events they describe.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: If Philip II of Macedon had not been the father of Alexander the Great, he would be more widely known as a first-rate military innovator, tactician and strategist, and as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander would have been impossible without the army his father created. Considered semi-barbarous by some metropolitan Greeks, the Macedonians were a martial people; they drank deeply of unwatered wine (the very mark of a barbarian) and no youth was considered to be fit to sit with the men at table until he had killed, on foot with a spear, a wild boar.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: When Philip took over control of Macedon, it was a backward state on the fringes of the Greek world and was beset by its traditional enemies: Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. The basic structure of the army inherited by Philip II was the division of the companion cavalry ("hetairoi") from the foot companions ("pezhetairoi"), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries. The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire fighting the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), at times siding with either Athens or Sparta and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry. Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory. An early 4th-century BC stone-carved relief from Pella shows a Macedonian hoplite infantryman wearing a "pilos" helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Nicholas Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC. However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or even higher than the numbers stated).


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Philip's first achievement was to unify Macedon through his army. He raised troops and made his army the single fount of wealth, honour and power in the land; the unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the officers and elite cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants became the footsoldiers. Philip took pains to keep them always under arms and either fighting or drilling. Manoeuvres and drills were made into competitive events, and the truculent Macedonians vied with each other to excel.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: As a political counterbalance to the native-born Macedonian nobility, Philip invited military families from throughout Greece to settle on lands he had conquered or confiscated from his enemies, these 'personal clients' then also served as army officers or in the Companion cavalry. After taking control of the gold-rich mines of Mount Pangaeus, and the city of Amphipolis that dominated the region, he obtained the wealth to support a large army. It was a professional army imbued with a national spirit, an unusual combination for the Greek world of the time. The armies of contemporary Greek states were largely reliant on a combination of citizens and mercenaries. The former were not full-time soldiers, and the latter, though professional, had little or no inherent loyalty to their employers. By the time of his death, Philip's army had pushed the Macedonian frontier into southern Illyria, conquered the Paeonians and Thracians, asserted a hegemony over Thessaly, destroyed the power of Phocis and defeated and humbled Athens and Thebes. All the states of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, Epirus and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon (League of Corinth) and Philip was laying the foundations of an invasion of the Persian Empire, an invasion that his son would successfully undertake.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: One important military innovation of Philip II is often overlooked, he banned the use of wheeled transport and limited the number of camp servants to one to every ten infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform made the baggage train of the army very small for its size and improved its speed of march.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Companion cavalry, or "Hetairoi" (), were the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and were the offensive force that made the decisive attack in most of the battles of Alexander the Great. They were unmatched in the pre-stirrup Ancient world in their ability to retain their seat and the control of their weapons through the impact of a charge. Along with Thessalian cavalry contingents, the Companions — raised from landed nobility — made up the bulk of the Macedonian heavy cavalry. Central Macedonia was good horse-rearing country and cavalry was prominent in Macedonian armies from early times. However, it was the reforms in organisation, drill and tactics introduced by Philip II that transformed the Companion cavalry into a battle-winning force, especially the introduction of, or increased emphasis on, the use of a lance and shock tactics. Coinage indicates that from an early period the primary weapons used by Macedonian cavalry were a pair of javelins. This remained true through to the reign of Archelaus I (413–399). Subsequently, despite the adoption of the lance, it is highly probable that the Companion cavalry continued to employ javelins when on scouting or skirmishing missions.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The "hetairoi" were divided into squadrons called "ilai" (singular: "ilē"), each 200 men strong, except for the Royal Squadron, which numbered 300. The Royal Squadron was also known as the "Agema" - "that which leads". Each squadron was commanded by an "ilarchēs" (ilarch) and appears to have been raised from a particular area of Macedon. Arrian, for instance, described squadrons from Bottiaea, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Anthemus. It is probable that Alexander took eight squadrons with him on his invasion of Asia totalling 1,800 men, leaving seven "ilai" behind in Macedon (the 1,500 cavalrymen mentioned by Diodorus). Between 330 BC and 328 BC, the Companions were reformed into regiments (hipparchies) of 2-3 squadrons. In conjunction with this, each squadron was divided into two lochoi. This was probably undertaken to allow for the increase in size of each squadron, as reinforcements and amalgamations meant that the Companion cavalry grew in size. At this time, Alexander abandoned the regional organisation of the ilai, choosing their officers regardless of their origins.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The individual Companion cavalry squadrons were usually deployed in a wedge formation, which facilitated both manoeuvrability and the shock of the charge. The advantage of the wedge was that it offered a narrow point for piercing enemy formations and concentrated the leaders at the front. It was easier to turn than a square formation because everyone followed the leader at the apex, "like a flight of cranes". Philip II introduced the formation, probably in emulation of Thracian and Scythian cavalry, though the example of the rhomboid formation adopted by Macedon's southern neighbours, the Thessalians, must also have had some effect.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The primary weapon of the Macedonian cavalry was the xyston, a double ended cornel-wood lance, with a sword as a secondary weapon. From descriptions of combat, it would appear that once in melee the Companion cavalryman used his lance to thrust at the chests and faces of the enemy. It is possible that the lance was aimed at the upper body of an opposing cavalryman in the expectation that a blow which did not wound or kill might have sufficient leverage to unseat. If the lance broke, the Companion could reverse it and use the other end, or draw his sword. Cleitus, an officer of the Companions, saved Alexander the Great's life at the Granicus by cutting off an enemy horseman's arm with his sword. Companion cavalrymen would normally have worn armour and a helmet in battle.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Although the Companion cavalry is largely regarded as the first real shock cavalry of Antiquity, it seems that Alexander was very wary of using it against well-formed infantry, as attested by Arrian in his account of the battle against the Malli, an Indian tribe he faced after Hydaspes. There, Alexander did not dare assault the dense infantry formation with his cavalry, but rather waited for his infantry to arrive, while he and his cavalry harassed their flanks. It is a common mistake to portray the Companion cavalry as a force able to burst through compact infantry lines. Alexander usually launched the Companions at the enemy after a gap had opened up between their units or disorder had already disrupted their ranks. However, the ancient historian Arrian implies that the Companion cavalry were successful in an assault, along with heavy infantry, on the Greek mercenary hoplites serving Persia in the closing stages of the Battle of Granicus. Their success may have been largely due to the poor morale of the hoplites, who had just witnessed the rest of their army broken and put to flight.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The original 1,800 Companions who accompanied Alexander to Asia were augmented by 300 reinforcements arriving from Macedon after the first year of campaigning. They were usually arrayed on the right flank (this being the position of honour in Hellenic armies, where the best troops would be positioned), and typically carried out the decisive manoeuvre/assault of the battle under Alexander's direct leadership.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Following the defeat of Lycophron of Pherae and Onomarchos of Phocis, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of the Thessalian League; his death induced the Thessalians to attempt to throw off Macedonian hegemony, but a short bloodless campaign by Alexander restored them to allegiance. The Thessalians were considered the finest cavalry of Greece.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Thessalian heavy cavalry accompanied Alexander during the first half of his Asian campaign and continued to be employed by the Macedonians as allies until Macedon's final demise at the hands of the Romans. Its organization and weaponry were similar to the Companion Cavalry, though the earlier Thessalian way of fighting emphasised the use of javelins. The Thessalian cavalry was famed for its use of rhomboid formations, said to have been developed by the Thessalian "Tagos" (head of the Thessalian League) Jason of Pherae. This formation was very efficient for manoeuvring, as it allowed the squadron to change direction at speed while still retaining cohesion. The numbers given for Alexander's invasion of the Persian Empire included 1,800 such men. This number would have risen no higher than 2,000. They were typically entrusted with the defensive role of guarding the left flank from enemy cavalry, allowing the decisive attack to be launched on the right. They often faced tremendous opposition when in this role. At Issus and Gaugamela, the Thessalians withstood the attack of Persian cavalry forces, though greatly outnumbered.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: At Ecbatana, the Thessalians with Alexander's army were disbanded and sent home. Some remained with the army as mercenaries, yet these too were sent home a year later when the army reached the Oxus River.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Hellenic states allied to, or more accurately under the hegemony of, Macedon provided contingents of heavy cavalry and the Macedonian kings hired mercenaries of the same origins. Alexander had 600 Greek cavalrymen at the start of his campaign against Persia, probably organised into 5 "ilai". These cavalrymen would have been equipped very similarly to the Thessalians and Companions, but they deployed in a square formation eight deep and sixteen abreast. The Greek cavalry was not considered as effective or versatile as the Thessalian and Macedonian cavalry.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Light cavalry, such as the "prodromoi" (literal trans. "those who run ahead"), secured the wings of the army during battle and went on reconnaissance missions. There is some ambiguity concerning the use of the term "prodromoi" by the sources; it may have been used to describe any cavalry undertaking a scouting, skirmishing or screening mission, or it may have denoted a single unit, or indeed both. Apart from the "prodromoi" (in the sense of a single unit), other horsemen from subject or allied nations, filling various tactical roles and wielding a variety weapons, rounded out the cavalry. By the time Alexander campaigned in India, and subsequently, the cavalry had been drastically reformed and included thousands of horse-archers from Iranian peoples such as the Dahae (prominent at the Battle of Hydaspes).


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Scholarship is divided as to the ethnic composition of the "prodromoi" of the Macedonian army. Most authorities regard the "prodromoi" as being raised from Macedonians, which would parallel the Athenian "prodromoi", who were raised from the Thetes, the lowest census class of Athenian citizens. Sekunda, however, gives them an origin from Thrace. Arrian usually differentiates the "prodromoi" from the Paeonian light cavalry, which suggests a fixed ethnic composition. This uncertainty is probably due to the lack of a definite understanding of the use of the term "prodromoi" by the primary sources, referred to above.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The "prodromoi", are sometimes referred to as "sarissophoroi", "pikemen" or "lancers", which leads to the conclusion that they sometimes were armed with an uncommonly long xyston (believed to be 14 ft long), though certainly not an infantry pike. In the primary sources, Arrian mentions that Aretes commanded the "prodromoi"; in the same context Curtius says that Aretes commanded the "sarissophoroi". It would appear that the same unit of cavalry was known by both names.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The "prodromoi"/"sarissophoroi" acted as scouts, reconnoitering in front of the army when it was on the march. In battle, they were used in a shock role to protect the right flank of the Companion cavalry. Persian light cavalry took over scouting duties when they became available to the Macedonian army following Gaugamela. The "prodromoi" then assumed a purely battlefield role as shock cavalry. It is possible that the "prodromoi", due to their skill in wielding long lances and their extensive battle experience, were considered more valuable in the role of shock cavalry, especially after the departure of the Thessalian cavalry. Four "ilai", each 150 strong, of "prodromoi" operated with Alexander's army in Asia.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: At Gaugamela, the "prodromoi" under Aretes were responsible for finally routing the Persian left wing cavalry, winning the battle in this sector.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: These light cavalry were recruited from Paeonia, a tribal region to the north of Macedonia. The Paeones had been conquered and reduced to tributary status by Philip II. Led by their own chieftains, the Paeonian cavalry was usually brigaded with the Prodromoi and often operated alongside them in battle. They appear to have been armed with javelins and swords and are, unusually, described as carrying shields. Initially only one squadron strong, they received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600 at Susa.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Largely recruited from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian cavalry also acted as scouts on the march. In battle, they performed much the same function as the Prodromoi and Paeonians, except they guarded the flank of the Thessalian cavalry on the left wing of the army. The Thracians deployed in their ancestral wedge formations and were armed with javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the Thracians fielded four ilai and were about 500 strong.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: In 329 BC, Alexander, while in Sogdiana, created a 1,000 strong unit of horse archers that was recruited from various Iranian peoples. They were very effective at scouting and in screening the rest of the army from the enemy. Firing their bows whilst mounted, they offered highly mobile missile fire on the battlefield. At the Battle of Hydaspes, the massed fire of the horse archers was effective at disordering the Indian cavalry and helped to neutralise the Indian chariots.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Suitable men from the Macedonian peasantry were recruited into an infantry formation, called the phalanx. It was developed by Philip II, and later used by his son Alexander the Great in his conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. These infantrymen were called "Pezhetairoi", which translates as 'Foot Companions'.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes, where he studied under the renowned general Epaminondas, whose reforms formed the basis of Philip's later tactics. The equipment of the Macedonian phalangite is believed to have been influenced by the 'peltast' developed by the Athenian general Iphicrates. The Iphicratean peltast was not a skirmisher but a form of light hoplite, characterised by using a longer spear and smaller shield. However, the introduction of the "sarissa" pike in conjunction with a smaller shield seem to have been innovations devised by Philip himself, or at the very least he produced the definitive synthesis of earlier developments. Diodorus claimed that Philip was inspired to make changes in the organisation of his Macedonian infantry from reading a passage in the writings of Homer describing a close-packed formation.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, Philip II transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of farmers into a well-trained fighting force. Foot Companions were levied from the peasantry of Macedon. Once levied they became professional soldiers. Discharge could only be granted by the King. Under Philip, the Foot Companions received no regular pay. This seems to have changed by Alexander's time as during the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC, the men were chastised by Alexander for having run up debts despite earning "good pay". Through extensive drilling and training, the Foot Companions were able to execute complex manoeuvres in absolute silence, an ability that was fascinating and unnerving to enemies.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: These foot-soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or square formations, of which the smallest tactical unit was the 256 men strong "syntagma" or "speira". This formation typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a frontage of thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each file of 16 men, a "lochos", was commanded by a "lochagos" who was in the front rank. Junior officers, one at the rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the ranks and maintain the cohesion of the formation, similar to modern-day NCOs. The commander of the "syntagma" theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far-right file. According to Aelian, a "syntagma" was accompanied by five additional individuals to the rear: a herald (to act as a messenger), a trumpeter (to sound out commands), an ensign (to hold the unit's standard), an additional officer (called "ouragos"), and a servant. This array of both audial and visual communication methods helped to make sure that even in the dust and din of battle orders could still be received and given. Six "syntagmata" formed a "taxis" of 1,500 men commanded by a "strategos", a variable number of "taxeis" formed a "phalanx" under a phalangiarch. On his Asian campaign, Alexander, had a phalanx of 6 veteran "taxeis", numbering 9,000 men. Between Susa and India a seventh "taxis" was created. Antipater, as regent in Macedonia, was left with 8 "taxeis" of younger, less-experienced recruits.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a "sarissa", which was a type of pike. The length of these pikes was such that they had to be wielded with two hands in battle. The traditional Greek hoplite used his spear single-handed, as the large "Argive" or "Argolic" shield needed to be gripped by the left hand, therefore the Macedonian phalangite gained in both weapon reach and in the added force of a two handed thrust. At close range, such large weapons were of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time. The men of the rear ranks raised their sarissas so as to provide protection from aerial missiles. A phalangite also carried a sword as a secondary weapon for close quarter fighting should the phalanx disintegrate. The phalanx, however, was extremely vulnerable in the flanks and rear.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The phalangite was equipped with a shield, often called the 'Telamon shield', which was smaller and less deeply convex than the "Agive" shield employed by Greek hoplites (and probably the hypaspists). The extent to which phalangites were armoured is unclear, and may have changed over time. They were equipped with helmets and greaves, but do not appear to have worn the thorax at the time of Philip II, as this armour is not mentioned as forming part of the necessary equipment for sarissa-armed infantry. The thorax is, however, shown being worn by an infantryman on the Alexander Sarcophagus, however, this figure is equipped with an 'Argive' shield and may depict a hypaspist, rather than a phalangite. It is indicated in the Military Decree of Amphipolis that the phalangites wore the "kotthybos", a form of defence of uncertain nature.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Alexander did not use the phalanx as the decisive arm in his battles, but instead used it to pin and demoralize the enemy while his heavy cavalry would charge selected opponents or exposed enemy unit flanks, usually after driving the enemy horse from the field. Polybius (18.31.5), emphasises that the phalanx required flat open places for its effective deployment, as broken country would hinder and break up its formation.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one servant for every ten men. This gave it a marching speed that contemporary armies could not hope to match — on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more days. This was made possible thanks to the training Philip instilled in his army, which included regular forced marches.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Hypaspists ("Hypaspistai") were the elite arm of the Macedonian infantry. The word 'hypaspists' translates into English as 'shield-bearers'. During a pitched battle, such as Gaugamela, they acted as guard for the right flank of the phalanx and as a flexible link between the phalanx and the Companion cavalry. They were used for a variety of irregular missions by Alexander, often in conjunction with the Agrianians (elite skirmishers), the Companions and select units of phalangites. They were prominent in accounts of Alexander's siege assaults in close proximity to Alexander himself. The Hypaspists were of privileged Macedonian blood and their senior chiliarchy (χιλιαρχία) formed the "Agema" foot bodyguard of Alexander III.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The organisation of the hypaspist regiment seems to have been into units of 500 (pentakosiarchies) before 331 and later, by 327, it was divided into three battalions (chiliarchies) of 1,000 men, which were then further sub-divided in a manner similar to the Foot Companions. Each battalion would be commanded by a chiliarch, with the regiment as a whole under the command of an archihypaspist.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in the style of a traditional Greek hoplite with a thrusting spear or doru (shorter and less unwieldy than the sarissa) and a large round shield. As well as this, they would have carried a sword, either a xiphos or a kopis. This would have made them far better suited to engagements where formations and cohesion had broken down, making them well suited to siege assaults and special missions. Their armour appears to have varied depending on the type of mission they were conducting. When taking part in rapid forced marches or combat in broken terrain, so common in the eastern Persian Empire, it appears that they wore little more than a helmet and a cloak (exomis) so as to enhance their stamina and mobility. However, when engaging in heavy hand-to-hand fighting, for instance during a siege or pitched battle, they would have worn body armour of either linen or bronze. This variety of armaments made them an extremely versatile force. Their numbers were kept at full strength, despite casualties, by continual replenishment through the transfer of veteran soldiers chosen from the phalanx.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: A new term for "hypaspistai" emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the "argyraspides" ('silver shields'). The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin. However, in regards to both the "argyraspides" and "chalkaspides" ('bronze shields'), Malcolm Errington asserts that "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." Sekunda states that Alexander's pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite "hypaspistai" and 9,000 of which were "pezhetairoi". However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great's army, N.G.L. Hammond and F.W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The army led by Alexander the Great into the Persian Empire included Greek heavy infantry in the form of allied contingents provided by the League of Corinth and hired mercenaries. These infantrymen would have been equipped as hoplites with the traditional hoplite panoply consisting of a thrusting spear ("doru"), bronze-faced "Argive" shield and body armour. In appearance, they would have been almost identical to the hypaspists. In battle, the Greek hoplites had a less active role than the Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek infantry formed the defensive rear of the box formation Alexander arranged his army into, while the Macedonians formed its front face. Nevertheless, they performed a valuable function in facing down attempts by the Persian cavalry to surround the Macedonian army and helped deal with the breakthrough of some Persian horsemen who went on to attack the baggage.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The peltasts raised from the Agrianes, a Paeonian tribe, were the elite light infantry of the Macedonian army. They were often used to cover the right flank of the army in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion cavalry, a position of considerable honour. They were almost invariably part of any force on detached duty, especially missions requiring speed of movement. Other nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian army. Especially numerous were the Thracians; the Thracian peltasts performed the same function in battle as the Agrianians, but for the left wing of the army. It is unclear if the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians fighting as javelin throwers, slingers, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as allies via a treaty or were simply hired mercenaries.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and a sword, carried a light shield but wore no armour, though they sometimes had helmets; they were adept at skirmishing and were often used to guard the flanks of more heavily equipped infantry. They usually adopted an open order when facing enemy heavy infantry. They could throw their javelins at will at the enemy and, unencumbered by armour or heavy shields, easily evade any counter-charges made by heavily equipped hoplites. They were, however, quite vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and often operated to particular advantage on broken ground where cavalry was useless and heavy infantry found it difficult to maintain formation.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Philip II was also able to field archers, including mercenary Cretan archers and perhaps some native Macedonians. In most Greek states, archery was not greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythians prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was notable for its very effective archers, whose services as mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek world. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful bows, firing arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They carried their arrows in a quiver with a protective flap over its opening. Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small and faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had some ability in hand-to-hand fighting, an additional factor in their popularity as mercenaries. Archers were also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples. Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his father's reign, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into "chiliarchies".


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: According to Arrian, Alexander used Arachosian, Bactrian, Parapamisadaean, Sogdian, Indian, and Scythian troops. They were present at the grand army review Alexander assembled in 324 BC. Alexander was said to have been impressed by the drill of the 30,000 Persians who had been trained in the methods of the Macedonian phalanx. The army supposedly reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did not include camp followers. There has been considerable debate as to when Alexander first used Orientals on active service with the army. During his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a "hipparchia" (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians. The introduction of Asiatic troops into the army was actively resented by many of the native Macedonians, especially when the cadre of young Persians from aristocratic families was trained in Macedonian fighting techniques and enrolled in the companion cavalry. Alexander's reaction was to make plans to rule Asia with a locally recruited army, but his death intervened before he could carry out this plan. His successors reversed his aim of diversifying the army and recruited Greeks and Macedonians almost exclusively.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Philip II's phalangite infantry were equipped with a 'proto-Telamon shield' that already diverged from the "Argive" style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a Katerini tomb, dated perhaps to the reign of Amyntas III of Macedon. His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and greaves, as well as "sarissa" pikes, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armour such as cuirasses, since the "Third Philippic" of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts. As evidenced by the Alexander Sarcophagus, troops serving Alexander the Great were also armoured in the hoplite fashion. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by military officers, while pikemen wore the "kotthybos" along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a dagger as a secondary weapon along with their shields.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that the different classes of Macedonian soldier trained to use a variety of arms and equipment. Certainly, cavalry, including Alexander himself, fought on foot during sieges and assaults on fortified settlements, phalangites are described using javelins and some infantrymen were trained to ride horses. The deployment of differing types of armour and weapons was dependent solely on the requirements of a particular tactical situation.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a secondary weapon. The straight-bladed shortsword known as the xiphos (ξίφος) is depicted in works of art, and two types of single-edged cutting swords, the kopis and machaira, are shown in images and are mentioned in texts. An archaeological find of a well-preserved Macedonian xiphos revealed a sword with a blade length of 55 cm and a weight of 300g. The cutting swords are particularly associated with cavalry use, especially by Xenophon, but pictorial representations would suggest that all three sword types were used by cavalry and infantry without obvious distinction.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Each Companion cavalryman was equipped with a 3-metre double-ended spear/lance with a cornel wood shaft called the "xyston". The double spear points meant that, should the xyston break during a battle, the rider need only turn his weapon around to re-arm himself. The Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed similarly to the Companions. The xyston was used to thrust either overarm or underarm with the elbow flexed. This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander Mosaic, King Alexander is shown thrusting with his xyston underarm, whilst immediately behind him a cavalryman is employing the overarm thrust. There is no evidence that the Macedonian cavalry ever used a two-handed grip on their lances, as did later Sarmatian and Roman lancers. The shaft of the xyston was tapered allowing the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip, to be approximately two thirds of the length of the spear away from the point.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The armament of the phalangites is described in the Military Decree of Amphipolis. It lists the fines imposed upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament or produce it upon demand. Offensive weapons were a pike (sarissa), and a short sword (machaira). The sarissa was over 6 m (18 ft) in length, with a counterweight and spiked end at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have had an iron sleeve in the middle which may mean that it was in two pieces for the march with the sleeve joining the two sections before use. Like the xyston, the sarissa was greatly tapered towards the point. This, along with the sauroter, helped to make the point of balance as far towards the butt of the weapon as possible. It should be stressed that the archaeological discoveries show that the phalangites also used the two-edged sword (xiphos) as well as the traditional Greek hoplite spear (doru/δόρυ), which was much shorter than the "sarissa". The sources also indicate that the phalangites were on occasion armed with javelins. The sarissa would have been useless in siege warfare and other combat situations requiring a less cumbersome weapon.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Hypaspists and allied and mercenary Greek heavy infantry were equipped as classic hoplites and would have employed the hoplite spear and a sword.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Light troops were provided by a number of subject and allied peoples. Various Balkan peoples, such as Agrianes, Paeonians and Thracians, provided either light infantry or cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry peltasts would be armed with a number of javelins. The individual javelin would have a throwing thong attached to the shaft behind its point of balance. The thong was wound around the shaft and hooked over one or two fingers. The thong made the javelin spin in flight, which improved accuracy, and the extra leverage increased the power of the throw and the range achievable.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans, were also employed; Cretans were noted for the heavy, large-headed arrows they used. Light cavalry could use lighter types of lance, javelins and, in the case of Iranian horse archers, compact composite bows.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Virtually all helmets in use in the Greek world of the period were constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent in contemporary images was in the form of a Phrygian cap, that is it had a high and forward-projecting apex, this type of helmet, also known as a "Thracian helmet", had a projecting peak above the eyes and usually had large cheek pieces which were often decorated with stylised beards in embossing. Late versions of the Chalcidian helmet were still in use; this helmet was a lightened form developed from the Corinthian helmet, it had a nasal protection and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more simple, helmets of the conical 'konos' or 'Pilos type', without cheek pieces, were also employed. These helmets were worn by the heavy infantry.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Thracian helmet was worn by Macedonian cavalry in King Philip's day, but his son Alexander is said to have preferred the open-faced Boeotian helmet for his cavalry, as recommended by Xenophon. The royal burial in the Vergina Tomb contained a helmet which was a variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, this would support its use by cavalry. Additionally, a fresco depicting a Macedonian mounted lancer spearing an infantryman, from the Kinch Tomb, near Naousa, shows the cavalryman wearing a Thracian type helmet. The Boeotian helmet, though it did not have cheek pieces, had a flaring rim which was folded into a complex shape offering considerable protection to the face. The Alexander Mosaic suggests that officers of the heavy cavalry had rank badges in the form of laurel wreaths (perhaps painted or constructed from metal foil) on their helmets.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great wearing an elaborate helmet in the form of the lion scalp of Herakles. Alexander's cousin Pyrrhus of Epirus is described as wearing a helmet with cheek pieces in the shape of ram's heads. Many examples of helmets from the period have crest or plume-holders attached, so that a high degree of martial finery could be achieved by the wearing of imposing headpieces.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from a repertoire found throughout the Greek-speaking world. The most common form of armour was the "spolas" or "linothorax", which was a cuirass of stiff linen built up of glued or stitched layers of textile; though it is possible that linen was used as a facing material over leather. It was composed of the 'girdle' a tubular section, often of four vertical panels, that enclosed the torso. A shoulder-piece was attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this element was split into two wings which were pulled forward over the top of each shoulder and laced to the chest-section of the girdle. Ancient representations show the shoulder pieces standing vertical when not laced down to the chest of the corselet. This suggests that the linothorax as a whole was very stiff and inflexible. Pteruges, strips of linen or leather, protected the upper arms and hips of the wearer. The linothorax could be reinforced with plate bronze or bronze scale elements. Defences of a similar appearance composed of quilted textile are also described.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Less common, due to its expense, was the muscle cuirass. This was a defence made entirely of plate bronze consisting of a breast and backplate, usually with shoulder pieces, modelled in relief on the form a muscular male torso. This was often given pteruges to extend the area of the body covered.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and modelled on the form of the linothorax, was discovered in the Macedonian royal burial at Vergina. This, alongside the evidence of the depiction of Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make plate armour in iron existed at this time. It is to be doubted that this type of armour was worn by persons other than of royal or very exalted rank.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: All of the above forms of armour could be described as "thorakes" (plural of "thorax"). Other forms of armour are mentioned in original sources, such as the "kotthybos" and a type of "half-armour" the "hemithorakion" ("ἡμιθωράκιον"); the precise nature of these defences is not known but it would be reasonable to conclude that they were lighter and perhaps afforded less protection than the thorax. However, it has been suggested that when the terms "kotthybos", "hemithorakion" and "thorax" occur together, as in the Amphipolis regulation, then "thorax" may refer specifically to the bronze muscle cuirass. Within the phalanx the "thorax" and "hemithorakion" were reserved for "hegemones", the officers. It has also been proposed that the "kotthybos" might refer to a form of "linothorax". It is recorded that Alexander ordered the burning of old armours, which suggests that the armour in question was non-metallic.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Archaeological remains exist for only one type of limb armour: bronze greaves, which protected the lower leg. Greaves could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy cavalry, but they are not in great evidence in contemporary depictions. However, greaves are mentioned in the Military Decree of Amphipolis and a pair of greaves, one shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina Tomb.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Xenophon mentions a type of armour called "the hand" to protect the left, bridle, arm of heavy cavalrymen, though there is no supporting evidence for its widespread use. It may have resembled the later manica armour used by Roman gladiators and cataphract cavalry.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Macedonian phalangite shield, also termed the 'Telamon shield', was circular and displayed a slight convexity; its outer surface was faced by a thin bronze sheet. The inner face of the shield was of wood or a multilayered leather construction, with a band for the forearm fixed to the centre of the shield. Plutarch noted that the phalangites (phalanx soldiers) carried a small shield on their shoulder. This probably meant that, as both hands were needed to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended by a shoulder strap and steadied by the left forearm passing through the armband. The left hand would project beyond the rim of the shield to grip the sarissa. Recent reconstructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed that the shoulder strap supporting the shield effectively helps to transfer some of the weight of the sarissa from the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held horizontally in its fighting position. The Macedonian phalangite shield is described by Asclepiodotus ("Tactica", 5) as being eight palms wide (equivalent to 62 cm or 24 inches) and "not too hollow".


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: From pictorial sources, it is probable that the Hypaspists, elite members of the infantry, including the "Agema" of the King's personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger dimensions, the traditional Greek hoplite shield often called the "aspis" ("ἀσπίς"), though this was a general term for any shield, it is more properly referred to as the 'Argive shield'. This shield, also circular, was larger than the phalangite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden base; it was held with the left forearm passing through a central armband with a hand-grip set just inside the rim. This shield was much more convex than the phalangite shield and had a projecting rim, both features precluding its use with a double handed pike. The style of shield used by cavalry, if any, is less clear; the heavy cavalry of Alexander's time did not employ shields.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Light infantry javelineers would have used a version of the "pelte" (Ancient Greek: πέλτη) shield, from whence their name, peltast, derived. This was a light shield made of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian origin and was originally crescent-shaped, however, by the time of Macedonian greatness many depictions of "peltai" show them as being oval or round.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics under Philip. They had for the first time conducted successful sieges against strongly held and fortified positions. This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where Greek armies had lacked the ability to conduct an effective assault. For instance, during the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans were never able to take Athens despite easily conquering her surrounding territory. For the task of breaching the walled fortifications of cities, Philip II hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery firing large bolts.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to operate against fortifications owed much to the development of effective artillery. This had begun around 400 BC in Syracuse under Dionysius I. By Alexander’s time, torsion-powered artillery was in use. Torsion machines used skeins of sinew or hair rope, which were wound around a frame and twisted so as to power two bow arms; these could develop much greater force than earlier forms (such as the "gastraphetes") reliant on the elastic properties of a bow-stave. Two forms of such ballista were used by the Macedonians: a smaller bolt-shooting type called the "oxybeles" and a larger stone-throwing machine called the "lithobolos". The largest "lithoboloi" could fire stones up to 80 kg in weight. Such machines could shower the defenders of a city with missiles and create a breach in the walls themselves.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: <nowiki> Alexander the Great appears to have been one of the first generals to employ artillery on the open field of battle, rather than in a siege. He used massed artillery to fire across a river at a Scythian army, causing it to vacate the opposite river bank, thus allowing the Macedonian troops to cross and form a bridgehead.</nowiki>


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: In conjunction with various forms of artillery, the Macedonians possessed the ability to build an effective array of siege engines. Prominent in a number of sieges, including the epic Siege of Tyre (332 BC), were siege towers; these allowed men to approach and assault the enemy walls without being exposed to potentially withering missile fire. Equally, they meant that more men could be put on the walls in a shorter period of time, as simple ladders constrained the men attacking to moving up in single file, thus making the task of defending the walls far easier. These structures, which were wheeled and several stories high, were covered with wet hide or metal sheathing to protect from missile fire, especially incendiaries, and the largest might be equipped with artillery. The Macedonian army could also deploy various forms of suspended, metal-tipped, rams. Such rams were usually provided with a wheeled, roofed covering to protect their users from missile fire; they were employed to batter down gates or to dislodge masonry from walls and so cause a breach (this latter form was sometimes called a 'drill' rather than a ram).


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The Macedonian army was one of the first military forces to use 'combined arms tactics', using a variety of specialised troops to fulfill specific battlefield roles in order to form a greater whole. Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to successfully adopt the military tactics of its enemies, such as the "embolon" (i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of the Scythians. This offered cavalry far greater manoeuvrability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The tactics used by the Macedonian army throughout the various campaigns it fought were, of course, varied; usually in response to the nature of the enemy forces and their dispositions, and to the physical nature of the battlefield. However, there were a number of features of the tactics employed by the Macedonians in pitched battles which can be identified as being typical. These features were evident in the first major battle the army, newly trained up by Philip, fought in 358 BC and could still be discerned at Gaugamela in 331 BC.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: The battle fought in 358 BC near Lake Ohrid was intended to free Macedon of the threat from Illyria and recover some western areas of Macedon from Illyrian control. The Illyrians, led by King Bardylis, were at a similar strength to the Macedonians at about 10-11 thousands. Philip had 600 cavalry, the Illyrians were concerned about being outflanked by the Macedonian cavalry and formed up in a hollow square. Philip massed his cavalry on his right flank and arranged his army in echelon, with the left refused. As had been anticipated, the Illyrians stretched their formation in order to bring the Macedonian left wing into action. Philip waited until the inevitable gap appeared in the left of the Illyrian square, then threw his cavalry at the gap. The cavalry forced their way into the Illyrian ranks and were followed by elements of the phalanx. The Illyrians broke after a fierce struggle, and three-quarters of Bardylis' army were slaughtered. The oblique advance with the left refused, the careful manoeuvring to create disruption in the enemy formation and the knock out charge of the strong right wing, spearheaded by the Companion cavalry, became standard Macedonian practice.


title: Ancient Macedonian army

text: Following the fragmentation of the empire of Alexander, Macedon became an independent kingdom once again. The military forces of this successor state, the Antigonid Macedonian army, retained many features of the armies of Philip and Alexander. The Hellenistic armies of the other Macedonian successor-states of the Diadochi period, which followed the death of Alexander, also displayed a continuation of earlier Macedonian equipment, organisation and tactics. Towards the end of the period, however, there was a general decline in the use of the combined arms approach, and the phalanx once more became the arm of decision. The phalangites were armed with longer pikes and as a result the phalanx itself became less mobile and adaptable than it had been in Alexander's era. Because all the competing Hellenistic armies were employing the same tactics, these weaknesses were not immediately apparent. However, the Hellenistic armies were eventually faced by forces from outside the successor kingdoms, such as the Roman and Parthian armies, composed of differing troop types using novel tactics. Against such foes the Hellenistic-era phalanx proved vulnerable. The phalanx finally met its end in the Ancient world when the more flexible Roman manipular tactics contributed to the defeat and partition of Macedon in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.


title: Kiosk

text: Historically, a kiosk () was a small garden pavilion open on some or all sides common in Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and in the Ottoman Empire from the 13th century onward. Today, several examples of this type of kiosk still exist in and around the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, and they can be seen in Balkan countries.


title: Kiosk

text: The word is used in English-speaking countries for small booths offering goods and services. In Australia they usually offer food service. Freestanding computer terminals dispensing information are called interactive kiosks.


title: Kiosk

text: Etymological data points to the Middle Persian word "kōšk" 'palace, portico' as the origin, via Turkish "köşk" 'pavilion' and French "kiosque" or Italian "chiosco".


title: Kiosk

text: A kiosk is an open summer-house or pavilion usually having its roof supported by pillars with screened or totally open walls. As a building type, it was first introduced by the Seljuks as a small building attached to the main mosque, which consisted of a domed hall with open arched sides. This architectural concept gradually evolved into a small yet grand residence used by Ottoman sultans, the most famous examples of which are quite possibly the Tiled Kiosk ("Çinili Köşk" in Turkish) and Baghdad Kiosk ("Bağdat Köşkü" in Turkish). The former was built in 1473 by Mehmed II ("the Conqueror") at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, and consists of a two storey building topped with a dome and having open sides overlooking the gardens of the palace. The Baghdad Koshk was also built at the Topkapı Palace in 1638–39, by Sultan Murad IV. The building is again domed, offering direct views onto the gardens and park of the Palace as well as the architecture of the city of Istanbul.


title: Kiosk

text: Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730) also built a glass room of the Sofa Kiosk at the Topkapı Palace incorporating some Western elements, such as the gilded brazier designed by Duplessis père, which was given to the Ottoman ambassador by King Louis XV of France.


title: Kiosk

text: The first English contact with Turkish Kiosk came through Lady Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul, who in a letter written on 1 April 1717 to Anne Thistlethwayte, mentions a "chiosk" describing it as ""raised by 9 or 10 steps and enclosed with gilded lattices"".


title: Kiosk

text: European monarchs adopted the building type. Stanisław Leszczyński, king of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV, built kiosks for himself based on his memories of his captivity in Turkey. These kiosks were used as garden pavilions serving coffee and beverages but later were converted into band stands and tourist information stands decorating most European gardens, parks and high streets.


title: Kiosk

text: Conservatories were in the form of corridors connecting the Pavilion to the stables and consisting of a passage of flowers covered with glass and linked with orangery, a greenhouse, an aviary, a pheasantry and hothouses. The influence of Muslim and Islamo-Indian forms appears clearly in these buildings and particularly in the pheasantry where its higher part is an adaptation of the kiosks found on the roof of Allahabad Palace, as illustrated by Thomas Daniell. Today's conservatories incorporate many elements of Islamic architecture, although modern art forms have shifted from the classical art forms that were used in earlier times.


title: Kiosk

text: In the Western hemisphere and in English-speaking countries, a "kiosk" is also a booth with an open window on one side. Some vendors operate from kiosks (see mall kiosk), selling small, inexpensive consumables such as newspapers, magazines, lighters, street maps, cigarettes, live and frozen fishing bait and confections.


title: Kiosk

text: In Australia, the word is commonly used for small buildings that are used to dispense mainly take-away food and drinks, on beaches, in shopping arcades or in parks. Since the 21st century, many of these have been upgraded and serve fancier food and barista-made coffee.


title: Kiosk

text: An information kiosk (or information booth) dispenses free information in the form of maps, pamphlets, and other literature, and/or advice offered by an attendant.


title: Kiosk

text: An electronic kiosk (or computer kiosk or interactive kiosk) houses a computer terminal that often employs custom kiosk software designed to function while preventing users from accessing system functions. Indeed, "kiosk mode" describes such a mode of software operation. Computerized kiosks may store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer network. Some computer kiosks provide a free, informational public service, while others serve a commercial purpose (see mall kiosk). Touchscreens, trackballs, computer keyboards, and pushbuttons are all typical input devices for interactive computer kiosk. Touchscreen kiosks are commercially used as industrial appliances, reducing lines, eliminating paper, improving efficiency and service. Their uses are unlimited from refrigerators to airports, health clubs, movie theaters and libraries.


title: Wondery

text: Wondery is an American podcast network and publisher of numerous award-winning podcasts, including Dirty John, Dr. Death, and The Shrink Next Door. Wondery was founded in 2016 by entrepreneur and media executive Hernan Lopez. The company was launched with backing from 20th Century Fox. In late 2020, it was announced that Wondery had been purchased and is now owned by Amazon Music.


title: Wondery

text: Several of Wondery’s podcasts have been adapted to TV, including Dirty John. Wondery has two premium subscription options, Wondery+ and Wondery+ Kids.


title: Wondery

text: Wondery was launched in 2016 by Hernan Lopez, the exiting Fox International Channels CEO with backing from 20th Century Fox. The stated goal of the network is to curate and create audio shows with a focus on mobile users and audio-on-demand. The company teamed up with ART19 on distribution infrastructure and cross podcast dynamic insertion of ads. Lopez was joined by Jeffrey Glaser, previously head of current programming at 20th Century Fox Television, where he oversaw series including "24", "American Dad!", "Arrested Development", "Bones", "Empire", "Family Guy", "Glee", "How I Met Your Mother", "Modern Family" and "The X-Files". Glaser was appointed president of content.


title: Wondery

text: In addition to the initial financial backing from 20th Century Fox, Wondery has held multiple funding rounds. The company's series A funding round in March 2018 brought in $5 million from investors including Greycroft, Lerer Hippeau Ventures, and Shari Redstone's Advancit Capital venture-capital firms. Lopez announced plans to use the funding to add new original podcasts to the company’s roster. In June 2019, Wondery had a funding round of $10 million which indicates a value of over $100 million. Lopez stated that the funds would be used for international expansion, along with new content and technology. This series B funding was led by Waverley Capital. With the closing of the round, Former National Geographic Partners Chief Executive Declan Moore became Wondery's international programming head.


title: Wondery

text: Within three years of its founding, Wondery became a top five podcast publisher with 40 million downloads in December 2018 alone. There were six 2019 iHeartRadio Podcast Award nominations for four of the publisher's show with one win: Dr. Death for Most Bingeable Podcast.


title: Wondery

text: In 2018, Wondery began adapting some of its podcasts to television. That year, Bravo released the Dirty John TV series starring Connie Britton and Eric Bana. With 2.09 million viewers, Dirty John became Bravo’s most-watched scripted series. Wondery announced plans to adapt other podcasts to TV, including Dr. Death, Over My Dead Body, The Shrink Next Door, WeCrashed, American Sports Story and Joe vs. Carole. That year, Wondery also partnered with several celebrities who launched shows on the platform, including Ellen DeGeneres, Jillian Michaels, and Tina Brown.


title: Wondery

text: In June 2018, Wondery announced the release of its premium subscription offering, Wondery+ on iOS and Android. For a monthly fee, Wondery+ subscribers receive ad-free podcasts, early downloads, and bonus materials.


title: Wondery

text: The Walt Disney Company inherited Fox's stake in Wondery after Disney acquired 21st Century Fox's assets on March 20, 2019.


title: Wondery

text: Universal Music Group agreed in April 2019 to allow Wondery a license to use UMG music catalog and develop UMG artists' story podcasts, which then may be adapted into TV or film projects. Wondery would work with all UMG labels and with its Polygram Entertainment film and TV production unit.


title: Wondery

text: In early May 2019, Wondery and Cumulus Media announced a strategic alliance for new advertising opportunities and growing podcast listeners. The first item from the alliance is a "Business Wars" podcast franchise expansion, "Sports Wars", would start airing on 40 Cumulus radio stations the first weekend in May and syndicated by Westwood One, a Cumulus subsidiary.


title: Wondery

text: Wondery announced in October 2019 that it was expanding its international initiatives by partnering with Ranieri and Co., a podcast company based in Australia and New Zealand that would serve as Wondery’s local representative. This partnership allowed brands in Australia and New Zealand access to Wondery’s podcast portfolio. Wondery had already had five top-ranking podcasts in Australia.


title: Wondery

text: In 2020, the company released its own listening app for its subscribers. In 2021, Wondery+ became available to Apple users on Apple Podcast Subscriptions.


title: Wondery

text: Also In 2020, Wondery podcasts won five Ambies at the first Awards for Excellence in Audio awards show hosted by The Podcast Academy. There were five award winners among Wondery’s roster at the 2020 iHeartRadio Podcast Awards and one at the 2021 iHeartRadio Podcast Awards.


title: Wondery

text: In April 2020, Hernan Lopez CEO of Wondery was charged with wire fraud and money laundering in relation to attempts to win broadcast rights for Fox Broadcasting Company for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups. Lopez maintains his innocence, the trial was delayed to January 2023.


title: Wondery

text: On April 28, 2020, Wondery announced a partnership with Al Jazeera Media Network to launch Business Wars and other flagship podcasts in Arabic via Al Jazeera Podcasts.


title: Wondery

text: On May 16, 2020, Wondery was accused of negotiating with the Call Her Daddy podcast hosts while they were still under contract with their parent company, Barstool Sports.


title: Wondery

text: It was reported in early 2021 that Wondery, together with Barstool Sports, NPR, iHeartRadio, and The Daily Wire comprised a group of companies that accounted for one-third of all advertising revenue generated by the entire podcasting industry during 2020.


title: Wondery

text: In March 2021, Wondery sold the South African rights to its podcasts to African Media Entertainment, allowing for greater access to podcasts in the growing South African market.


title: Wondery

text: In June 2021, Jason Bateman, Will Arnett and Sean Hayes’s podcast Smartless was obtained by Wondery and Amazon Music.


title: Wondery

text: In August 2021, Wondery and Amazon Music announced they had arranged an exclusive licensing and ad sales deal with another podcast company, Tinkercast. Newly released Tinkercast podcasts would be released one week early on Amazon Music and ad-free on Wondery+.


title: Wondery

text: In September 2021, Wondery released a premium subscription service for children and families. Named Wondery+ Kids, the audio subscription is separate from Wondery+. It is available on Apple Podcasts, and is aimed at children ages four through 12. Shortly after launching Wondery+ Kids, the company announced a partnership with Gen-Z Media, which publishes children’s podcasts. Under the terms of the partnership, Wondery obtained exclusive rights to licensing, distribution, marketing, and advertising sales for a minimum of 18 podcasts, which are available ad-free on Wondery+ Kids.


title: Wondery

text: In February 2022, How I Built This hosted by NPR’s Guy Raz entered into an exclusive three year ad and licensing agreement with Wondery and Amazon Music.


title: Wondery

text: In May 2022, Wondery became the first podcast platform to support Dolby Atmos, an audio format that allows for 3D surround sound. Support for Dolby Atmos is available to Wondery+ subscribers, with a free trial available.


title: Wondery

text: Wondery began targeting the Italian market in July 2022 with a partnership with Acast. The deal enabled Acast to translate English-language series into Italian, beginning with the podcast Bunga, Bunga.


title: Wondery

text: As of July 2022, Wondery jumped into the No. 2 spot for top podcast publishers in the U.S. according to Podtrac. Wondery surpassed the previous No. 2 spot holder, NPR. At that time, Wondery reported that its number of unique U.S. listeners had increased to 23.8 million, a 59% increase from the 15 million listeners it had in May.


title: Wondery

text: On December 30, 2020, Amazon announced that they were acquiring Wondery under their Amazon Music division. The terms of the deal were not officially disclosed. However, it was reported by an anonymous source for The New York Times that the transaction was valued at about $300 million. At the time of the deal it was reported that Wondery was the largest independent podcast network. The deal was closed on February 10, 2021. At that time, Hernan Lopez stepped down as CEO, as previously planned when the acquisition was announced, and former Wondery COO Jen Sargent became the new CEO. Amazon announced that the acquisition would enable the growth of podcasts and bring greater accessibility to their domestic and international audiences.


title: Wondery

text: Prior to the announcement of Amazon’s acquisition of Wondery, it was reported that Apple Inc. and Sony Music Entertainment had explored the possibility of purchasing the podcast publisher.


title: Wondery

text: Jen Sargent was first hired as the chief operating officer (COO) at Wondery. Sargent was formerly the co-founder of HitFix and president of Uproxx Media Group. In 2021, Sargent was named as Wondery’s new CEO following Hernan Lopez’s departure.


title: Wondery

text: Jeanine Percival Wright was hired as the COO following Sargent’s ascent to the CEO’s office. Wright was formerly chief financial officer and senior vice president of strategy and operations at AdsWizz. Wright is also serving as the general manager, overseeing revenue, new market expansion, partnerships, operations and licensing.


title: Wondery

text: As of 2022, Marshall Lewy, served as the Chief Content Officer at Wondery. James Cator, former head of studios at Spotify for the U.K., joined Wondery as the head of commercial for Europe. In 2021, Nicole Blake, formerly of Warner Bros. and DreamWorks, served as the head of franchise development. Jessica Radburn, formerly Audible, served as the head of international podcast content. In 2020, Laurie Pracher served as the chief sales officer.


title: Wondery

text: At the end of 2020, Wondery had approximately 80 staff members. Sargent announced that the company planned to double its staff during 2021, prioritizing the growth of its development team.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Paan Singh Tomar is a 2012 Indian Hindi-language biographical film about the eponymous athlete who was a soldier in the Indian Army and won a gold medal at the Indian National Games, but was forced to become a rebel against the system. The film is directed by Tigmanshu Dhulia and produced by UTV Motion Pictures. Irrfan Khan plays the title role, with Mahie Gill, Vipin Sharma and Nawazuddin Siddiqui in the supporting cast.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Made on a shoestring budget of , "Paan Singh Tomar" premiered at the 2010 British Film Institute London Film Festival. The film was released domestically on 2March 2012 to critical acclaim and emerged as an average at the box-office, with a domestic net of . The film won the Best Feature Film and Best Actor in the 60th National Film Awards 2012.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: A reporter interviews Paan Singh Tomar (Irrfan Khan), a dacoit who is in the news for killing nine people of a community. Answering questions about himself, the story goes in a flashback from the year 1950. Paan Singh works in the Army while his wife and mother live in Morena. He surprises his seniors in the Army with his athletic skills. Though he was not interested in sports, he joined the sports division because there were no limits on their diet. Picked for the 5000 meters race's training, he was persuaded to run for the 3000 metres steeplechase by his coach. He participates in the Indian National Games and wins the gold medal in the steeplechase event 7 years in a row. In 1958, he participates in the Asian Games at Tokyo, but couldn't win because of his inability to adjust to the track spikes only given to him in the final event. He felt frustrated when he was not allowed to go to the borders to fight in the 1962 and 1965 wars because sportsmen were not allowed to fight in them. In 1967, he participated in the International Military Games and wins the gold medal in the steeplechase.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: One day his brother comes to visit him from his village and tells him about some of their property being usurped by Bhanwar Singh, a relative. Paan Singh decides to retire from the Army and leaves for his village to settle his family disputes, despite being offered a position as a coach in the army. Upon arriving home, he tries to resolve the issue with Bhanwar Singh. He even seeks help from the District Collector and local police station, but no help was forthcoming. His son is then beaten up badly by Bhanwar Singh and his goons. To keep him safe Paan Singh orders his son to join the army and asks him to stay away from the dispute. Eventually, Bhanwar Singh and his goons try to kill Paan Singh and his family. Most of his family manages to escape but his mother is brutally murdered. Paan Singh decides to avenge his mother's death. He becomes a "baaghi" who wreaks havoc in the Chambal Valley. He forms a gang of people some of whom are his relatives and are in conflict with Bhanwar Singh.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Pann Singh then goes into the business of extorting and kidnapping wealthy businessmen in the area to accumulate money and an arsenal for his people so that they can become a proper gang. After making all the necessary arrangements for arms and ammunition for gang members, he arranges a major attack on Bhanwar Singh, who has police protection. Bhanwar Singh gets killed by Paan Singh Tomar after a brief chase.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: As an act of revenge for his brother's death, he kills nine villagers, who had become police informers and had informed the police about his hideout. This event causes a furor in the nation, administration, and also among the other gangs of dacoits who urge him to surrender so that the manhunt by the police would be called off but he refuses.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: The interview with the reporter ends here and is published in the newspaper, causing a sensation. The police continue their search for Paan Singh Tomar, who, as a result of which, decides to lie low for a while. He meets his family and his coach from the army who requests him to surrender. Paan Singh refuses to surrender on the principle that while he was a sportsman holding a national record, nobody stood with him when he was facing problems, and the moment he decided to stand up for himself, he was branded a rebel and everyone wants him arrested. When the gang reconvenes after a month's hiatus, one of the members, Gopi (Nawazuddin Siddiqui), who had turned into a police informer betrays the gang by leading the police to their hideout. A shootout ensues where all members of the gang, including Paan Singh, are killed by Yashwant Singh Ghuraiya, a police officer.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Director Tigmanshu Dhulia first learned about Tomar while working on the set of "Bandit Queen" in Chambal. Intrigued that Tomar was largely forgotten despite holding several records, he resolved to make a film about his life. Dhulia researched the film's background for two years, interviewing Tomar's surviving family members and visiting his native village in Bhind.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Dhulia wanted to make the film after fully researching Tomar. But that would need a lot of money. This caused Dhulia to work on it for 10 years.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: The film was shot in the ravines of Chambal, in Dholpur and in the actual barracks Tomar lived in at Roorkee. To prepare for his role, Irrfan Khan trained rigorously with steeplechase coaches, even breaking his ankle at one point during the filming. He called the experience "the most physically and mentally demanding film of my career".


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: The film has also been shot in the uphills of one of the oldest army cantonments in India, Roorkee Cantonment. The Dramatics Team of the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee also helped in several scenes shot in the cantonment.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: The music was composed and arranged by Abhishek Ray. Since the film was a biopic locked in both time and geography, the original soundtrack and songs are strictly relevant to that. Abhishek Ray used different tribal instruments and folk voices pertaining to the hinterland of central India and fused them with larger-than-life symphonic orchestrations to capture the true essence of this poignant biopic set in the rugged Chambal ravines. The music of this epic film stands out for its authenticity, originality, and the perfect blend of central Indian folk with western classical influences.


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: "Paan Singh Tomar" achieved universal critical acclaim among the critics. According to review aggregator ReviewGang, professional critics have given the film a rating of 7.5 out of 10. The core plot of the movie had resemblance with the 1972 Kannada movie "Sipayi Ramu".


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Rajeev Masand of IBN awarded the film 3.5 out of 5 stars, praising Khan's performance and said "Directed competently by Dhulia, who's familiar and comfortable even with the dusty terrain, "Paan Singh Tomar" is made with great attention to detail and paints an honest, realistic picture of an India few of us can claim to know."


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Avijit Ghosh of "The Times of India" rated the film 4 out of 5 stars and said "Sportsmen and outlaws inhabit two different universes. One shines amidst the bright lights of glory, and the other haunts the ravines of notoriety. But in director Tigmanshu Dhulia's biopic, "Paan Singh Tomar", the two worlds collide. And the result is a rather exquisite blend of drama, humour and tragedy; altogether eminently enjoyable good cinema".


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Aseem Chhabra for Rediff.com gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and said "The tragedy of "Paan Singh Tomar" and Irrfan Khan's execution of the role are both compelling."


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and said ""Paan Singh Tomar" shatters the standard rules of this genre. Besides, the film makes you cognizant that serious cinema can be uniformly delightful, like any other enthralling entertainer."


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: Blessy Chettiar of DNA rated the film 4 out of 5 stars and said, "Gritty and power-packed, "Paan Singh Tomar" is a tribute to the unsung heroes of sports in India. Dhulia's direction and Irrfan's integrity will make [it] among the best movies of recent times.". Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said ""Paan Singh Tomar" is a completely gripping, near-flawless film, with such few dodgy parts as to be negligible.".


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: "The New York Times" praised the film and especially Khan's performance, saying "Without romanticizing "Paan Singh Tomar", he shows his basic honesty and gives him real depth. As an actor Mr. Khan rarely does the expected. You can’t take your eyes off him.". Mathures Paul of The Statesman gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Paan Singh Tomar" is a skillfully narrated tale of one man who rises against the odd." Filmmaker Anurag Kashyap praised this movie and said "What a powerful film, powerful character, go watch the film. Turn it into what no-one believed it could be.".


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: On 18 March 2013, Irrfan Khan received the Best Actor Award for 'Paan Singh Tomar' at the 60th Indian National Film Awards. The award citation reads, "A unique delineation of a transformation of an international sportsperson to a dacoit. A difficult role very convincingly played. A well-calibrated performance that was masked by remarkably subtle underplay."


title: Paan Singh Tomar (film)

text: "Paan Singh Tomar" grossed nett in week one. The movie managed to gross nett in week two. The movie collected in its third week and was declared a semi-hit by Box Office India.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Kent is a city in King County, Washington, United States. It is part of the Seattle–Tacoma–Bellevue metropolitan area and had a population of 136,588 as of the 2020 census, making it the fourth-largest municipality in greater Seattle and the sixth-largest in Washington state. The city is connected to Seattle, Bellevue and Tacoma via State Route 167 and Interstate 5, Sounder commuter rail, and commuter buses.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Incorporated in 1890, Kent is the second-oldest incorporated city in King County, after Seattle. It is generally divided into three areas: West Hill (mixed residential and commercial along Interstate 5), Valley (primarily industrial and commercial with some medium-density residential; significant parkland along Green River), and East Hill (primarily residential with retail).


title: Kent, Washington

text: The Kent area was first permanently settled by European Americans in the 1850s along the banks of what was then the White River. The first settler was Samuel Russell, who sailed the White and Duwamish rivers until he claimed a plot of land southeast of modern-day downtown Kent in the spring of 1853. Russell was followed by several other settlers who quickly staked claims around the area. The settlements were originally known as "White River" and later the town was called "Titusville" after an early settler by the name of James Henry Titus. (There is still a "Titusville Station" sign on Gowe Street near First Avenue). In 1861 a post office was established under the name White River and was located at the farm of David and Irena Neely who settled in modern-day Kent in 1854. In 1855 their farm was attacked by Native Americans when David Neely served as a lieutenant in the Territorial Army. Another settler was Henry L. Yesler, who was the first sawmill operator in Seattle. By 1870 the population was 277 and all of the quality bottom-land had been claimed.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Throughout the 1860s and 70's, grain and forage crops such as wheat, barley, oats, hay, and timothy accounted for much of the annual return of farmers in the valley. During the late 1870s the town discovered hops production as a major source of income. Due to an aphid invasion which affected hops crops in Europe, hops from the Puget Sound area began to command high prices. Hops were shipped from Titusville either by the river or via rail. In 1889 the town was renamed for the County of Kent, the major hops-producing region in England. Ezra Meeker was asked by the Northern Pacific Railroad to name its station. Meeker suggested that it be known as Kent as it was "Hop Capitol of the West". Hops production in the White River valley came to an end soon after its own invasion of aphids in 1891.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Kent was officially incorporated on May 28, 1890, with a population of 793, the second city incorporated in King County. Seattle was the first.


title: Kent, Washington

text: After the turn of the 20th century the area turned to dairy farming and was home to a Carnation condensed milk plant. Flooding from both the Green and the White Rivers was a constant problem. In 1906, flooding changed the course of the White River, which reduced the flood hazard by half. The Green River continued to present problems until the creation of the Howard A. Hanson Dam at Eagle Gorge in 1962.


title: Kent, Washington

text: During and after the Great Depression, Kent was known as the "Lettuce Capital of the World". After WWII, Kent began to grow more rapidly. From 1953 to 1960 the city's size grew twelve-fold. In 1965 Boeing began building in Kent, followed a few years later by other aerospace and high-tech companies.


title: Kent, Washington

text: In 1992, the Greater Kent Historical Society was formed to promote the discovery, preservation and dissemination of knowledge about the history of the greater Kent area. In 1996, the City of Kent purchased the historic Bereiter house, the home of one of Kent's early mayors, for use as the Kent Historical Museum. The museum is operated by the Greater Kent Historical Society.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Kent is located in southern King County and is part of Seattle's metropolitan area. The city is generally divided into three geographic sections: West Hill, the Green River Valley, and East Hill. Downtown Kent is located on the east side of the valley, about 16 miles from downtown Seattle and downtown Bellevue. Adjoining cities are Renton to the north, Covington to the east, Auburn to the south, Federal Way to the southwest, Des Moines to the west, SeaTac to the northwest, and Tukwila to the north.


title: Kent, Washington

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water. Major waterways include the Green River, which flows north through Kent on its way to Puget Sound. The largest lake is Lake Meridian on the city's East Hill. Mount Rainier is a prominent geographical landmark to the southeast.


title: Kent, Washington

text: There are several major freeways and highways in or near Kent, including Interstate 5, State Route 167, and State Route 516. Kent is also served by King County Metro transit, with the Kent Station providing service to many destinations, including downtown Seattle by multiple commuter buses, the Sounder commuter rail system, and local buses. Heavy rail service includes two major north–south lines through the Kent Valley, with freight traffic operations by the BNSF and Union Pacific railroads. The Link light rail system is scheduled to be extended to Federal Way in 2024, with intermediate stops at Kent Des Moines station near Highline College and Star Lake station at South 272nd Street.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Kent's park system includes 73 parks, miniparks, playfields, skateparks, greenbelts, and other related facilities. These parks range in size from as little as to over .


title: Kent, Washington

text: The city is governed by a mayor–council government, with a directly elected mayor and a seven-member city council. Each is elected at-large (that is, by the entire voting population, rather than by districts) to four-year terms. The current mayor is Dana Ralph. The city maintains its own municipal police department, unlike some neighboring municipalities who contract police service out to King County.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Public primary and secondary education in the vast majority of Kent and a number of neighboring cities and unincorporated areas is governed by the Kent School District. The district includes four high schools, seven middle schools, twenty-eight elementary schools and two academies. The Kent School District also has an individualized graduation and degree program named iGrad that is aimed at dropouts aged 16–21 who are willing to get back to school.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Federal Way Public Schools, which includes a portion of Kent, also has several schools within the city limits. Residents of far east Kent are zoned in the Tahoma School district. A branch of Green River Community College opened in Kent Station in 2007.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The city is served by the Puget Sound Regional Fire Authority with 7 of the departments 13 stations located within municipal boundaries.


title: Kent, Washington

text: In keeping with the King County Annexation Initiative, which seeks to annex large urban unincorporated areas into city limits or incorporate new cities out of those areas, the Panther Lake area (known officially as the Kent Northeast Potential Annexation Area) was proposed for annexation to the city of Kent. The annexation was voted on by residents of the potential annexation area on November 3, 2009; the area was officially annexed July 1, 2010. The city grew in area by approximately and 24,000 residents.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The economy of Kent consists of commuters traveling to the main urban centers of the Seattle metropolitan area (particularly downtown Seattle), extensive manufacturing and warehousing within the city, and retail/personal services catering to residents. Kent's manufacturing and distribution area ranks are the 4th largest in the United States.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Corporate headquarters in Kent include Oberto Sausage Company, Seattle Bicycle Supply, Omax Corporation and aerospace manufacturer Blue Origin. Amazon, Boeing, Whirlpool and General Electric operate sizable facilities in the city. Due to its central location within the metropolitan area, Kent is home to a large and growing warehouse district. To honor the 100th anniversary of Oberto Sausage Company's presence in the city, the city designated a section of South 238th Street as Oberto Drive in May 2018.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Boeing Kent Space Center was opened with a public dedication ceremony on October 24, 1964. Keynote speakers at the event were William "Bill" Allen, Chairman and CEO of The Boeing Company; future Washington Governor Dan Evans; and Alex Thorton, Mayor of the City of Kent. The event featured public tours of the labs and facilities that were used to build the Lunar Roving Vehicles used in the Apollo program.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Kent is home to a large steel industry dating back to the early 20th century. Steel and metal manufacturers include:


title: Kent, Washington

text: According to the city's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the largest employers in the city are:


title: Kent, Washington

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 92,411 people, 34,044 households, and 21,816 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 36,424 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 55.5% White (49.7% Non-Hispanic White), 11.3% African American, 1.0% Native American, 15.2% Asian, 1.9% Pacific Islander, 8.5% from other races, and 6.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.6% of the population.


title: Kent, Washington

text: There were 34,044 households, of which 37.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.9% were non-families. 28.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.31.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The median age in the city was 33 years. 26.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.3% were from 45 to 64; and 8.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.9% male and 50.1% female.


title: Kent, Washington

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 79,524 people, 31,113 households, and 19,601 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,836.7 people per square mile (1,095.4/km). There were 32,488 housing units at an average density of 1,158.9 per square mile (447.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 70.81% White, 8.23% African American, 0.98% Native American, 9.42% Asian, 0.76% Pacific Islander, 4.7% from other races, and 5.37% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.13% of the population.


title: Kent, Washington

text: There were 32,998 households, out of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.0% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.15.


title: Kent, Washington

text: In the city the population was spread out, with 27.7% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 35.0% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.2 males.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The median income for a household in the city was $50,053, and the median income for a family was $61,016. Males had a median income of $43,136 versus $36,995 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,390. About 8.7% of families and 11.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.7% of those under the age of 18 and 9.3% of those 65 and older.


title: Kent, Washington

text: In 2003, Kent was named "Sports Illustrated"'s Sportstown of the year for Washington. In January 2006, an entertainment center, known as Kent Station, opened in downtown Kent adjacent to the transit station of the same name.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The 2012 Skate America figure skating competition was held in Kent from October 19 to 21, 2012, at ShoWare Center.


title: Kent, Washington

text: Riverbend Golf Complex, featuring an 18-hole course which is one of the busiest in Washington state, is located in Kent. An adjacent par 3 course was actively used by locals for years before being shut down in 2017 to make room for a mixed used development.


title: Kent, Washington

text: The accesso ShoWare Center hosts two minor-league sports teams: the Seattle Thunderbirds play ice hockey in the U.S. Division of the Western Hockey League; and the Tacoma Stars plays indoor soccer in the Major Arena Soccer League.


title: Samuel Sachs

text: Samuel Sachs was born on July 28, 1851 in Maryland, the son of Sophie (née Baer) and Joseph Sachs, both Jewish immigrants from Bavaria, Germany. He had one older sibling, Julius Sachs, and three younger siblings, Emily Sachs, Henry Sachs, and Bernard Sachs.


title: Samuel Sachs

text: Sachs, along with his longtime friend Philip Lehman of Lehman Brothers, pioneered the issuing of stock as a way for new companies to raise funds.