title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon helped to educate herself in art by observing the techniques of the artists for whom she posed. She was considered a very focused, ambitious, rebellious, determined, self-confident, and passionate woman. In the early 1890s, she befriended Edgar Degas, who was impressed by her bold line drawings and fine paintings. He purchased her work and encouraged her. She remained one of his closest friends until his death in 1917. Art historian Heather Dawkins believed that Valadon's experience as a model added depth to her own images of nude women, which tended to be less idealized than the representations of women by the male post-impressionists.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Morisot's 1880 drawing of Valadon as a tightrope walker preceded it, but the most recognizable early image of Valadon is in Renoir's "Dance at Bougival" from 1883, the same year that she posed for "Dance in the City". In 1885, Renoir painted her portrait again as . Another of his portraits of her in 1885, , is of her head and shoulders in profile. Valadon frequented the bars and taverns of Paris with her fellow painters and she was Toulouse-Lautrec's subject in his oil painting "The Hangover".


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon was an acclaimed painter of her time, well-respected and championed by contemporaries such as Edgar Degas and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. She was admitted to professional associations and her works were admitted to juried exhibitions. She lived a bohemian life with rebellious vision.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon's earliest surviving signed and dated work is a self-portrait from 1883, drawn in charcoal and pastel. She produced mostly drawings between 1883 and 1893, and began painting in 1892. Her first models were family members, especially her son, mother, and niece.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon began painting full-time in 1896. She painted still lifes, portraits, flowers, and landscapes that are noted for their strong composition and vibrant colors. She was, however, best known for her candid female nudes. Her work attracted attention partly because, by painting unidealized nudes, she upset the social norms of the time.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Her earliest known female nude was executed in 1892. In 1895, the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel exhibited a group of twelve etchings by Valadon that show women in various stages of their toilettes. Later, she regularly showed at Galerie Bernheim-Jeune in Paris. Valadon was first accepted as an exhibitor in the Salon de la Nationale in 1894. Competition for acceptance was fierce.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: She exhibited in the Salon d'Automne from 1909, in the Salon des Independants from 1911, and in the Salon des Femmes Artistes Modernes during 1933-1938. Notably, Degas was the first person to purchase drawings from her, and he introduced her to other collectors, including Paul Durand-Ruel and Ambroise Vollard. Degas also taught her the skill of soft-ground etching.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: After her marriage to the well-to-do banker Paul Mousis, in 1896 Valadon became a full-time painter. She made a shift from drawing to painting in 1909. Her first large oils for the Salon related to sexual pleasures and they were some of the first examples in modern painting with a man being an object of desire by a woman similar to that idealized treatment of women by male artists. These notable Salon paintings include "Adam and Eve" ("Adam et Eve") (1909), "Joy of Life" ("La Joie de vivre") (1911), and "Casting the Net" ("Lancement du filet") (1914). In her lifetime, Valadon produced approximately 273 drawings, 478 paintings, and 31 etchings, excluding pieces given away or destroyed.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon was well known during her lifetime, especially toward the end of her career. Her works are in the collection of the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, the Museum of Grenoble, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, among others.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon was not confined to a specific style, yet both Symbolist and Post-Impressionist aesthetics are clearly demonstrated within her work. She worked primarily with oil paint, oil pencils, pastels, and red chalk; she did not use ink or watercolor because these mediums were too fluid for her preference. Valadon's paintings feature rich colors and bold, open brushwork often featuring firm black lines to define and outline her figures.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon's self-portraits, portraits, nudes, landscapes, and still lifes remain detached from trends and contemporaneous aspects of academic art. The subjects of Valadon's paintings often reinvent the old master themes: women bathing, reclining nudes, and interior scenes. She preferred to paint working-class models. Art historian Patricia Mathews suggests that Valadon's working-class status and experience as a model influenced her intimate, familiar observation of these women and their bodies. In this respect she differed from Berthe Morisot and Mary Cassatt, who painted mostly women, but "remained well within the bounds of propriety in their subject matter" because of their upper-middle-class status in French society. Valadon's marginalized status allowed her to enter the contemporary male dominated domain of art through modeling and her lack of formal academic training may have made her less influenced by academic conventions. She has been noted for that difference in her paintings of the nude women. She resisted typical depictions of women, emphasizing class trappings and their sexual attractiveness, through her realistic depiction of unidealised and self-possessed women who are not overly sexualised. She also painted many nude self-portraits across the span of her career, the later of which displayed her aging body realistically.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon emphasized the importance of the composition of her portraits over techniques such as painting expressive eyes. Her later works, such as "Blue Room" (1923), are brighter in color and show a new emphasis on decorative backgrounds and patterned materials.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: In 1883, aged 18, Valadon gave birth to a son, Maurice Utrillo. Valadon's mother cared for Maurice while she returned to modelling. Later, Valadon's friend Miquel Utrillo signed papers recognizing Maurice as his son, although the true paternity was never disclosed.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: In 1893, Valadon began a short-lived affair with composer Erik Satie, moving to a room next to his on the . Satie became obsessed with her, calling her his "", writing impassioned notes about "her whole being, lovely eyes, gentle hands, and tiny feet". After six months she left, leaving him devastated.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Valadon married the stockbroker Paul Mousis in 1895. For 13 years, she lived with him in an apartment in Paris and in a house in the outlying region. In 1909, Valadon began an affair with the painter André Utter, a 23-year-old friend of her son. He became a model for her and appears as Adam in "Adam et Eve", which was painted that year. She divorced Moussis in 1913. Valadon then married Utter in 1914. Utter managed her career as well as that of her son. Valadon and Utter regularly exhibited work together until the couple divorced in 1934, when Valadon was almost seventy. They continued a relationship until her death, nonetheless, and are buried together in the Saint Ouen cemetery in Paris.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: As one of the best documented French artists of the early twentieth century, Valadon's body of work has been of great interest to feminist art historians, especially given her focus on the female form. Her work was candid and occasionally awkward, often characterized by strong lines, and her resistance to both academic and avant-garde conventions for representing the female nude have encouraged interest in her work: It has been argued that many of her images of women signal a form of resistance to some of the dominant representations of female sexuality in early twentieth-century Western art. Many of her nudes painted from the 1910s onward are heavily proportioned and sometimes awkwardly posed. The feminist critics assert that they are conspicuously at odds with the svelte, 'feminine' type to be found in the imagery of both popular and 'high' art. Her self-portrait from 1931, when she was 66, stands out as one of the early examples of a woman painter recording her own physical decline.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Like many other talented female artists, although she is known to have been an important modern artist, Valadon never had been given a solo exhibition by a U.S. art institution. Her first institutional solo exhibition in the U.S., at the Barnes Foundation in Philadelphia, was scheduled to open in September 2021.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: The small square at the base of the Montmartre funicular in Paris is named Place Suzanne Valadon. At the top of the funicular, and less than 50 meters to its east, are the steps named rue Maurice Utrillo after her son the artist.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: A novel based on the life of Suzanne Valadon was written by Elaine Todd Koren and was published in 2001, titled "Suzanne: of Love and Art". An earlier novel by Sarah Baylis, "Utrillo's Mother", was published first in England and later in the United States. Timberlake Wertenbaker's play, "The Line" (2009), traces the relationship between Valadon and Degas. Valadon was the basis for the character Suzanne Rouvier in the novel "The Razor's Edge" by W. Somerset Maugham.


title: Suzanne Valadon

text: Suzanne Valadon died of a stroke on 7 April 1938, at the age of 72, and was buried in Division 13 of the Cimetière de Saint-Ouen, Paris. Among those in attendance at the funeral were her friends and colleagues André Derain, Pablo Picasso, and Georges Braque.


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: Full Frontal is a 2002 American comedy-drama film by Steven Soderbergh about a day in the life of a handful of characters in Hollywood. It stars Catherine Keener, Blair Underwood, David Duchovny, Julia Roberts, Mary McCormack, Nicky Katt, Brad Pitt, and David Hyde Pierce. The film was shot on digital video using the Canon XL-1s in under a month. The film blurs the line between what is real and what is fiction in its depiction of a film within a film (and possibly within another).


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: The film was announced in 2001 and Catherine Keener was the first actor attached to the project, named "How to Survive a Hotel Room Fire". It was billed by Miramax as "an unofficial sequel of sorts" to "Sex, Lies, and Videotape". In October, Julia Roberts, David Hyde Pierce, and David Duchovny were announced as leads in the project, and after the September 11 attacks, the film title was changed to "The Art of Negotiating a Turn".


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: After a phone call with Harvey Weinstein because he did not like the new movie title, Soderbergh suggested the title "Full Frontal". Production on the film began on November 6, 2001.


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: "Full Frontal" had a limited release in the United States on August 2, 2002, opening in 208 theaters, and earning $739,834 its first weekend. The film was released in the United Kingdom on May 23, 2003, and failed to reach the Top 10.


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 39% based on reviews from 145 critics. The site's consensus reads: "An confusing movie made worse by the poor camera work."


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: Writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert called "Full Frontal" "a film so amateurish that only the professionalism of some of the actors makes it watchable". Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "When a set of pre-shooting guidelines a director came up with for his actors turns out to be cleverer, better written and of considerable more interest than the finished film, that's a bad sign. A very bad sign."


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: Other critics praised Soderbergh for his experimental approach. Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" gave an overall positive review, but wrote, ""Full Frontal" is a movie about people making movies about movies, and Soderbergh edits so quickly and effortlessly between those layers of reality that a concentrically ordered universe similar to nesting Russian dolls quickly begins to feel more like a hall of mirrors. Watching "Full Frontal" is a vertiginous, disorienting experience, one that reflects its characters with grotesque, funny and sometimes horrifying exaggeration. No matter how much fun it is to watch – and for hard-core movie fans, it is often enormous fun – there's a certain relief when it stops and we're popped back out to our banal, one-track lives."


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: "USA Today" gave the film three out of four stars, recommending it for its "humor and talented cast".


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: In 2016, Lawrence Garcia wrote in an essay for Mubi that the film’s amateurish filming techniques were precisely Soderbergh’s point, saying "Full Frontal" "is a film about aesthetics, or more specifically the phoniness of it; that is, it’s concerned mainly with the gulf between an object, its presentation, and interpretation, with the L.A. lifestyle (which includes a neighbor that perpetually wears a Dracula costume) providing the perfect backdrop." Garcia did say the film’s "major flaw is that while individual scenes are often amusing, the film as a whole never quite coheres."


title: Full Frontal (film)

text: For the 20th anniversary of the film, writer Craig J. Clark noted "the parallels between [the behavior of the character Gus]…and the accusations leveled at executive producer Harvey Weinstein, one of the handful of sexual predators ensnared by the #MeToo movement whose punishment appears to be sticking. What makes the film especially curious as a cultural artifact is Gus is not its only Weinstein stand-in", referring to Garlin’s character, as well.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: Lord Leopold Arthur Louis Mountbatten (21 May 1889 – 23 April 1922) was a British Army officer and a descendant of the Hessian princely Battenberg family and the British Royal Family. A grandson of Queen Victoria, he was known as Prince Leopold of Battenberg from his birth until 1917, when the British Royal Family relinquished their German titles during World War I, and the Battenberg family changed their name to Mountbatten.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: Prince Leopold was born on 21 May 1889. His father was Prince Henry of Battenberg, the son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia, Princess of Battenberg. His mother was Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom, the fifth daughter and the youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: As he was the product of a morganatic marriage, Prince Henry of Battenberg took his style of "Prince of Battenberg" from his mother, Julia von Hauke, who was created Princess of Battenberg in her own right.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: As such, Leopold was styled as "His Serene Highness" Prince Leopold of Battenberg from birth. In the United Kingdom he was styled "His Highness" Prince Leopold of Battenberg under a Royal Warrant passed by Queen Victoria in 1886. He was baptised at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on 29 June 1889. His godparents were Leopold II of Belgium (represented by the Prince of Wales), the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (represented by Prince Albert of Schleswig-Holstein), Prince Louis of Battenberg (represented by the Marquess of Lorne), the Marchioness of Lorne, the Duchess of Albany and Princess Marie of Erbach-Schönberg. His father died of malaria in 1896.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: Leopold was a haemophiliac, a condition he inherited through his mother. His maternal uncle of the same name, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, had died from the same condition.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: Leopold was commissioned a lieutenant (supernumerary) on 16 October 1909 in the 8th Battalion of the Isle of Wight Rifles, a Territorial Force unit. On 19 October 1912, he received a regular army commission in The King's Royal Rifle Corps. During service in the First World War, he was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 15 November 1914, to lieutenant on 30 April 1915 and finally to captain on 14 September 1916.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: On 7 April 1918, he was placed on the half-pay list "on account of ill-health contracted on active service." From 23 July of that year until the following 6 January, he served as an extra aide-de-camp on the staff of the War Office. He resigned his commission on 14 April 1920; at the special request of his cousin, George V, he was granted the honorary rank of major.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: During the First World War, anti-German feeling in the United Kingdom led Leopold's first cousin, George V to change the name of the Royal House from the Germanic House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the more English-sounding House of Windsor. The King also renounced all his Germanic titles for himself and all members of the British Royal Family who were British citizens.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: In response to this, Leopold renounced his title, through a royal warrant from the King, dated 14 July 1917, of a Prince of Battenberg and the style His Highness and became Sir Leopold Mountbatten, by virtue of his being a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. Under a further warrant in September 1917 he was granted the style and precedence of the younger son of a marquess, and became Lord Leopold Mountbatten.


title: Lord Leopold Mountbatten

text: He is buried in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore. A memorial tablet to him and his brother Maurice is in Winchester Cathedral. His will was sealed in London after his death in 1922. His estate was valued at £4,049 (or £160,600 in 2022 when adjusted for inflation).


title: Barrett XM500

text: The Barrett XM500 is a gas-operated, semi-automatic, anti materiel/sniper rifle currently in development by the Barrett Firearms Company. It is fed by a 10-round detachable box magazine situated behind the trigger in bullpup configuration.


title: Barrett XM500

text: Based on the design of the Barrett M82/M107, it is intended to be a lighter, more compact alternative. Since the XM500 has a stationary barrel (instead of the recoiling-barrel design of the M82), it will likely have somewhat better accuracy. As with its predecessor, it comes with a removable, adjustable bipod mounted under the barrel, and a top-mounted Picatinny rail for attachment of a scope or other accessory.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Gary Sanford Paxton (born Larry Wayne Stevens; May 18, 1939 – July 17, 2016) was an American record producer, recording artist, and Grammy and Dove Award winning songwriter. Paxton was a member of Skip & Flip and the Hollywood Argyles and was the producer of two number one "Billboard" Hot 100 singles, "Alley Oop" for the Hollywood Argyles in 1960 and "Monster Mash" for Bobby "Boris" Pickett in 1962.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Born in Coffeyville, Kansas to an unmarried teenage mother and initially named Larry Wayne Stevens, Paxton was adopted at age three, given a new name, and raised in rural poverty on a farm. He endured a troubled childhood, molested at age seven and afflicted by spinal meningitis at 11, which left him crippled for three years. His family moved to Arizona when he was 12, and he started his first band by 14, playing country and rock 'n' roll. He spent his middle teenage years touring the American Southwest with this and other forgotten bands.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Early stardom came as "Flip" in the pop duo Skip & Flip (with Clyde "Skip" Battin), courtesy of a million-selling 1959 smash the two cut in Phoenix, Arizona, "It Was I". In what became a pattern in Paxton's early career, the song was recorded first and the group assembled second: after successfully shopping their demo to a label owner, Gary became "Flip" and Clyde became "Skip", after the man's pet poodles, a "group" put together just to have a name on the record. According to Paxton, he was picking cherries on an Oregon farm when he heard the song on a transistor radio and realized it had become a hit. The duo made television appearances, toured with superstar deejay Alan "Moondog" Freed, and soon followed their success with another hit, "Cherry Pie". After this second chart appearance, the pair split up.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: By 1960, Paxton was living in Hollywood, California, and was involved in a number of projects, collaborating with others as a performer, writer, producer, label owner, and audio engineer. He played a major role in the making of two novelty hits in the early 1960s and worked with artists including the Association, Paul Revere & the Raiders, the Four Freshmen, and Tommy Roe.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: His work throughout this early-1960s period is scattered over various labels, mostly his own, which he seemed to open and close on a constant basis, making regular use of the five studios he owned. Over the years, Paxton built a reputation as an eccentric figure in the recording industry. Brian Wilson was known to admire his talents, and Phil Spector to fear him. His creativity and knack for promotion were legendary, but could also run to excess: once, after a local radio station dismissed one of his records ("Elephant Game (Part One)" by Renfro & Jackson) as "too black", he assembled a protest parade down Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles, California, consisting of 15 cheerleaders and a live elephant pulling a Volkswagen convertible. He was arrested after the elephant got scared and began to defecate in the street.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: In the later 1960s, he gradually turned to the burgeoning Bakersfield sound in country music. By 1967, he had relocated entirely to that city, where he ran a variety of businesses and founded the label Bakersfield International. He moved on to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1970, and in 1971, following his partner's suicide and his own long struggles with drugs and alcohol, he converted to Christianity. He turned his talents to gospel music, becoming part of the hippie countercultural Jesus movement, and worked in gospel ever since, while maintaining an interest in country. Paxton recorded many of his country and gospel albums under the "Rusty Dean" alias.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: On December 29, 1980, Paxton was shot three times by hitmen (allegedly) hired by Vern Gosdin, a country singer he was producing, putting him out of the music world for eight years and nearly ending his life. After the trial, he visited the men in prison and forgave them. Paxton left Nashville in 1999 and lived in Branson, Missouri, with his fourth wife, Vicki Sue Roberts. He suffered from hepatitis C and almost died from the disease in 1990. Paxton made it very clear that his name is Gary S. Paxton, not "Gary Paxton". in the 2000s, Paxton became associated with a number of performers working in Brandon, Missouri, including former members of Bill Haley and His Comets who, as The Comets, recorded a single produced by Paxton, who was credited as "Grandpa Rock".


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Paxton died at his home in Branson on July 17, 2016, at the age of 77 from complications of heart surgery and liver disease.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Beyond his early work as part of Skip & Flip, Paxton is best known for his involvement in two novelty hits: the 1960 No. 1 smash "Alley Oop" — written by Dallas Frazier and cut quickly with a group thrown together by Paxton's roommate Kim Fowley, the Hollywood Argyles — and a 1962 No. 1 hit inspired by the Mashed Potato dance craze, "Monster Mash", which Paxton produced and recorded with its author Bobby "Boris" Pickett and another assembled group billed as the Cryptkickers.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: In 1965, he produced "Sweet Pea", a hit for Tommy Roe, and engineered "Along Comes Mary", a hit for the Association, winning a Grammy nomination in engineering for his efforts. The following year, he engineered another hit for the Association, "Cherish", and another for Roe, "Hooray for Hazel". As Paxton moved toward the Bakersfield sound in the late 1960s, he scored his first country hit in 1967 with "Hangin' On" by the Gosdin Brothers.


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: In the wake of his conversion to Christianity, Paxton focused his efforts on gospel music. He still kept one foot in the world of secular country during the early 1970s — writing and producing "Woman (Sensuous Woman)" for Don Gibson (a Grammy nominee and a million-plus seller in three different versions) along with two other country-chart hits, and at one point signing with RCA Records as a solo country artist — but gospel was now his chief priority. In 1973 he wrote and produced "L-O-V-E" for the Blackwood Brothers, who took home the Grammy for Best Gospel Performance. In 1975, Paxton won the Best Inspirational Grammy for his album "The Astonishing, Outrageous, Amazing, Incredible, Unbelievable, Different World of Gary S. Paxton", which contained his oft-recorded devotional song "He Was There All the Time". Appearing on his gospel album covers in a halo of facial hair and a tall-top cowboy hat, Paxton infused his religious work with the same eccentricity, individuality, and hippie humor that had characterized his 60s material in Los Angeles: acting the role of the Jesus freak, likening himself to "an armpit in the body of Christ", and crafting song titles like "When the Meat Wagon Comes for You", "Will There Be Hippies in Heaven?", "I'm a Fool for Christ (Whose Fool Are You?)", and "Jesus Is My Lawyer in Heaven".


title: Gary S. Paxton

text: Paxton's gospel work was released through NewPax Records, another in his long series of labels, founded in 1975 as an outlet for his new ideas in songwriting and engineering. The label also released recordings by other Christian acts, including the Christian alternative rock band Daniel Amos, who released their albums "¡Alarma!" and "Doppelgänger" through the label in the early 1980s. NewPax was closely linked with Paragon Associates, with which it eventually merged. Paxton was inducted into the Country Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 1999 on the basis of his innovation and accomplishments in the field and his production and writing for numerous noted artists in the industry.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The African Great Lakes nation of Tanzania dates formally from 1964, when it was formed out of the union of the much larger mainland territory of Tanganyika and the coastal archipelago of Zanzibar. The former was a colony and part of German East Africa from the 1880s to 1919’s when, under the League of Nations, it became a British mandate. It served as a British military outpost during World War II, providing financial help, munitions, and soldiers. In 1947, Tanganyika became a United Nations Trust Territory under British administration, a status it kept until its independence in 1961. The island of Zanzibar thrived as a trading hub, successively controlled by the Portuguese, the Sultanate of Oman, and then as a British protectorate by the end of the nineteenth century.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Julius Nyerere, independence leader and "baba wa taifa" for Tanganyika (father of the Tanganyika nation), ruled the country for decades, while Abeid Amaan Karume, governed Zanzibar as its president and Vice President of the United Republic of Tanzania. Following Nyerere's retirement in 1985, various political and economic reforms began. He was succeeded in office by President Ali Hassan Mwinyi.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Tanzania is home to some of the oldest hominid settlements unearthed by archaeologists. Prehistoric stone tools and fossils have been found in and around Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania, an area often referred to as "The Cradle of Mankind". Acheulian stone tools were discovered there in 1931 by Louis Leakey, after he had correctly identified the rocks brought back by Hans Reck to Germany from his 1913 Olduvai expedition as stone tools. The same year, Louis Leakey found older, more primitive stone tools in Olduvai Gorge. These were the first examples of the oldest human technology ever discovered in Africa, and were subsequently known throughout the world as Oldowan after Olduvai Gorge.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The first hominid skull in Olduvai Gorge was discovered by Mary Leakey in 1959, and named Zinj or Nutcracker Man, the first example of "Paranthropus boisei", and is thought to be more than 1.8 million years old. Other finds including "Homo habilis" fossils were subsequently made. At nearby Laetoli the oldest known hominid footprints, the Laetoli footprints, were discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978, and estimated to be approximately 3.6 million years old and probably made by "Australopithecus afarensis". The oldest hominid fossils ever discovered in Tanzania also come from Laetoli and are the 3.6 to 3.8 million year old remains of "Australopithecus afarensis"—Louis Leakey had found what he thought was a baboon tooth at Laetoli in 1935 (which was not identified as afarensis until 1979), a fragment of hominid jaw with three teeth was found there by Kohl-Larsen in 1938–39, and in 1974–75 Mary Leakey recovered 42 teeth and several jawbones from the site.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Mumba Cave in northern Tanzania includes a Middle Stone Age (MSA) to Later Stone Age (LSA) archaeological sequence. The MSA represents the time period in Africa during which many archaeologists see the origins of modern human behavior.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Reaching back approximately 10,000 years in the Later Stone Age, Tanzania is believed to have been populated by hunter-gatherer communities, probably Khoisan-speaking people. Between approximately 4,000 to 3,000 years ago, during a time period known as the Pastoral Neolithic, pastoralists who relied on cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys came into Tanzania from the north. Two archaeological cultures are known from this time period, the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (whose peoples may have spoken a Southern Cushitic language) and the Elmenteitan (whose peoples may have spoken a Southern Nilotic language). Luxmanda is the largest and southernmost-known Pastoral Neolithic site in Tanzania.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Approximately 2000 years ago, Bantu-speaking people began to arrive from western Africa in a series of migrations collectively referred to as the Bantu expansion. These groups brought and developed ironworking skills, agriculture, and new ideas of social and political organization. They absorbed many of the Cushitic peoples who had preceded them, as well as most of the remaining Khoisan-speaking inhabitants. Later, Nilotic pastoralists arrived, and continued to immigrate into the area through to the eighteenth century.


title: History of Tanzania

text: One of Tanzania's most important Iron Age archeological sites is Engaruka in the Great Rift Valley, which includes an irrigation and cultivation system.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Travellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and Western India have visited the East African coast since early in the first millennium CE. Greek texts such as the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" and Ptolemy's Geography list a string of market places (emporia) along the coast. Finds of Roman-era coins along the coast confirm the existence of trade, and Ptolomey's Geography refers to a town of Rhapta as "metropolis" of a political entity called Azania. Archaeologists have not yet succeeded in identifying the location of Rhapta, although many believe it lies deeply buried in the silt of the delta of the Rufiji River. A long documentary silence follows these ancient texts, and it is not until Arab geographical treatises were written about the coast that our information resumes.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Remains of those towns' material culture demonstrate that they arose from indigenous roots, not from foreign settlement. And the language that was spoken in them, Swahili (now Tanzania's national language), is a member of the Bantu language family that spread from the northern Kenya coast well before significant Arab presence was felt in the region. By the beginning of the second millennium CE the Swahili towns conducted a thriving trade that linked Africans in the interior with trade partners throughout the Indian Ocean. From c. 1200 to 1500 CE, the town of Kilwa, on Tanzania's southern coast, was perhaps the wealthiest and most powerful of these towns, presiding over what some scholars consider the "golden age" of Swahili civilization. In the early 14th century, Ibn Battuta, a Berber traveller from North Africa, visited Kilwa and proclaimed it one of the best cities in the world. Islam was practised on the Swahili coast as early as the eighth or ninth century CE.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama became the first known European to reach the African Great Lakes coast; he stayed for 32 days. In 1505 the Portuguese captured the island of Zanzibar. Portuguese control lasted until the early eighteenth century, when Arabs from Oman established a foothold in the region. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area north of the Ruvuma River by the early eighteenth century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. He focused on the island and developed trade routes that stretched as far as Lake Tanganyika and Central Africa. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Indian Ocean slave trade. Due to the Arab and Persian domination at this later time, many Europeans misconstrued the nature of Swahili civilization as a product of Arab colonization. However, this misunderstanding has begun to dissipate over the past 40 years as Swahili civilization is becoming recognized as principally African in origin.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Tanganyika as a geographical and political entity did not take shape before the period of High Imperialism; its name only came into use after German East Africa was transferred to the United Kingdom as a mandate by the League of Nations in 1920. What is referred to here, therefore, is the history of the region that was to become Tanzania. A part of the Great Lakes region, namely the western shore of Lake Victoria consisted of many small kingdoms, most notably Karagwe and Buzinza, which were dominated by their more powerful neighbors Rwanda, Burundi, and Buganda.


title: History of Tanzania

text: European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. In 1848 the German missionary Johannes Rebmann became the first European to see Mount Kilimanjaro. British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke crossed the interior to Lake Tanganyika in June 1857. In January 1866, the Scottish explorer and missionary David Livingstone, who crusaded against the slave trade, went to Zanzibar, from where he sought the source of the Nile, and established his last mission at Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. After having lost contact with the outside world for years, he was "found" there on 10 November 1871. Henry Morton Stanley, who had been sent in a publicity stunt to find him by the New York Herald newspaper, greeted him with the now famous words "Dr Livingstone, I presume?" In 1877, the first of a series of Belgian expeditions arrived on Zanzibar. In the course of these expeditions, in 1879 a station was founded in Kigoma on the eastern bank of Lake Tanganyika, soon to be followed by the station of Mpala on the opposite western bank. Both stations were founded in the name of the Comite D'Etudes Du Haut Congo, a predecessor organization of the Congo Free State. German colonial interests were first advanced in 1884. Karl Peters, who formed the Society for German Colonization, concluded a series of treaties by which tribal chiefs ceded territory to the society. Prince Otto von Bismarck's government in 1885 granted imperial protection to the German East Africa Company established by Peters with Bismark's encouragement.


title: History of Tanzania

text: At the Berlin Conference of 1885, the fact that Kigoma had been established and supplied from Zanzibar and Bagamoyo led to the inclusion of German East Africa into the territory of the Conventional Basin of the Congo, to Belgium's advantage. At the table in Berlin, contrary to widespread perception, Africa was not partitioned; rather, rules were established among the colonial powers and prospective colonial powers as how to proceed in the establishment of colonies and protectorates. While the Belgian interest soon concentrated on the Congo River, the British and Germans focused on Eastern Africa and in 1886 partitioned continental East Africa between themselves; the Sultanate of Zanzibar, now reduced to the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, remained independent, for the moment. The Congo Free State was eventually to give up its claim on Kigoma (its oldest station in Central Africa) and on any territory to the east of Lake Tanganyika, to Germany.


title: History of Tanzania

text: All resistance to the Germans in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe—led by Chief Mkwawa—resisted German expansion, but were eventually defeated. After a period of guerrilla warfare, Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Widespread discontent re-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the Rufiji River. The tension reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the Matumbi of Nandete led by Kinjikitile Ngwale revolted against the local administrators (akida) and suddenly the revolt grew wider from Dar Es Salaam to the Uluguru Mountains, the Kilombero Valley, the Mahenge and Makonde plateaux, the Ruvuma in the southernmost part and Kilwa, Songea, Masasi, and from Kilosa to Iringa down to the eastern shores of Lake Nyasa. The resistance culminated in the Maji Maji Resistance of 1905–1907. The resistance, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes ended only after an estimated 300,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation. Research has shown that traditional hostilities played a large part in the resistance.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the missionaries who tried to destroy all signs of indigenous beliefs, notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshiped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at Uwereka in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen turned instantly into an all-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants. Known as the Maji-Maji war with the main brunt borne by the Ngoni people, this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in Tanganyika.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Before the outbreak of the war, German East Africa had been prepared to resist any attack that could be made without extensive preparation. For the first year of hostilities, the Germans were strong enough to conduct offensive operations in their neighbours' territories by, for example, repeatedly attacking railways in British East Africa. The strength of German forces at the beginning of the war is uncertain. Lieutenant-General Jan Smuts, the commander of British forces in east Africa beginning in 1916, estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 Askaris. The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of the German garrison). In addition, the indigenous population of over 7,000,000 formed a reservoir of manpower from which a force might be drawn, limited only by the supply of German officers and equipment. "There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the ... nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory."


title: History of Tanzania

text: The geography of German East Africa also was a severe impediment to British and allied forces. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by unhealthy swamps. The line of lakes and mountains to the west proved to be impenetrable. Belgian forces from the Belgian Congo had to be moved through Uganda. On the south, the Ruvuma River was fordable only its upper reaches. In the north, only one practicable pass about five miles wide existed between the Pare Mountains and Mount Kilimanjaro, and here the German forces had been digging in for eighteen months.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Germany commenced hostilities in 1914 by unsuccessfully attacking from the town of Tanga. The British then attacked the town in November 1914 but were thwarted by General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck's forces at the Battle of Tanga. The British Royal Navy occupied Mafia Island in January 1915. However, the "attack on Tanga and the numerous smaller engagements that followed [showed] the strength ... of [German forces] and made it evident that a powerful force must be organized before the conquest of [German East Africa] could be ... undertaken. Such an enterprise had ... to await more favourable conditions on European battlefields and elsewhere. But in July, 1915, the last German troops in S.W. Africa capitulated ... and the nucleus of the requisite force ... became available." British forces from the northeast and southwest and Belgian forces from the northwest steadily attacked and defeated German forces beginning in January 1916. In October 1916, General Smuts wrote, "With the exception of the Mahenge Plateau [the Germans] have lost every healthy or valuable part of their Colony".


title: History of Tanzania

text: Cut-off from Germany, General Von Lettow by necessity conducted a guerilla campaign throughout 1917, living off the land and dispersing over a wide area. In December, the remaining German forces evacuated the colony by crossing the Ruvuma River into Portuguese Mozambique. Those forces were estimated at 320 German troops and 2,500 Askaris. 1,618 Germans and 5,482 Askaris were killed or captured during the last six months of 1917. In November 1918, his remaining force surrendered near present-day Mbala, Zambia consisting of 155 Europeans, 1,165 Askaris, 2,294 African porters etc., and 819 African women.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany relinquished all her overseas possessions, including German East Africa. Britain lost 3,443 men in battle plus 6,558 men to disease. The equivalent numbers for Belgium were 683 and 1,300. Germany lost 734 Europeans and 1,798 Africans.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Von Lettow's scorched earth policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the Government's education system, though some mission schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Unlike the Belgian, British, French and Portuguese colonial masters in central Africa, Germany had developed an educational program for her Africans that involved elementary, secondary and vocational schools. "Instructor qualifications, curricula, textbooks, teaching materials, all met standards unmatched anywhere in tropical Africa." In 1924, ten years after the beginning of the First World War and six years into British rule, the visiting American Phelps-Stokes Commission reported: In regards to schools, the Germans have accomplished marvels. Some time must elapse before education attains the standard it had reached under the Germans. But by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue—less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The first British civilian administrator after the end of World War I was Sir Horace Archer Byatt CMG, appointed by Royal Commission on 31 January 1919. The colony was renamed Tanganyika Territory in January 1920. In September 1920 by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the initial boundaries of the territory, the Executive Council, and the offices of governor and commander-in-chief were established. The governor legislated by proclamation or ordinance until 1926.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Britain and Belgium signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi in 1924.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of 13 December 1946.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Governor Byatt took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule. He authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association, which in 1929 became the Tanganyika African Association and later constituted the core of the nationalist movement. Under the Native Authority Ordinances of 1923, limited powers were granted to certain recognized chiefs who could also exercise powers granted by local customary law.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Sir Donald Cameron became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925. "His work ... was of great significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional indigenous authorities." He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule, as evidenced by his "Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native Administration and their Application".


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1926, the Legislative Council was established with seven unofficial (including two Indians) and thirteen official members, whose function was to advise and consent to ordinances issued by the governor. In 1945, the first Africans were appointed to the council. The council was reconstituted in 1948 under Governor Edward Twining, with 15 unofficial members (7 Europeans, 4 Africans, and 4 Indians) and 14 official members. Julius Nyerere became one of the unofficial members in 1954. The council was again reconstituted in 1955 with 44 unofficial members (10 Europeans, 10 Africans, 10 Indians, and 14 government representatives) and 17 official members.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Governor Cameron in 1929 enacted the Native Courts Ordinance No. 5, which removed those courts from the jurisdiction of the colonial courts and provided for a system of appeals with final resort to the governor himself.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1928, the Tabora to Mwanza railway line was opened to traffic. The line from Moshi to Arusha opened in 1930.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1931 a census established the population of Tanganyika at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the Tsetse fly (a carrier of sleeping sickness), and to fight malaria and bilharziasis; more hospitals were built.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1926, the colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only US$290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of purchasing power parity.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika, Freddie Smith, was in charge, and David Gordon Hines was the accountant responsible for the finances. The scheme had on the Ardai plains just outside Arusha; on Mount Kilimanjaro; and towards Ngorongoro to the west. All the machinery was lend/lease from the US, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs, and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering managers. Most of the workers were Italian prisoners of war from Somalia and Ethiopia: excellent, skilled engineers and mechanics. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Two days after Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the United Kingdom declared war and the British forces in Tanganyika were ordered to intern the German males living in Tanganyika. The British government feared that these Axis country citizens would attempt to help the Axis forces and some of the Germans living in Dar es Salaam did attempt to flee the country but were stopped and later interned by Roald Dahl and a small group of Tanganyikan soldiers of the King's African Rifles.


title: History of Tanzania

text: During the war about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the Allied forces. and were part of the 375,000 British colonial troops who fought against the Axis forces. Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles and fought in the East African Campaign in Somalia and Abyssinia against the Italians, in Madagascar against the Vichy French during the Madagascar Campaign, and in Burma against the Japanese during the Burma Campaign. Tanganyika became an important source of food and Tanganyika's export income greatly increased from the pre-war years of the Great Depression. However, despite the additional income, the war caused inflation within the country.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1947, Tanganyika became a United Nations trust territory under British control. "Its geography, topography, climate, geopolitics, patterns of settlement and history made Tanganyika the most significant of all UN Trust Territories." But two-thirds of the population lived in one-tenth of the territory because of water shortages, soil erosion, unreliable rainfall, tsetse fly infestations, and poor communications and transportation infrastructures.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1957, only 15 towns had more than 5,000 inhabitants, with the capital Dar es Salaam having the nation's highest population of 128,742. Tanganyika was a multi-racial territory, which made it unique in the trusteeship world. Its total non-African population in 1957 was 123,310 divided as follows: 95,636 Asians and Arabs (subdivided as 65,461 Indians, 6,299 Pakistanis, 4,776 Goans, and 19,100 Arabs), 3,114 Somalis, and 3,782 "coloured" and "other" individuals. The white population, which included the Europeans (British, Italians, Greeks, and Germans) and white South Africans, totalled 20,598 individuals. Tanganyika's ethnic and economic make-up posed problems for the British. Their policy was geared to ensuring the continuance of the European presence as necessary to support the country's economy. But the British also had to remain responsive to the political demands of the Africans.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Many Africans were government servants, business employees, labourers, and producers of important cash crops during this period. But the vast majority were subsistence farmers who produced barely enough to survive. The standards of housing, clothing, and other social conditions were "equally quite poor." The Asians and Arabs were the middle class and tended to be wholesale and retail traders. The white population were missionaries, professional and government servants, and owners and managers of farms, plantations, mines, and other businesses. "White farms were of primary importance as producers of exportable agricultural crops."


title: History of Tanzania

text: Britain, through its colonial officer David Gordon Hines, encouraged the development of farming co-operatives to help convert subsistence farmers to cash husbandry. The subsistence farmers sold their produce to Indian traders at poor prices. By the early 1950s, there were over 400 co-operatives nationally. Co-operatives formed "unions" for their areas and developed cotton ginneries, coffee factories, and tobacco dryers. A major success for Tanzania was the Moshi coffee auctions that attracted international buyers after the annual Nairobi auctions.


title: History of Tanzania

text: After Tanganyika became a UN trust territory, the British felt extra pressure for political progress. The British principle of "gradualism" was increasingly threatened and was abandoned entirely during the last few years before independence. Five UN missions visited Tanganyika, the UN received several hundred written petitions, and a handful of oral presentations made it to the debating chambers in New York City between 1948 and 1960. The UN and the Africans who used the UN to achieve their purposes were very influential in driving Tanganyika towards independence. The Africans attended public gatherings in Tanganyika with UN representatives. There were peasants, urban workers, government employees, and local chiefs and nobles who personally approached the UN about local matters needing immediate action. And finally, there were Africans at the core of the political process who had the power to mould the future. Their goal was political advancement for Africans, with many supporting the nationalist movement, which had its roots in the African Association (AA). It was formed in 1929 as a social organization for African government servants in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. The AA was renamed the Tanganyika African Association (TAA) in 1948 and ceased being concerned with events in Zanzibar.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Beginning in 1954, African nationalism centered on the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), which was a political organization formed by Julius Nyerere in that year as the successor to the TAA. The TANU won the Legislative Council elections in 1958, 1959, and 1960, with Nyerere becoming chief minister after the 1960 election. Internal self-government started on 1 May 1961 followed by independence on 9 December 1961.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Zanzibar today refers to the island of that name, also known as Unguja, and the neighboring island of Pemba. Both islands fell under Portuguese domination in the 16th and early 17th centuries but were retaken by Omani Arabs in the early 18th century. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid Said, who moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, established a ruling Arab elite, and encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's slave labor. Zanzibar and Pemba were world-famous for their trade in spices and became known as the Spice Islands; in the early 20th century, they produced approximately 90% of the world's supply of cloves. Zanzibar was also a major transit point in the African Great Lakes and Indian Ocean slave trade. Zanzibar attracted ships from as far away as the United States, which established a consulate in 1833. The United Kingdom's early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade. In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally prohibited. The Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty of 1890 made Zanzibar and Pemba a British protectorate, and the Caprivi Strip in Namibia became a German protectorate. British rule through a Sultan remained largely unchanged from the late 19th century until 1957, when elections were held for a largely advisory Legislative Council.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1954, Julius Nyerere, a school teacher who was then one of only two Tanganyikans educated to university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). On 9 December 1961, Tanganyika became independent, though retaining the British monarch as Queen of Tanganyika, and Nyerere became Prime Minister, under a new constitution. On 9 December 1962, a republican constitution was implemented with "Mwalimu" Julius Kambarage Nyerere as Tanganyika's first president.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on 10 December 1963, as a constitutional monarchy under its Sultan. On 12 January 1964, the African majority revolted against the sultan and a new government was formed with the ASP leader, Abeid Karume, as President of Zanzibar and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. In the first few days of what would come to be known as the Zanzibar Revolution, between 5,000 and 15,000 Arabs and Indians were murdered. During a series of riots, followers of the radical John Okello carried out thousands of rapes and destroyed homes and other property. Within a few weeks, a fifth of the population had died or fled.


title: History of Tanzania

text: It was at this time that the Tanganyika army revolted and Britain was asked by Julius Nyerere to send in troops. Royal Marines Commandos were sent by air from England via Nairobi and 40 Commando came ashore from the aircraft carrier HMS Bulwark. Several months were spent with Commandos touring the country disarming military outposts. When the successful operation ended, the Royal Marines left to be replaced by Canadian troops.


title: History of Tanzania

text: On 26 April 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on 29 October of that year. The name Tanzania is a blend of "Tanganyika" and "Zanzibar" and previously had no significance. Under the terms of this union, the Zanzibar Government retains considerable local autonomy.


title: History of Tanzania

text: To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union, Julius Nyerere merged TANU with the Zanzibar ruling party, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the CCM (Chama cha Mapinduzi-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a nation with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a one party system. In a post-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics' (Locatelli & Nugent, 2009: 252). To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established Kiswahili as the national language.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Nyerere introduced African socialism, or "Ujamaa", literal meaning 'family-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy" (Myers, 2011: 44)


title: History of Tanzania

text: Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved in everything from retailing to import-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption. Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy. Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use. Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable. A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali. A foundation for systemic corruption had been laid. Officials became widely known as Wabenzi ("people of the Benz"). By mid-1979, corruption had reached epidemic proportions as the economy collapsed.


title: History of Tanzania

text: Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom and Germany. In 1979 Tanzania declared war on Uganda after the Soviet-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, 1979, the Ugandan president Idi Amin was forced to leave the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda-Tanzania War. The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In October 1985, Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 1990, a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage. Their demands were neglected.


title: History of Tanzania

text: However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities and its candidate Benjamin William Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of Tanzania in the country's ever multi-party election on 23 November 1995. Contested elections in late 2000 led to a massacre in Zanzibar in January 2001, with the government shooting into crowds of protesters, killing 35 and injuring 600. In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete was elected the fourth president for a five-year term.


title: History of Tanzania

text: One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar Es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian Ocean caused tsunamis along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar Es Salaam harbour, damaging an oil pipeline.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In 2015, after the ten-year term of president Jakaya Kikwete, the presidential election was won by John Magufuli . In October 2020, president Magufoli was re-elected in the election full of fraud and irregularities according to the opposition. Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) has held power since independence in 1961. It is the longest-serving ruling party in Africa. Every president of Tanzania has represented the party. According to Human Rights Watch since the election of President John Magufuli in December 2015, Tanzania has witnessed a marked decline in respect for free expression, association and assembly.


title: History of Tanzania

text: On 19 March 2021, Vice President Samia Suluhu Hassan became the new president after the sudden death of President John Magufuli. She was the first female President of Tanzania.


title: History of Tanzania

text: In February 2021, Polish archaeologists from Jagiellonian University announced the discovery of ancient rock art with anthropomorphic figures in a good condition at the Amak’hee 4 rockshelter site in Swaga Swaga Game Reserve in Tanzania.


title: History of Tanzania

text: The paintings found at the rock shelter were made with a reddish dye and included buffalo heads, a giraffe head and neck, and domesticated cattle. They have been dated back to approximately several hundred years ago. Archaeologists estimated that these paintings may describe a ritual of the Sandawe people, although their present religion does not contain elements of anthropomorphization of buffaloes.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Jörn Weisbrodt (born 26 January 1973) is a German arts administrator and former artistic director of the Luminato Festival, Toronto's annual Festival of Arts and Creativity. He is currently the artistic director of ALL ARTS, a streaming platform and broadcast channel from WNET.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Weisbrodt was born in Hamburg and studied opera direction at the Hanns Eisler Music Conservatory in Berlin, graduating in 2000. While still a student, he worked closely with directors Ruth Berghaus, Heiner Müller, Peter Stein, Peter Konwitschny and Robert Wilson. He became Wilson's personal assistant and also interned at The Watermill Center, Wilson's Performance Laboratory in Long Island, New York. It was here that Weisbrodt decided he would rather be an arts facilitator—"I realized that I wasn't an artist, I was an enabler of artists".


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: After his graduation, Weisbrodt worked for management consulting firm McKinsey & Company and held a number of positions in Germany, including Assistant Director at Deutsches Theater, co-founder of Zwischenpalastnutzung and Artistic Production Director at the Berlin State Opera.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: In 2006, Weisbrodt moved to the United States to become Executive Director of Robert Wilson's company RW Work Ltd. and Director of the Watermill Center. At Watermill he was responsible for developing inter-disciplinary performances and installations and establishing new partnerships with, among others, the Guggenheim Museum, the Baryshnikov Arts Center, Moscow Biennale, Kampnagel Hamburg, the Donaufestival, the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, the Purnati Center for the Arts in Indonesia and Columbia University. He also oversaw the launch of a residency for emerging international artists.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Weisbrodt has an international reputation for collaborating with some of the world's leading arts organizations, including La Scala in Milan, the Spoleto Festival, the Barbican Centre in London, the Bolshoi Theatre, the Lincoln Center Festival, the Salzburg Festival and the Manchester International Festival.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: In 2018, Weisbrodt was appointed Artistic Director of ALL ARTS, WNET's new streaming platform and broadcast channel.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Weisbrodt first collaborated with Luminato to host the North American premiere of Rufus Wainwright's opera "Prima Donna" (2010) and the revival of Robert Wilson's production of Philip Glass' opera "Einstein on the Beach" (2012). He was the Festival's Artistic Director from January 2012 to July 2016.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Luminato has encompassed all creative fields from music to theatre, dance, literature, visual arts, film, magic and food. Weisbrodt's vision for the Festival was to create connections between the disciplines and promote collaborations between artists from different fields. He stated, "I don't think a festival today should just invite productions from the international or national touring circuit; it should encourage artists to create something new." He also stressed the importance of pre-performance talks, artist interviews and community outreach in order to better engage a modern audience.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Luminato's program of events during Weisbrodt's appointment included the North American premiere of Robert Lepage's "Playing Cards: SPADES", Joni Mitchell's 70th birthday tribute concert "A Portrait in Song", the North American premiere of Robert Wilson's "The Life and Death of Marina Abramović" and the world premiere of "Marina Abramović Institute—Prototype", the world premiere of Ronnie Burkett's "Daisy Theatre", Pina Bausch's "Kontakthof" by Tanztheater Wuppertal, a retrospective of avant-garde artist Matthew Barney, the world premiere of Kid Koala's "Nufonia Must Fall", the world premieres of Terence Koh's "tomorrow's snow" and "a way to the light", the Canadian premiere of "Paradisiacal Rites" by Saint Genet and the world premiere of "".


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Weisbrodt believed that Toronto was on the verge of becoming a city of global and cultural importance and that the Festival could attract artists to live and work in it—"I would love to be [...] part of making something really extraordinary here," he said.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Weisbrodt married his partner, singer-songwriter and composer Rufus Wainwright, in Montauk, Long Island, in August 2012. They have a daughter, in a "parenting partnership" with friend Lorca Cohen, daughter of Leonard Cohen.


title: Jörn Weisbrodt

text: Maciàn, J. E., Stoker, S. J., & Weisbrodt, J., eds., "The Watermill Center—A Laboratory for Performance: Robert Wilson's Legacy" (Stuttgart: Daco Verlag, 2012).


title: Microchip (comics)

text: David Linus "Microchip" Lieberman (often known as Micro) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He was an ally of The Punisher for many years and assisted the Punisher by building weapons, supplying technology, hacking into computers, and providing friendship. Microchip gradually evolved from the Punisher's friend to a bitter enemy after their final falling out.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Micro was portrayed by Wayne Knight in 2008's "" and by Ebon Moss-Bachrach in the television adaption of the first season set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Microchip first appeared in "The Punisher" vol. 2 #4 (Nov. 1987) and was created by Mike Baron and Klaus Janson.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: David Linus "Microchip" Lieberman was a legendary computer hacker in the early days of the Internet, performing numerous scams and hacks still held in awe by his peers, until one scam brought him too close to real-world criminals and he was forced into "retirement", rebuilding his life as a quiet, unassuming businessman. This ended when his nephew, attempting to follow in his favorite uncle's footsteps, was caught and killed after accidentally hacking into the private computers of the Kingpin. While personally investigating his nephew's murder, Lieberman met and started collaborating with the Punisher. Microchip's help proved invaluable to Castle: he served not just as a hacker and cyber-investigator, but provided him with invaluable services, such as managing and laundering his finances (i.e., the money Castle takes from the criminals he kills), establishing and maintaining Castle's safehouses, helping Castle train in more "specialized" skills for his war on crime, and obtaining hard-to-get ammunition and equipment. Less obsessed with Castle's personal war, Microchip also acts as a de facto counselor to Castle (e.g., encouraging Castle to take occasional vacations and breaks, to avoid burn-out or losing his mind).


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Over time, more of his past history is revealed. His father had been forced to create weapons against his will years before Micro was born; in the same issue he mentions his sister is a happy housewife in Ft. Lauderdale. Micro has an illegitimate son named Louis Frohike, who winds up getting killed while trying to assist the Punisher in a hostage exchange.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Micro is capable of fighting on his own such as when he took on an assassination ring threatening his godson's family. He also takes on less violent crime, such as when he discovered his new neighbor was being scammed by a "charity". He takes down the scammers from within, not by violence but by stealing incriminating records and sending them to fans of yodeling music so they can be publicized while keeping his involvement secret.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Outside of crime, some plots have revolved around Leiberman's weight. In one instance, he attempted to take a break and better control his health by enrolling in a rural camp for overweight people, which claimed to offer a revolutionary weight-loss drug to participants. However, he is once again drawn back into crime-fighting and seeking Castle's aid when he realizes the camp is a front for an amphetamines ring, and that the "weight-loss" drug was in fact intended to turn the camp's attendees into addicts.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: One issue that dealt primarily with Micro was when Castle massacres a street gang running drugs, but a dealer named Jamal Jones survives. Micro warns Frank that Jones is hospitalized under heavy police protection and takes it upon himself to infiltrate the hospital through different disguises, first dressing as a telephone lineman and then a reporter under the pseudonym Linus Schultz (a likely reference to Charles M. Schulz and his famous character Linus van Pelt), so he could contact Jones with a message that the Punisher wants the name of his drug connection or he'll come back to finish the job. A slight insight to his wish to have a life outside of crime-fighting occurs when Micro thinks to himself about a brief meeting with a nurse and how even a casual encounter with a woman causes him to recognize that he spends "too much time with Frank and his 'war'".


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Micro loses his left pinky finger when the Kingpin sends it to Castle after kidnapping his partner and threatening to use his knowledge of the Punisher's crimes to expose him. He is released from the Kingpin's custody when the Punisher agrees to kill one of the boss's rivals.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: The Punisher's 1992 spin-off entitled "The Punisher War Zone", written by Chuck Dixon and penciled by John Romita, Jr., provided further development for Micro. The first issues describe his growing disillusionment with the Punisher's crusade, with Micro going so far as to see a psychiatrist and take up acting in an attempt to deal with his frustration. After Castle discovers this, the two have a disagreement and Micro goes into hiding, working as a barman.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Micro develops a friendship with Mickey Fondozzi, a repentant Mafia soldier whom Frank recruits to his side. The two work on operations together, such as infiltrating the Secret Empire, a multi-faceted criminal organization. After the Punisher is seemingly killed in a failed ambush of an underworld meeting, the two find themselves literally on the street, their vehicle surrounded by police. When Micro refuses to help Mickey blast his way through the cops to escape, the latter abandons him.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Ultimately, Castle and Micro have one final fallout just before the cancellation of all three major Punisher titles in 1995. This fight comes to an end in the closing issues of "The Punisher War Journal". Micro disagrees with Castle's increasingly violent methods, feeling that Castle has lost sight of their original goals and has gone too far for even him to tolerate. He decides to recruit a new "Punisher" to replace Castle, former Navy SEAL Carlos Cruz. Micro and Castle come face to face in one of Micro's safehouses in what appears to be a final confrontation. A gun battle ensues between the two former partners. This battle is interrupted by rogue S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Derek "Stone Cold" Smalls, who had been part of a program to take down vigilantes like Castle before becoming a vigilante himself. Smalls fires a rocket into the safe house, apparently killing Micro. Castle moves on, unsure if he would have really slain his old friend himself.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: In the "Civil War Files" comic, just before the "Civil War" storyline was published, Iron Man talked about events in the Punisher's past from the Marvel Knights and MAX comics, which indicated that it did happen in the mainstream Marvel Universe at some point, meaning that Punisher killing Micro in the MAX series is also considered canonical to Earth-616.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: During the 2008 - 09 "Dark Reign" storyline, Hood brings Microchip back from the dead and offers to bring his son back to life if he helps in dealing with the Punisher. Microchip sends Megatak to attack the Punisher's new hacker ally, Henry. To start off Hood's revival ritual of Castle's and Microchip's family, Microchip shoots G.W. Bridge in the head. Unfortunately, the Punisher refuses to help and threatens to use Firebrand to burn them alive. The death of Bridge succeeds in reanimating the corpses, but the Punisher, believing that his family is not actually present, forces Firebrand to destroy the bodies, then kills the villain.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: In the "" mini-series, the Punisher returns to New York City and vows to find Micro and make him pay for murdering G.W. Bridge. Micro is shown being knocked unconscious by Jigsaw. While being held captive in Jigsaw's warehouse hideout, he is visited by Stuart Clarke, an old ally of the Punisher. Stuart explains that his girlfriend died at the Punisher's hand and that he swore to make him pay only to see his revenge failed. Stuart walks away warning Micro that the Punisher is coming. When the Punisher is captured, Jigsaw allows him to kill Micro by slashing his throat. Jigsaw's son Henry Russo learns his father was manipulating the Punisher and helps him to escape.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Microchip accompanies the Punisher to Riverdale in "Archie Meets the Punisher", and to Gotham City in "Punisher and Batman"; in the latter, he is narrowly bested by Robin in a "hacking duel".


title: Microchip (comics)

text: In the Punisher: MAX universe, Microchip has been presumed dead for some time. However, he returns to attempt to pressure Castle into working for the CIA's black ops unit to participate in the hunt for terrorists. The Punisher declines, as he prefers his autonomy to indentured service to an institution such as the government. Microchip confesses to Castle that the source of funding for the operation came from the CIA funneling arms and heroin out of Afghanistan. Castle gives Micro a chance he has not given his victims since before he officially assumed the role of the Punisher: the chance to run. Microchip declines, obligated to help Castle in a CIA/Mafia firefight. Taking a possibly mortal injury in the fight, Micro attempts to humanize Castle again, only to be met with a point-blank shotgun round to the head.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Microchip, here a former member of the United States Air Force who was "kicked out" after Doctor Octopus ripped his legs off, is partnered with the Punisher by Kesselring, a superhuman-hating multi-millionaire who has convinced the Punisher to kill all the world's heroes and villains. Before going after his last target Daredevil, the Punisher tells Microchip "Last kill, Micro. You get some distance. Don't look back. You've got any sense, you'll find something else to do with that brain of yours. Something worth a damn." Microchip's response is a deadpan "Are you telling me to get a life?"


title: Microchip (comics)

text: Microchip's equivalent is Chip, a robot the Punisher built to aid him in his vendetta against the Six-Fingered Hand. When the Punisher confronts a group of renegade Watchers, the true leaders of the Six-Fingered Hand, the entities destroy Chip. Though the Punisher is able to escape with his companion's severed head, the face of which he is revealed to have modeled after his murdered son's.


title: Microchip (comics)

text: The events of "What If?: Age of Ultron" caused one universe's Thor to drop dead while fighting the Midgard Serpent, which slaughtered the rest of that world's superpowered humans with the assistance of other Asgardian monsters. Microchip appears as a member of Nick Fury's Defenders, a group consisting of Earth's remaining non-powered heroes who are holed up in Latveria's Castle Doom. After filling a Quinjet with everything from the late Doctor Doom's armory, Microchip and the other Defenders, sans Fury and Black Widow, sacrifice themselves in a kamikaze attack against the Midgard Serpent, giving Black Widow the opportunity to acquire Mjolnir, become the new Thor, and kill the Serpent. Microchip and the others who died in this battle are later honored with individualized statues.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: Kellie Suzanne Waymire (July 27, 1967 – November 13, 2003) was an American stage, television, and film actress. She was known for her television roles on "Six Feet Under", "Friends", and "".


title: Kellie Waymire

text: Waymire was born in Columbus, Ohio to Jack and Vickie Waymire. She had two siblings, Tony and Rebecca. The family moved frequently, living in Lake Tahoe, Nevada; Denver, Colorado; Tampa, Florida; and Houston, Texas. In Houston, Waymire attended Lamar High School where she became interested in acting and was the drama club's president. She then attended Southern Methodist University where she won the Greer Garson Award.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: Waymire completed a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Theater at SMU, and earned a Master of Fine Arts from the University of California, San Diego in 1993.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: After graduating from college, Waymire moved to New York City. She began her television career in the role of "Emily" on the soap opera "One Life to Live" in 1993.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: In 1997, she moved to Los Angeles and continued her career in a number of primetime television shows, including "The Practice", "Judging Amy", "The X-Files", "Wolf Lake", "", "NYPD Blue", and "Yes Dear".


title: Kellie Waymire

text: Waymire was predominantly cast in offbeat or humorous roles. Two of her highest-profile roles were recurring ones on "Six Feet Under," where she played Melissa, a prostitute; and on ", as" Crewman Elizabeth Cutler. She had previously portrayed the role of Lanya in "" in the episode "". She guest-starred in the Season 9 "Seinfeld" episode "The Blood", as a sickly mother who wants someone to take care of her son in the event of her death.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: It was canceled after four weeks. Among her final onscreen roles were guest spots on "Friends" (in the episode "The One Where Ross Is Fine", aired a month before her death), "Everwood", and "Wonderfalls", the last two of which aired after her death. The latter was dedicated to her memory. She appeared in a number of feature films, including a role as Jane in the comedy-drama "Playing by Heart" (1998).


title: Kellie Waymire

text: In addition to her film and television work, Waymire was active in regional theater around the United States. She played the lead in A.R. Gurney's play "Sylvia" at San Diego's Old Globe Theatre in 1996. She appeared in a revival of the Noël Coward play "Present Laughter" at the Pasadena Playhouse in 1998, and in many other stage productions across the country. At the time of her death, she was starring as Anne in the stage adaptation of "Kate Crackernuts" at the 24th Street Theatre in Los Angeles.


title: Kellie Waymire

text: On November 13, 2003, Waymire died in her home in Venice, Los Angeles, California of cardiac arrest caused by an undiagnosed cardiac arrhythmia, likely related to mitral valve prolapse, a condition with which she had been diagnosed as a teenager. Her funeral was held on November 23, 2003, in West Milton, Ohio.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: The 1958 Formula One season was the 12th season of Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1958 World Championship of Drivers, which commenced on 19 January 1958 and ended on 19 October after eleven races. This was the first Formula One season in which a manufacturers title was awarded, the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers being contested concurrently with the World Championship of Drivers except the Indianapolis 500 which did not count towards the Cup. Englishman Mike Hawthorn won the Drivers' title after a close battle with compatriot Stirling Moss and Vanwall won the inaugural Manufacturers award from Ferrari. Hawthorn retired from racing at the end of the season, only to die three months later after a road car accident. It was the first of only two occasions in Formula One history where a driver won the championship, having won only one race in the season, the other being Keke Rosberg in .


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: The season was one of the most important and tragic seasons in Formula One's history. Four drivers died in four different races during this season. Italian Luigi Musso in his works Ferrari during the French Grand Prix at Reims; Musso's teammate, Englishman Peter Collins during the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring, Englishman Stuart Lewis-Evans in his Vanwall at the Moroccan Grand Prix in Casablanca, and in a non-Formula One race, American Pat O'Connor at the Indianapolis 500. Hawthorn retired from motor racing after his success but was killed in a road accident only a few months later. This season was also effectively the last year of Grand Prix racing where the field was dominated by front-engined cars; this had been the case since the early 1900s when car racing was happening in informal events across Europe and the United States. The 1959 and 1960 seasons would be transitional years, where grids at Grand Prix events would feature more and more mid-engined cars and fewer front-engined cars. The mid-engined cars, with their better road holding, increased driving comfort, lighter weight, and ease on tires and mechanical components (particularly brakes), were the way to go. Even an old-fashioned traditionalist like Enzo Ferrari had to concede that mid-engined cars were what his team needed to be competitive, and Ferrari did not have a race-ready mid-engined car until 1961.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Although the engine formula remained the same, minimum race lengths were reduced to or two hours (whichever came first), and the use of commercial petrol became compulsory in place of specialized alcohol-based racing fuels. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers was awarded for the first time, but Ferrari's Mike Hawthorn won the Drivers' Championship from Stirling Moss, despite the latter having won four of the ten grand prix to Hawthorn's one.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Rear-engined Cooper-Climaxes, entered by the private owner Rob Walker, won two early-season races through Moss and Maurice Trintignant.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Following the Portuguese Grand Prix, Hawthorn faced a penalty, but Moss sportingly spoke up for him, and the points that Hawthorn was able to keep subsequently enabled him to edge ahead of Moss for the title.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Moss's teammate at Vanwall, Tony Brooks, also won three races. His success in the Italian race, overtaking Hawthorn after Moss had retired, ensured the title went to the final round in Morocco. Moss needed to win, with a fastest lap and Hawthorn third or lower to win the title. With Moss leading, Brooks and teammate Stuart Lewis-Evans attempted to hold Hawthorn in third. However, both their engines failed – Lewis-Evans's tragically resulting in severe burns from which he did not recover. Hawthorn finished second to win his first title by a single point. Vanwall won the inaugural Constructors' competition.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Hawthorn's death early in 1959 compounded a tragic season for Formula One, with four drivers killed or fatally injured on the track. Luigi Musso died in the French Grand Prix, Peter Collins a month later in the German Grand Prix – just two weeks after winning his home race, Lewis-Evans died in hospital following his fire in Morocco, and Pat O'Connor died at the Indianapolis 500 (which, at the time, was a round of the World Championship).


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Maria Teresa de Filippis became the first woman to drive in a race counting towards the World Championship of Drivers. Reigning five-time World Champion Juan Manuel Fangio, the dominant driver of the 1950s and one of the greatest of all time, competed in only two races as a privateer, retiring after the French Grand Prix.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: Points were awarded to the first five finishers at each race on an 8–6–4–3–2 basis. An additional point was awarded to the driver setting the fastest race lap. The best six results from the eleven races were retained.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: The 1958 International Cup for F1 Manufacturers was contested over the same series of races as the World Championship of Drivers, except the Indianapolis 500, which counted only towards the Drivers' title. Points were awarded to the first five finishers at each race on an 8–6–4–3–2 basis. However, a manufacturer only received points for its highest-placed car, and only the best six results from the ten races were retained.


title: 1958 Formula One season

text: The following races were contested by Formula One cars but did not count towards the World Championship of Drivers or the International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The United Baltic Duchy (, , ), or alternatively the Grand Duchy of Livonia, was the name proposed during World War I by leaders of the local Baltic German nobility for a new monarchical state, but it never came into existence. The unsuccessful attempt to establish a new German client state on the territory of what is now Latvia and Estonia was made in 1918, during the German occupation of the former Courland, Livonian and Estonian governorates of the Russian Empire which had ceased to exist after the Bolshevik coup in 1917. The unsuccessful proclamation of a pro-German duchy was first made in April 1918, after the Republic of Estonia had already formally declared full independence.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The proposed ideas for the new state included the creation of a Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and of a Duchy of Estonia and Livonia, which would be in personal union with the Kingdom of Prussia.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: During World War I, the German Imperial Army had occupied the Courland Governorate of the Russian Empire by the autumn of 1915. The front stabilised along the Riga–Daugavpils–Baranovichi Line.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: After the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia, the Russian Provisional Government declared the establishment of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia on , which amalgamated the former Russian Governorate of Estonia and the northern portion of the Governorate of Livonia. After the October Revolution later that year, the elected Estonian Provincial Assembly declared itself the sovereign power in Estonia on 28 November 1917. On 24 February 1918, a day before the arrival of German troops, the Estonian Salvation Committee of the Provincial Assembly issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence. The Western Allies recognised the Republic of Estonia "de facto" in May 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The term 'Grand Duchy of Livonia' refers to the Livonia region, which made up most of the proposed United Baltic Duchy.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The Latvian Provisional National Council was constituted on the basis of the law of self-government, which the Russian Provisional Government granted to Latvia on 5 July 1917. The Latvian Provisional National Council first met on 16 November 1917 in Valka. On 30 November, the Council declared an autonomous Latvian province within ethnographic boundaries, and a formal independent Latvian republic was declared on 15 January 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: In early 1918, German troops started advancing from Courland, and by the end of February 1918, the German military administered the territories of Estonia that had declared independence and the Russian Governorate of Livonia. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918, Soviet Russia accepted the loss of the Courland Governorate and, in agreements concluded in Berlin on 27 August 1918, the loss of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia and the Governorate of Livonia.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: As a parallel political movement under the German military administration, Baltic Germans began forming provincial councils between September 1917 and March 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: On 8 March 1918, the local Baltic German-dominated ' declared the restoration of Duchy of Courland ('), which was formally recognised by Kaiser Wilhelm on 15 March 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: On 12 April 1918, a Provincial Assembly ("), composed of 35 Baltic Germans, 13 Estonians, and 11 Latvians, passed a resolution calling upon the German Emperor to recognise the Baltic provinces as a monarchy and to make them a German protectorate.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The United Baltic Duchy was nominally recognised as a sovereign state by Wilhelm II only on 22 September 1918, half a year after Soviet Russia had formally relinquished all authority over former Russian Imperial Baltic governorates to Germany in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On 5 November 1918, a temporary Regency Council (") for the new state, led by Baron Adolf Pilar von Pilchau, was formed on a joint basis from both local Land Councils.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The new state was to have its capital in Riga and was to be a confederation of seven cantons: ' (Courland), Riga, ' (Latgale), ' (South Livonia), ' (North Livonia), ' (Saaremaa) and ' (Estonia), the first four cantons correspondings to today's Latvia and the last three corresponding to today's Estonia.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The first head of state of the United Baltic Duchy was to be Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg, not as a sovereign monarch, but as a subordinate to the German , similar to other princes of the German Empire. However, Adolf Friedrich never assumed office. The appointed Regency Council, consisting of four Baltic Germans, three Estonians and three Latvians, functioned until 28 November 1918 without any international recognition except from Germany.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: In October 1918, the Chancellor of Germany, Prince Maximilian of Baden, proposed to have the military administration in the Baltic replaced by civilian authority. The new policy was stated in a telegram from the German Foreign Office to the military administration of the Baltic: "The government of the Reich is unanimous in respect of the fundamental change in our policy towards the Baltic countries, namely that in the first instance policy is to be made with the Baltic peoples".


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: On 18 November 1918, Latvia proclaimed its independence. August Winnig, the last representative of the German government, signed an agreement with representatives of the Estonian Provisional Government on handing over power in Estonian territory on 19 November. In Latvia, the Germans formally handed over authority to the Latvian national government, headed by on 7 December 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The ' was formed in 1919 largely by the leaders of the local Livonian and Curonian nobility, who had been the proponents of the United Baltic Duchy in 1918.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: The defeat of Germany in World War I in November 1918, followed by the defeat in 1919 of the ' and German ' units of General in Latvia by the 3rd Estonian Division and the North Latvian Brigade, rendered any ideas for the creation of the United Baltic Duchy irrelevant.


title: United Baltic Duchy

text: To ensure its return to Latvian control, the ' was placed under British authority. After taking command of the ' in mid-July 1919, Lieutenant Colonel Harold Alexander, the future Alexander of Tunis, gradually dismissed the Baltic German elements. The Baltic nations of Estonia and Latvia were established as republics.


title: Windscreen wiper

text: A windscreen wiper, windshield wiper, wiper blade (American English), or simply wiper, is a device used to remove rain, snow, ice, washer fluid, water, or debris from a vehicle's front window. Almost all motor vehicles, including cars, trucks, buses, train locomotives, and watercraft with a cabin—and some aircraft—are equipped with one or more such wipers, which are usually a legal requirement.


title: Windscreen wiper

text: A wiper generally consists of a metal arm; one end pivots, and the other end has a long rubber blade attached to it. The arm is powered by a motor, often an electric motor, although pneumatic power is also used for some vehicles. The blade is swung back and forth over the glass, pushing water, other precipitation, or any other impediments to visibility from its surface. The speed is usually adjustable on vehicles made after 1969, with several continuous rates and often one or more "intermittent" settings. Most personal automobiles use two synchronized "radial"-type arms, while many commercial vehicles use one or more "pantograph" arms.


title: Windscreen wiper

text: On some vehicles, a windscreen washer system is also used to improve and expand the function of the wiper(s) to dry or icy conditions. This system sprays water, or an antifreeze window washer fluid, at the windscreen using several well-positioned nozzles. This system helps remove dirt or dust from the windscreen when used in concert with the wiper blades. When antifreeze washer fluid is used, it can help the wipers remove snow or ice. For these types of winter conditions, some vehicles have additional heaters aimed at the windows, embedded heating wire(s) in the glass, or embedded heating wire(s) in the wiper blade; these defroster systems can melt ice or help to keep snow and ice from building up on the windscreen. Less frequently, miniature wipers are installed on headlights to ensure they function optimally.


title: Windscreen wiper

text: One of the earliest recorded patents for the windscreen wiper is by George J. Capewell of Hartford Connecticut, which was filed on August 6, 1896. His invention was for an automated, motorised, wiper for "cars, locomotives, and such land-vehicles".


title: Windscreen wiper

text: Other early designs for the windscreen wiper are credited to Polish concert pianist Józef Hofmann, and to Mills Munitions, Birmingham, who also claimed to have been the first to patent windscreen wipers in England.


title: Windscreen wiper

text: At least three inventors patented windscreen cleaning devices at around the same time in 1903; Mary Anderson, Robert Douglass, and John Apjohn. In April 1911, a patent for windscreen wipers was registered by Sloan & Lloyd Barnes, patent agents of Liverpool, England, for Gladstone Adams of Whitley Bay.