title: NXT TakeOver: New Orleans

text: In the main event, Johnny Gargano faced Tommaso Ciampa in an unsanctioned match. Ciampa performed a suplex on Gargano off the announce table. Gargano performed a powerbomb on Ciampa off the ring apron onto the exposed concrete. Gargano struck Ciampa with a crutch and performed a slingshot DDT on Ciampa for a near-fall. Gargano applied the "Garga-No-Escape", only for Ciampa to rake Gargano's eyes. Ciampa performed a "Project Ciampa" on Gargano for a near-fall. Gargano performed a "Lawn Dart" into an exposed turnbuckle and two superkicks on Ciampa, who was kneeling, for a near-fall. Ciampa then performed a "Project Ciampa" from the second rope on Gargano for a near-fall. In the end, Ciampa attempted to strike Gargano with his knee brace, however Gargano countered and applied the "Garga-No-Escape", transitioning into an STF using the knee brace. Ciampa submitted, thus Gargano won and was reinstated in NXT.


title: NXT TakeOver: New Orleans

text: The event received universal acclaim from fans and critics. Gene Guillot of "The Times-Picayune" described the show as "wrestling at its finest", involving "spectacular wrestling and incredible story telling" with "moment after moment of high impact". Guillot wrote that the "show kicked off with one of the best matches in NXT history and finished with another Match of the Year candidate that told one of the great stories in wrestling history". John Moore of Pro Wrestling Dot Net wrote that "each match delivered at a main event level", describing the main event between Gargano and Ciampa as a "perfect end of their year long tale". Matty Paddock of "The Independent" wrote that the event "delivered in breathtaking style", calling it "a classic night of wrestling that will be hard to match". Dave Meltzer of the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" gave both the ladder match for the NXT North American Championship and the unsanctioned match five stars, making them the second and third five-star matches NXT had put on in 2018.


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: Note that the numbers above do not correspond to a percentile, but are notionally a percentage of the maximum raw marks available. Various tertiary institutions in Australia have policies on the allocations for each grade and scaling may occur to meet these policies. These policies may vary also according to the degree year (higher percentages for later years), but generally, only 2–5% of students who pass (that is, who achieve raw marks of 50 or more) may be awarded a High Distinction grade, and 50% or more of passing students are awarded a basic Pass grade. Raw marks for students who fail are not scaled and do not increase the allocations of higher grades. Some universities also have a Pass Conceded (PC) grade for marks that fall in the range of 45–49 inclusive.


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: A few universities do not issue numeric grades out of 100 for individual subjects, instead relying on qualitative descriptors. Griffith University and The University of Queensland issue results of High Distinction, Distinction, Credit, Pass, and Fail.


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: Grade point averages are not generally used in Australia below a tertiary level. At universities, they are calculated according to a more complicated formula than in some other nations:


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: A "conceded pass" is a pass for a course that has been awarded only after supplementary assessment has been undertaken by the student.


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: Where a course result is a Non-Graded Pass, the result will only be included if the GPA is less than 4, and will be assigned the grade point of 4, otherwise NGP results will be disregarded. The term "course unit values" is used to distinguish between courses which have different weightings, for example between a full year course and a single semester course.


title: Academic grading in Australia

text: Some other universities, such as the University of Melbourne, University of New South Wales, University of Sydney, and University of Wollongong use a Weighted Average Mark (WAM) for the same purpose as a GPA. The WAM is based on the raw percentage grades, or marks, achieved by the student, rather than grade points such as High Distinction or Distinction.


title: Distribution of the product of two random variables

text: A product distribution is a probability distribution constructed as the distribution of the product of random variables having two other known distributions. Given two statistically independent random variables "X" and "Y", the distribution of the random variable "Z" that is formed as the product formula_1 is a "product distribution".


text: The product is one type of algebra for random variables: Related to the product distribution are the ratio distribution, sum distribution (see List of convolutions of probability distributions) and difference distribution. More generally, one may talk of combinations of sums, differences, products and ratios.


text: Many of these distributions are described in Melvin D. Springer's book from 1979 "The Algebra of Random Variables".


text: If formula_2 and formula_3 are two independent, continuous random variables, described by probability density functions formula_4 and formula_5 then the probability density function of formula_1 is


text: We find the desired probability density function by taking the derivative of both sides with respect to formula_10. Since on the right hand side, formula_10 appears only in the integration limits, the derivative is easily performed using the fundamental theorem of calculus and the chain rule. (Note the negative sign that is needed when the variable occurs in the lower limit of the integration.)


text: A faster more compact proof begins with the same step of writing the cumulative distribution of formula_8 starting with its definition:


text: where formula_15 is the Heaviside step function and serves to limit the region of integration to values of formula_16 and formula_17 satisfying formula_18.


text: We find the desired probability density function by taking the derivative of both sides with respect to formula_10.


text: A more intuitive description of the procedure is illustrated in the figure below. The joint pdf formula_22 exists in the formula_16-formula_17 plane and an arc of constant formula_25 value is shown as the shaded line. To find the marginal probability formula_26 on this arc, integrate over increments of area formula_27 on this contour.


text: Starting with formula_28, we have formula_29. So the probability increment is formula_30. Since formula_31 implies formula_32, we can relate the probability increment to the formula_25-increment, namely formula_34. Then integration over formula_16, yields formula_36.


text: For the product of multiple (> 2) independent samples the characteristic function route is favorable. If we define formula_40 then formula_41 above is a Gamma distribution of shape 1 and scale factor 1, formula_42 , and its known CF is formula_43. Note that formula_44 so the Jacobian of the transformation is unity.


text: The convolution of formula_45 independent samples from formula_46 therefore has CF formula_47 which is known to be the CF of a Gamma distribution of shape formula_45:


text: The figure illustrates the nature of the integrals above. The shaded area within the unit square and below the line z = xy, represents the CDF of z. This divides into two parts. The first is for 0 < x < z where the increment of area in the vertical slot is just equal to "dx". The second part lies below the "xy" line, has "y"-height "z/x", and incremental area "dx z/x".


text: The product of two independent Normal samples follows a modified Bessel function. Let formula_58 be samples from a Normal(0,1) distribution and formula_59.


text: The variance of this distribution could be determined, in principle, by a definite integral from Gradsheyn and Ryzhik,


text: A much simpler result, stated in a section above, is that the variance of the product of zero-mean independent samples is equal to the product of their variances. Since the variance of each Normal sample is one, the variance of the product is also one.


text: Let formula_63 be zero mean, unit variance, normally distributed variates with correlation coefficient formula_64


text: The product of non-central independent complex Gaussians is described by O’Donoughue and Moura and forms a double infinite series of of the first and second types.


text: Note that multivariate distributions are not generally unique, apart from the Gaussian case, and there may be alternatives.


text: The distribution of the product of a random variable having a uniform distribution on (0,1) with a random variable having a gamma distribution with shape parameter equal to 2, is an exponential distribution. A more general case of this concerns the distribution of the product of a random variable having a beta distribution with a random variable having a gamma distribution: for some cases where the parameters of the two component distributions are related in a certain way, the result is again a gamma distribution but with a changed shape parameter.


text: The K-distribution is an example of a non-standard distribution that can be defined as a product distribution (where both components have a gamma distribution).


title: Gun moll

text: A gun moll or gangster moll or gangster's moll is the female companion of a male professional criminal. "Gun" was British slang for thief, derived from Yiddish "ganef", from the Hebrew "gannāb" (גנב). "Moll" is also used as a euphemism for a woman prostitute.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Tracy Lynn Brabin (born 9 May 1961) is a British politician who has served as the first Mayor of West Yorkshire since the office was established on 10 May 2021. She previously was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Batley and Spen from 2016 to 2021 under the Labour and Co-operative banner.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Born in Batley, Brabin was an actress and television writer prior to entering politics, appearing in several British soap operas including "Coronation Street", "EastEnders", "Casualty" and "Emmerdale". She was elected for Batley and Spen in an October 2016 by-election after the murder of previous incumbent Jo Cox. She was appointed as Shadow Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport by Jeremy Corbyn in January 2020, succeeding former Deputy Labour Leader Tom Watson. In April 2020, new Labour Leader Keir Starmer removed Brabin from the Shadow Cabinet and appointed her Shadow Minister for Cultural Industries. She resigned as an MP after winning the 2021 West Yorkshire mayoral election. Her resignation triggered a by-election, which Labour's Kim Leadbeater won. She is the first ever woman to serve as a metro-mayor.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin was born in Batley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and educated at Heckmondwike Grammar School. She studied drama at Loughborough University and gained a Master of Arts degree in screenwriting from the London College of Communication of the University of the Arts London in 2001.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin played clumsy waitress Sandra opposite David Jason in "A Bit of a Do", Tricia Armstrong in "Coronation Street" from 1994 to 1997, and Ginny in three series of Richard Harris's "Outside Edge". She appeared in "EastEnders" as Roxy Drake, "The Ghost Hunter" as Mrs Oliver, "Love + Hate" as Gaynor, and in an episode of "Midsomer Murders" ("Dead Letters", 2006).


title: Tracy Brabin

text: In 2008, she appeared in a series of commercials for supermarket chain Sainsbury's playing Sarah, a mother-of-two and Sainsbury's employee who does her weekly shopping at the store. In 2014, she appeared as Lyndsey Bernstein in "", Pam in "Undeniable", and as Carole in "Emmerdale".


title: Tracy Brabin

text: In "" (1992), Brabin played Sarah, Duchess of York. In 2012, she played Maggie, a mother who comes to realise she is one of a race of aliens, in artist Shezad Dawood’s first feature, the sci-fi art-house film "Piercing Brightness".


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin played Linda, Sharon and Annie in Simon Beaufoy's play "The Full Monty", an adaptation of his screenplay for the film, directed by Sheffield Theatre's Daniel Evans. The play opened at the Sheffield Lyceum to excellent reviews, followed by a national tour and a West End run at the Noël Coward Theatre. The production was nominated for the Best New Comedy at the Laurence Olivier Awards in 2014. Brabin's previous theatre performances include the lead role in Shelagh Stevenson's "The Long Road" at Curve in Leicester directed by Adel Al Salloum and Joy in "Meat" written by Jimmy Osbourne for London's 503 Theatre.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin has written for "Heartbeat", "Family Affairs", "Crossroads", "The Story of Tracy Beaker", and "Hollyoaks", on which she worked for two years. She has written for "Shameless" for Company Pictures and for three series of "Seacht" – nominated for Best Youth Programme Irish Film and Television Awards in 2011. With her mentor Elizabeth Karlsen, the producer of "Made in Dagenham", she was involved on the romantic comedy feature "Father August" for the prestigious "She Writes" programme, with Minkie Spiro attached to direct. Brabin wrote an episode of "Doctors" which was screened in December 2012.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin publicly endorsed the Labour Party at the 1997 general election, writing an article for the Labour-supporting "Daily Mirror" newspaper explaining that her father-in-law had died on a hospital trolley while waiting to see a doctor. In May 1998 she appeared in a party political broadcast for the Labour Party, appealing for people to join it. In March 2005, Brabin was the lead member of a group of nine actors to write to "The Observer" explaining that while they continued to oppose the Blair government's military intervention in Iraq, they still "strongly support the re-election of a Labour government". She canvassed for the Labour Party in the Kirklees council election in 2012.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: When Jo Cox was selected as Labour candidate for Batley and Spen, Brabin joined her campaign against the closure of libraries in the constituency.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: In August 2016, Brabin said that she was considering standing in the Batley and Spen by-election, caused by Cox's murder. On 19 September, she was shortlisted along with Labour activist Jane Thomas. Brabin was selected at a meeting on 23 September. The Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats, Green Party and UKIP did not field candidates as a mark of respect to Cox. On 20 October 2016, Brabin was elected with an increased majority of around 10,000. She was then sworn in on 24 October.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin made her maiden speech in the House of Commons on 2 November, paying tribute to her predecessor, whom she described as "inspirational". The speech won applause from fellow MPs.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin retained the seat in the 2017 general election, with a majority of just under 9,000 over the Conservative Party candidate. On 3 July 2017 she was appointed as Shadow Early Years Minister by Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin was re-elected as the MP for Batley & Spen in the 2019 General Election, with a majority of 3,525. She was appointed as Shadow Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport in January 2020 after the previous holder, Tom Watson stood down at the 2019 general election. She was replaced as Shadow Culture Secretary in Keir Starmer's Shadow frontbench announcement but made Shadow Minister for Cultural Industries.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: In March 2021, a teacher at Batley Grammar School showed cartoons depicting Muhammad, the founder of Islam, from the French satirical magazine "Charlie Hebdo" during a religious studies lesson. This led to protests. The school apologised and suspended the teacher involved. The teacher was allegedly placed in police protection after receiving death threats. Brabin responded to this by stating that she condemned the threats towards the teacher, welcomed the apology given by the school, and urged "all involved to work together and calm the situation".


title: Tracy Brabin

text: Brabin was the Labour Party's nomination for the inaugural Mayor of West Yorkshire in the 2021 election. As a result, she stood down from her frontbench role to focus on her mayoral campaign, with Alison McGovern taking over her responsibilities. The mayoralty includes powers over transport, crime and planning in the region of 2.3 million people, which includes the cities of Leeds, Bradford and Wakefield.


title: Tracy Brabin

text: In the election, held on 6 May 2021, Brabin won 43% of the first-round vote, failing to secure a majority, and 59.8% of transfer second-round votes, with the closest challenger being Matthew Robinson of the Conservative Party. This made her the first woman to be elected as a metro mayor. Upon taking office, she became entitled to the style of Mayor. Brabin follows two former Labour MPs – Andy Burnham and Steve Rotheram in Greater Manchester and the Liverpool City Region respectively – representing their regions as mayor, while Dan Jarvis, mayor of the Sheffield City Region, has concurrently remained the member of parliament for Barnsley Central. However, Brabin had to resign her Batley and Spen seat, triggering a by-election, as Electoral Commission rules make the police and crime responsibilities in the role incompatible with being an MP.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Paul Douglas Fleischer (April 11, 1907 − September 11, 1959), known professionally as Paul Douglas, was an American actor.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Margaret (Douglas) and William Paul Fleischer. He attended Yale University and participated in dramatics as a student there.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas worked originally as an announcer for CBS radio station WCAU in Philadelphia, relocating to network headquarters in New York in 1934. Douglas co-hosted CBS's popular swing music program, "The Saturday Night Swing Club," from 1936 to 1939. He also appeared on the CBS network broadcast of the 1937 World Series between the New York Giants and New York Yankees alongside France Laux and Bill Dyer. He also served as host and commercial pitchman for Chesterfield Cigarettes on swing band leader Glenn Miller's 1940-42 CBS radio series.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: He made his Broadway debut in 1936 as the Radio Announcer in Doty Hobart and Tom McKnight's "Double Dummy" at the John Golden Theatre. In 1946 he won both a Theatre World Award and a Clarence Derwent Award for his portrayal of Harry Brock in Garson Kanin's "Born Yesterday".


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas began appearing in films in 1949. He may be best remembered for two baseball comedy movies, "It Happens Every Spring" (1949) and "Angels in the Outfield" (1951). He also played Richard Widmark's police partner in the 1950 thriller "Panic in the Streets", frustrated newlywed Porter Hollingsway in "A Letter to Three Wives" (1949), Sgt. Kowalski in "The Big Lift" (1950), a con man-turned-monk in "When in Rome" (1952), businessman Calvin B. Marshall in "The Maggie" (1954), and businessman Josiah Walter Dudley in "Executive Suite" (1954). Douglas was host of the 22nd annual Academy Awards in March 1950. Continuing in radio, he was the announcer for "The Ed Wynn Show", and the first host of NBC Radio's "The Horn & Hardart Children's Hour". In April 1959 Douglas appeared on "The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show" as Lucy Ricardo's television morning show co-host in the episode "Lucy Wants a Career".


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: In 1955 he appeared in the play "The Caine Mutiny" but his union placed him on probation for allegedly saying, "The South stinks. It's a land of sowbelly and segregation," which offended Southern audiences. Douglas claimed that he was misquoted.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas was originally cast in the 1960 episode of "The Twilight Zone" called "The Mighty Casey", a role written for him by Rod Serling based on his character in "Angels in the Outfield". Douglas died the day after production of the episode had been completed. He had been in his last stages of illness during filming, and his severe physical state was apparent on film. (The crew incorrectly assumed that his condition was the result of heavy drinking.) The episode – which was a comedy – was deemed unairable. It was, however, resurrected some months later, and Douglas's scenes were re-shot with Jack Warden.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas was married five times – to Elizabeth Farnum, Susie Wells, and Gerri Higgins, and to actresses Virginia Field and Jan Sterling.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas and Field had a daughter, Margaret. The couple divorced in 1946. He married Sterling on May 12, 1950. They had a son, Adams, born October 20, 1955.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Douglas died of a heart attack (myocardial infarction) at his home in Hollywood, California, on September 11, 1959, at the age of 52. Douglas had appeared in adverts for Chesterfield cigarettes, and tobacco smoking is well recognized to be a common association with coronary artery disease.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: He died a day after he finished filming scenes for "the Twilight Zone" episode "The Mighty Casey". As with "Angels in the Outfield", he played a manager frustrated by a losing team. Most of his scenes were re-shot with Jack Warden as the manager. Douglas appeared in the episode's final shot, in the distance with his back to the camera.


title: Paul Douglas (actor)

text: Film director Billy Wilder and his longtime co-writer I. A. L. ('Izzy') Diamond had just offered him the role of Jeff Sheldrake in the 1960 movie "The Apartment" that went to Fred MacMurray instead. Wilder later said: "I saw him and his wife, Jan Sterling, at a restaurant, and I realized he was perfect, and I asked him right there in the parking lot. About two days before we were to start, he had a heart attack and died. Iz and I were shattered."


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund (or Finnish Lapponian Dog) –– is a hardy, easy going, medium-size breed of Spitz type. Traditionally it has been used for herding reindeer. Although it is one of the most popular dog breeds in its native country, Finland, it is not very numerous outside of the Nordic countries.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed falls under the mitochondrial DNA sub-clade referred to as d1 that is only found in northern Scandinavia. It is the result of a female wolf-male dog hybridization that occurred post-domestication. Subclade d1 originated 480–3,000 years ago and is found in all Sami-related breeds: Finnish Lapphund, Swedish Lapphund, Lapponian Herder, Jamthund, Norwegian Elkhound and Hällefors Elkhound. The maternal wolf sequence that contributed to these breeds has not been matched across Eurasia and its branch on the phylogenetic tree is rooted in the same sequence as the 33,000 year-old Altai dog (not a direct ancestor).


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund is a medium-sized, strongly-built dog. It has a profuse coat with pricked, highly mobile ears, distinctive markings and an elegant nose.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: Colours include black and cream, black and tan, white and grey, brown and white, brown and cream, as well as pure black, white and gray.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed standard is at the withers for a male, and a slightly smaller for a female. However, some variation is allowed, since the breed standard states that the type is more important than the size. A typical male of 49 cm height normally weighs , but the breed has a weight range of , depending on the size of the dog.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Lapphund has a profuse double coat, with a short, fluffy undercoat and a longer topcoat. The coat is water-resistant, as well as resistant to extreme cold. In Finland, only two dog breeds are legally allowed to be kennelled outdoors in winter: the Finnish Lapphund and the Lapponian Herder. The profuse hair around the head and neck give the distinct impression of a mane in most males. Although the coat is thick, it requires only a modest amount of maintenance. Weekly brushing is recommended throughout the year, except during shedding seasons, where a daily brush may be required.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: A wide variety of colours and markings are found in Finnish Lapphunds. Any colour is allowed in the breed standard, although a single colour should predominate. One of the most common colour combinations is black and tan: a predominantly black dog with tan legs and face. Any colour combination is allowed as long as the primary colour is dominant. Common colourations may include crème, black, red, brown, sable and wolf-sable. In descending order of dominance, the following genes in certain series correspond to specific colourations:


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: Many Finnish Lapphunds have very distinctive facial markings, like "spectacles", where a ring of lighter-coloured hair around the eyes gives the impression that the dog is wearing spectacles. The spectacles of the Finnish Lapphund, while reminiscent of their cousins, the Keeshond, are larger and more pronounced. Like other spitz types, the tail is carried curving over the back. The Finnish Lapphund has a tail covered with thick, long hair. The tail may hang as the dog stands.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund is a recognized breed in Finland, Europe, Great Britain, Australia and the United States. The breed standards are mostly identical, with a few minor exceptions: in the English standard, the acceptance of tipped ears is omitted.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund is a very intelligent and active breed. Finnish Lapphunds take well to training due to their intelligence. Some owners and fanciers claim that "Lappies" even have the ability to think through actions first. Although small in number worldwide, a noticeable number of Finnish Lapphunds have excelled in activities such as obedience trials, agility, herding trials, and pet therapy.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed is friendly and alert, and makes a good watchdog, due to its tendency to bark at unfamiliar things. The breed was originally used to herd reindeer by droving, and barking helped distinguish it from wolves. Even when not herding, the Finnish Lapphund tends to bark for a good reason, and rarer cases of problem barking can normally be controlled by training.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed makes for an ideal outdoor companion. It is active, its coat is waterproof and it can endure cold very well; it will gladly accompany people on walking or running trips. A slight independent streak is common, though with training, Finnish Lapphunds can have excellent recall and obedience skills.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: "Lappies" are an ideal choice for families with small children. The breed adapts well to family life, including being responsive to children. Finnish Lapphunds have a gentle nature with children, people with disabilities, and the elderly. This is a very friendly breed and it normally avoids, and flees from, any threatening situations. The breed is very curious, so some supervision is recommended.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: In Finland, many Finnish Lapphunds have won national championships for obedience, and are also suitable for agility.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund can compete in dog agility trials, carting, mushing, obedience, Rally obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at non-competitive herding tests. Lapphunds exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The Finnish Lapphund is a naturally healthy breed, and typically lives 12–14 years, although dogs of 16–17 years are not uncommon in Finland.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: Known medical issues include Generalised progressive retinal atrophy (GPRA) and hereditary cataracts.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed has its origins as a reindeer herder of the Sami people. The Sami are an indigenous people residing in areas now divided between Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Russia. Traditionally, reindeer herding has been very important for the Sami people, and they are still involved in herding today. The Sami have used herding dogs for centuries, and these dogs were typically long in body, somewhat rectangular in shape, with long hair and a straight tail that would curl up over the back when the dog was moving. Finnish Lapphunds are the most similar to the long haired dogs developed by the Sami people in order to assist them with herding, often favoured as winter herders for the reindeer.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: Norwegians and Swedes were among the first to consider standardizing the dogs of Lapland prior to World War II. In the post war years, the dogs of Lapland were at serious risk due to distemper outbreak. Swedish Lapphund breeders today believe that their breed, and other Lapphund breeds, were in serious danger of extinction. A standard for the related Swedish Lapphund was adopted in 1944 in FCI (Fédération Cynologique Internationale), and the Finnish Lapphund standard soon followed.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: In Finland, the first breed standards were set in 1945 by the Finnish Kennel Club, who called the breed the Lappish Herder, also known as . It is believed that these dogs were the result of a cross between the Karelian Bear Dog and the reindeer dogs, and had short hair. In the 1950s the Finnish Kennel Association (the second major kennel association in Finland) created the first breed standard for the Lapponian herder. Acceptable colours for this breed were black, bear-brown and white.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: In the 1960s, the various Finnish kennel associations were unified, and in 1966 the breeds were reassessed. This resulted in the formal definition of two breeds: the Lapponian herder with a shorter coat was defined in 1966, and the longer coated Finnish Lapphund was defined in 1967.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: At about the same time, technology enabled changes in the lifestyle of the Sami herders. Previously, the longer-haired dogs were generally preferred for herding, but with the advent of snowmobiles, the preference started to change in favour of the shorter haired Lapponian herder. However, popularity did not die for the longer-haired breed, which as of 2014 was ranked the sixth most popular companion animal in Finland.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The first American litter was born in 1988. In 1994, the breed was recognised by the United Kennel Club (UKC), the second largest kennel club in America, in the Northern Group. The breed was accepted into the AKC Miscellaneous Group on July 1, 2009, and became a fully recognized breed in the Herding Group on June 30, 2011. The Finnish Lapphund Club of America (FLCA) is the parent organization in the United States and was awarded parent club status on November 25, 2015, thus allowing it to hold licensed championship point events.


title: Finnish Lapphund

text: The breed was first introduced to the United Kingdom in 1989 and is represented by the Finnish Lapphund Club of Great Britain. It was introduced to Australia and Canada in 1995 and is accepted by the New Zealand Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club. In Canada, its parent club is the Finnish Lapphund Club of Canada.


title: Satcitananda

text: ' (, IAST: '; also Sat-cit-ananda or ) is an epithet and description for the subjective experience of the ultimate unchanging reality, called Brahman, in certain branches of Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta. It represents "existence, consciousness, and bliss" or "truth, consciousness, bliss".


title: Satcitananda

text: () is a compounded Sanskrit word consisting of "sat", "chit", and "ananda", all three considered as inseparable from the nature of ultimate reality called Brahman in Hinduism. The different forms of spelling is driven by euphonic (sandhi) rules of Sanskrit, useful in different contexts.


title: Satcitananda

text: The term is contextually related to "the ultimate reality" in various schools of Hindu traditions. In theistic traditions, is same as God such as Vishnu, Shiva or Goddess in Shakti traditions. In monist traditions, is considered directly inseparable from (attributeless) Brahman or the "universal ground of all beings", wherein the Brahman is identical with Atman, the true individual self. A Jiva is instructed to identify themselves with the Atman, which is the Brahman in a being, thus the purpose of human birth is to realize "I am Brahman" ("Aham Brahmasmi") through Prajna which leads to the state of "ultimate consciousness" referred as "sat-chit-ananda" and subsequently Moksha, however as long as a being identifies with Maya which is finite, material and tangible, they will continue to gather Karma and remain in Saṃsāra. or Brahman is held to be the source of all reality, source of all conscious thought, and source of all perfection-bliss. It is the ultimate, the complete, the destination of spiritual pursuit in Hinduism.


title: Satcitananda

text: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad () is among the earliest Hindu texts which links and then discusses Atman (Self), Brahman (ultimate reality), awareness, joy and bliss such as in sections 2.4, 3.9 and 4.3. The Chandogya Upanishad (), in section 3.14 to 3.18, discusses Atman and Brahman, these being identical to "that which shines and glows both inside and outside", "dear", "pure knowing, awareness", "one's innermost being", "highest light", "luminous". Other 1st-millennium BCE texts, such as the Taittiriya Upanishad in section 2.1, as well as minor Upanishads, discuss Atman and Brahman in saccidananda-related terminology.


title: Satcitananda

text: An early mention of the compound word is in verse 3.11 of Tejobindu Upanishad, composed before the 4th-century CE. The context of is explained in the Upanishad as follows:


title: Satcitananda

text: The Vedantic philosophy understands as a synonym of the three fundamental attributes of Brahman. In Advaita Vedanta, states Werner, it is the sublimely blissful experience of the boundless, pure consciousness and represents the unity of spiritual essence of ultimate reality.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Michael Harrison Sweet (born July 4, 1963) is a singer and guitarist from Whittier, California; he is the co-founder, songwriter, guitarist and lead singer of the Christian metal band Stryper. He's also had a successful solo career, and briefly served as singer and guitarist for Boston from 2007 to 2011.


title: Michael Sweet

text: In the early 1980s, Sweet and his brother started a band called Roxx Regime and played in small venues. They were a trio for a period of time with Sweet being the only guitar player in the band. This band would later become Stryper. The band challenged the stereotype of heavy metal being satanic and took Christian rock into mainstream.


title: Michael Sweet

text: With the band, Sweet was not only the lead vocalist and shared lead guitar duties, but he also wrote most of the music for the band as well as co-producing and arranging the music. The band recorded five successful studio albums. The band's reputation declined in the 1990s.


title: Michael Sweet

text: After nine years as the lead singer/lead guitarist of Stryper, Sweet left the band in 1992 in order to pursue a solo career. He first released a demo album, "Unstryped", which featured several songs allegedly intended for the band. Sweet later included some of these on his first full-length album.


title: Michael Sweet

text: His self-titled debut album was released in 1994 and sold over 250,000 copies. He followed it with a slightly softer album titled "Real" in 1996 earning him a Dove Award nomination. Soon after the release of "Real", Sweet left Benson Records, with whom he had released the two albums.


title: Michael Sweet

text: During this time, Sweet and his wife Kyle moved to Massachusetts, where Sweet worked at his father-in-law's campground/cranberry business, Maple Park. In 1998, he released an independent demo album titled "Truth" which received critical acclaim. He was signed to Restless Records and re-released "Truth" in 2000 with a new song-list and new artwork.


title: Michael Sweet

text: On August 19, 2007, Sweet was asked by Boston's Tom Scholz to be one of the lead singers and guitarists for "Come Together: A Tribute to the Life of Brad Delp" at the Bank of America Pavilion in Boston. Scholz then asked Sweet to join Boston for the band's summer 2008 tour with Styx as the opening act.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Sweet performed lead vocals, background vocals, and guitar work for Boston. Sweet was asked to be a part of what was supposed to be Boston's last performance on August 19, 2007. It was a benefit and tribute show and names such as Sammy Hagar, Mickey Thomas and Ann Wilson were among the invited guests. Tom Scholz was moved by what Sweet had written about the late Brad Delp and then heard Sweet sing and play guitar. Scholz was so impressed with Sweet's talents that he invited him to join the band and become a permanent member. Boston began booking a tour for 2008 with Styx as the opening act. Sweet handled lead vocals on roughly half of the set list and played guitar for the entire set and handled solo work as well. In August 2011, it was announced that Sweet had left Boston to focus on his priorities and contributions to Stryper.


title: Michael Sweet

text: In 1999, Sweet reunited with former Stryper bandmates Oz Fox and Tim Gaines during a concert in Puerto Rico. The concert featured Fox and Gaines's band, SinDizzy. Sweet was invited as a solo artist. The three of them got together for a set of four songs. The next year, the first Stryper Expo was held in New Jersey and the entire line-up was reunited again.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Although original bassist, Tim Gaines, left the group in 2005 and was replaced by Tracy Ferrie, the band has continued to work together, releasing a new album titled "Reborn", produced by Sweet. However, he has continued with his solo career as well. In August 2006, he released a solo album titled "Him" which features traditional hymns re-written and arranged by Sweet. The band then released the album "Murder by Pride", produced by Sweet in July 2009. Perry Richardson who is formerly of the band Firehouse is now the bassist for the band. Perry has brought a new life into the band and they are currently touring and planning a new studio album to be released in 2020.


title: Michael Sweet

text: In 2007, Sweet released an album called "Touched" in honor of his wife, Kyle, who died on March 5, 2009, after a two-year battle with ovarian cancer.


title: Michael Sweet

text: In September 2009, Stryper embarked on its 25th anniversary world tour, "Rocking the Hell Out of You for 25 years" with the original members. The tour included two opening bands: Manic Drive and Flight Patterns, the latter which includes Sweet's son, Michael Sweet, Jr.


title: Michael Sweet

text: In 2013, Stryper released two studio albums, "Second Coming" and "No More Hell to Pay" via Frontiers Records. They released a live album and DVD, "Stryper: Live at the Whiskey", recorded in 2013 at the Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip recorded from November 2013. Sweet has also worked with Lynch Mob founder and former Dokken member, George Lynch on recording an album, "Only to Rise", released under the name Sweet & Lynch. Sweet discussed the group on Eddie Trunk Podcast dated February 4, 2015. The group also consists of former White Lion and former Megadeth member James LoMenzo on bass, and former Whitesnake and former Foreigner member Brian Tichy on drums. "Only to Rise" was released on January 27, 2015.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Aside from Stryper developing their new album, "Fallen", Sweet has confirmed he has signed with Rat Pak Records to release a new solo album in early 2016, "One Sided War".


title: Michael Sweet

text: During an interview with Antihero Magazine in November 2016, Sweet confirmed that he is recording another Sweet & Lynch album titled "Unified" which released November 2017. Since then, Sweet has gone on record stating Sweet & Lynch may have run its course citing Lynch's hands in many different projects has not allowed them to tour to promote the albums, the way Sweet would have liked, and he feels he has to do most of the promoting himself.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Sweet, as a member of Stryper, released "God Damn Evil" on April 20, 2018. Due to its album title, it was deemed offensive and garnered a "parental guidance" label and was banned from Walmart. Despite this controversy the album sold and charted well with most major music indexes. Perry Richardson did not perform on the album but toured in support of the album.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Sweet also participated as guitarist, lead singer and producer on Stryper's "Even the Devil Believes" that was released on September 4, 2020.


title: Michael Sweet

text: Sweet met his wife Kyle while making Stryper's first video. They were married for 22 years and had two children together. In 2009, Kyle died after a two-year battle with cancer.


title: Child in Time

text: "Child in Time" is a song by English rock band Deep Purple, taken from their fourth studio album, "Deep Purple in Rock", released in 1970. The track is loosely inspired by the Cold War and runs over ten minutes.


title: Child in Time

text: Deep Purple's Ian Gillan has said that the organ riff in "Child in Time" is based on It's a Beautiful Day's psychedelic song "Bombay Calling". It's a Beautiful Day in return borrowed Purple's "Wring That Neck" and turned it into "Don and Dewey" on their second album "Marrying Maiden" (1970). The song started with organist Jon Lord playing "Bombay Calling", which the band then re-arranged and changed the structure. Gillan had never heard the original song, and created lyrics about the Cold War to fit the music, later saying it "reflected the mood of the moment". The band then worked out instrumental lines to accompany this.


title: Child in Time

text: With themes of war and inhumanity, the song is regarded as a heavy metal anthem and an example of art rock.


title: Child in Time

text: A staple of the Deep Purple live concerts in 1970–73 and later after their initial reunion tours of 1985 and 1987–88, the song was not featured regularly at concerts after 1995. It was re-added to the setlist for the band's 2002 European tour, with its final appearance in Deep Purple's live set was at Kharkiv's Opera Theatre's scene in March of that year.


title: Child in Time

text: A live version appeared on the 1972 live album "Made in Japan". Other live versions can be found on the "Scandinavian Nights" / "Live in Stockholm" live album, recorded in September 1970 and the BBC recordings released as Deep Purple In Concert. Gillan also featured a live jazz influenced version of the song in his Ian Gillan Band project of the late 1970s on "Live at the Budokan" album.


title: Child in Time

text: "Child in Time" was ranked no. 1 on Radio Veronica's "Super All-Time List" in 1989. The song ranked at no. 16 in "Guitarist"'s 1998 readers poll of Top 100 Guitar Solos of All-Time. English disc jockey John Peel's 1976 list of Festive Fifty featured the song at no. 25. It was second, third or fourth place for many years on the annual Dutch Top 2000 songs of all time.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in European history. In the short-term, France lost thousands of its countrymen in the form of émigrés, or emigrants who wished to escape political tensions and save their lives. A number of individuals settled in the neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany and Austria), while some settled in Russia, and many also went to Canada and the United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating immigration, and a safe haven for Royalists and other counterrevolutionaries to outlast the violence of the French Revolution. The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and politics for more than a century. The closer other countries were, the greater and deeper was the French impact, bringing liberalism, but also practices such as direct democracy and revolutionary terror along with the end of many feudal or traditional laws and practices. However, there was also a conservative counter-reaction that defeated Napoleon, reinstalled the Bourbon kings, and in some ways reversed the new reforms.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Most of the new nations created by France were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The greatest impact came in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized—'left' and 'right' were the new terms for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The changes in France were enormous; some were widely accepted and others were bitterly contested into the late 20th century. Before the Revolution, the people had little power or voice. The kings had so thoroughly centralized the system that most nobles spent their time at Versailles, and played only a small direct role in their home districts. Thompson says that the kings had:


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: After the first year of revolution, this power had been stripped away. The king was a figurehead, the nobility had lost all their titles and most of their land, the Church lost its monasteries and farmlands, bishops, judges and magistrates were elected by the people, the army was almost helpless, with military power in the hands of the new revolutionary National Guard. The central elements of 1789 were the slogan ""Liberté, égalité, fraternité"" and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which Lefebvre calls "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole."


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. Historian François Aulard writes:


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Europe was wracked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty by the members of the anti-French coalitions. Napoleon was finally defeated and reactionaries took over France. Even so there were many deep results in terms of political ideas and institutions.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: To escape political tensions and save their lives, a number of individuals, mostly men, emigrated from France. Many settled in neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), and quite a few went to the United States. The presence of these thousands of Frenchmen of varying socioeconomic backgrounds who had just fled a hotbed of revolutionary activity posed a problem for the nations that extended refuge to the migrants. The fear was that they brought with them a plot to disrupt the political order, which did lead to increased regulation and documentation of the influx of immigrants in neighboring countries. Still, most nations such as Britain remained magnanimous and welcomed the French.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In foreign affairs, the French Army at first was quite successful. It conquered the Austrian Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Dutch Republic (the present Netherlands), and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and the French Army became trapped in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the Ligurian Republic. The Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In 1805 he formed the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.<br>The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." Nationalism was emphasized by historian Carlton J. H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III). The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: At the beginning of the Revolution, Britain supported the new constitutional monarchy in France, up until the regicide of Louis XVI. The majority of the British establishment were strongly opposed to the revolution. Britain, guided by Pitt the Younger, led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and with the deposition of Napoleon Bonaparte culminated with the (temporary) restoration of the Bourbons. Edmund Burke wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France", a pamphlet notable for its defence of the principle of constitutional monarchy; the events surrounding the London Corresponding Society were an example of the fevered times.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by the Protestant Ascendancy to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen consisting of both Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. These efforts culminated in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was quickly suppressed. This revolt is seen as the foundation for Irish republicanism, which eventually led to the independence and partition of Ireland and the establishment of an Irish republic.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: German reaction to the Revolution swung from favorable at first to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, of serfdom and of the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. There were enemies as well, as the royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the "Bildungsbürgertum" (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: After Russia was humiliated by Napoleon opinion swung against France and stimulated and shaped German nationalism.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: France took direct control of the Rhineland 1794–1814 and radically and permanently liberalized the government, society and economy.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The French swept away centuries worth of outmoded restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a rational, simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: When the French invaded Russia, Prussia and Austria, Napoleon carved out a Polish state allied to the French known as The Duchy of Warsaw, the Polish had had their first glimpse of independence for 200 years since the partitions of Poland by Russia Austria and Prussia. This also led to an increase in Polish nationalism that would persist throughout the 19th and 20th century.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic" (1798–1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place. Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. Alois Von Reding, a powerful Swiss general, led an army of 10,000 men from the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden against the French. This resulted in the Swiss regaining control of Lucerne, however due to the sheer greatness in size of the French army, Von Reding's movement was eventually suppressed. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideals steadily declined, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The instability of France resulted in the creation of two different revolutionary groups with different ideologies of revolt: The aristocrats, seeking the restoration of the Old Swiss Confederacy and a section of the population wanting a coup. Furthermore, Switzerland became a battleground between the armies of France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, this instability, frequent coups within the government and the eventual Bourla-papey forced Napoleon to sign the Act of Medallion which led to the fall of the Helvetic Republic and the restoration of the Confederacy.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: French invaded the territory of modern-day Belgium and controlled it between 1794–1814. The French imposed reforms and incorporated the territory into France. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Antwerp regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business center. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The Kingdom of Denmark (which included Norway) adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750–1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and power shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederik VI) and reform-oriented landowners. In contrast to Old Regime France, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, serfdom was abolished and civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well-organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In Sweden, King Gustav III (reigned 1771–92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes. When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother Charles became regent, but real power was with Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under King Gustav IV Adolf, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44), and his realm included Norway, taken from Denmark in 1814.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The impact of the French Revolution on the Middle East came in terms of the political and military impact of Napoleon's invasions of Egypt and Syria; and in the eventual influence of revolutionary and liberal ideas and revolutionary movements or rebellions. In terms of Napoleon's invasion in 1798, the response by Ottoman officials was highly negative. They warned that traditional religion would be overthrown. Long-standing Ottoman friendship with France ended. Ottoman elites were heavily antithetical to the values of French Revolution and regarded it as a materialist movement hostile to all religions and promoting atheism. Sultan Selim III immediately realized how far behind his empire was, and started to modernize both his army and his governmental system. In Egypt itself, the ruling elite of Mamluks was permanently displaced, speeding the reforms. In intellectual terms, the immediate impact of the French Revolutionary ideas was nearly invisible, but there was a long-range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of ethnic nationalism. These came to fruition about 1876.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Portraying the revolution as "a nasty case of syphilis", an official 1798 report by the Ottoman "Reis ül-Küttab" states:"the conflagration of sedition and wickedness that broke out a few years ago in France, scattering sparks and shooting flames of mischief and tumult in all directions, had been conceived many years previously in the minds of certain accursed heretics.. In this way: the known and famous atheists Voltaire and Rousseau, and other materialists like them, had printed and published various works.. of insults and vilification against the pure prophets and great kings, of the removal and abolition of all religion, and of allusions to the sweetness of equality and republicanism, all expressed in easily intelligible words and phrases, in the form of mockery, in the language of the common people. Finding the pleasure of novelty in these writings, most of the people, even youths and women, inclined towards them and paid close attention to them, so that heresy and wickedness spread like syphilis to the arteries of their brains and corrupted their beliefs. When the revolution became more intense, none took offence at the closing of churches, the killing and expulsion of monks, and the abolition of religion and doctrine: they set their hearts on equality and freedom.. the ultimate basis of the order and cohesion of every state is a firm grasp of the roots and branches of holy law, religion, and doctrine; that the tranquillity of the land and the control of the subjects cannot be encompassed by political means alone; that the necessity for the fear of God and the regard for retribution in the hearts of God's slaves is one of the unshakeably established divine decrees.. the leaders of the sedition and evil appearing in France, in a manner without precedent.. have removed the fear of God and the regard for retribution from the common people, made lawful all kinds of abominable deeds, utterly obliterated all shame and-decency, and thus prepared the way for the reduction of the people of France to the state of cattle... Nor were they satisfied with this alone, .. they had their rebellious declaration which they call 'The Rights of Man' translated into all languages and published in all parts, and strove to incite the common people of the nations and religions to rebel against the kings to whom they were subject"


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Egyptian Islamic scholar and historian 'Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (1753–1825 C.E) maintained a strict, puritanical tone in reactions to his witnessing of the advanced military technology, material sciences and cultural values of the French occupiers. As a top-ranking intellectual of Egypt, Al-Jabarti's views on revolution were also unprecedented; and is reflected in his stance on two major revolutions of his lifetime: French Revolution of 1789 and Wahhabi Revolution of 1798 in the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Jabarti was deeply influenced by the reformist ideals of the Arabian "Muwahhidun" movement and their calls for pan-Islamic fraternity, revival of past Islamic glory by direct engagement with the Scriptures, advocacy of "Ijtihad", opposition to folkish superstitions, etc. He gave a supportive account of the movement in his seminal Egyptian history work ""Aja'ib al-athar fi al-tarajim wal-akhbar"" (The Marvelous Compositions of Biographies and Events) and lamented the fall of Emirate of Dirʿiyya during the Wahhabi Wars. Meanwhile, Jabarti abhorred the Republican ideas of the French revolution such as egalitarianism, liberty and equality; insisting on the supremacy of "Wahy" (Islamic Revelation) over European rationalism. Although he had acknowledged the advances made by Europeans in certain fields, Jabarti firmly believed in the eventual triumph of Islam over the West and advocated the restoration of Islamic prowess through his works.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In Jabarti's view, only God is the Legislator and French Revolution violated "Sharia" (Islamic law) by granting this right to the common masses. In his ""Tarikh muddat al-faransis bi-misr"" (The History of the Period of the French Occupation in Egypt) that chronicled the events of Egypt during June–December 1798, Al-Jabarti gives the following account on the slogans and socio-political values of the French Revolution:"the French agree with the three religions, but at the same time they do not agree with them, nor with any religion... their statement ‘On behalf of the French Republic, etc.’, that is, this proclamation is sent from their Republic, that means their body politic, because they have no chief or sultan with whom they all agree, like others, whose function is to speak on their behalf. For when they rebelled against their sultan six years ago and killed him, the people agreed unanimously that there was not to be a single ruler but that their state, territories, laws, and administration of their affairs, should be in the hands of the intelligent and wise men among them. They appointed persons chosen by them and made them heads of the army, and below them generals and commanders of thousands, two hundreds, and tens, administrators and advisers, on condition that they were all to be equal and none superior to any other in view of the equality of creation and nature. They made this the foundation and basis of their system. This is the meaning of their statement ‘based upon the foundation of liberty and equality’. Their term ‘liberty’ means that they are not slaves like the Mamluks; ‘equality’ has the aforesaid meaning... They follow this rule: great and small, high and low, male and female are all equal. Sometimes they break this rule according to their whims and inclinations or reasoning. Their women do not veil themselves and have no modesty; they do not care whether they uncover their private parts... As for the name ‘Bonaparte’ this is the title of their general, it is not a name."


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The press in the colony of Quebec initially viewed the events of the Revolution positively. Press coverage in Quebec on the Revolution was reliant, and reflective of public opinion in London, with the colony's press reliant on newspapers and reprints from journals from the British Isles. The early positive reception of the French Revolution had made it politically difficult to justify withholding electoral institutions from the colony to both the British and Quebec public; with the British Home Secretary William Grenville remarking how it was hardly "possible to 'maintain with success' the denial 'to so large a body of British Subjects, the benefits of the British Constitution'. Governmental reforms introduced in the "Constitutional Act 1791" split Quebec into two separate colonies, Lower Canada, and Upper Canada; and introduced electoral institutions to the two colonies.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: Opposition to the French Revolution in Quebec first emerged from its clergy, after the French government confiscated the Séminaire de Québec's properties in France. However, most of the clergy in Quebec did not voice their opposition to the Revolution in its initial years, aware of the prevailing opinion of the colony at that time. Public opinion in Quebec began to shift against the Revolution after the Flight to Varennes, and as popular accounts of disturbances in France in 1791 made its way to the colony. After the September Massacres, and the subsequent execution of Louis XVI in January 1793, members of the Canadian clergy, and seigneurs began to openly voice opposition against the Revolution. A shift in public opinion was also apparent in the first session of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, with the legislature voting against several bills inspired by the French Revolution. By 1793, nearly all of the legislative assembly's members refused to be identified as "democrats," a term that was used by supporters of the Revolution. By the end of 1793, the clergy, seigneurs, and the bourgeoisie of the Canadas were openly opposed to the Revolution. Similar sentiments were also found with the "second class of Canadians," who lauded "the French revolution for its principles but detests the crimes it has spawned".


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: French migration to the Canadas was decelerated significantly during, and after the French Revolution; with only a small number of artisans, professionals, and religious emigres from France permitted to settle in the Canadas during that period. Most of these migrants moved to Montreal or Quebec City, although French nobleman Joseph-Geneviève de Puisaye also led a small group of French royalists to settle lands north of York (present day Toronto). The influx of religious migrants from France reinvigorated the Roman Catholic Church in the Canadas, with the refectory priests who moved to the colonies being responsible for the establishment of a number of parishes throughout the Canadas.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The French Revolution found widespread American support in its early phase, but when the king was executed it polarized American opinion and played a major role in shaping American politics. President George Washington declared neutrality in the European wars, but the polarization shaped the First Party System. In 1793, the first "Democratic Societies" were formed. They supported the French Revolution in the wake of the execution of the king. The word "democrat" was proposed by French Ambassador Citizen Genet for the societies, which he was secretly subsidizing. The emerging Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton began to ridicule the supporters of Thomas Jefferson as "democrats". Genet now began mobilizing American voters using French money, for which he was expelled by President Washington.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: After President Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they faded away. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the Jeffersonian Republican Party favored France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war, since they stopped being in favor of the Revolution after they executed the King; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality. Under President Adams, a Federalist, an undeclared naval war took place with France in 1798–99, called the "Quasi War". Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. Nevertheless, he did seize the opportunity to purchase Louisiana in 1803.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The broad similarities but different experiences between the French and American revolutions lead to a certain kinship between France and the United States, with both countries seeing themselves as pioneers of liberty and promoting republican ideals. This bond manifested itself in such exchanges as the gift of the Statue of Liberty by France.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, and once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti and the revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned across every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential Revolution in history.


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: As early as 1810, the term "liberal" was coined in Spanish politics to indicate supporters of the French Revolution. This usage passed to Latin America and animated the independence movement against Spain. In the nineteenth century "Liberalism" was the dominant element in Latin American political thought. French liberal ideas were especially influential in Mexico, particularly as seen through the writings of Alexis de Tocqueville, Benjamin Constant and Édouard René de Laboulaye. The Latin American political culture oscillated between two opposite poles: the "traditional", as based on highly specific personal and family ties to kin groups, communities, and religious identity; and the "modern", based on impersonal ideals of individualism, equality, legal rights, and secularism or anti-clericalism. The French Revolutionary model was the basis for the modern viewpoint, as explicated in Mexico in the writings of José María Luis Mora (1794–1850).


title: Influence of the French Revolution

text: In Mexico, modern liberalism was best expressed in the Liberal Party, the Constitution of 1857, the policies of Benito Juárez, and finally by Francisco I. Madero's democratic movement leading to the Revolution of 1911.


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: Violent Femmes is the debut album by Violent Femmes. Mostly recorded in July 1982, the album was released by Slash Records on vinyl and on cassette in April 1983, and on CD in 1987, with two extra tracks, "Ugly" and "Gimme the Car".


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: In 2002, Rhino Records remastered the album, filled out the disc's length with demos and added another disc of live tracks and a radio interview for a 20th anniversary special edition, with liner notes by Michael Azerrad.


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: "Violent Femmes" is the band's most successful album to date. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold four years after its release and platinum four years after that, despite it never having appeared on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart. After achieving platinum certification on February 1, 1991, the album finally charted on the "Billboard" 200 for the first time on August 3, 1991, and peaked at number 171. Since Nielsen Music began electronically tracking sales in 1991, the album has sold 1.8 million copies. Blending RIAA certifications and Nielsen Music sales data, the record's American sales were estimated at three million as of 2016.


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: Most of the songs on "Violent Femmes" and its follow-up were written when songwriter Gordon Gano was an 18-year-old high-school student in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: The cover model is Billie Jo Campbell, a three-year-old girl who was walking down a Los Angeles street when she and her mother were approached and offered $100 for the photograph that became the album cover. The photograph depicts Campbell peering into the window of a house in Laurel Canyon. Campbell recollects: "I remember looking into that building, and they kept telling me there were animals in there, and I was pissed off ... I didn't know why they were making me look in this building. I had no idea there were photographers there. I was ... pissed off that I couldn't see the animals and I was all cranky by the end of it."


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: In a contemporary review for "Rolling Stone", J. D. Considine wrote that "Violent Femmes" was precocious yet dynamic, with a good balance between Gano's direct lyrics and the full sound of the music. Robert Christgau of "the Village Voice" compared Gano to Jonathan Richman of the Modern Lovers. Gano himself grew tired of comparisons to Richman, as by his own account he was actually trying to sound like Steve Wynn of the Dream Syndicate.


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: In a retrospective write-up for AllMusic, Steve Huey called "Violent Femmes" "one of the most distinctive records of the early alternative movement and an enduring cult classic," noting that "the music also owes something to the Modern Lovers' minimalism, but powered by Brian Ritchie's busy acoustic bass riffing and the urgency and wild abandon of punk rock, the Femmes forged a sound all their own," while crediting Gano for keeping "the music engaging and compelling without overindulging in his seemingly willful naiveté."


title: Violent Femmes (album)

text: "Violent Femmes" has been included in lists of the best albums of the 1980s by publications such as "Pitchfork", who in a 2002 list ranked it 36th, and "Slant Magazine", who in a 2012 list ranked it 21st. In 2014, "PopMatters" listed "Violent Femmes" as an essential alternative rock album of the 1980s. It also placed at number 974 in the 2000 edition of the book "All Time Top 1000 Albums", and was included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Order of Saint Augustine, () abbreviated OSA, is a religious mendicant order of the Catholic Church. It was founded in 1244 by bringing together several eremitical groups in the Tuscany region who were following the Rule of Saint Augustine, written by Saint Augustine of Hippo in the fifth century.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: They are also commonly known as the Augustinians or Austin friars, and were also historically known as the Order of Hermits of Saint Augustine (; abbreviated OESA).


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The order has, in particular, spread internationally the veneration of the Virgin Mary under the title of Our Lady of Good Counsel ("Mater boni consilii").


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Augustine of Hippo, first with some friends and afterward as bishop with his clergy, led a monastic community life. Regarding the use of property or possessions, Augustine did not make a virtue of poverty, but of sharing. Their manner of life led others to imitate them. Instructions for their guidance were found in several writings of Augustine, especially in "De opere monachorum", mentioned in ancient codices of the eighth or ninth century as the "Rule of St. Augustine". Between 430 and 570 this life-style was carried to Europe by monks and clergy fleeing the persecution of the Vandals.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: While in early Medieval times the rule was overshadowed by other Rules, particularly that of St. Benedict, this system of life for cathedral clergy continued in various locations throughout Europe for centuries, and they became known as Canons regular (i.e. cathedral clergy living in community according to a rule). Augustine's Rule appears again in practice in the eleventh century as a basis for the reform of monasteries and cathedral chapters.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Around the start of the 13th century, many eremitical communities, especially in the vicinity of Siena, Italy, sprang up. These were often small (no more than ten) and composed of laymen. Their foundational spirit was one of solitude and penance. At this time there were a number of eremitical groups living in such diverse places as Tuscany, Latium, Umbria, Liguria, England, Switzerland, Germany, and France. In 1223 four of the communities around Siena joined in a loose association, which had increased to thirteen within five years.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinian friars came into being as part of the mendicant movement of the 13th century, a new form of religious life which sought to bring the religious ideals of the monastic life into an urban setting which allowed the religious to serve the needs of the people in an apostolic capacity. In 1243 the Tuscan hermits petitioned Pope Innocent IV to unite them all as one group. Innocent IV issued the bull "Incumbit Nobis" on 16 December 1243, an essentially pastoral letter which exhorted these hermits to adopt "the "Rule" and way of life of the Blessed Augustine," and to elect a prior general. The bull also appointed Cardinal Riccardo Annibaldi as their supervisor and legal guide.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: On 15 July 1255, Pope Alexander IV issued the bull "Cum quaedam salubria" to command a number of religious groupings to gather for the purpose of being amalgamated into a new Order of Hermits of Saint Augustine. Those summoned included the Williamites; several unspecified houses of the Order of St. Augustine, established chiefly in Italy, including those in Tuscany, with Cardinal Annibaldi as protector; the Bonites, so called from their founder, Blessed John Buoni, a member of the Buonuomini family, and named after bishop John the Good; and the Brittinians (Brictinians), so called from their oldest foundation near Fano, in the Marche district of Ancona.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The delegates met in Rome on 1 March 1256, which resulted in a union. Lanfranc Septala of Milan, Prior of the Bonites, was appointed the first prior general of the newly constituted Order.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: At the time of the Grand Union of 1256, some of the constituent congregations already had houses established north of the Alps. The Williamites had already expanded into Hungary. The Hermits of St. Augustine spread rapidly, partly because they did not radiate from a single parent monastery, and partly because, after conflicts in the previously existing congregations, the active life was finally adopted by the greater number of communities, following the example of the Friars Minor and the Dominicans. A few years after the reorganization of the Augustinian Order, Hermit monasteries sprang up in Germany, and Spain. Foundations were made in Mainz (1260), Zurich (1270), and Munich (1294). The first Augustinian houses in France were in the area of Provence. In 1274 the "Fratres Saccati" were dissolved and the Augustinians were given a number of their houses. By 1275 there were about a half dozen friaries stretching in a line along the southern coast. Eventually, France had four Augustinian provinces. The presence of the Augustinian Order can be dated securely in Venetian Candia to the early fourteenth century when they rebuilt the convent of San Salvatore in Heraklion. At the period of its greatest prosperity the order comprised 42 ecclesiastical provinces and 2 vicariates numbering 2000 monasteries and about 30,000 members.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinian Friars were brought to Ciechanów (Poland) in 1358 by Duke Siemowit III. They experienced the most turbulent times during the Reformation. From the 17th century, the Augustinians' pastoral presence was growing in the towns. The monastery – characterised by mild observance – was usually inhabited by 4 to 7 monks. It ceased to exist in 1864 when monasteries were dissolved.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Many European Augustinian priories and foundations suffered serious setbacks (including suppression and destruction) from the various periods of anti-clericalism during the Reformation and other historical events. After the First World War, economic conditions were such in Germany that friars were sent to North America to teach. After 1936, with the political situation in Nazi Germany worsening, more German Augustinians departed for North America, where a separate German province had been established.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Alexander IV freed the order from the jurisdiction of the bishops; Pope Pius V placed the Augustinians among the mendicant orders and ranked them fourth after the Carmelites. Since the end of the 13th century the sacristan of the Papal Palace was always to be an Augustinian friar. This privilege was ratified by Pope Alexander VI and granted to the Order forever by a bull issued in 1497. The holder of the office was Rector of the Vatican parish (of which the chapel of St. Paul is the parish church). To his office also belonged the duty of preserving in his oratory a consecrated Host, which had to be renewed weekly and kept in readiness in case of the pope's illness, when it was the privilege of the papal sacristan to administer the last sacraments to the pope. The sacristan had always to accompany the pope when he traveled, and during a conclave it was he who celebrated Mass and administered the sacraments. , Augustinian friars, still perform the duties of papal sacristans, but the appointment of an Augustinian as bishop-sacristan lapsed under Pope John Paul II with the retirement of Petrus Canisius Van Lierde in 1991. In papal Rome the Augustinian friars always filled one of the Chairs of the Sapienza University, and one of the consultorships in the Congregation of Rites.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: In 1331 Pope John XXII appointed the Augustinian Hermits guardians of the tomb of St. Augustine in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro at Pavia. They were driven from there in 1700, and evacuated to Milan. Their priory was destroyed in 1799, the church desecrated, and the remains of St. Augustine were taken back to Pavia and placed in its cathedral. The church of S. Pietro was restored, and on 7 October 1900, the body of the saint and Doctor of the church was removed from the cathedral and replaced in San Pietro. The Augustinians were subsequently restored their old church of S. Pietro.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: In the fourteenth century, owing to various causes such as the mitigation of the rule—either by permission of the pope, or through a lessening of fervour, but chiefly because of the Plague and the Great Western Schism—discipline became relaxed in the Augustinian monasteries; and so reformers emerged who were anxious to restore it. These reformers were themselves Augustinians and instituted several reformed groups. The new governmental groupings were called "congregations" to distinguish them from the already-established geographical provinces. Each had its own vicar-general (vicarius-generalis), but he was under the control of the general of the order. In one country there could be two types of Augustinian houses, the conventual and the observants.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The most important of these congregations of the "Regular Observance" were those of Lecceto, near Siena, established in 1385 and initially had 12 houses. The Lombardy Congregation (1430) had 56. The reform of Monte Ortono near Padua (1436) had 5 convents, the Regular Observants of the Blessed Virgin at Genoa (also called Our Lady of Consolation (c. 1470) had 25. The Congregation of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome was affiliated with Augstuinians in Ireland.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Johannes Zachariae, an Augustinian monk of Eschwege, Provincial of the Order from 1419 to 1427 and professor of theology at the University of Erfurt, began a reform in 1492. The German, or Saxon, Reformed Congregation, recognized in 1493, comprised nearly all the important convents of the Augustinian Hermits in Germany. After the Reformation, German houses that remained in communion with Rome united with the Lombardic Congregation. There are no longer any officially designated observant houses or congregations in the Order of Saint Augustine in an official sense.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Discalced Augustinians were formed in 1588 in Italy as a reform movement of the Order and have their own constitutions, differing from those of the other Augustinians.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinian Recollects developed in Spain in 1592 with the same goal. Currently, though, they are primarily found serving in pastoral care.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The value set upon learning and science by the Augustinian friars is demonstrated by the care given to their missionary work, their libraries, and by the historic establishment of their own printing-press in their convent at Nuremberg (1479), as well as by the numerous learned individuals produced by the order.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinians followed the Portuguese flag in Africa and the Gulf behind the explorer and seafarer Vasco da Gama. Nikolaus Teschel (d. 1371), auxiliary Bishop of Ratisbon, where he died, with some brethren preached the Gospel in Africa. He had sailed from Lisbon in 1497, and arrived at Mozambique in March 1498. Portuguese Augustinians also arrived in Gold coast (now Ghana) in 1572 and started their missionary work, and also worked on the island of Sao Tome, in Warri (Nigeria), and in what is now known as Angola, in the Congo, in Equatorial Guinea, and in Gabon up until 1738. The Portuguese also took control of the port of Goa in India—giving the Augustinians a foothold there also. Besides the early Portuguese Augustinians, other Augustinian missionaries have since followed to Africa from America, Ireland, Belgium and Australia.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: As of 2006, there were more than 30 other Augustinian priories in Nigeria, Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa and Algeria, with over 85 friars. There are also Augustinians working in the Republic of Benin, Togo, Madagascar, Guinea and Burkina Faso.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Sent by their Provincial St. Thomas of Villanova, the first group of Spanish/Castilian Augustinians arrived in Mexico in 1533 after the subjugation of Aztec Mexico by Hernán Cortés. Monasteries sprang up in the principal places and became the centers of Christianity, art, and civilization. They soon formed multiple priories, and were later instrumental in establishing the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico. By 1562 there were nearly 300 Spanish Augustinians in Mexico, and they had established some 50 priories. Their history in Mexico was not to be an easy one, given the civil strife of events like the Cristero War, periodic anti-clericalism and suppression of the church that was to follow.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Spanish Augustinians first went to Peru in 1551. From there they went to Ecuador in 1573, and from Ecuador in 1575 to Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Panama and Venezuela. The order founded the Ecuadorean University of Quito in 1586. Augustinians also entered Argentina via Chile between 1617 and 1626. Political events in these countries prevented the order from prospering and hindered the success of its undertakings. The order had considerable property confiscated by the Argentinian government under the secularisation laws in the 19th century, and were entirely suppressed for 24 years until 1901 when they returned. In the Prefecture Apostolic of San León de Amazonas, in June, 1904, Bernardo Calle, the lay brother Miguel Vilajoli, and more than 70 Christians were murdered at a then recently erected mission station, Huabico, in Upper Maranon and the station itself was destroyed. The Augustinian Province of the Netherlands later also founded houses in Bolivia from 1930.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The order (from Mexico) arrived in Cuba in 1608. It was suppressed by force in 1842. From 1892 the province of the United States had care of St. Augustine's College at Havana, Cuba, where there were 5 priests and 3 lay brothers in 1900 before they were expelled in 1961 by the government of Fidel Castro.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: In the year 2000 in Central and South America, the Augustinians remain established in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela as well three Peruvian Vicariates of Iquitos, Apurímac and Chulucanas, and the Province of Peru. There are currently 814 friars in Latin America.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Martin de Hereda penetrated into the interior of China in 1577, to study Chinese literature with the intention of bringing it into Europe. Portuguese Augustinians served in the colonial port of Macau from 1586 until 1712.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: In about 1681, the Filipino Augustinian Alvaro de Benevente arrived in China and established the first of the Augustinian houses in China at Kan-chou. Benevente was made bishop and became head of the newly created Vicariate of Kiang-si in 1699. The Augustinian missionaries had success in propagating Catholicism, but in 1708, during the Chinese Rites controversy they were forced to withdraw from China.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: In 1879 Spanish Augustinians from Manila (Elias Suarez and Agostino Villanueva) entered China to re-establish an Augustinian mission. In 1900 the order possessed the mission of Northern Hu-nan, China. The mission comprised about 3000 baptized Christians and 3500 catechumens in a population of 11 million.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: By 1947 the Augustinian mission counted 24,332 baptised Catholics as well as 3,250 preparing for baptism. They had established 20 major churches and 90 satellite churches. All foreign missionaries were expelled or imprisoned from 1953 by the Communist government. Chinese-born Augustinians were dispersed by government order and directed not to live the monastic life. Church officials were arrested, schools and other church institutions closed or confiscated by the State. Many priests, religious brothers and sisters, as well as leaders among the Christian laity were sent to labour camps. One of the last of the pre-Revolution Chinese Augustinians was the Dai. He died in 2003.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Since the re-unification of the former colonies of Macau and Hong-Kong with the central Chinese government and further developments in government religious policy, Catholicism in China—including clergy, Catholic bishops, and a Cardinal—once again exists openly alongside the members of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association and their co-religionists in the continuing underground Church.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinian have recently re-established friendly relations with Chinese educational organisations through school-placement programmes as well as through the University of the Incarnate Word Chinese campus founded by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word. While there are Chinese Augustinian friars, there is not yet a priory in mainland China re-established.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: After an extensive period of expansion in India from the 15th century the Portuguese Augustinians had not only established the order but also provided sixteen Indian bishops between 1579 and 1840. The order subsequently disappeared in India, cut off from its usual governance after the suppression of Portuguese monasteries in 1838, and the friars were forced to become secular priests. The order had failed successfully to establish an autonomous indigenous Indian foundation.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: However, the Augustinians were re-established by Andrés G. Niño, Spanish Augustinian, named coordinator of the project by the General Chapter of the Order in 1971 ... (cf., Estudio Agustiniano, 45 (2010) 279-303) ... and the Indian Augustinians took on further responsibilities in Kerala in 2005. The Indian delegation currently has 16 ordained friars and 8 in simple vows. The order is growing numerically in India.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: Towards the close of the sixteenth century, Aleixo de Menezes, Count of Cantanheda (d. 1617), a member of the order, appointed Archbishop of Goa in 1595, and of Braga in 1612, Primate of the East Indies, and several times Viceroy of India, sent several Augustinians as missionaries to Iran (Persia) while he himself laboured for the reunion of the Thomas Christians, especially at the Synod of Diamper, in 1599, and for the conversion of the Muslims and the non-Christians of Malabar.


title: Order of Saint Augustine

text: The Augustinian missions in the Philippines provided missionaries for the East since their first establishment. In 1602 some of them penetrated into Japan, where several were martyred during a period of Christian persecution. Among those martyred, Augustinians include: Ferdinand of Saint Joseph, Andrew Yoshida, and Peter Zuñiga. Augustinian Ferdinand of Saint Joseph, along with Andrew Yoshida, a catechist who worked with him, were beheaded in 1617. In 1653 others entered China, where, in 1701, the order had six missionary stations before their expulsion.