title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: On 22 August, Al Jazeera reported that the bodies of both Khamis Gaddafi and his father's intelligence chief Abdullah Senussi may have been discovered in Tripoli during the battle for the city. However, a rebel commander later stated that he believed Khamis Gaddafi was in Bab al-Azizia.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: Senussi was found alive and captured in Mauritania on 17 March 2012, and was extradited to Libya on 5 September for trial.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: On 29 August, it was reported that anti-Gaddafi fighters 60 km south of Tripoli claimed that a NATO Apache helicopter had fired on Khamis Gaddafi's Toyota Land Cruiser, destroying the vehicle. A man who claimed to be Khamis Gaddafi's bodyguard said he had been killed. No visual confirmation was immediately available. Several days later, "The Guardian" interviewed a former guard being held captive in Tarhuna. His personal guard, Abdul Salam Taher Fagri, a 17-year-old from Sabha, recruited in Tripoli, later confirmed that Khamis Gaddafi was indeed killed in this attack. He told the newspaper "I was in the truck behind him ... when his car was hit. He was burned." Three other guards being held in separate cells apparently gave similar accounts, leading their captors to believe the accounts of all four to be credible.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: The National Transitional Council claimed on 4 September that it was now certain Khamis Gaddafi was dead and had been buried near Bani Walid. In mid-September 2011, a report stated that Gaddafi was in Bani Walid, but had left the city and his men to their fate. However, the "International Business Times" reported on 15 September that Khamis Gaddafi was still presumed dead. On 15 October, the Syrian-based pro-Gaddafi TV station Arrai TV posted a message mourning his death on 29 August.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: In April 2012, "New York Times" journalist Robert Worth met with former Tripoli Yarmouk prison captor Marwan Gdoura, who confessed that after the execution of around 100 prisoners he fled the city with some 200 loyalists under the command of Khamis Gaddafi, who was killed in gunbattle. Afterwards, he witnessed his older brother Saif al-Islam Gaddafi receiving condolences in Bani Walid.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: On 17 October 2012, a report from Human Rights Watch said "Khamis Gaddafi, a son of Muammar who commanded the elite 32nd "Khamis" Brigade of the Libyan military, was killed on 29 August as he fled Tripoli, in what is believed to have been a NATO airstrike on his convoy.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: At least one report published after the capture of Saif al-Islam Gaddafi asserted that the older Gaddafi told interrogators that Khamis Gaddafi was still alive and may be hiding in Tarhuna. On 25 February 2012, "Stratfor" reported the capture of Khamis Gaddafi by fighters from Zintan. This was denied by the NTC.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: Amid a military campaign against Gaddafi loyalists in Bani Walid, the deputy prime minister of Libya claimed in a tweet that Khamis Gaddafi was killed during fighting in the town on 20 October 2012, a year to the day Gaddafi's father Muammar was captured and killed by rebel forces in Sirte. A statement from the Libyan National Congress's spokesman, Omar Hamdan, claimed Gaddafi was killed "in battle", but gave no further details. His body was purportedly found after a day of heavy fighting between the town's pro-Gaddafi garrison and militias allied to the Libyan government.


title: Khamis Gaddafi

text: A government spokesman denied that there was any official confirmation about the capture of Mussa Ibrahim to Agence France-Presse, and did not even talk about the rumor of Khamis Gaddafi's death. The Associated Press described the report of Gaddafi's death as an unconfirmed rumor. Musa Ibrahim, the former spokesman of Muammar Gaddafi, personally disproved the message on the arrest saying he was not even in Libya and denied the most recent reports on the death of Khamis. On 24 October, government spokesman Nasser Al-Manaa retracted and apologised for false reports from the government and the National Congress regarding the killing of Gaddafi and the capture of Ibrahim.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Tom Rosenthal (born 26 August 1986) is an English singer-songwriter and composer. His music has been described as "short, expertly crafted pop songs".


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal has released 6 albums to date, all of them self-released on his own label Tinpot Records. Keep a Private Room Behind the Shop was released in 2011, and the latest is Denis Was A Bird in 2021, written about his father's death. His songs have had over 350 million streams on Spotify.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal's makes videos for his songs that he posts on YouTube and Vimeo. His video for "Watermelon" was noted in the Top 30 music videos of 2014 by The Huffington Post as, "Best use of a grown man in a watermelon suit. (*Close call though.)"


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal's music has been used on television soundtracks. "Forgets Slowly", "Lights on But Nobody's Home", and "Take Care" featured in the "Skins" episode "Alo". "Go Solo" was featured on the soundtrack of the German film "Head Full of Honey" (2014), the documentary "Kid Poker" (2015), the NFL documentary Hard Knocks, the film trailer for Felix and Meira, and the Netflix documentary . "It's OK" features on the film trailers for "Comet" (2014), "Anesthesia" (2014). and "L'odyssée" (2016) From 2016 through to 2018 his songs It's OK and Woes have been used on Neighbours.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal played his first concert at St Pancras Old Church on Wednesday 13 March 2019, followed by a tour around Europe and a gig at Union Chapel, with over 40 concerts in 2019.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal recorded a cover version of the single "Home" in 2015, followed by an album of covers called "Stop Stealing the Covers!" in 2020 under the pseudonym Edith Whiskers.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: At age 4, Rosenthal's daughter Fenn composed the song "Dinosaurs in Love", which went viral on the Internet in 2020.


title: Tom Rosenthal (musician)

text: Rosenthal co-founded the UK charity Grand Plan, which funds four grants of £1,000 to artists of colour looking to realise a creative project.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Kalorama is a neighborhood in Northwest Washington, D.C., United States. It includes the Kalorama Triangle Historic District and Sheridan-Kalorama Historic District. It is named after the Kalorama mansion.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Kalorama Triangle is bordered by Connecticut Avenue, Columbia Road, Calvert Street, and Rock Creek Park. Sheridan-Kalorama is adjacent, to the southwest, between Connecticut Avenue, Rock Creek Park, Massachusetts Avenue, and Florida Avenue.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: The Sheridan-Kalorama neighborhood includes several diplomatic residences, such as the French ambassador's residence at 2221 Kalorama Road, and the Residence of the Ambassador of the Netherlands at 2347 S Street, as well as 28 embassies. It includes much of Embassy Row on Massachusetts Avenue. The Taft Bridge, carrying Connecticut Avenue over Rock Creek Park, with its concrete lions, is a notable feature. The Spanish Steps are another neighborhood landmark. Notable historic buildings include William E. Borah Apartment, Windsor Lodge, The Lindens, Lothrop Mansion, Miller House, Wyoming Apartments, and the Charles Evans Hughes House. It also includes the Anthony Holmead Archeological Site.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: According to Zillow, the median home value in Kalorama is $1.5 million, making it one of Washington's most expensive neighborhoods. It is accessible by the Red Line of the Washington Metro at the Woodley Park and Dupont Circle stations, as well as Metrobus and the DC Circulator.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Kalorama was primarily rural until the end of the 19th century. It is northwest of the original limits of Washington City in Pierre Charles L'Enfant's original plan.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: In 1795, Gustavus Scott, a commissioner for the District of Columbia, purchased land that had been part of Anthony Holmead's "Widows Mite" holdings. He constructed a large, classically styled house at 23rd and S Streets, which he named Rock Hill. In 1803, Scott's wife, Margaret Scott, sold the property to William Augustine Washington.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: In 1807, Joel Barlow, a poet, diplomat, and political philosopher bought the property and renamed it "Kalorama", Greek for "fine view." Barlow lived in the home until shortly before his death in 1812. He commissioned United States Capitol architect Benjamin Latrobe to enlarge the house and elevate its design. The residence was destroyed by a fire during the American Civil War while it was used as a Union hospital. It was rebuilt and returned to a single-family home until 1887, when it was leveled by the District of Columbia government for the extension of S Street NW.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: In the early 1880s, the Kalorama area, largely undeveloped because it lay beyond Boundary Street (now Florida Avenue) and thus outside the city limits, began to be subdivided for urban development. In 1893, Congress ordered L'Enfant's design of the city of Washington extended outward to include the rest of the District. Existing developments were exempted, which is why Kalorama is one of the few areas of D.C. that do not adhere to the city's street grid.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Two high bridges over Rock Creek became important to the development of both sides of Kalorama in this period, the Calvert Street bridge (since replaced by the Duke Ellington Bridge), built in 1891, and the Taft Bridge (on Connecticut Avenue), built in 1907.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: The Kalorama Triangle is a residential enclave of Adams Morgan in Northwest Washington, bounded by three major thoroughfares: Connecticut Avenue, Calvert Street, and Columbia Road.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Kalorama Triangle is in the service area of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 1C, the Adams Morgan Advisory Neighborhood Commission, and is represented by the commissioners for 1C02.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Sheridan-Kalorama, also known as Kalorama Heights, is bounded to the north and west by Rock Creek Park; to the south and west by Massachusetts Avenue N.W.; and to the south and east by Florida Avenue and Connecticut Avenue N.W. It is named after American Civil War general Philip Sheridan, of whom there is also a statue in the neighborhood.


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: Kalorama Heights is assigned to Washington's Sheridan-Kalorama Advisory Neighborhood Commission (ANC 2D) and designated as Single Member District 2D01 (the northeastern half) and 2D02 (the remainder).


title: Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)

text: District of Columbia Public Schools operates public schools. Kalorama Heights is zoned to Marie Reed Elementary School in Adams Morgan. High school students are assigned to Woodrow Wilson High School.


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) (, "Hikûmetî Herêmî Kurdistan") is the official executive body of the autonomous Kurdistan Region of northern Iraq.


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: The cabinet is selected by the majority party or list who also select the prime minister of the Iraqi Kurdish polity. The president is directly elected by the electorate of the region and is the head of the cabinet and chief of state who delegates executive powers to the cabinet. The prime minister is traditionally the head of the legislative body but also shares executive powers with the president. The President of Kurdistan Region is also the commander-in-chief of the Peshmerga Armed Forces.


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: From mid-2013 to mid-2014, the KRG "built up their own defenses by creating a security belt stretching more than 1,000 km (600 miles) from the Iranian border all the way to Syria – skirting around Mosul, a city of 2 million people they appear[ed] to have no intention of fighting for." In August 2014, ISIL attacked the Kurds.


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: On 1 July 2014, Masoud Barzani announced that "Iraq's Kurds will hold an independence referendum within months."


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: In September, the 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum was held regarding Kurdish independence from Iraq. 92% of Iraqi Kurds participating in the referendum voted in favor of independence. The referendum was regarded as illegal by the federal government in Baghdad, and on 6 November, Iraq's Supreme Federal Court ruled that no Iraqi province was allowed to secede in order to preserve the unity of Iraq.


title: Kurdistan Regional Government

text: On 14 November, the KRG announced it would respect the Supreme Federal Court's ruling, stating that "this decision must become a basis for starting an inclusive national dialogue between (Kurdish authorities in) Erbil and Baghdad to resolve all disputes".


title: Substitute (association football)

text: In association football, a substitute is a player who is brought on to the pitch during a match in exchange for an existing player. Substitutions are generally made to replace a player who has become tired or injured, or who is performing poorly, or for tactical reasons (such as bringing a striker on in place of a defender). A player who has been substituted during a match takes no further part in the game, in games played under the standard International Football Association Board Laws of the Game.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Substitutions were officially added to the Laws of the Game in 1958. Prior to this most games were played with no changes permitted at all, with occasional exceptions in cases of extreme injury or players not arriving to matches on time.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: The number of substitutes has risen over time as well as the number of reserve players allowed to be nominated. It is now common for games to allow a maximum of 5 substitutions; some competitions allow for an additional substitution when playing extra time. A maximum of 3 "substitution opportunities" are provided to a side during normal time, and an extra opportunity during extra time. Substitutions can be made during half-time breaks during normal and extra time, and full time breaks(before the start of extra time), but do not count as substitution opportunities. There is also a provision of an additional substitution beyond whatever limits the match is being played under to be used specifically for a players who has sustained a concussion.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Teams choose a substitute player from a pre-selected set of reserve players, these players typically sit in the technical area with the coaches, and are said to be "on the bench". When the substitute enters the field of play it is said they have "come on" or have been "brought on", while the player they are substituting for is "coming off", or being "brought off" or "substituted". This pool of reserve players has also steadily increased in most competitions where they now allow 5, 7 or 9 reserves while in international competitive tournaments it is common that every player selected in the tournament squad (usually 23 players total) is an eligible substitute if they aren't suspended from the game.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: A player who is noted for frequently making appearances, or scoring important goals, as a substitute is often informally known as a "super sub".


title: Substitute (association football)

text: The origin of football substitutes goes back to at least the early 1860s as part of English public school football games. The original use of the term "substitute" in football was to describe the replacement of players who failed to turn up for matches. For example, in 1863, a match reports states: "The Charterhouse eleven played a match in cloisters against some old Carthusians but in consequence of the non-appearance of some of those who were expected it was necessary to provide three substitutes." The substitution of absent players happened as early as the 1850s, for example from Eton College where the term "emergencies" is used. Numerous references to players acting as a "substitute" occur in matches in the mid-1860s where it is not indicated whether these were replacements of absent players or of players injured during the match.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: While substitution during games was first added to the Laws of the Game in 1958, there are recorded instances of substitution being permitted on earlier occasions. On 7 November 1885, Lockwood Brothers used a substitute in an FA Cup first round replay against Notts Rangers, after midfielder F. Brears suffered a broken leg. The first use of a substitute in international football was on 15 April 1889, in the match between Wales and Scotland at Wrexham. Wales's original goalkeeper, Jim Trainer, failed to arrive; local amateur player Alf Pugh started the match and played for some 20 minutes until the arrival of Sam Gillam, who took over from him. In 1940, in a match between Mandatory Palestine and Lebanon, Mandatory Palestine centre-half Zvi Fuchs was replaced at half-time by Lonia Dvorin following an injury. Also during the qualifying phase for the 1954 World Cup, Horst Eckel of Germany is recorded as having been replaced by Richard Gottinger in their match with the Saarland on 11 October 1953. The use of substitutes in World Cup Finals matches was not allowed until the 1970 tournament.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: The number of substitutes usable in a competitive match has increased from zero, meaning that teams were reduced if players' injuries could not allow them to play on, to one in 1958; to two out of a possible five in 1988. With the later increases in substitutions allowed, the number of potential substitute players increased to seven. The number of substitutes increased to two plus one (injured goalkeeper) in 1994, to three in 1995; and to a fourth substitute in certain competitions (starting from UEFA Euro 2016) in extra time.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: In 2020, following a proposal from FIFA, the International Football Association Board allowed for competition organisers to temporarily allow for a maximum of five substitutions (with an additional allowed in extra time, where applicable) to be made in official matches for the remainder of the year in order to lessen the impact of fixture congestion caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there will only be three opportunities to make substitutions (with an additional allowed in extra time, where applicable), excluding those made at half-time, before the start of extra time and at half-time in extra time.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Substitutions are governed under Law 3 of the Laws of the Game in the "(3) Substitution Procedure" section.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: A player can only be substituted during a stoppage in play and with the permission of the referee. The player to be substituted (outgoing player) must have left the field of play before the substitute (incoming player) may enter the field of play; at that point the substitute becomes a player and the person substituted ceases to be a player. The incoming player may only enter the field at the halfway line. Failure to comply with these provisions may be punished by a caution (yellow card).


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Unused substitutes still on the bench, as well as players who have been already substituted, remain under the authority of the referee. These are liable for misconduct, though cannot be said to have committed a foul. For example, in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Claudio Caniggia was shown the red card for cursing at the referee from the bench.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Under the Laws of the Game, the referee has no specific power to force a player to be substituted, even if the team manager or captain has ordered their player to be substituted. As "Law 3 (3) Substitution Procedure" simply states that: ""if a player who is to be replaced refuses to leave, play continues."" However, in some situations players may still be liable to punishment with a caution (yellow card) if they are perceived to be wasting time or behaving in an unsporting manner by refusing to leave the field of play.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: A player who has been sent off (red card) cannot be replaced; the team will have to continue with one fewer player. In the case of a goalkeeper who is sent off, the coach will usually (but is not required to) substitute an outfield player so that the backup goalkeeper can enter the game. For example, in the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final, Arsenal midfielder Robert Pires was replaced by second-choice goalkeeper Manuel Almunia to replace Jens Lehmann, who was sent off less than 20 minutes into the match. If all substitutions have been used, or if no goalkeeper is available, an outfield player must take up the role of the goalkeeper. A famous example of this is when Chelsea goalkeepers Petr Čech and Carlo Cudicini were both injured in the same game, which led to defender John Terry spending the remainder of the match in goal wearing third-choice goalkeeper Hilário's shirt.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: According to the Laws of the Game, "the number of substitutes, up to a maximum of five, which may be used in any match played in an official competition will be determined by FIFA, the confederation or the national football association."


title: Substitute (association football)

text: In October 2019, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) began discussing the use of additional substitutions for players who are suspected to have sustained a concussion during a match. Earlier in the year, the chairman of FIFA's medical committee, Michel D'Hooghe, said the body was open to discussing concussion substitutions. UEFA had also called for FIFA and IFAB to allow for temporary substitutes for suspected head injuries. The idea had been previously discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee five years earlier. However, the prevailing view was that the rule would hurt football's "universality", as it would be difficult to replicate on a grassroots level, and could be exploited to waste time and/or gain an additional substitution.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: In 2014, UEFA introduced a rule to allow referees to stop matches for up to three minutes to assess head injuries, with players only allowed to return after the team doctor could confirm the player's fitness to carry on. The three-minute rule was similarly adopted at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The change came following high-profile head injuries at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and calls by FIFPro for FIFA to review its concussion protocol.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: Initially, IFAB had considered a ten-minute assessment period for players suspected of a concussion, with a substitute replacing them in the interim. In December 2019, IFAB agreed to appoint an expert group, composed of sports medical specialists and football experts, to identify options for the assessment and management of suspected concussions during matches. Following feedback from the Concussion Expert Group, IFAB announced in February 2020 that it would draw up concussion substitute protocols to be used in trials. In October 2020, the expert group announced that an "additional permanent substitution" protocol would be used to protect the health of players using an "if in doubt, take them out" philosophy, and that trials would start in 2021. The protocol and trial was formally approved by IFAB on 16 December 2020. Under the protocol, players suspected of a concussion will be permanently removed from the match and replaced by a substitute. This prevents a player from sustaining multiple head injuries in a match, prevents teams from suffering a numerical or tactical disadvantage, reduces the pressure on medical personnel to make a quick assessment and can be applied on all levels of the game. Competition organisers must be approved by FIFA and IFAB to participate in the trial period, which will last from January 2021 to March 2022.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: In January 2021, FIFA announced that it would trial concussion substitutes in the following month at the 2020 FIFA Club World Cup. Later that month, it was announced that the Premier League, FA Women's Super League, FA Women's Championship and FA Cup would begin the trial in February 2021. On 9 February 2021, West Ham United made the first concussion substitution in English football during an FA Cup match against Manchester United, when Issa Diop was replaced by Ryan Fredericks at half-time following a head injury. The trial is also taking place in the Eredivisie, Eerste Divisie and KNVB Cup.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: IFAB announced two protocols for concussion substitutes, with competition organisers able to choose which to use. The use of concussion substitutes will operate in conjunction with other protocols used, including the three-minute break for an on-field concussion assessment.


title: Substitute (association football)

text: The term "super-sub" refers to a player who is not a regular in the starting line-up but who is noted for often coming on a substitute and making a significant impact on the game. Players regarded as "super-subs" include David Fairclough and Divock Origi for Liverpool, John Hewitt for Aberdeen, Tosaint Ricketts for Vancouver Whitecaps FC, Adam Le Fondre for Reading, Ole Gunnar Solskjær and Javier Hernández for Manchester United, Mikael Forssell for Chelsea, Edin Džeko for Manchester City, Brendon Santalab for Western Sydney Wanderers, Henrique for Brisbane Roar, Stevie Kirk for Motherwell, Archie Thompson, Joshua Kennedy and Tim Cahill for Australia, Fernando Llorente for Tottenham Hotspur, Roger Milla for Cameroon, Oliver Bierhoff for Germany, Ilsinho for Philadelphia Union, and Abby Wambach and Carli Lloyd for the United States women's team.


title: Horik I

text: Horik I or Hårik (died 854) was a king of the Danes. He was co-ruler from 813, and sole king from c. 828 until his violent death in 854. His long and eventful reign was marked by Danish raids on the Carolingian Empire of Louis the Pious, son and successor of Charlemagne.


title: Horik I

text: Horik's father was King Gudfred, known for his successful raids and wars against Charlemagne's Frankish empire and against the Obodrites. If the later author Notker of Saint Gall can be trusted, his mother may have been disowned by Gudfred in the early 9th century. In 810, Gudfred was assassinated by a housecarl, or, in Notker's version, by one of his sons as revenge for the treatment of his mother. His nephew Hemming succeeded him. Gudfred had at least five sons. It is unknown why kingship descended on a side-branch of the dynasty, though Hemming was possibly older than his cousins. The new king made peace with Charlemagne in 811.


title: Horik I

text: Hemming's reign as king was short-lived and he died in 812. After his demise, a violent civil war broke out. Another dynastic branch, Harald Klak and Ragnfred, gained power during the conflict. The party of the five sons of Gudfred, of whom only Horik is known by name, sought refuge with the Swedes during the unrest. Harald and Ragnfred entertained good relations with Charlemagne.


title: Horik I

text: Harald and Ragnfred were busy fighting rebels in Vestfold in Norway, the farthest part of their realm. After their return to Denmark in 813, they were attacked by Gudred's sons and their noble retainers, who had returned from Sweden. The five brothers found support from all over the Danish realm, defeated Harald and Ragnfred with relative ease, and expelled them from Denmark. In that way the brothers were elevated as Danish co-rulers. Whether they split the realm into parts or ruled collectively is not known. In the next year, Harald and Ragnfred gathered a force and attacked their rivals. A battle was fought where Ragnfred and the oldest son of Gudfred were both slain. However, the remaining four brothers gained victory. Harald acknowledged defeat and fled to the new Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious who had just succeeded his father Charlemagne. Louis ordered him to stay in Saxony and await the right occasion when the Franks would be able to help him regain his throne.


title: Horik I

text: During the winter, Louis ordered the Saxons and Obodrites to prepare for the invasion of Denmark. In May 815 the troops moved northward over the Elbe and reached Sinlendi (in South Jutland). Then they marched for seven days until they reached a shore, three miles from a certain island (possibly Funen). The four brother kings had gathered a fleet of 200 ships and were posted on the island, refusing to offer the imperial troops battle. The imperial envoy Baldrich let his troops ravage the districts in the neighbourhood, took 40 hostages, and returned without having achieved much.


title: Horik I

text: Ex-king Harald did not give up and repeatedly raided the realm of Gudfred's sons from his base in the Frankish Empire. In 817 the sons asked Emperor Louis to make peace in order to halt the attacks. However, the Frankish court considered this mere hypocrisy. On the contrary, Louis continued to support Harald's cause. Next, the Obodrite ruler Slavomir, a vassal of Louis, defected since the emperor forced him to share power with another prince, Keadrag. Instead, Slavomir sent a message to Gudfred's sons and suggested an alliance. In fact, a Danish Viking fleet sailed up the Elbe and laid waste to the Stör area. The Danish border chief Glum attacked the Frankish fortress Esesfeld with a force of Danes and Obodrites, but had to withdraw in the face of spirited Frankish resistance.


title: Horik I

text: Two years after these events, in 819, the Danish ally Slavomir was arrested by the Franks and deprived of power. Meanwhile, there was a rift among Gudfred's sons. Two of them expelled the other two, supposedly through treason. In a dramatic twist of alliances the remaining king-brothers, one of which was obviously Horik, asked Harald Klak to share power with them. This may have been an expedient way to gain peace with the Franks, now that the Danish interests in the Slavic lands had been weakened. On the emperor's order, the Obodrites took Harald on board their ships and brought him home. The route taken suggests that the center of the Danish kingdom was situated on the islands, perhaps Funen. The "Vita Ansgari" says that Harald ruled over "part of the land of the Danes", implying that the kingdom was shared up. The new constellation was successful for a few years. However, the sons of Gudfred irritated the emperor by allying with the Obodrite prince Keadrag in a "faithless" way, causing Louis to reinstate Slavomir in his stead.


title: Horik I

text: In 823 the alliance began to break down, as Gudfred's sons threatened to expel Harald from the kingdom. Harald fled to Louis and asked for his assistance. Two imperial envoys visited Denmark and collected detailed information about the situation. On their return, they brought with them Archbishop Ebo of Rheims, who had spent time proselytizing in Denmark with some success. The whereabouts of Harald in the next few years are not recorded, but in 826 he was baptized in Mainz, where the emperor in person acted as his godfather. After the ceremony, Harald was sent back towards Denmark in the company of the missionary Ansgar. As he could not safely enter his kingdom, the emperor provided him with a fief on the other side of Elbe. Gudfred's sons sent envoys to the imperial court in 825 and 826 to renew the peace. Horik, who is now mentioned by name for the first time, promised to appear before Louis at Nijmegen in 827 but broke his promise. Instead, he and his brother expelled Harald from Denmark, this time for good.


title: Horik I

text: Still in the next year, there were diplomatic negotiations between the Franks and Gudfred's sons. However, the exiled Harald lost patience and unexpectedly attacked Denmark and plundered and burned several villages. Exasperated, Horik and his brother gathered an army, crossed the Eider and attacked the imperial troops in the neighbourhood. The Franks were badly defeated and fled from their encampment. Afterwards the kings sent envoys to Louis in order to avert Frankish retribution. In fact, Horik was not disturbed by direct Frankish intervention during the remainder of his long reign. Though Harald survived as a Frankish protégé until the 840s he was not able to seriously disturb Horik. It is not known exactly when Horik's brother and co-ruler died, but he is not mentioned after 828. The "Vita Ansgari" states that Horik was the sole ruler when Ansgar became Archbishop of Bremen (849).


title: Horik I

text: By the mid 9th century Horik developed a friendly relation to Ansgar, Archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen. According to the "Vita Ansgari" the king trusted Ansgar to the degree that the latter was allowed to follow the meetings with his privy council. Ansgar made efforts to convert Horik to Christianity and persuaded him to build a church in Hedeby. When Ansgar planned a missionary expedition to the Swedes in about 852, Horik helped prepare the trip, providing the archbishop with his personal envoy and a message to the Swedish King Olof. The king (or his partisans) had found refuge in Sweden in his youth and may have entertained good relations with part of the Swedish elite. In the end, he nevertheless refused to convert to Christianity, perhaps since it was his enemies' religion.


title: Horik I

text: In spite of his flirtation with the Christian mission towards the end of his life, his reign was filled with Viking activities directed against the Frankish kingdoms, often but not always approved by himself. Danish raids against Frisia were a major problem. The Franks lacked an effective fleet, so the Danes could raid more or less with impunity. The Danes sacked the silver minting center of Dorestad in 834, 835, and 836, and plundered Walcheren in 837. King Horik seems to have disapproved of these raids, for successful raiders constituted possible rivals. Occasionally, Horik even punished raiders. In 836, Horik sent an emissary to Emperor Louis declaring that he had nothing to do with the raids on Frisia, and two years later he assured that he had executed those responsible. In return he asked the emperor to cede the lands of the Frisians and Obodrites, which Louis found highly offensive. Here it seems that Horik reiterated the old pretensions of his father Gudfred.


title: Horik I

text: Danish Viking activity also went in the other direction, to Central Sweden. The expelled Swedish King Anund secured assistance from the Danes in the 840s in order to regain his kingdom, presumably with Horik's approval. The expedition did not achieve much and was soon redirected to the Slavic lands on the southern coast of the Baltic. Another Danish expedition went to Curlandia in about 850 in order to extract tribute. However, it failed badly, and the defeat encouraged Swedish expansion in that direction.


title: Horik I

text: After the break-up of the Frankish Empire in 843, Horik temporarily broke off his old conciliatory stance and began open hostilities towards the West and East Franks. In 845 a fleet under one of Horik's chiefs, Ragnar, sailed up the Seine and attacked Paris in the West Frankish Kingdom. Ragnar has sometimes been identified with the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok although this cannot be proven. Paris was sacked and King Charles the Bald was forced to flee, eventually paying Ragnar a sum of 7,000 pounds of silver as ransom. A considerable booty was brought back to Denmark, though many Vikings including Ragnar were later claimed by Frankish sources to have perished in a violent illness. Perhaps the same fleet attacked Hamburg on its way home and destroyed St. Mary's Cathedral there. It was Horik's last major war in East Francia. Soon after he told King Louis the German that he had once again killed some of the most notorious Viking raiders. Still, Frisia was ravaged once again in 846, and in the following year the three Frankish monarchs and brothers, Charles, Louis and Lothair I, agreed to intimidate Horik in order to gain peace. But the disturbances only stopped around 850 when Horik was beset by internal problems.


title: Horik I

text: It has been argued that the Viking raids in West Europe weakened rather than strengthened Horik's authority, as he was increasingly unable to control the warrior chiefs. In 850, Horik I and two unnamed nephews (called "nepotes") partitioned the kingdom into thirds, ending the unified kingship. Horik's brother's son Guttorm, who had been driven into exile by Horik, appeared in 854 and claimed the kingdom. A huge battle was fought which lasted for three days. King Horik I "and the other kings" were killed, as were Guttorm and a great many chiefs.


title: Horik I

text: Only one eligible candidate for the kingship remained, a child who was also called Horik and was related to his older namesake. The young man was now appointed king. Nothing is known about any sons of Horik I, but since a child was usually not named after his father, it has been guessed that Horik II was a grandson of Horik I. Horik II disappeared some time between 864 and 873 and was the last known ruler of the Sigfredian dynasty, as Denmark seems to have lost its political cohesion in the late 9th century. It was only in the 10th century that the dynasty of Gorm the Old began to assemble the Danish kingdom again.


title: Horik I

text: The exploits of Horik I were not remembered by later Norse tradition. He is not included in the lists of Danish kings compiled by high medieval Icelandic authors. In his partly fantastic work "Gesta Danorum" (c. 1200), Saxo Grammaticus speaks of Horik as "Eric" and makes him the brother of Harald Klak, while Horik II (Eric the Child) is depicted as the son of Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye and grandson of Ragnar Lodbrok. These are, however, arbitrary combinations based on the chronicle of Adam of Bremen (c. 1075).


title: Horik I

text: Horik I appears in the TV series Vikings, seasons 1-2 (2013-2014), portrayed by Donal Logue. In the series, he is killed by Ragnar Lothbrok rather than by his nephew Guttorm.


title: Horik I

text: Peter Sawyer (ed.) (1997), "The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings". New York: Oxford University Press.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Rosemary Beach is an unincorporated planned community in Walton County, Florida, United States on a beach side road, CR 30A, on the Gulf Coast. Rosemary Beach is developed on land originally part of the older Inlet Beach neighborhood. The town was founded in 1995 by Patrick D. Bienvenue, President of Leucadia Financial Corporation, and was designed by Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company. The town is approximately and, upon completion, included more than 400 home sites and a mixed-use town center with shops, restaurants, and activities. The population of Rosemary Beach is approximately 4,328. Rosemary Beach is named after Rosemary Milligan, a realtor and gas station owner, whose gas station was located where the Donut Hole is located today.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Rosemary Beach is located on the Gulf of Mexico in southeastern Walton County. U.S. Route 98 and are the main roads that run through the community. Via US-98, Panama City Beach is 16 mi (26 km) southeast, and Miramar Beach is 24 mi (39 km) northwest. County Road 30A parallels the coast westward, leading northwest 8 mi (13 km) to Seaside. There are many more beach towns that are close to Rosemary Beach, including Alys Beach, Seacrest, Water Sound, Water Color, Seagrove, Grayton, Inlet, etc.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Rosemary Beach is one of three planned communities on Florida's Gulf coast designed by Andrés Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk. The other two are Seaside and Alys Beach. The three are examples of a style of urban planning known as New Urbanism.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Rosemary Beach, designed in 1995, offers shops, restaurants, a hotel, and public green spaces. The design of the town reflects New Orleans’ French Quarter and European Colonial influences in the West Indies and Caribbean. Sustainable materials, natural color palettes, high ceilings for better air circulation, balconies, and easy access to the beach by foot are typical design features.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: The architecture of the homes in Rosemary resemble places like New Orleans, St. Augustine, Charleston S.C., and the West Indies. The houses along Rosemary Beach are close together and are all neutral colored.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Rosemary Beach beaches are only accessible to people who are staying in Rosemary at the time. To gain beach access, residents are required to have a code or a wristband to allow them to go to the beach.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: The water at this beach is warm, so many people can be found in the waves in the ocean along with walking or jogging down the beach, building sand castles, and reading. Vacationers can also rent different water activities, like kayaking or paddle boarding. Many residents rent out their houses for the summer.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: There are nature reserves located around the Rosemary area, like Eden Gardens State Park, Timpoochee Trail and Deer State Park, and Topsail Hill Preserve State Park. There are hiking trails and different wildlife located in these areas. Camping is also available at Topsail Hill Preserve State Park.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Tourism in Rosemary Beach has significantly spiked in the past few years. As tourists, the main form of transportation around the beach area is through biking. The temperature in Rosemary Beach during the summer ranges from a high of 90 degrees to a low of 75 degrees. During the winter months, the temperature ranges from a high of 66 degrees to a low of 45 degrees.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Water activities are popular here, like kayaking, paddle boarding, jet skiing, parasailing, and many more excursions. Along with the water activities, there are Blue Dolphin Tours, where one can sightsee for dolphins on a two-hour boat ride excursion. There is also a sunset tour option. There are many places for shopping around the 30A area. Almost every store is walkable from any place one stays. There are many boutiques which offer swimwear, beachwear, toys, home décor, souvenirs, etc.


title: Rosemary Beach, Florida

text: Peddler's Pavilion is also a popular tourism spot for people in Rosemary Beach. There are many different places to eat, shop, and listen to live music.


title: Life of Kylie

text: Life of Kylie is an American reality television series starring businesswoman and reality star Kylie Jenner and her best friend at the time, Jordyn Woods. The eight-part half-hour series premiered on August 6, 2017, on the E! cable network where Kylie talked about her life and the behind the scenes of her makeup line. The reality series was greenlit on April 10, 2017. On May 11, 2017, E! released the first promo video of the series.


title: Life of Kylie

text: The series follows the life of fashion and make-up entrepreneur and reality television personality Kylie Jenner as she deals with running a business while maintaining a normal life and her close friendship with then best friend Jordyn Woods. It regularly featured members of her glam squad such as Ariel Tejada and Tokyo Stylez.


title: Life of Kylie

text: "Time" magazine said, ""Life of Kylie" is meant to show us the person behind the pout. Yet Jenner combines the self-obsession of a teenager with the reflexive crouch of someone who has learned to quash confessional impulses." Sadie Gennis of "TV Guide" commented that the show "is like its star: searching for purpose, but mostly very, very sad."


title: Sabu (actor)

text: Sabu Dastagir (possibly born Selar Sabu; 27 January 1924 – 2 December 1963) was an Indian actor who later gained United States citizenship. Throughout his career he was credited under the name Sabu and is primarily known for his work in films during the 1930s–1940s in Britain and the United States. He was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: Born in 1924 in Karapur, Mysore, Kingdom of Mysore, then a Princely State of British India, Sabu was the son of an Indian "mahout" (elephant rider). While most reference books list his full name as "Sabu Dastagir" (which was the name he used legally), research by journalist Philip Leibfried suggests that his full name was in fact Selar Sabu.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: When he was 13, Sabu was discovered by documentary filmmaker Robert Flaherty, who cast him in the role of an elephant driver in the 1937 British film "Elephant Boy". This was adapted from "Toomai of the Elephants", a story by Rudyard Kipling. In 1938 producer Alexander Korda commissioned A. E. W. Mason to write "The Drum" as a starring vehicle for the young actor. Sabu is perhaps best known for his role as Abu in the 1940 fantasy adventure film "The Thief of Bagdad". Director Michael Powell said that Sabu had a "wonderful grace" about him. In 1942, Sabu played another role based on a Kipling story, namely Mowgli in Rudyard Kipling's "Jungle Book" directed by Zoltan Korda, which was shot entirely in California. He starred alongside Maria Montez and Jon Hall in three films for Universal Pictures: "Arabian Nights" (1942), "White Savage" (1943) and "Cobra Woman" (1944).


title: Sabu (actor)

text: After becoming an American citizen in 1944, Sabu joined the United States Army Air Forces and served as a tail gunner and ball-turret gunner on B-24 Liberators. He flew several dozen missions with the 370th Bombardment Squadron of the 307th Bomb Group in the Pacific, and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his valor and bravery. His career declined after World War II as he was unable to secure equivalent roles in Hollywood that British films had offered. He occasionally did gain significant parts, such as his supporting role in the British film "Black Narcissus" (1947). Through most of the 1950s he starred in largely unsuccessful European films. In 1952, he starred in the Harringay Circus with an elephant act.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: He was considered for the role of Birju in Mehboob Khan's 1957 film "Mother India" which would have marked his debut in Hindi films but he was denied a work permit and the role ended up going to Sunil Dutt. Sabu never got to appear in a film made in his native country. In 1963, he made a comeback to Hollywood with a supporting role in "Rampage" opposite Robert Mitchum. He played another supporting role alongside Brian Keith in the Disney film "A Tiger Walks". This would turn out to be his final role as he died three months before the film was released.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: On 19 October 1948, Sabu married little-known actress Marilyn Cooper (whose only film part, as Princess Tara in "Song of India" in 1949, was not credited), with whom he had two children. Their marriage lasted until his death. Their son Paul Sabu established the rock band Sabu in the 1980s. Their daughter Jasmine Sabu was an animal trainer for the motion picture industry. She died in 2001.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: Sabu was the subject of a paternity suit. A dancer with whom he had appeared in "Black Narcissus", Brenda Marian Julier, alleged that he was the father of her daughter Michaela, born in 1948. At the time of the trial, in October 1950, Julier had married Frank Ernst. The jury found in favor of Sabu by a vote of 9 to 3. However, in March 1952, an appeals court reversed the verdict and ordered a new trial. It found that the trial judge's jury instructions were erroneous and prejudicial, and that Sabu's attorney had effectively put Julier on trial. The day the 2nd trial was scheduled to begin, in July 1953, Sabu settled the case without admitting paternity. He agreed to defray Julier's costs, set up a trust fund, and pay monthly support until the child reached 21. At that time, Ernst stated his intent to adopt the girl.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: In November 1950, a fire destroyed the 2nd storey of his Los Angeles home. Arthur E. Wall and Andre Perez were arrested for arson shortly afterward; Perez pleaded guilty in July 1951. He revealed that he was asked to set the fire by Wall, Sabu's friend, who told him the actor needed the insurance money. Sabu's insurer, Northwestern Mutual, had originally paid out his claim, but sued him in November 1952 after learning about the arson.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: Sabu's brother, Shaik Dastagir (whose name Leibfried suggests was the source of confusion surrounding Sabu's full name), managed his career. In 1960, his brother Shaik was shot to death at his home during a botched robbery. The perpetrator, 18-year-old Jimmy E. Shields, was a former employee at the brothers' furniture store. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter and sentenced to 1 to 10 years in prison.


title: Sabu (actor)

text: On 2 December 1963, Sabu died suddenly in Chatsworth, California, of a heart attack, a month before his 40th birthday. He is interred at the Forest Lawn – Hollywood Hills Cemetery. His wife said in a television interview that two days before his death, during a routine medical check, his doctor told him: "If all my patients were as healthy as you, I would be out of a job".


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Lauren Ashley Underwood (born October 4, 1986) is an American politician and registered nurse who is a U.S. representative from Illinois's 14th congressional district as a member of the Democratic Party. Her district, once represented by former House Speaker Dennis Hastert, includes the outer western suburbs of Chicago, including Crystal Lake, Geneva, Oswego, Woodstock, and Yorkville.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: After growing up in Naperville, Illinois, Underwood received a degree in nursing from the University of Michigan and two master's degrees from Johns Hopkins University. She started her career as a policy professional in the Obama administration in 2014 and later worked as a senior advisor at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In 2018, Underwood was elected to the United States House of Representatives, defeating Republican incumbent Randy Hultgren. Upon her swearing in, she became the youngest Black woman to serve in Congress. She was reelected in 2020 by a margin of 1.34%, the ninth-closest House race of the election cycle.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Underwood was born on October 4, 1986, in Mayfield Heights, Ohio. At age three, she moved with her family to Naperville, Illinois, where she grew up and attended Neuqua Valley High School, graduating in 2004. She began as a Girl Scout in kindergarten and is a lifetime member. From 2003 to 2004, she worked on the City of Naperville's Fair Housing Advisory Commission. She earned her Bachelor of Science in Nursing from the University of Michigan in 2008. At Michigan, Underwood took a course on nursing politics that she has said "changed her life" and influenced her to enter healthcare policy. Also at Michigan, she joined the National Pan-Hellenic Council sorority Alpha Kappa Alpha. She received her Master of Science in Nursing and Master of Public Health from Johns Hopkins University in 2009.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In 2014, Underwood became a senior advisor at the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), where she worked to implement the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Beginning in 2017, Underwood was the Senior Director of Strategy and Regulatory Affairs at Next Level Health. She also served as an adjunct instructor at the Georgetown University School of Nursing & Health Studies.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In August 2017, Underwood announced her candidacy for the United States House of Representatives in . Her platform focused on improving the Affordable Care Act, expanding job opportunities, infrastructure improvements, and paid family leave. She won the March 20 Democratic primary with 57% of the vote against six opponents.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In the general election, Underwood faced incumbent Republican Randy Hultgren. In a public debate, Underwood, who has a heart condition, said that she had decided to run for the seat because Hultgren voted to repeal the ACA. Hultgren voted in favor of the Republican American Health Care Act, which passed the House in 2017 but not the Senate, and would have repealed and replaced the ACA.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Underwood said the repeal-and-replace bill would have taken away the right of "individuals like me with preexisting conditions to have affordable coverage" and that people like her would either be denied coverage or charged more. Hultgren said the bill would have protected such people because although it would have allowed states to charge people with preexisting conditions more, they would be eligible for subsidies.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Underwood said that health care is "a human right" and that single-payer/universal coverage/Medicare for all was "a great goal" but would have to wait until we have good answers to the questions about costs. Hultgren ran TV ads stating that Underwood supports a single-payer plan.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Former President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden endorsed Underwood. In the November 6 election, she defeated Hultgren with 52.5% of the vote.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Underwood was narrowly reelected over state senator Jim Oberweis, in the ninth-closest race of the House 2020 election cycle. The Associated Press called the election on November 12, nine days after the election.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: Underwood ran for reelection in the district for the 2022 elections, and was reelected with 54% of the vote.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: According to VoteView, Underwood has the 16th-most liberal voting record in the House of Representatives in the 116th United States Congress.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: During the presidency of Donald Trump, Underwood voted in line with Trump's stated position 6.5% of the time. As of November 2022, Underwood had voted in line with Joe Biden's stated position 100% of the time.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In 2019, Underwood was listed in the "Time" 100 Next. Her entry was written by U.S. Senator Cory Booker.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: On May 22, 2019, Underwood suggested that immigrant deaths in the custody of the United States Border Patrol were intentional.


title: Lauren Underwood

text: In the 118th Congress, Underwood was elected co-chair of the House Democratic Policy and Communications Committee, along with Veronica Escobar and Dean Phillips.


title: Id Tech 4

text: id Tech 4, popularly known as the "Doom 3" engine, is a game engine developed by id Software and first used in the video game "Doom 3". The engine was designed by John Carmack, who also created previous game engines, such as those for "Doom" and "Quake", which are widely recognized as significant advances in the field. This OpenGL-based game engine has also been used in "Quake 4", "Prey", "", "Wolfenstein", and "Brink". id Tech 4 is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License v3.0 or later.


title: Id Tech 4

text: id Tech 4 began as an enhancement to id Tech 3. During development, it was initially just a complete rewrite of the engine's renderer, while still retaining other subsystems, such as file access, and memory management. The decision to switch from C to the C++ programming language necessitated a restructuring and rewrite of the rest of the engine; today, while id Tech 4 contains code from id Tech 3, much of it has been rewritten.


title: Id Tech 4

text: "I mean, I won't commit to a date, but the Doom 3 stuff will be open source". And like its predecessors, John Carmack has said that id Tech 4 will be released as open-source.


title: Id Tech 4

text: At the QuakeCon 2009, Carmack said that he planned to petition ZeniMax Media to release the id Tech 4 source upon the release of Rage. As part of his keynote for QuakeCon 2011 he confirmed that the source code to "Doom 3" will be out by the end of the year, after the release of Rage.


title: Id Tech 4

text: On November 16, 2011, Carmack announced on Twitter that he's writing new code for Doom 3's open source release, because "lawyers are still skittish about the patent issue around 'Carmack's reverse'". This refers to an implementation of stencil buffered shadow volume algorithms.


title: Id Tech 4

text: On November 22, 2011, Carmack released the "Doom 3" source code under GNU GPL-3.0-or-later on GitHub. The source does not include any of the 'Carmack's Reverse' code. According to Carmack, minor tweaks were made to the code to avoid any infringement.


title: Id Tech 4

text: The original requirement of id Tech 4 was that it needed a high-end graphics processing unit (GPU) with fully programmable vertex and pixel shaders, such as the Nvidia GeForce 3 or ATI Radeon 8500, with at least 64 MB of VRAM. By E3 2002, the recommended GPU was "100% DirectX 9.0b compatible", such as the Radeon 9700 with 128 MB of VRAM. While the Radeon 9700's DirectX 9.0 features are not necessary to render the game, its advanced architecture, 256-bit memory bus, and efficiency were needed to run Doom 3 at high detail and playable speed. The "Ultra" graphics mode included in "Doom 3" would not even run on high end graphics cards in 2004 as the engine required at least 512 MB of video memory to display properly and at playable speeds.


title: Id Tech 4

text: id Tech 4 resulted in the obsolescence of DirectX 7 graphics chips such as the widespread GeForce 2 and Radeon 7200, as well as older chipsets such as RIVA TNT2 and Rage 128, and software rendering (with an integrated Intel GMA). Until the advent of id Tech 4, a powerful CPU was able to somewhat compensate for an older video card. While John Carmack initially warned gamers not to purchase the GeForce 4 MX (which casual consumers often confused with the DirectX 8 capable GeForce 4 Ti, though it was at best an improved GeForce 2), its somewhat widespread adoption compelled id Software to add it to the list of supported cards. There have been cases of enthusiasts forcing "Doom 3" to run on unsupported graphics chips, such as the long obsolete Voodoo 2, but these are unable to render the per-pixel lighting and bump mapping.


title: Id Tech 4

text: Id Tech 4 added several new graphical features absent in its predecessor, id Tech 3. These included normal mapping and specular highlighting. More features were added in the development of successive games, and in yet unreleased games using id Tech 4, new features have been added or are planned to be added soon.


title: Id Tech 4

text: The primary innovation of id Tech 4 was its use of entirely dynamic per-pixel lighting, whereas previously, 3D engines had relied primarily on pre-calculated per-vertex lighting or lightmaps and Gouraud shading. While dynamic effects had been available before (such as dynamic moving lights), this effect merely changed the brightness of the vertices of the polygon, with the pixel's colors simply being interpolated between the three vertex colors of its polygon.


title: Id Tech 4

text: This fully realtime approach used in "Doom 3", combined with the use of shadow volumes permitted more realistic lighting and shadows than in the previous generation of id's engines. The method used to create the shadow volumes is the subject of a patent by Creative, which Creative granted id permission to use in the "Doom 3" engine, in exchange for supporting Creative's EAX advanced sound technologies.


title: Id Tech 4

text: The models used in "id Tech 4" engine games are animated using skeletal animation. The engine can blend multiple animations together, to produce a skin that moves correctly for those animations. Because this is CPU intensive, id did some work optimizing this by using Intel's Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE).


title: Id Tech 4

text: The original version of the id Tech 4 engine was designed for somewhat dark environments and was criticized for its perceived inability to handle extremely large daytime outdoor areas. The MegaTexture technology tackled this issue by introducing a means to create expansive outdoor scenes. By painting a single massive texture (32,768×32,768 pixels, though it has been extended to larger dimensions in recent versions of the MegaTexture technology) covering the entire polygon map and highly detailed terrain, the desired effects can be achieved. The MegaTexture can also store physical information about the terrain such as the amount of traction in certain areas or indicate what sound effect should be played when walking over specific parts of the map. i.e. walking on rock will sound different from walking on grass. The first game utilizing MegaTexture is "", based on the Tech 4 engine. All id Tech 5 and id Tech 6 games use MegaTexture, with the exception of "The Evil Within" which uses a new renderer. "Brink", which uses a heavily modified version of id Tech 4 also uses virtual texturing. While the implementation is different from MegaTexture, it was inspired by it.


title: Id Tech 4

text: id Tech 4 has a comprehensive scripting language that can be used when creating mods, and is used in "Doom 3" to control monsters, weapons, and map events. This scripting language is similar to C++.


title: Id Tech 4

text: In addition to the main scripting language, idTech 4 also has another scripting language that is used for GUIs—both the menus and HUD, and also for GUIs embedded into the game world. These in-game GUIs are sufficiently powerful that you can, for example, run another game such as Doom 1 within the game-world.


title: Id Tech 4

text: Despite this additional level of scripting, it is also possible to create mods using C++ to build native code.


title: Id Tech 4

text: As a result of the agreement with Creative regarding the patent on shadow volumes, the id Tech 4 engine supports OpenAL, including the Creative Technology specific EAX extensions. The work to include OpenAL support was done by Creative Technology, not by id themselves.


title: Id Tech 4

text: The engine uses a traditional client–server model. Initially it was planned to have a peer-to-peer networking model. This part of the engine works in a fundamentally similar way to the id Tech 3 equivalent, however id Tech 4 exposes a lot more of the network protocol to mod developers.


title: Id Tech 4

text: Although "Doom 3" only supports 4 players (and 8 in the expansion pack), the id Tech 4 engine can be used with more players than this, with "Quake 4" and "" both supporting significantly more players.


title: Id Tech 4

text: Compared to the preceding and widely used id Tech 3 ("Quake III Arena" engine) and id Tech 2 ("Quake II" engine), id Tech 4 has had less success in licensing to third parties. This is especially apparent in comparison to its closest contemporaries, Unreal Engine 2 (2002) and Unreal Engine 3 (2006) from Epic Games. id Software was unwilling to license their newest engine before its "parent game" "Doom 3" was completed. However the unexpected long development time going into Doom 3 from 2002-04 meant that they could not put up competition to Epic Games's Unreal Engine 2 during that period. Many who licensed Unreal Engine 2 were thus able to make the switch to Unreal Engine 3 more easily.


title: Id Tech 4

text: While id Tech 4 had taken a new direction with its dynamic per-pixel lighting, this unconventional feature had steeper hardware requirements and was initially only useful in "spooky games" (until the MegaTexture addition), whereas an increasing number of developers preferred conventional engines that could render large outdoor areas. Also notable was id Tech 4's relative lack of downward scalability compared to competing FPS engines; id Tech 4 generally required a DirectX 8.0 compliant GPU such as a GeForce 3. The rival Source engine (which was developed from the previous GoldSrc engine) could still run on the older widespread DirectX 7 GPUs albeit without shaders being used.


title: Catsuit

text: A catsuit is a one-piece form-fitting garment that covers the torso and the legs, and frequently the arms. They are usually made from stretchable material, such as lycra, chiffon, spandex (after 1959), latex, or velour, but may use less elastic materials, such as leather or PVC. Catsuits frequently close by means of a zipper at the front or back. A catsuit is regarded as outerwear, but not normally street wear. Catsuits are also used for sexualization or other types of sexuality.


title: Catsuit

text: Catsuits were occasionally worn as a fashion item at various times from the 1960s to the 1990s. During the 1970s and 1980s, they were worn for aerobics and disco dancing. Around 1980, disco dance catsuits briefly became a street fashion item in the United Kingdom.


title: Catsuit

text: Athletes in sports such as speed skating, bobsled, winter triathlon, ski-racing, cycling, bodyflight and gymnastics wear garments similar to catsuits, called unitards, which are specifically geared to the needs of the sport involved. Also similar in appearance are wetsuits and drysuits used by scuba divers, and the speedsuits used by competitive swimmers before the more extreme forms of the suit were banned. Also, in tennis Serena Williams would sometimes wear catsuits, two examples are the 2002 US Open and the 2018 French Open.


title: Catsuit

text: The name "catsuit" is attributed only since about 1955 or 1960. Originally, they were called bodysuits. The origin of the name is unknown; it may refer to a slinky, catlike aspect given the wearer by some versions. It may also relate to the association with antiheroine Catwoman whose costume from the 1950's onward is a modified catsuit.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day is a 2008 romantic comedy film directed by Bharat Nalluri, starring Frances McDormand and Amy Adams. The screenplay by David Magee and Simon Beaufoy is based on the 1938 novel of the same name by Winifred Watson.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Set in London just prior to World War II, the film follows a day in the life of Guinevere Pettigrew, a middle-aged, straitlaced vicar's daughter and governess who has just been fired from her fourth job. When Miss Holt, the head of the employment agency, tells her she is not able to find her another post, the destitute Miss Pettigrew leaves the office with an assignment intended for a colleague, unaware that the potential employer, flamboyant American singer-actress Delysia Lafosse, is seeking a social secretary rather than a governess.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Arriving at the luxurious apartment where Delysia is staying, Miss Pettigrew discovers that the younger woman is involved with three men: the devoted but penniless pianist Michael Pardue who has just been released from prison, the controlling but wealthy Nick Calderelli who owns the nightclub where she is performing, and the young theatre impresario Phil Goldman who is in a position to cast her in the lead role in a West End play. As she tries to help Delysia sort through her various affairs, Miss Pettigrew finds herself swept up into the world of high society. After being given a makeover by her new employer, she attends a fashion show where she meets and is strongly attracted to top lingerie designer Joe Blomfield who is currently involved in a tempestuous relationship with the show's host, Edythe Dubarry.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Over the course of twenty-four hours, Guinevere and Delysia become friends and help each other achieve their romantic destinies. After a series of complications, Delysia and Michael sail for New York aboard the "Queen Mary", while Miss Pettigrew is found in Victoria Station by Joe who, now convinced that she is the woman for him, has been looking for her all night. They leave the station together, arm in arm.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: In "Miss Pettigrew's Long Trip to Hollywood", a bonus feature on the film's DVD release, Keith Pickering, the son of the author of the original book, Winifred Watson, reveals his mother first sold the film rights to Universal Pictures in 1939. Within the next few years, the studio developed it as a musical to star Billie Burke in the title role but, just before filming was scheduled to begin, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and the project was shelved.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: In 1954, Universal renewed the rights, but the property remained undeveloped. When London producer Stephen Garrett discovered the book, he sought out American producer Nellie Bellflower, who had just produced the seven-time Oscar-nominated film "Finding Neverland" for Harvey Weinstein.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Garrett proposed a partnership to get it set up. Bellflower brought the adaptation to executives at Focus Features, but she learned the rights still belonged to Universal, which as the parent company of Focus, allowed them to proceed with the project. Filming locations included the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in Covent Garden, Whitehall Court in Westminster, and Pimlico. Interiors were shot in the Ealing Studios.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: , the film holds a 78% approval rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 150 reviews with an average rating of 6.66 out of 10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""Miss Pettigrew" is a breezy period comedy carried by the strong performances of Amy Adams and Frances McDormand." On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 63 out of 100, based on 27 reviews.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" called the film "an example of how a little nothing of a story can be inflated into a little something of a movie with perfect casting, dexterous tonal manipulation and an astute eye and ear for detail." He praised Amy Adams, saying the "screen magic" she displays "hasn't been this intense since the heyday of Jean Arthur", and he noted that Frances McDormand achieved her "metamorphosis from glum stoicism to demure radiance with impressive comic understatement."


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: In the "San Francisco Chronicle", Ruthe Stein called the film "a swell adaptation" and added, "Frothy and exuberantly entertaining – in part because of the sexual innuendoes – it's the best romantic comedy so far this year ... Director Bharat Nalluri gives "Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day" the patina of a film actually made in the 1930s."


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: Todd McCarthy of "Variety" said of the actors, "McDormand's performance slowly builds a solid integrity, and contrasts well with Adams' more flamboyant turn, which initially accentuates Delysia's constant role playing but eventually flowers into a gratifyingly full-fledged portrayal of a woman with a past she wishes to escape. Hinds puts real feeling into his work."


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: In its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, the film earned $2,490,942 on 535 screens, ranking No. 11 at the box office. It eventually grossed $12,313,694 in the US and Canada and $4,411,239 in other markets for a total worldwide box office of $16,724,933.


title: Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day

text: The film's score was written and conducted by Paul Englishby, for which he won the ASCAP Award in 2009. Englishby also arranged and conducted three additional songs for the film:


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: Peregrine Laziosi (Pellegrino Latiosi; c. 1260 – 1 May 1345) is an Italian saint of the Servite Order (Friar Order Servants of Mary). He is the patron saint for persons suffering from cancer, AIDS, and other life-threatening illnesses.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: Peregrine Laziosi was born in 1260, the only son of an affluent family in Forlì, in northern Italy. At that time Forli was part of the Papal States. Peregrine's family supported the anti-papal faction. In 1283, the residents of Forlì were under interdict. Philip Benizi, Prior General of the Friar Servants of Saint Mary, was sent to try to reconcile the divided community. While trying to preach in Forlì, Philip was heckled and struck by the 18-year-old Laziosi. He was driven from the city with insults and violence. Laziosi repented and asked Philip for forgiveness. Benizi received him with kindness. The moment had a profound effect on Laziosi. Filled with remorse, he began to pray more and to channel his energies into good works. A few years later, he joined the Servites in Siena and went on to be ordained a priest.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: After some years, he was sent back to Forlì, where he founded a new Servite house there and became well known for his preaching and holiness as well as his devotion to the sick and poor. It is said that he miraculously multiplied grain and wine during a severe shortage in his area. People took to calling him the "Angel of Good Counsel", so grateful were they for his wise advice so freely given.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: One of the special penances he imposed on himself was to stand whenever it was not necessary to sit. When tired, he would support himself on a choir stall. At the age of 60, he developed an infection in his right leg. His condition deteriorated to the point that the physician decided to amputate his leg.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: The night before the operation, Laziosi spent time praying before a fresco of the Crucifixion in the chapter room. He fell into a deep trance-like sleep and seemed to see Jesus descend from the cross to touch his leg.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: The following day, the doctor arrived to perform the amputation, and, finding no sign of the cancer, news of the miraculous cure spread throughout the town. This only increased the people's regard for Laziosi. He died of a fever on 1 May 1345, at the age of 85. An extraordinary number of people from the town and countryside honored his death. Some of the sick who came were healed, which was attributed to his intercession.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: His body rests in the Servite church of Forlì, the Basilica of Saint Pellegrino Laziosi. Pope Paul V declared him blessed in 1609 and Pope Benedict XIII canonized him in 1726. The liturgical feast of Peregrine Laziosi is on 1 May.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: Laziosi is considered the patron saint of those suffering from cancer. The National Shrine of Saint Peregrine is located at Our Lady of Sorrows Basilica in Chicago, Illinois, as a ministry of the Friar Servants of Mary. There is a St. Peregrine Shrine at The Grotto, at The National Sanctuary of Our Sorrowful Mother, in Portland, Oregon. A Saint Peregrine Mass is celebrated at The Grotto on the first Saturday of each month at 12 noon in the Chapel of Mary. and there is also a St. Peregrine Laziosi Parish and Diocesan Shrine in Muntinlupa, Philippines. It houses a relic taken from Laziosi himself: a rib. It is currently on display in the church's Relic Chapel. There is a Saint Peregrine Cancer Shrine with Perpetual Eucharistic Adoration at Christ the King Catholic Church in Mesa, Arizona. The mission of this St. Peregrine Shrine is to promote perpetual adoration of Jesus Christ and to pray for those affected by cancer. In the midst of suffering, a sanctuary for spiritual healing and emotional peace is offered.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: There is also a statue of Laziosi in the mission church of San Juan Capistrano in Southern California.


title: Peregrine Laziosi

text: According to some, the lesson of Laziosi's life is not that God worked a miracle, but that a faithful servant placed himself, unconditionally, in the hands of God. Laziosi's trust in God therefore serves as a model for those dealing with sickness. One medical journal has cited Laziosi's case as a potential instance of bacterial or viral infection eradicating cancerous cells.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Side is a city on the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. It includes the modern resort town and the ruins of the ancient city of Side, one of the best-known classical sites in the country. It lies near Manavgat and the village of Selimiye, 78 km from Antalya in the province of Antalya.


title: Side, Turkey

text: It is located on the eastern part of the Pamphylian coast, which lies about 20 km east of the mouth of the Eurymedon River. Today, as in antiquity, the ancient city is situated on a small north-south peninsula about 1 km long and 400 m across.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Pseudo-Scylax, Strabo and Arrian record that Side was founded by Greek settlers from Cyme in Aeolis, a region of western Anatolia. This most likely occurred in the 7th century BC. A basalt column base from the 7th century BC found in the excavations and attributable to the Neo-Hittites is evidence of the site's early history.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Possessing a good harbour for small craft, Side's natural geography made it one of the most important trade centres in the region.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Excavations have revealed several inscriptions written in the language of Side. The inscriptions, dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, remain undeciphered, but testify that the local language was still in use several centuries after colonisation.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Alexander the Great occupied Side without a struggle in 333 BC. Alexander left only a single garrison behind to occupy the city. This occupation, in turn, introduced the people of Side to Hellenistic culture, which flourished from the 4th to the 1st century BC. After Alexander's death, Side fell under the control of one of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy I Soter, who declared himself king of Egypt in 305 BC. The Ptolemaic dynasty controlled Side until it was captured by the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BC. Yet, despite these occupations, Side managed to preserve some autonomy, grew prosperous, and became an important cultural centre.


title: Side, Turkey

text: In 190 BC a fleet from the Greek island city-state of Rhodes, supported by Rome and Pergamum, defeated the Seleucid King Antiochus the Great's fleet, which was under the command of the fugitive Carthaginian general Hannibal. The defeat of Hannibal and Antiochus the Great meant that Side freed itself from the overlord-ship of the Seleucid Empire.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The Treaty of Apamea (188 BC) forced Antiochus to abandon all European territories and to cede all of Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains to Pergamum. However, the dominion of Pergamum only reached de facto as far as Perga, leaving Eastern Pamphylia in a state of uncertain freedom. This led Attalus II Philadelphus to construct a new harbour in the city of Attalia (the present Antalya), although Side already possessed an important harbour of its own. Between 188 and 36 BC Side minted its own money, tetradrachms showing Nike and a laurel wreath (the sign of victory).


title: Side, Turkey

text: In the 1st century BC, Side reached a peak when the Cilician pirates established their chief naval base and a centre for their slave-trade.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The consul Servilius Vatia defeated these brigands in 78 BC and later the Roman general Pompey in 67 BC, bringing Side under the control of Rome and beginning its second period of ascendancy, when it established and maintained a good working relationship with the Roman Empire.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Emperor Augustus reformed the state administration and placed Pamphylia and Side in the Roman province of Galatia in 25 BC, after the short reign of Amyntas of Galatia between 36 and 25 BC. Side began another prosperous period as a commercial centre in Asia Minor through its trade in olive oil. Its population grew to 60,000 inhabitants. This period would last well into the 3rd century AD. Side also established itself as a slave-trading centre in the Mediterranean. Its large commercial fleet engaged in acts of piracy, while wealthy merchants paid for such tributes as public works, monuments, and competitions as well as the games and gladiator fights. Most of the extant ruins at Side date from this period of prosperity.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Side was the home of Eustathius of Antioch, of the philosopher Troilus, of the fifth-century ecclesiastical writer Philip; of the famous lawyer Tribonian.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Side began a steady decline from the 4th century on. Even defensive walls could not stop successive invasions of highlanders from the Taurus Mountains. During the 5th and 6th centuries, Side experienced a revival, and became the seat of the Bishopric of Eastern Pamphylia. Arab fleets, nevertheless, raided and burned Side during the 7th century, contributing to its decline. The combination of earthquakes, Christian zealots and Arab raids, left the site abandoned by the 10th century, its citizens having emigrated to nearby Attalia.


title: Side, Turkey

text: In the 12th century, Side temporarily established itself once more as a large city. An inscription found on the site of the former ancient city shows a considerable Jewish population in early Byzantine times. However, Side was abandoned again after being sacked. Its population moved to Attalia, and Side became known as Eski Adalia 'Old Antalya' and was buried.


title: Side, Turkey

text: As capital of the Roman province of Pamphylia Prima, Side was ecclesiastically the metropolitan see. The earliest known bishop was Epidaurus, presiding at the Synod of Ancyra, 314. Others are John, fourth century; Eustathius, 381; Amphilochius, 426-458, who played an important part in the history of the time; Conon, 536; Peter, 553; John, 680-692; Mark, 879; Theodore, 1027-1028; Anthimus, present at the synod held at Constantinople in 1054; John, then counsellor to the Emperor Michael VII Ducas, presided at a council on the worship of images, 1082; Theodosius and his successor Nicetas, twelfth century. John, present at a synod at Constantinople in 1156. The "Notitiae Episcopatuum" continued to mention Side as a metropolis of Pamphylia until the thirteenth century. It does not appear in the "Notitia" of Andronicus III. In 1397 the diocese was united with that of Attalia; in 1400 the Metropolitan of Perge and Attalia was at the same time the administrator of Side.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The great ruins are among the most notable in Asia Minor. They cover a large promontory which a wall and a moat separate from the mainland. Archaeologists have been excavating Side since 1947 and intermittently continue to do so.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The colossal theatre complex of the 2nd century is less well-preserved that of Aspendos, but it is almost as large, seating 15,000–20,000 people. It was converted into an open-air sanctuary with two chapels during Byzantine times (5th or 6th century).


title: Side, Turkey

text: The well-preserved city walls provide an entrance to the site through the Hellenistic main gate ("Megale Pyle") from the 2nd century BC.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The colonnaded street had marble columns whose remains can be seen near the Roman baths, restored as a museum displaying statues and sarcophagi from the Roman period. The agora includes the remains of the round Tyche and Fortuna temple (2nd century BC), peripteral with twelve columns, in the centre. In later times it was used as a trading centre where pirates sold slaves.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The early Roman Temple of Dionysus is near the theatre. The fountain gracing the entrance is restored. At the left side is a Byzantine Basilica.


title: Side, Turkey

text: Other buildings include three temples and a nymphaeum, a grotto or fountain building of elaborate design.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The Roman aqueduct dates from 2nd half of the 2nd century AD and is 30 km in length. The aqueduct is special because it has an exceptional number of bridges which are still preserved as well as tunnels. This was because the altitude difference between source and city is only 36 m, so to make the gradient as high as possible it was necessary to keep the route as straight and short as possible through the hilly terrain, which entailed more expensive bridges (22 in total) and 16 tunnels 100-2260m long.


title: Side, Turkey

text: It was restored in the first half of the 3rd century, financed by Lollianos Bryonianos from Side according to an inscription.


title: Side, Turkey

text: In 1895, Turkish Muslim Immigrants from Crete moved to the area of the ruins and called it Selimiye; they also built houses over the ruins when the Cretan Turks moved there. Today, Side has become a popular holiday destination as a result of the expansion of the Antalya coastal project and is experiencing a revival.


title: Side, Turkey

text: The bustling street called Liman Caddesi connects the town bus station with the square on the seafront, where the statue of Atatürk is situated.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The Cooper Car Company is a British car manufacturer founded in December 1947 by Charles Cooper and his son John Cooper. Together with John's boyhood friend, Eric Brandon, they began by building racing cars in Charles's small garage in Surbiton, Surrey, England, in 1946. Through the 1950s and early 1960s they reached motor racing's highest levels as their mid-engined, single-seat cars competed in both Formula One and the Indianapolis 500, and their dominated rally racing. The Cooper name lives on in the Cooper versions of the Mini production cars that are built in England, but is now owned and marketed by BMW.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The first cars built by the Coopers were single-seat 500-cc Formula Three racing cars driven by John Cooper and Eric Brandon, and powered by a JAP motorcycle engine. Since materials were in short supply immediately after World War II, the prototypes were constructed by joining two old Fiat Topolino front-ends together. According to John Cooper, the stroke of genius that would make the Coopers an automotive legend—the location of the engine behind the driver—was merely a practical matter at the time. As the car was powered by a motorcycle engine, they believed it was more convenient to have the engine in the back, driving a chain. In fact there was nothing new about 'mid' engined racing cars but there is no doubt Coopers led the way in popularising what was to become the dominant arrangement for racing cars.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Called the Cooper 500, this car's success in hillclimbs and on track, including Eric winning the 500 race at one of the first postwar meetings at Gransden Lodge Airfield, quickly created demand from other drivers (including, over the years, Stirling Moss, Peter Collins, Jim Russell, Ivor Bueb, Ken Tyrrell, and Bernie Ecclestone) and led to the establishment of the Cooper Car Company to build more. The business grew by providing an inexpensive entry to motorsport for seemingly every aspiring young British driver, and the company became the world's first and largest postwar, specialist manufacturer of racing cars for sale to privateers.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Cooper built up to 300 single-and twin-cylinder cars during the 1940s and 1950s, and dominated the F3 category, winning 64 of 78 major races between 1951 and 1954. This volume of construction was unique and enabled the company to grow into the senior categories; With a modified Cooper 500 chassis, a T12 model, Cooper had its first taste of top-tier racing when Harry Schell qualified for the 1950 Monaco Grand Prix. Though Schell retired in the first lap, this marked the first appearance of a rear-engined racer at a Grand Prix event since the end of WWII.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The front-engined Formula Two Cooper Bristol model was introduced in 1952. Various iterations of this design were driven by a number of legendary drivers – among them Juan Manuel Fangio and Mike Hawthorn – and furthered the company's growing reputation by appearing in Grand Prix races, which at the time were run to F2 regulations. Until the company began building rear-engined sports cars in 1955, they really had not become aware of the benefits of having the engine behind the driver. Based on the 500-cc cars and powered by a modified Coventry Climax fire-pump engine, these cars were called "Bobtails". With the centre of gravity closer to the middle of the car, they found it was less liable to spins and much more effective at putting the power down to the road, so they decided to build a single-seater version and began entering it in Formula 2 races.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Jack Brabham raised some eyebrows when he took sixth place at the 1957 Monaco Grand Prix in a rear-engined Formula 1 Cooper. When Stirling Moss won the 1958 Argentine Grand Prix in Rob Walker's privately entered Cooper and Maurice Trintignant duplicated the feat in the next race at Monaco, the racing world was stunned and a rear-engined revolution had begun. The next year, , Brabham and the Cooper works team became the first to win the Formula One World Championship in a rear-engined car. Both team and driver repeated the feat in , and every World Champion since has been sitting in front of the engine.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The little-known designer behind the car was Owen Maddock, who was employed by Cooper Car Company. Maddock was known as 'The Beard' by his workmates, and 'Whiskers' to Charles Cooper. Maddock was a familiar figure in the drivers' paddock of the 1950s in open-neck shirt and woolly jumper and a prime force behind the rise of British racing cars to their dominant position in the 1960s.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Describing how the revolutionary rear-engined Cooper chassis came to be, Maddock explained, "I'd done various schemes for the new car which I'd shown to Charlie Cooper. He kept saying 'Nah, Whiskers, that's not it, try again.' Finally, I got so fed up I sketched a frame in which every tube was bent, meant just as a joke. I showed it to Charlie and to my astonishment he grabbed it and said: 'That's it!' "


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Maddock later pioneered one of the first designs for a honeycomb monocoque stressed skin composite chassis, and helped develop Cooper's C5S racing gearbox.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Brabham took one of the championship-winning Cooper T53 "Lowlines" to Indianapolis Motor Speedway for a test in 1960, then entered the famous 500-mile race in a larger, longer, and offset car based on the 1960 F1 design, the unique Type T54. Arriving at the Speedway 5 May 1961, the "funny" little car from Europe was mocked by the other teams, but it ran as high as third and finished ninth. It took a few years, but the Indianapolis establishment gradually realized the writing was on the wall and the days of their front-engined roadsters were numbered. Beginning with Jim Clark, who drove a rear-engined Lotus in 1965, every winner of the Indianapolis 500 since has had the engine in the back. The revolution begun by the little chain-driven Cooper 500 was complete.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Once every Formula car manufacturer began building mid-engined racers, the practicality and intelligent construction of Cooper's single-seaters was overtaken by more sophisticated technology from Lola, Lotus, BRM, and Ferrari. The Cooper team's decline was accelerated when John Cooper was seriously injured in a road accident in 1963 driving a twin-engined Mini, and Charles Cooper died in 1964.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: After the death of his father, John Cooper sold the Cooper Formula One team to the Chipstead Motor Group in April 1965. The same year, the Formula One team moved from Surbiton to a modern factory unit at Canada Road, Oyster Lane in Byfleet, just along the road from Brabham in New Haw and close to Alan Mann Racing. Cooper's 1965 season petered out and at the end of the year, number one driver Bruce McLaren left to build his own F1 car for the new for 1966 3-litre formula. Cooper's new owners held the Maserati concession for the UK and arrangements were made for Cooper to build a new 3-litre Cooper-Maserati car which would be available for sale as well being raced by the works team. The Maserati engine was an updated and enlarged version of the 2.5-litre V-12 which had made sporadic appearances in the works 250Fs in 1957. It was an old design, heavy and thirsty and the new Cooper T81 chassis built to take it was necessarily on the large side, in spite of which the bulky V-12 always looked as though it was spilling out of the back. Three cars were sold to private owners, one each to Rob Walker for Jo Siffert to drive, Jo Bonnier's Anglo Swiss Racing Team, and French privateer Guy Ligier. None of these cars achieved much success.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Jochen Rindt was entering the second year of his three-year contract, but with the departure of McLaren, Cooper had a seat to fill in the second car and with the team's recent lack of success, understandably, a large queue of potential drivers was not forming at Canada Road. In the circumstances, Cooper were fortunate to acquire the services of Honda's Richie Ginther, who was temporarily unemployed due to the Japanese company's late development of their new 3-litre car. After a couple of races, Ginther was recalled by Honda to commence testing of their new car and the American was no doubt more than somewhat chagrined to discover that it was even bigger and heavier than the Cooper. After making a one-off arrangement with Chris Amon (unemployed due to the McLaren team's engine problems) to drive in the French Grand Prix, Cooper had an enormous stroke of luck when John Surtees became available after falling out with Ferrari. Once conflicting fuel contract issues were resolved (Surtees was with Shell, Cooper with BP), Surtees joined the team. Cooper honoured its commitment to Amon, so three cars were run in the French GP. Subsequently, the team reverted to two entries for Surtees and Rindt and with the former Ferrari driver's development skills and a switch to Firestone tyres, the car was improved to the point that Surtees was able to win the final race of the year in Mexico.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Surtees left to join Honda for 1967 and Pedro Rodríguez joined Rindt in the team and immediately won the opening race of 1967 in South Africa in an unlikely Cooper one-two. This was a fortuitous win for Rodríguez, as he was being outpaced by Rhodesian John Love in his three-year-old ex McLaren Tasman Cooper powered by a 2.7-litre Coventry Climax FPF. Unfortunately, Love had to make a late pit stop for fuel and could only finish second. This was to be Cooper's last Grand Prix victory. The rest of the 1967 season had the team's fortunes steadily decline and the midseason appearance of the lighter and slimmer T86 chassis failed to improve things. Rindt, impatiently seeing out his Cooper contract, deliberately blew up his increasingly antiquated Maserati engine in the US Grand Prix and was fired before the season finale in Mexico.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: For 1968, Cooper would have liked to have joined the queue for the Cosworth-Ford DFV, but felt that its connections to British Leyland with the Mini-Coopers made this inadvisable. Instead, a deal was done with BRM for the use of its 3-litre V-12, originally conceived as a sports car unit, but which BRM themselves would be using in 1968. A slightly modified version of the T86 was built for the new engine, dubbed T86B and Italian ex-Ferrari driver Ludovico Scarfiotti and young Englishman Brian Redman were employed to drive it. The cars managed three-four finishes in the Spanish and Monaco Grands Prix, largely thanks to the unreliability of the competition, but then Scarfiotti was killed driving a Porsche in the Rossfeld hill climb and Redman had a big accident in the Belgian Grand Prix which put him out of action for several months. Cooper continued the season with a motley collection of drivers, none of whom could make anything of the outclassed T86B. During the season, Cooper built a modified chassis, the T86C, intended to take an Alfa Romeo 3-litre V-8 but the project was stillborn.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The beginning of the end for the Cooper Car Company was in 1969, as it tried, and failed, to find sponsorship for a new Cosworth DFV-powered car and there were many redundancies. Frank Boyles was the last to leave, since he was in charge of building customer cars and it had been hoped that some more F2 cars would be sold. Frank went on to design and build a Formula Ford car called the Oscar and also a series of Oval Circuit cars known as Fireballs. Driving the rear-engine version of this car, Frank won more than 200 races during a period up until 1975 in a car he had designed and raced himself. This record is believed to have never been beaten.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: In all, Coopers participated in 129 Formula One World Championship events in nine years, winning 16 races.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: Besides Formula One cars, Cooper offered a series of Formula Junior cars. These were the T52, T56, T59, and T67 models. Ken Tyrrell ran a very successful team with John Love and Tony Maggs as his drivers. Following the demise of Formula Junior, Ken Tyrrell tested Jackie Stewart in a Formula Three car, a Cooper T72. This test at the Goodwood Circuit marked the start of partnership which dominated motorsport later on.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: John Cooper retired to the Sussex coast, where in 1971, he founded the garage business at Ferring, near Worthing. The garage sold Mini Cooper engine-tuning kits and performance parts.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: The garage was sold to Honda in 1986 and the business was moved to East Preston to convert Mini Coopers into race cars.


title: Cooper Car Company

text: In October 2009, Mike Cooper, the son of John Cooper, launched Cooper Bikes, the bicycle division of the Cooper Car Company.