title: Appropriate technology

text: Appropriate technology frequently serves as an umbrella term for a variety names for this type of technology. Frequently these terms are used interchangeably; however, the use of one term over another can indicate the specific focus, bias or agenda of the technological choice in question. Though the original name for the concept now known as appropriate technology, "intermediate technology" is now often considered a subset of appropriate technology that focuses on technology that is more productive than "inefficient" traditional technologies, but less costly than the technology of industrialized societies. Other types of technology under the appropriate technology umbrella include:


title: Appropriate technology

text: A variety of competing definitions exist in academic literature and organization and government policy papers for each of these terms. However, the general consensus is appropriate technology encompasses the ideas represented by the above list. Furthermore, the use of one term over another in referring to an appropriate technology can indicate ideological bias or emphasis on particular economic or social variables. Some terms inherently emphasize the importance of increased employment and labor utilization (such as labor-intensive or capital-saving technology), while others may emphasize the importance of human development (such as self-help and people's technology).


title: Appropriate technology

text: It is also possible to distinguish between "hard" and "soft" technologies. According to Dr. Maurice Albertson and Audrey Faulkner, appropriate "hard" technology is "engineering techniques, physical structures, and machinery that meet a need defined by a community, and utilize the material at hand or readily available. It can be built, operated and maintained by the local people with very limited outside assistance ("e.g.", technical, material, or financial). it is usually related to an economic goal."


title: Appropriate technology

text: Albertson and Faulkner consider appropriate "soft" technology as technology that deals with "the social structures, human interactive processes, and motivation techniques. It is the structure and process for social participation and action by individuals and groups in analyzing situations, making choices and engaging in choice-implementing behaviors that bring about change."


title: Appropriate technology

text: A closely related concept is "social technology", defined as "products, techniques and/or re-applicable methodologies developed in the interaction with the community and that must represent effective solution in terms of social transformation".


title: Appropriate technology

text: B.V. Doshi, Buckminster Fuller, William Moyer (1933–2002), Amory Lovins, Sanoussi Diakité, Albert Bates, Victor Papanek, Giorgio Ceragioli (1930–2008), Frithjof Bergmann, Arne Næss, (1912–2009), Mansur Hoda, and Laurie Baker.


title: Appropriate technology

text: Schumacher's initial concept of intermediate technology was created as a critique of the currently prevailing development strategies which focused on maximizing aggregate economic growth through increases to overall measurements of a country's economy, such as gross domestic product (GDP). Developed countries became aware of the situation of developing countries during and in the years following World War II. Based on the continuing rise in income levels in Western countries since the Industrial Revolution, developed countries embarked on a campaign of massive transfers of capital and technology to developing countries in order to force a rapid industrialization intended to result in an economic "take-off" in the developing countries.


title: Appropriate technology

text: However, by the late 1960s it was becoming clear this development method had not worked as expected and a growing number of development experts and national policy makers were recognizing it as a potential cause of increasing poverty and income inequality in developing countries. In many countries, this influx of technology had increased the overall economic capacity of the country. However, it had created a dual or two-tiered economy with pronounced division between the classes. The foreign technology imports were only benefiting a small minority of urban elites. This was also increasing urbanization with the rural poor moving to urban cities in hope of more financial opportunities. The increased strain on urban infrastructures and public services led to "increasing squalor, severe impacts on public health and distortions in the social structure."


title: Appropriate technology

text: Appropriate technology was meant to address four problems: extreme poverty, starvation, unemployment and urban migration. Schumacher saw the main purpose for economic development programs was the eradication of extreme poverty and he saw a clear connection between mass unemployment and extreme poverty. Schumacher sought to shift development efforts from a bias towards urban areas and on increasing the output per laborer to focusing on rural areas (where a majority of the population still lived) and on increasing employment.


title: Appropriate technology

text: The term "appropriate technology" is also used in developed nations to describe the use of technology and engineering that result in less negative impacts on the environment and society, "i.e.", technology should be both environmentally sustainable and socially appropriate. E. F. Schumacher asserts that such technology, described in the book "Small Is Beautiful," tends to promote values such as health, beauty and permanence, in that order.


title: Appropriate technology

text: Often the type of appropriate technology that is used in developed countries is "appropriate and sustainable technology" (AST), appropriate technology that, besides being functional and relatively cheap (though often more expensive than true AT), is durable and employs renewable resources. AT does not include this (see Sustainable design).


title: Appropriate technology

text: Features such as low cost, low usage of fossil fuels and use of locally available resources can give some advantages in terms of sustainability. For that reason, these technologies are sometimes used and promoted by advocates of sustainability and alternative technology.


title: Appropriate technology

text: Besides using natural, locally available resources ("e.g.", wood or adobe), waste materials imported from cities using conventional (and inefficient) waste management may be gathered and re-used to build a sustainable living environment. Use of these cities' waste material allows the gathering of a huge amount of building material at a low cost. When obtained, the materials may be recycled over and over in the own city/community, using the cradle to cradle design method. Locations where waste can be found include landfills, junkyards, on water surfaces and anywhere around towns or near highways. Organic waste that can be reused to fertilise plants can be found in sewages. Also, town districts and other places ("e.g.", cemeteries) that are subject of undergoing renovation or removal can be used for gathering materials as stone, concrete, or potassium.


title: Gatorade Player of the Year awards

text: The Gatorade Player of the Year awards are given annually to up and coming high school student-athletes in the United States. They are given for boys' baseball, boys' and girls' basketball, boys' and girls' cross country, boys' football, boys' and girls' soccer, boys' and girls' track & field, girls' softball, and girls' volleyball.


title: Gatorade Player of the Year awards

text: A "State Player of the Year" award is given to the best student-athlete in each of the twelve sports in the District of Columbia and each of the fifty states, where each sport is recognized as an interscholastic sport. Selection is based on three criteria: athletic achievement, academic excellence, and exemplary character (including sportsmanship, and participation in community and other activities). Twelve "National Player of the Year" awards are then given, to the best student-athlete in each of the twelve sports, chosen from the state winners in the respective sport.


title: Gatorade Player of the Year awards

text: Finally, one male Athlete of the Year and one female Athlete of the Year are selected from the twelve National Player of the Year recipients. The two winners are voted on by a national panel that includes approximately 400 sports journalists, coaches, and others. The two athletes of the year receive their awards at a special ceremony prior to The ESPY Awards, in Los Angeles, California.


title: Gatorade Player of the Year awards

text: The Gatorade Company established these awards in 1986. The selection process was administered by ESPN RISE, which was ESPN's division for high-school sports. The selection process is currently administered by the Gatorade Player of the Year Selection Committee.


title: Gatorade Player of the Year awards

text: Past national winners include Peyton Manning and Emmitt Smith for football, LeBron James and Kobe Bryant for basketball, Allyson Felix for track and field, and Kerri Walsh for volleyball.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989), was a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of the United States in which the Court held, 5–4, that burning the American flag was protected speech under the First Amendment to the Constitution, as doing so counts as symbolic speech and political speech. In the case, activist Gregory Lee Johnson was convicted for burning an American flag during a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas, and was fined $2,000 and sentenced to one year in jail in accordance with Texas law. Justice William Brennan wrote for the five-justice majority that Johnson's flag burning was protected under the freedom of speech, and therefore the state could not censor Johnson nor punish him for his actions.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The ruling invalidated prohibitions on desecrating the American flag, which at the time were enforced in 48 of the 50 states. The ruling was widely unpopular with the general public and lawmakers, with President George H. W. Bush calling flag burning "dead wrong". The ruling was challenged by Congress, who passed the Flag Protection Act later that year to make flag desecration a federal crime. The law's legitimacy was again questioned before the Supreme Court, which affirmed in "United States v. Eichman" (1990) that flag burning was a protected form of free speech, and overruled the Flag Protection Act as unconstitutional.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: In the years following the ruling, Congress considered the Flag Desecration Amendment several times, which would amend the Constitution to make flag burning illegal. The amendment passed the House of Representatives three times, but has never passed in the Senate. The issue of flag burning remained controversial decades later, and it is still utilized as a form of protest.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: On August 22, 1984, Gregory Lee Johnson, then a member of the Revolutionary Communist Youth Brigade, participated in a political demonstration during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, protesting the policies of the Reagan administration. The protestors marched through the streets, chanting political slogans and staging "die-ins" at several corporate buildings to dramatize the effects of nuclear war. Several protestors occasionally stopped to spray-paint walls and knock over potted plants, although Johnson himself took no part in it. At the Mercantile Bank Building, protestors removed the American flag from the flagpole outside. An unknown protestor handed the flag to Johnson, who hid it under his shirt.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: When the protestors reached Dallas City Hall, Johnson poured kerosene on the flag and set it on fire. During the burning of the flag, protestors shouted phrases such as, "America, the red, white, and blue, we spit on you, you stand for plunder, you will go under." No one was injured during the demonstration, though some witnesses to the flag burning felt deeply offended. Johnson was arrested within a half hour of igniting the flag. One spectator, a Korean War veteran named Daniel Walker, tearfully gathered the remains of the flags and buried them in the backyard of his home in Fort Worth.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Johnson was charged with violating the Texas flag desecration statute, which prohibited the vandalism of respected or venerated objects. Johnson was the only individual at the protest to be criminally charged. He was initially indicted on one count of disorderly conduct, but the charge was eventually dropped. On December 13, 1984, a six-person jury found Johnson guilty of flag desecration, and he was subsequently sentenced to one year in jail and fined $2,000. Johnson appealed his conviction to the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas, but was again found criminally liable. He then appealed to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which overturned his conviction, finding that Johnson's First Amendment rights had been violated. The court found that Johnson's actions were symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment, writing that, "a government cannot mandate by fiat a feeling of unity in its citizens. Therefore that very same government cannot carve out a symbol of unity and prescribe a set of approved messages to be associated with that symbol." The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals also affirmed that his actions did not constitute a breach of the peace.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Texas filed a writ of "certiorari" to the Supreme Court, asking them to review the case. In 1988, the Supreme Court granted "certiorari".


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Oral arguments were held on March 21, 1989. David D. Cole and William Kunstler argued the case on behalf of Gregory Lee Johnson, and Kathi Alyce Drew argued on behalf of the state of Texas. During oral arguments, the state defended its statute on two grounds: first, states had a compelling interest in preserving a venerated national symbol; and second, the state had a compelling interest in preventing breaches of peace. The Supreme Court handed down a 5–4 opinion on June 21, 1989, in favor of Johnson. Justice William Brennan authored a majority opinion which Justices Thurgood Marshall, Harry Blackmun, Antonin Scalia, and Anthony Kennedy joined. Kennedy also authored a separate concurring opinion.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: In the majority opinion, Brennan reiterated the Court's long-held recognition that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects non-speech acts as being symbolic speech, writing that the First Amendment's protection on speech "does not end at the spoken or written word". The Court recognized flags as being vessels for symbolic speech in "Stromberg v. California" (1931), in which the Court overturned the conviction of a youth camp worker who displayed a red flag at the camp. Brennan also invoked "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District" (1969), in which the Court recognized the wearing of a black armband as a form of speech, to demonstrate the Court's history of recognizing symbolic actions as protected speech. The Court would then analyze whether Johnson's actions could be considered symbolic speech, which would allow him to challenge his conviction by invoking the First Amendment.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: In "Spence v. Washington" (1974), the Court rejected "the view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled 'speech' whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea", but acknowledged that conduct may be "sufficiently imbued with elements of communication to fall within the scope of the First and Fourteenth Amendments." To determine whether a particular act possesses the elements of "speech" required to invoke the First Amendment, the Court asked whether "an intent to convey a particularized message was present, and [whether] the likelihood was great that the message would be understood by those who viewed it." The Court found, based on "Spence", that Johnson's burning of the flag "constituted expressive conduct, permitting him to invoke the First Amendment." Brennan wrote that the political nature of the flag burning was "both intentional and overwhelmingly apparent", having coincided with the Republican National Convention.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The Court rejected that Johnson was liable for a breach of the peace, writing that, "no disturbance of the peace actually occurred or threatened to occur because Johnson burned the flag." While the state of Texas argued that flag burning is punishable on the basis that it "tends to incite" breaches of the peace, the Court disagreed, finding that flag burning does not necessarily lead to breaches of the peace. Citing "Brandenburg v. Ohio" (1969), Brennan wrote that the state may only punish speech that would incite "imminent lawless action", and rejected that flag burning constituted such.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Justice Kennedy filed a concurring opinion with Brennan's majority. In it, Kennedy acknowledged the potentially unpopular nature of the holding, but affirmed that the role of the Supreme Court is to uphold the integrity of the Constitution, even if "sometimes we must make decisions we do not like." Kennedy continued:


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist filed a dissenting opinion with the Court, joined by Justices Byron White and Sandra Day O'Connor. Rehnquist argued that the "unique position" of the flag "justifies a governmental prohibition against flag burning in the way respondent Johnson did here." Rehnquist discussed the significance of the flag as applied throughout American history, such as during the colonial era, the War of 1812, and the Civil War, writing that burning a symbol of national unification was distinctly separate from other political demonstrations where freedom of speech might protect protestors. Rehnquist wrote:


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Rehnquist argued that the flag held a unique position in American tradition, such as on the gravesites of Armed Forces members, and as such should be held in a unique position in First Amendment case law. Rehnquist invoked several previous rulings by the Court that showed a recognition of the flag as a unique national symbol, including "Halter v. Nebraska" (1907), in which the Court upheld the constitutionality of a Nebraska statute that made it illegal to use the American flag on commercial merchandise. Rehnquist quoted Justice John Marshall Harlan's majority opinion in writing: "For that flag every true American has not simply an appreciation, but a deep affection." However, the "Johnson" majority found a lack of evidence in the Constitution that implied that the flag should be held in a position of "uniqueness". Brennan answered this claim directly in writing: "There is, moreover, no indication—either in the text of the Constitution or in our cases interpreting it—that a separate juridical category exists for the American flag alone", concluding that "we decline, therefore, to create for the flag an exception to the joust of principles protected by the First Amendment."


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Rehnquist further argued that Johnson's burning of the flag did not constitute expressive conduct, writing that flag burning is "no essential part of any exposition of ideas", but rather "the equivalent of an inarticulate grunt or roar that, it seems fair to say, is most likely to be indulged in not to express any particular idea, but to antagonize others." He opined that the Texas statute was a reasonable restriction only on how Johnson's idea was expressed, leaving Johnson with "a full panoply of other symbols and every conceivable form of verbal expression to express his deep disapproval of national policy."


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Justice John Paul Stevens also filed a dissenting opinion. Stevens argued for the cultural importance of the flag and all that it stands for, more broadly than just as a symbol of national unity. He wrote of the flag:


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Stevens compared public desecration of the flag to posting bulletin boards on the Washington Monument, writing that such behavior "might enlarge the market for free expression, but at a cost I would not pay". He asserted that Johnson was not punished for his opinion, but rather for the way he chose to express it.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The ruling was highly unpopular and controversial among Americans, and drew overwhelming criticism from the public. Legal scholar Geoffrey R. Stone remarked that the ruling was "wildly unpopular" with the American people, and "Newsweek" described a sense of "stunned outrage" across the country. In a nationwide public opinion poll taken shortly after the ruling, 75% of respondents disagreed with the decision, and nearly two-thirds supported the idea of a constitutional amendment to protect the flag. Polls taken by the National Opinion Research Center showed a decline in respondents expressing "a great deal of confidence" in the Court, dropping from 34% before the ruling, to 17% after; however, confidence levels might have been influenced by the Court's ruling in "Webster v. Reproductive Health Services" two weeks after "Johnson".


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: At a rally to raise support for the Flag Desecration Amendment, Senator Bob Dole (R-KS) said: "Americans may not know every nuance of Constitutional law. But they knew desecration when they see it. They're demanding action." In a statement to the Senate on July 18, 1989, Senator Strom Thurmond (R-SC) said that the ruling "opened an emotional hydrant across our country demanding immediate action". On October 4, 1989, Senator Trent Lott (R-MS) told the Senate that, while visiting constituents in Mississippi, he "heard outrage" in "city after city", and claimed that several people he witnessed were "in tears over the decision".


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: While initial support for the Flag Desecration Amendment was high among Americans, with a "Newsweek" poll indicating 71% of Americans agreed with such an idea, public support for the amendment waned by the following month. By late July, Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell (D-ME) reported his constituents were "equally divided" between those who supported a new amendment, and those who supported the "Johnson" ruling. Public opinion polls by Gallup show a downward trend in respondents supporting the amendment, from 71% in favor in 1989, to 68% in 1990, to 55% in 2005. A 2006 CNN poll showed similar figures, with 56% of respondents in favor, and 40% opposed. A 2006 Pew Research poll reported only 49% of respondents listing a flag burning amendment as "very important".


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The issue of flag burning remained controversial decades later. Protestors around the country continue to burn the flag as a form of anti-government protest, including during the Ferguson unrest in 2014, during the George Floyd protests in 2020, and during the abortion protests in 2022.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The Court's ruling invalidated laws against desecrating the American flag, which at the time were enforced in every state except Alaska and Wyoming.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: On June 22, 1989, one day after the ruling, the 101st Congress of the Senate passed a resolution to express "profound disappointment" in the Court's decision, by a vote of 97-3. On June 27, the House of Representatives passed a resolution expressing "profound concern" with the decision, by a vote of 411-5. President George H. W. Bush was also strongly opposed to the ruling, calling flag burning "dead wrong". Bush asked Congress to supersede "Johnson" by passing a new constitutional amendment to outlaw flag burning. On June 30, Bush spoke before a crowd at the Iwo Jima Memorial in Washington, D.C. to express his distaste for the Court's decision, urging Congress to act quickly. On September 12, the House of Representatives passed a resolution that came to be known as the Flag Protection Act of 1989, which made it a federal crime to desecrate the flag in any way, including burning it. The bill passed the Senate on October 5, and was enacted into law without Bush's signature.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: The law was immediately challenged by Gregory Lee Johnson, who, along with three other protestors, burned the flag on the steps of the Capitol Building the day the law went into effect, on October 30, 1989. All four were charged in violation of the Flag Protection Act, but the charges against Johnson were dropped because he failed to ignite his flag. Johnson decried their refusal to prosecute him as a "miscarriage of justice", stating that he was "outraged". The case against the remaining three protestors was dismissed by federal judges, citing "Johnson" as grounds, but attorneys appealed the case to the Supreme Court, who granted "certiorari" on March 31, 1990. In "United States v. Eichman" (1990), the Court once again upheld that flag burning was protected speech under the First Amendment, with the same five justices in "Johnson" forming the majority. In an opinion also written by Justice Brennan, the Court declared the Flag Protection Act of 1989 unconstitutional, and overruled it.


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: Since then, Congress has considered the Flag Desecration Amendment several times, first by the 104th Congress in 1995, and most recently by the 109th Congress in 2006. The resolution passed the House of Representatives three times: in 1995, in 1999, and in 2005. However, the bill has always been defeated in the Senate. The most recent measure passed the House of Representatives on June 22, 2005, but failed by one vote in the Senate on June 27, 2006. In 2020, interest in the Flag Desecration Amendment was revived when President Donald Trump said during a rally in Tulsa, Oklahoma that he believed burning the flag should be punished by one year in jail, and asked the Supreme Court to "reconsider" their rulings in "Johnson" and "Eichman".


title: Texas v. Johnson

text: On July 20, 2016, Gregory Lee Johnson was again arrested for burning the American flag during the Republican National Convention, which was being held in Cleveland, Ohio. Prosecutors eventually dropped the charges in January 2017, and the city of Cleveland agreed to pay Johnson $225,000 in settlements.


title: Dior (song)

text: "Dior" is a song by American rapper Pop Smoke, originally released on July 26, 2019 by Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records as a track from his debut mixtape "Meet the Woo" (2019). It was later released as the third and final single from the tape on February 11, 2020. A drill and hip hop song, it was written by Pop Smoke alongside producer 808Melo. "Dior" was later included on Pop Smoke's second mixtape "Meet the Woo 2", along with a remix featuring fellow American rapper Gunna. The original version appeared again on Pop Smoke's posthumous debut studio album "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon" (2020), then finally once more on the deluxe edition of its follow-up "Faith" (2021).


title: Dior (song)

text: In the song's lyrics, Pop Smoke raps about flirting with women and buying the latest designer clothes. "Dior" received widespread critical acclaim from critics, many of whom deemed it a New York anthem and his signature song. The song was nominated for Best Rap Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards. Shortly after Pop Smoke's death on February 19, 2020, the single peaked at number 22 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 33 on the UK Singles Chart. "Dior" peaked in the top 60 of record charts in ten other countries, including Greece, where it reached number six while charting for over 130 weeks. The single also received several certifications, including a triple-platinum certification in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Dior (song)

text: JLShotThat directed the music video for "Dior", which depicts Pop Smoke dancing with a group of people in a parking lot and at a strip club. Pop Smoke performed the song for VevoDSCVR and Rolling Loud in 2019. In the wake of the murder of George Floyd and the ensuing civil unrest, the song became a prominent anti-police brutality protest anthem.


title: Dior (song)

text: American rapper Pop Smoke first showed "Dior" to record executive Steven Victor. Victor felt that the song was interesting, but did not think it would be successful; when a colleague listened to it, they then had the impression the song would be one of Pop Smoke's biggest hits. He listened to the song again and realized how he enjoyed the song's hook. Victor took the song to Republic Records and wanted it to be Pop Smoke's next single from his mixtape "Meet the Woo" (2019). Victor wanted Pop Smoke to be a global artist and decided to have him perform a promo tour in specifically targeted cities, starting in London, UK, and continuing to cities where the song was becoming popular. He started showcasing "Dior" through several New York radio stations; he and two of his friends started to work on the song and sent it to DJs around the US to play.


title: Dior (song)

text: In November 2020, Pop Smoke's brother Obasi Jackson showed an unreleased version of "Dior" on an Instagram livestream and played unreleased lyrics from the song. "Dior" was originally released as the sixth track on Pop Smoke's debut mixtape "Meet the Woo", on July 26, 2019. It was later sent to American rhythmic contemporary radio as the mixtape's third and final single on February 11, 2020, and then added as a bonus track to Pop Smoke's second mixtape "Meet the Woo 2" (2020) and posthumous debut studio album "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon" (2020). A remix of the song featuring American rapper Gunna was released on the deluxe edition of "Meet the Woo 2", released on February 12, 2020. The song was later added on the deluxe edition of Pop Smoke's second album "Faith" (2021).


title: Dior (song)

text: Pop Smoke co-wrote "Dior" with 808Melo. 808Melo produced and programmed the song. Jack Baxter and Vic Wainstein were the song's recording engineers; and Jaycen Joshua, DJ Riggins, and Mike Seaberg mixed the song with assistant mixer Jacob Richards. "Dior" is a drill and hip hop song with production that makes use of a bass wobble, Hi-hat, and violin sample that is reversed and chopped up. August Brown of the "Los Angeles Times" pointed out the lines "Tell my shooters call me FaceTime/For all the time we had to face time" are about gun-play. Alphonse Pierre from "Pitchfork" said the song is about the frustration of seeing a friend being jailed, the fun of flirting and buying fashionable clothes, and the "sobering reality" of knowing it could end unexpectedly. In the words of "The Buffalo News" Abby Monteil, Pop Smoke shows his love for buying his girlfriend expensive gifts from brands like Dior, while Heran Mamo from "Billboard" magazine wrote that Pop Smoke boasts about the finer things in life he can buy. For the song's remix, Anthony Malone, writing for "HipHopDX", stated that Gunna raps about "his favorite denim jeans from Mike Amiri, Ricky Owens and Valentino. He also mentions his favorite sports cars and designer watches".


title: Dior (song)

text: "Dior" was met with critical acclaim by critics. "Uproxx" Wongo Okon cited it as the standout track of "Meet the Woo". David Aaron Brake of "HipHopDX" considered the song a "classic", "Paper" Bianca Gracie called it a "head-rushing hit". Critic Erin Lowers of "Exclaim!" described the track as fresh and said it is "the power of short and sweet". In "The New York Times", Nicole Hong deemed "Dior" a "radio staple". Julyssa Lopez of "The New Yorker" commended the song's "roaring, rallying spirit".


title: Dior (song)

text: Some reviewers believed "Dior" displayed Pop Smoke's personality. "Billboard" critic Michael Saponara labeled the song an "instant party-starter", and declared it embodies "exactly what made Pop Smoke special". Charles Lyons-Burt from "Slant Magazine" said Pop Smoke channels "his untamed aggression into repetitive, elemental lyrics that were colored by his force of personality". Writing for AllMusic, Fred Thomas opined Pop Smoke throws bars effortlessly and ride an "explosive beat typical to the blunt" and praised it's aggressive feel that "flows through the entire mixtape".


title: Dior (song)

text: Several music critics praised "Dior" as an anthem. "Variety"s A. D. Amorosi described the song as a "taut and tension-filled anthem", writing that it sounds raucous and sinister. Craig Jenkins of "Vulture" said it was a "classic Big Apple party anthem", and "Essence" Brooklyn White referred to "Welcome to the Party", "Dior", and "Shake the Room" as anthems for Brooklyn. "San Francisco Chronicle" critic Robert Spuhler wrote the song was one of Pop Smoke's signature songs and said it was inescapable in New York during 2019. NPR's Briana Younger lauded it as an "artifact of the New York summer".


title: Dior (song)

text: In November 2020, "Dior" received a nomination for Best Rap Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards. Steven Victor told "GQ" the nomination was not important and stated "Dior" should have been nominated in more than one category.


title: Dior (song)

text: After Pop Smoke was murdered at the age of 20 in a home invasion, "Dior" debuted at number 49 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 based on 12 million streams in the week ending February 20, 2020. It became Pop Smoke's first solo and posthumous Hot 100 hit after collaborating with JackBoys and Travis Scott on "Gatti", which debuted and peaked at number 69 in January 2020. "Dior" then rose to number 30 on the chart dated March 7, 2020. Following the release of "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon", "Dior" peaked at number 22 on the Hot 100. The song reached the top 30 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Rhythmic charts. In May 2020, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Dior" platinum for selling 1,000,000 certified units, making it Pop Smoke's first song to gain a platinum certification in the United States.


title: Dior (song)

text: In the United Kingdom, "Dior" debuted at number 73 on the UK Singles Chart dated February 21, 2020. After Pop Smoke's death, "Dior" rose 40 places to number 33 on the chart dated February 28, 2020, giving the rapper his first top-40 hit in the UK. The song was later certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting track-equivalent sales and streams of 200,000 units in the UK. In Australia, "Dior" peaked at number 48 on the ARIA Singles Chart after the release of "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon", and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 35,000 copies The song was later certified triple-platinum by the RIAA for sales and streams of over 2,000,000 units in the US. The song peaked within the top 60 of record charts in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, and Portugal. The song was most successful in Greece, peaking at number six.


title: Dior (song)

text: A music video for "Dior" was released on September 3, 2019, and was directed, produced, and edited by JLShotThat. It features Pop Smoke and a group of men and women dancing to the track in a strip club and in a nearby parking lot. The rapper is also seen throwing cash in the air. Toward the end of the video, the group are interrupted by distant gunfire and the video closes with a single thundering gunshot before cutting to black. As of September 2022, the video has received approximately 450 million views on YouTube, becoming Pop Smoke’s most viewed video on the platform.


title: Dior (song)

text: In October 2019, Pop Smoke performed "Dior" live on MTV's "Total Request Live" offshoot program "Fresh Out Friday". A month later, he performed the song for VevoDSCVR, a platform showcasing emerging young artists. Later in December, he performed the song live at a Rolling Loud concert in Los Angeles, California. In February of the next year, shortly after his death, the Yard Club in Paris, France, debuted an on-stage hologram of Pop Smoke that virtually performed "Dior".


title: Dior (song)

text: After Pop Smoke's murder on February 19, 2020, fans gathered in his hometown Canarsie, Brooklyn, in March 2020 and sang the lyrics of "Dior" and his other songs. In June 2020, "Dior" became an anthem for the Black Lives Matter movement. Although the song is not about police brutality or racism, it became a popular anthem and was used as a symbol of resistance during the George Floyd protests. Shamira Ibrahim of "Nylon" stated "Dior" was juxtaposed against a backdrop of burning police cars and groups of protesters marching down Eastern Parkway. She said the track had the "coalescence of energy [that] feels nearly elemental". Alphonse Pierre of "Pitchfork" said the song does not sound "quite like those other songs" and concluded by saying "Dior" was never intended to be part of the moment but that it was "unifying and energizing" the protests. "Paste" Jade Gomez wrote that the song had "taken on a new meaning of protest". Writing for "GQ", Paul Thompson opined "Dior" was a strange fit for the protest movement but was "nonetheless appropriate".


title: Dior (song)

text: In early 2020, "Dior" began trending on the video-sharing social networking service TikTok. At the 2020 BET Hip Hop Awards, the song's instrumental section was used to honor Pop Smoke. The performance featured rappers Flo Milli, Buddy, Deante' Hitchcock, and Adé rapping over the track's beat.


title: Dior (song)

text: After gaining popularity worldwide, the song was remixed by many international artists including Ghanaian rapper Kwesi Arthur, and UK drill rappers Skeng and Perm. In particular, IDPizzle's "Dior" cover, titled "Billie Jin (Dior Remix)", became a viral success after being featured on the app Triller. Within a month, the remix had attracted the attention of UMG/Virgin UK, and IDPizzle announced had signed a recording contract with the label. The official remix of "Dior" features American rapper Gunna and was included on the deluxe edition of Pop Smoke's second mixtape "Meet the Woo 2". The "Dior" remix was ranked the third-best song of 2020 up to July by The Ringer, and Tidal included Gunna's verse on its year-end playlist for the best guest verses of 2020.


title: Man in the Box

text: "Man in the Box" is a song by the American rock band Alice in Chains. It was released as a single in January 1991 after being featured on the group's debut studio album, "Facelift" (1990). It peaked at No. 18 on "Billboard"'s Mainstream Rock chart and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992. The song was included on the compilation albums "" (1999), "Music Bank" (1999), "Greatest Hits" (2001), and "The Essential Alice in Chains" (2006). "Man in the Box" was the second most-played song of the decade on mainstream rock radio between 2010 and 2019.


title: Man in the Box

text: In the liner notes of 1999's "Music Bank" box set collection, guitarist Jerry Cantrell said of the song; "That whole beat and grind of that is when we started to find ourselves; it helped Alice become what it was."


title: Man in the Box

text: The song makes use of a talk box to create the guitar effect. The idea of using a talk box came from producer Dave Jerden, who was driving to the studio one day when Bon Jovi's "Livin' on a Prayer" started playing on the radio.


title: Man in the Box

text: The original "Facelift" track listing credited only vocalist Layne Staley and Jerry Cantrell with writing the song. All post-"Facelift" compilations credited the entire band. It is unclear as to why the songwriter credits were changed.


title: Man in the Box

text: "Man in the Box" is a grunge, alternative metal, hard rock, and alternative rock song that is widely recognized by its distinctive "wordless opening melody, where Layne Staley's peculiar, tensed-throat vocals are matched in unison with an effects-laden guitar" followed by "portentous lines like: 'Feed my eyes, can you sew them shut?', 'Jesus Christ, deny your maker' and 'He who tries, will be wasted' with Cantrell's drier, less-urgent voice," along with harmonies provided by both Staley and Cantrell in the lines 'Won't you come and save me'.


title: Man in the Box

text: I started writing about censorship. Around the same time, we went out for dinner with some Columbia Records people who were vegetarians. They told me how veal was made from calves raised in these small boxes, and that image stuck in my head. So I went home and wrote about government censorship and eating meat as seen through the eyes of a doomed calf.


title: Man in the Box

text: But what it's basically about is, is how government and media control the public's perception of events in the world or whatever, and they build you into a box by feeding it to you in your home, ya know. And it's just about breaking out of that box and looking outside of that box that has been built for you.


title: Man in the Box

text: In a recorded interview with MuchMusic in 1991, Staley stated that the lyrics are loosely based on media censorship, and "I was really really stoned when I wrote it, so it meant something different then", he said laughing.


title: Man in the Box

text: "Man in the Box" was released as a single in 1991. It is widely considered to be one of Alice in Chains' signature songs, reaching number 18 on the "Billboard" Album Rock Tracks chart at the time of its release.


title: Man in the Box

text: The song was number 19 on VH1's "40 Greatest Metal Songs", and its solo was rated the 77th greatest guitar solo by "Guitar World" in 2008. It was number 50 on VH1's "100 Greatest Songs of the 90s" in 2007. The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992.


title: Man in the Box

text: Steve Huey of AllMusic called the song "an often overlooked but important building block in grunge's ascent to dominance" and "a meeting of metal theatrics and introspective hopelessness."


title: Man in the Box

text: According to Nielsen Music's year-end report for 2019, "Man in the Box" was the second most-played song of the decade on mainstream rock radio with 142,000 spins.


title: Man in the Box

text: The MTV music video for the track was released in 1991 and was directed by Paul Rachman, who later directed the first version of the "Sea of Sorrow" music video for the band and the 2006 feature documentary "American Hardcore". The music video was nominated for Best Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Video at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards. The video is available on the home video releases "Live Facelift" and "". The video shows the band performing in what is supposedly a barn, where throughout the video, a mysterious man wearing a black hooded cloak is shown roaming around the barn. Then, after the unknown hooded figure is shown, he is shown again looking around inside a stable where many animals live where he suddenly discovers and shines his flashlight on a man (Layne Staley) that he finds sitting in the corner of the barnhouse. At the end of the video, the hooded man finally pulls his hood down off of his head, only to reveal that his eyelids were sewn together with stitches the whole time. This part of the video depicts on the line of the song, "Feed my eyes, now you've sewn them shut". The man with his eyes sewn shut was played by a friend of director Paul Rachman, Rezin, who worked in a bar parking lot in Los Angeles called Small's.


title: Man in the Box

text: The music video was shot on 16mm film and transferred to tape using a FDL 60 telecine. At the time this was the only device that could sync sound to picture at film rates as low as 6FPS. This is how the surreal motion was obtained. The sepia look was done by Claudius Neal using a daVinci color corrector.


title: Man in the Box

text: At Alice in Chains' last concert with Staley on July 3, 1996, they closed with "Man in the Box". Live performances of "Man in the Box" can be found on the "Heaven Beside You" and "Get Born Again" singles and the live album "Live". A performance of the song is also included on the home video release "Live Facelift" and is a staple of the band's live show due to the song's popularity.


title: Man in the Box

text: Richard Cheese and Lounge Against the Machine covered "Man in the Box" in a lounge style on their 2005 album "Aperitif for Destruction". Platinum-selling recording artist David Cook covered the song during his 2009 Declaration Tour. Angie Aparo recorded a cover version for his album "Weapons of Mass Construction". Apologetix parodied the song as "Man on the Cross" on their 2013 album "Hot Potato Soup". Metal artist Chris Senter released a parody titled "Cat in the Box" in March 2015, featuring a music video by animator Joey Siler. Les Claypool's bluegrass project Duo de Twang covered the song on their debut album "Four Foot Shack". In 2020, music group "The Merkins" posted a parody of the song on their YouTube channel, featuring singer Joey Siler as Pinhead from the Hellraiser film series.


title: Poultice

text: A poultice, also called a cataplasm, is a soft moist mass, often heated and medicated, that is spread on cloth and placed over the skin to treat an aching, inflamed, or painful part of the body. It can be used on wounds, such as cuts.


title: Poultice

text: 'Poultice' may also refer to a porous solid filled with a solvent used to remove stains from porous stone such as marble or granite.


title: Poultice

text: The word "poultice" comes from the Greek word "poltos" transformed in the Latin "puls, pultes", meaning "porridge".


title: Poultice

text: A poultice is a common treatment used on horses to relieve inflammation. It is usually used on the lower legs, under a stable bandage, to focus treatment on the easily injured tendons in the area. Poultices are sometimes applied as a precautionary measure after the horse has worked hard, such as after racing, jumping, or a cross-country run, to prevent heat and filling. They are also used to treat abscess wounds, where a build-up of pus needs to be drawn out.


title: Poultice

text: A poultice is a cooling product that is commonly used for show-jumpers and racehorses, as it is often cheaper and easier to administer than many other cooling products. A poultice is applied to the horse's distal limbs after exercise, for 9–12 hours. The intended effect of the poultice is to cool the horse's legs over a long period of time, by drawing heat out of the leg through evaporation. It is a common practice to bandage over the poultice, using bandages and bandage fillers, and to place either wet newspaper or cellophane wrap between the poultice and bandages, yet bandaging over the poultice may also prevent the action of heat evaporation and, therefore, prevent cooling—i.e., heat can't escape. It is also worth noting dry poultice stores heat.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The Volga () is an executive car that originated in the Soviet Union to replace the GAZ Pobeda in 1956. Their role in serving the Soviet nomenklatura made them a contemporary cultural icon. Several generations of the car have been produced.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Despite the continuous modernisations, GAZ found it increasingly difficult to keep the ageing design competitive in a market economy. GAZ CEO Bo Andersson decided to discontinue the Volga range in 2010.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The first Volga model was originally developed as a replacement for the GAZ-M20 Pobeda mid-size car which was produced from 1946. Despite its fastback design with Ponton body styling, the evolution of postwar automotive design and powertrain meant that in 1951 a brief was issued for its eventual replacement. In 1952 this matured into two projects: "Zvezda" ("Star"), an evolution of Pobeda's fastback contour with panoramic windows and large tailfins, and the "Volga" with its conventional styling, which was more realistically suited for production in the 1950s.


title: GAZ Volga

text: By the spring of 1954, the Volga prototypes were being test driven. The new car introduced a range of additions and advantages over the Pobeda. In addition to being larger, it had single panoramic forward and rear windscreens, a larger four-cylinder overhead-valve engine, central lubrication system of the main chassis elements, hypoid rear axle and an automatic hydromechanical gearbox. The car's exterior was designed by Lev Yeremeev and, though influenced by North American vehicles of the same period, the project was mostly independent, with an exception for the automatic transmission that was derived from the 3-speed Ford-O-Matic. After thorough testing of the car, which lasted for a further two years, a go-ahead was finally given by the state, and the first pre-production batch left GAZ on 10 October 1956.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Although there were many models and versions of the car, its production can nonetheless be split into three distinct generations and two derivatives. In total 639,478 Volgas were built from 1956 until 1970.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The first prototype Volga appeared at a May 1955 trial from Moscow to the Crimea. While the Soviet leadership touted the speed of its development (begun 1954), only five cars were built in 1955. The first generation is easily identified by its characteristic chromed bar fascia with a central badge containing the five pointed star. Serial production began on 10 October 1956, with all vehicles being powered by a flathead engine modified to produce . These were used in much publicised promotion drives across the whole Soviet Union, where they notched up to 30,000 kilometres. Unlike the Pobeda, Volga's engines were now to be produced at a specialised motor factory in Zavolzhye. Despite its hasty construction, it only began engine production in summer 1957, which meant that the first thousand or so vehicles were equipped with the Pobeda's flathead engine. Other features of this transitional series included the Spur gear rear axle from the ZIM and the manual 3-speed gearbox from the Pobeda. Drag coefficient was a surprisingly low 0.42.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The chromed bars, being a decorative element, required excessive manual labour to assemble, which was not feasible for a mass-produced vehicle. Moreover, they reduced the supporting strength of the front body panels. Finally, as the Soviet Union had great aspirations for the vehicle in generating foreign currency, it became immediately apparent that the military connotation would scare potential western customers. At the Soviet pavilion Expo 58, which opened in April, the featured example was the facelift prototype with the 16-slit shark-mouth grille; it also had the originally intended ZMZ overhead valve inline four, the ZMZ-24. Now actually in mass production, priced at 5,400 rubles, the popularity and genuine interest in the vehicle sealed the fate of the "Star", and in November the "Star" was retired. In any case, in popular culture, the car's alternative nickname as "Zhukovka" survives to this date.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Despite its short production span, and only 32,000 cars being assembled, the "Star" was initially the Soviet automotive industry's first mass-produced vehicle to be equipped with an automatic transmission. It became apparent that such complex mechanism required a standard of service unavailable in the USSR. Even more problematic became the sourcing of transmission fluid, as these cars were originally only allocated for private ownership. Faced with such difficulties, a manual transmission became available, with synchromesh on the top two gears; it soon eclipsed the automatic, though it would remain in the production line-up until around 1960 for domestic models (1965 for export); only about 700 automatic-equipped cars were produced, most being 1958 models. The first generation contained the following models. These are listed in Russian alphabetical order, but not chronological. The base version, that was to have an automatic gearbox and the engine was simply designated GAZ-M-21, without any suffixes. A taxicab version was called GAZ-M-21A, and featured the manual gearbox, but the identical ZMZ-21 engine. The "transitional" series was GAZ-M-21B for the taxi with the engine (this was produced until late 1958, as most of the taxi parks used the Pobeda, and a common engine eased servicing). GAZ-M-21V was the next standard version (and proved the most common) with the engine and manual transmission. The early GAZ-M-21G was the "transitional" series for the 1956–1957 years, with the engine and ZIM's differential. Export versions were called GAZ-M-21D and GAZ-M-21E, manual and automatic respectively. Their difference from the domestic Volgas was a better quality trim and an uprated engine. This was achieved by increasing the compression ratio to 7.2:1, to take advantage of the higher quality of gasoline that was available abroad.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The 16-slit vertical grille for models from 1958 (which gave it the unofficial nickname "Akula" (Shark)) was not the only change by any means. Most of the changes came in February 1959, and included new front fenders with raised wheel arches, reflector glasses in the tail lights, a flock trim on the dashboard (later replaced by leatherette), a new radio with a metallic mesh speaker, windscreen washer and lock actuator on the boot. The following year was to have a new rear design with more contemporary tailfins , but this was not implemented. Instead, the car body received several reinforcement supports and the novel, but ultimately troublesome central lubrication system was removed.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The actual model designation of the Sharks was such that the automatic-equipped vehicles would retain the GAZ-M-21 with no suffix designation and the GAZ-M-21E (though by this point these have all but disappeared from the line-up). Also unchanged was the taxicab GAZ-M-21A. The base model, from February 1959 was now called GAZ-M-21I. Its export 80 hp vehicle now became the GAZ-M-21K. In addition to the engine, it now had a more extensive chrome trim elements on the exterior (including the mentioned grille) and improved upholstery inside. Russian customers could order the latter features, for an extra price, and such vehicles were called GAZ-M-21U.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1961, the Volga lost another characteristic icon, the removal of the deer mascot from the bonnet. A feature of both the "Star" and the "Shark", it became an iconic attribute of the 21st Volga, and Soviet automotive industry in general. Nonetheless, it was not only a common victim to hooligans, but also would divert splash stream right into the windscreen should the car pass a puddle at speed. Even more, it played a role in Pedestrian injury during accidental run-overs. Given its added cost, it was gradually phased out. In 1959 the taxi models gained a new droplet shaped object. In 1960 the deer was standard only on export cars and vehicles allocated for private ownership. In 1961, the deer could be found on the extra-trimmed GAZ-M-21Us. Simultaneously, two-tone colour schemes were also phased out from available options.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1962, the car was visibly modernised for the final time. Once again the radiator grille was changed, this time in favour of a new 36-slit design "Baleen" ("Kitovy Us"). The latter, would become a GAZ trademark that survives to date. The bonnet leaping deer mascot was completely removed, as was the longitudinal moulding. Generally, the car was characterised by a more sleek profile with the bumper overriders removed and the front indicators were also altered. Inside, the upholstery received new woollen seats and leatherette headliner. The engine was now (due to new cylinder heads, which increased compression to 6.7:1, and new crankshaft), with no loss in fuel economy. (Export models got the engine, with 7.65:1 compression.) Telescopic shock absorbers replaced the lever type ones (a change made in Series 2). The radio became optional. The mentioned optional chrome trim elements which were limited to the window arches were now joined by front and rear details on the top of the wings, "arrows" in front and "fintails" in rear. Models were as follows: M21L base sedan, M21M export variant, and M21T taxi. Also in 1962, an export version destined for countries with left-hand drive was developed, called the M21N. The M21U retained its designation for the more expensive version with optional trim.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1965, the car underwent a final modernisation. Changes included strengthened spars at the steering fixture and replacement of ball bearings in the wheel hubs with rollers. A new floor design, which allowed warm air to reach the rear legroom and a more fuel-efficient carburettor. There was also a proposed fourth generation to go visibly with the improvements, with a horizontal radiator grille. However, this venture was rejected due to costs and because such a change would not get the required government approval. Given that work was already undergoing on its successor, it was decided to continue production in this final form, up to 15 July 1970. In a much publicised event, on that day the final car left the assembly line, followed by the first GAZ-24 without a pause.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The 1965 modernisation also removed the -M- prefix from the name. Originally a feature of GAZ's early days, when it carried the name of Vyacheslav Molotov. The plant was renamed following the downfall of his career in 1957. However, the designation "M" was retained for current models. In the final line-up, the export model to countries with left-hand traffic became the GAZ-21P, the base model was now called GAZ-21R, export was the GAZ-21S, taxi became the GAZ-21TS, the version with optional chrome trim was now called GAZ-21US.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Between 1960 and 1962, Volgas were shipped to the Belgian company Sobimpex without engines. Sobimpex installed a diesel manufactured by Perkins. This was changed to a Rover diesel in 1962. In 1968, a Indénor diesel was also offered. The diesel, despite the higher cost, were "by far the most popular version in the Benelux countries", and both Sobimpex (later Scaldia-Volga) made strong effort selling them.


title: GAZ Volga

text: After the appearance of the GAZ-24, M21 exports stopped, though sales in the Eastern Bloc continued until 1970. Export sales were never strong, because the car was slow, had trouble climbing hills due to the carburetor design, and had design features not needed on Western Europe's better roads. Total sales of the M21 were 638,875. Approximately 470,000 third-generation GAZ-21s and were built, making it the most numerous of the three.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1962, GAZ announced a station wagon/estate version of the M21, as the M22 (and export M22G, both , and the M22K), with split tailgate, folding rear seats, and payload up to ; it would not appear until after the debut of the sedan/saloon, and would serve as the basis for an ambulance (the M22B and M22BK), also. Station wagons/estates never gained the same social status as sedans/saloons, and so were uncommon.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The station wagon/estate was included in the original design brief, which for its extra size was quickly dubbed "saray" (the shed). Mechanically, it was identical to the third generation of the sedan. The only difference was a strengthened leaf-spring rear suspension and the rear section. While the longer roof panel was serially stamped, the side panels were handmade, by taking the sedans, cutting off the rear section and welding on additional elements. The rear section was made of two doors, an upper window and a lower "picnic table". Other differences were the slightly bigger tyres, 7.10—15" instead of the 6.70—15" of the sedan. The car could carry of cargo and five people, or of cargo and two people, with the rear seat folded.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Only those shipped abroad for export were sold to private customers. All domestic station wagons/estates, with a rare exceptions (such as Yuri Nikulin, requesting one for carrying his circus inventory), were never available for private ownership. The Soviet rationale was that allowing such a car to citizens would also make it too available and popular with dealers in the grey market economy, that was allowed but limited by the state.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Despite this, the "Shed" was a common sight on the Soviet streets, they were readily used as taxis, ambulances, in airports as escort vehicles with large "FOLLOW ME" signs painted on the rear window, and for official consumer duties. Thus, despite the spartan trim (only exported versions had the chrome details), much fewer GAZ-22s survive to date, making them a key item for collectors and restorers.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Models included the base model M22 (though no automatic transmission was ever used on the M22), M22B ambulance, M22G for export with chrome trim (with engine), and M22K (with engine). Export ambulances were thus M22BG and M22BK. In 1965, the car received a modernisation identical to the sedan. In the new lineup GAZ-22V became the base model, GAZ-22D—the ambulance. Export versions were now GAZ-22E and GAZ-22M for the 75 and 85 hp engines, whilst ambulances were GAZ-22EB and GAZ-22MB respectively.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The M22 was also the basis for a prototype four-wheel drive station wagon/estate, using GAZ-69 components, and a pickoupe; neither entered production. There was also a fuel injected M21 prototype, with higher compression; it was rejected as overly complex for the average driver to service.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1962 a very rare GAZ-M-23 model was introduced. Powered by the 195 hp 5.53 litre V8 from the GAZ-13 Chaika limousine, this car was developed for the KGB's 9th Directorate as an escort vehicle for motorcades, hence the unofficial nickname "Dogonyalka" (the "Chaser") or "The Double" (because it had a V8, rather than the more common straight four). To accommodate the additional weight of the big engine, the body and suspension required excessive reinforcing. Moreover, to handle the immense torque (three times more than a standard ZMZ-21A engine), not only was the Chaika's automatic transmission employed, but a ballast steel plate was carried in the boot for traction to remain. In addition, it used the Chaika power steering; even so, KGB disliked them, due to their poor handling. They retained drum brakes, despite a reported top speed of over (the highest the speedometer would register). Though never publicly restricted, nonetheless their existence was not widely circulated. For example, official driver's and service manuals published by GAZ mentioning all the Volgas, including specialised ambulances, simply ignored the GAZ-23. Hand-assembly was performed at the small-volume production unit within GAZ, alongside the Chaika limousines and other specialised vehicles. A total of 603 were made between 1962 and 1970.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Development of the planned replacement for the GAZ-21 Volga began in 1961. At the time, the North American automotive industry was perceived as the global leader in design and innovation, and it inevitable for its Soviet counterpart to look up to it. Despite Nikita Khrushchev urging his country to "catch-up and overtake America", the Soviet command economy could not afford to match the American convention of altering the car for every model year, nor were its centralised factories physically capable of doing so. Thus a more conservative measure was taken, where a typical car would last 7–10 years on the conveyor, typical of Europe. GAZ-24 Volga was planned to have such a lifetime, lasting through the 1970s. However, even before its 1968 première, it was already behind schedule and as the USSR slipped into the Era of Stagnation, following Alexey Kosygin's 1965 Soviet economic reform, the car was to become an iconic feature of that era, both aesthetically and technically. Developed in the mid-1960s, and after the initial production run lasting more than a decade and a half it would go a series of modernisations and facelifts, and despite unsuccessful attempts to find a replacement (GAZ-3105, GAZ-3111 and the Siber), the car would finally be retired in 2009 - 40 years after the first series began production.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Design of GAZ-21's replacement began in the early 1960s, and original sketches showed an evolution from the contoured body of the early 1960s to the more angular and rigid profile. The M24 was to introduce the popular measure economy of scale into the model range, where the same body would house different powertrains, mechanics and interior trim, and hence could me marketed as separate cars (platform sharing). GAZ hoped to employ this on the new Volga and a range was drawn where the entry model would carry the traditional, though modernised, four cylinder engine and manual transmission (the prototype appeared with a V6). The first prototypes were built in 1966, and a year later the car was certified for production. For economic reasons a V6 model, despite showing promising results, was deemed unfeasible for mass production. The first batch of 24 vehicles were assembled in 1968, 215 more followed in 1969 and in a public ceremony held on 15 July 1970 the car superseded the GAZ-21 on conveyor without halting it.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Despite its more imposing appearance, the GAZ-24 was in fact shorter in length and 120 mm in height, yet its wheelbase was extended by 10 mm. The lower body waist line, allowed the window area was to be increased, whilst using thinner linings in doors, roof and other body panels, notably increased interior space. The combination of this progressive design and a lower clearance gave it a much lighter and more elegant aura.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The car was powered by a ZMZ-24D engine, an evolution of the ZMZ-21A. Retaining the basic OHV configuration, it now ran on 92 RON gasoline (while the ZMZ-24-01 could use commonly available 76 octane, and the 24-07 could use liquid propane). The cylinder block was die cast, instead of the slower coquille for the 21A. The engine featured a twin-choke carburettor, with a higher compression ratio, producing at 4500 rpm and an even more impressive of torque at 2200–2400 RPM. Transmission was now fully synchronised four on floor layout. The brakes were improved, with a hydraulic vacuum servo unit (a licence-built Girling PowerStop), as well as an independent parking brake (rather than transmission brake of the GAZ-21). At the same time, certain features were retained for their proven reliability, like the kingpin front suspension and recirculating ball steering.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The car was built in several modifications and these were now indicated by numbers rather than letters. The sedan version was called GAZ-24. GAZ-24-01 was the taxi, which included a robust artificial leather interior and a slightly modified ZMZ-21A engine to run on 80 RON petrol. GAZ-24-02 was the estate wagon, introduced in 1972. Unlike the GAZ-22, it was serially assembled on a reserve conveyor, rather than out of sedan side panels. The rear, fifth, door was now a single unit that opened upwards instead of sideways. The car could seat eight people, due to a third row of seats in the cargo section. To allow maximum cargo volume and functionality, the seats in third and second rows were split (rather than a single bench) and could be folded independently of each other. GAZ-24-03 was the ambulance version of the -02. GAZ-24-04 was the taxi estate, with the powerplant and interior trim of the -01. In 1977 a GAZ-24-07 conversion kit was introduced for taxiparks. The GAZ-24-24 was the successor to the GAZ-23 "Chaser", with an identical V8 and automatic gearbox from the Chaika. Yet, unlike the -23, given the purpose of the car, even less effort was put in to differentiate it from standard vehicle due to costs. For example, the automatic selector was masked under a standard shifting lever. A small batch of export cars for countries with left-hand traffic was called GAZ-24-54 (less than a thousand examples built). GAZ-24-76 and -77 were export versions to Benelux countries, who would retrofit the cars with Indénor diesels and a more luxurious trim such as vinyl roof. Five experimental vehicles were built on the chassis of GAZ-69 4×4, called GAZ-24-95, one of which was known to be personally used by Leonid Brezhnev.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Though the vehicle never underwent a generational facelift on the scale of the GAZ-21 (if one does not count its derivative successors), nonetheless the car was modernised during production. The early stage included removal of bonnet-mounted rear-view mirrors, new ignition and boot locks. The novel belt-speedometer proved too complicated and was replaced by a standard arrow-driven one, as was the fate of the engine cooling coupling that controlled the ventilator fan (proved unreliable, the ventilator would be permanently on, whilst warm air for cold starts would be manually controlled with venetian-type shutter). Additions included external comfort lights were on the rear pillar's chrome element, that turned on upon opening of rear doors.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In the original design brief the GAZ-24 was to be retired by 1978, and though by that time work on a successor (the GAZ-3102) was underway, it was clear that the car would have to soldier on the conveyor for a foreseeable future. In 1977, following a 1976 report by NAMI on the Volga's major shortcomings (problematic steering prime among them), GAZ refused to update the GAZ-24's front suspension, instead making only cosmetic changes. (The front suspension would be unchanged until 2003, when the kingpins were changed to sealed ball joints, while the rear got an antiroll bar.) Visually, these Volgas can be identified by front and rear bumper overriders, front fog lights and rear reflectors integrated into a single block. Inside the car gained retractable seat belts, a new dashboard where all exposed metal elements were covered by plastic. In this final shape the car was produced until 1986, the estate until 1987. Including the GAZ-24-10, almost one and a half million such Volgas were produced.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Overall, the original Model 24 Volga was a major success. Like the GAZ-21, it remained a dream car for the Soviet consumer. However, unlike the GAZ-21 it cost almost twice as much, and given that its launch coincided with the launch of the VAZ plant, the more available Lada allowed for the Volga to rise in exclusivity. The lion's share of cars were used for the Soviet "nomenklatura" and the rest in taxi, police and ambulances. Private ownership would often be offered only to representatives of Soviet elite and celebrities. Given that it was possible to openly purchase a new Volga only via Beryozka chain (where it cost almost ten thousand rubles) its resale value would thus be several times higher than the stated nominal price. In both cases, the sum would be well outside the financial abilities of the Soviet working class. Thus, though the car was as iconic of its time as the predecessor, it was also become a symbolic feature of Social stratification in the USSR, and the Era of Stagnation during which it was produced. This more negative connotation began to disperse following the introduction of the GAZ-3102.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Whereas the GAZ-21 became a collectible by the Soviet Union's collapse, the GAZ-24 extended assembly line life meant that only in the late 2000s have prices for low-mileage mint-condition models and restoration interest began to climb.


title: GAZ Volga

text: GAZ always desired a six-cylinder version, and built prototypes with a variety of sixes: a BMW in 1973, a Peugeot (as used in the Peugeot 604 and Volvo 260) in 1978, a Mercedes R6 in 1975, and a (the 2.8 from a Ford Scorpio) in 1984. (The continued in production until 2008, by then only on special order.)


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1977, the 31011, with the 160 hp V8 and automatic transmission, appeared, for KGB and police use, joined by the experimental 31014 with ZMZ-503.10 V8, delivering and . Production pursuit cars, which became available in 1986, were 31012s with the 5.5 liter (with one four-choke carburetor), fitted with a three-speed automatic and power steering (some with power windows and air conditioning), while the 31013 was the same, but with electronic ignition. These "were quite simply the fastest cars on Russian roads", and they got just . Their low-key appearance made them sleepers, though Soviet and Russian drivers soon learned to spot the extra radio aerials and dual exhausts. These cars were never true production models, "to all intents and purposes hand built". How many were made is unknown, the last being assembled in 1995.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Small numbers were built with the two-rotor VAZ-411-01 Wankel engine (which featured a 9.4:1 compression ratio) as the 31028. It was never common. There are reportedly also a few with the three-rotor VAZ 431 rotary, and with a pair of single-rotors operated independently (a bit like an Armstrong Siddeley Double Mamba). The rotary models were operated by KGB and traffic police, but these agencies preferred V8-powered 3102s.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The GAZ-24 was the Eastern Bloc's largest family car, but proved difficult for families to actually obtain, with official purchases at first taking precedence.


title: GAZ Volga

text: When launching the M24 Volga, GAZ envisioned an average, for the USSR, production run of a decade. The newer designs were produced by smaller numbers due to development of other projects in the Soviet automotive industry, in particular the coming about of the VAZ plant and a much bigger Moskvitch, the project 3-5, to replace the 408 and 412 series. The latter's being more economic would have proved a natural relieve the Volga of its traditional taxi role, leaving GAZ's new vehicle as a more exclusive personal luxury car for the mid-range Soviet nomenklatura. With this in mind, the vehicle's mock-up demonstrated in 1976 was to grow in size, have the V6 powerplant as standard, and a perspective 4.2 litre V8 optional with many other features of the contemporary foreign cars of the 1970s. In 1976-7, the new GAZ-3101 appeared in prototype form, but it was little more than "a cosmetic tart-up of the mainstream Volga", with new front door windows, door handles, and lights; it also got longer front overhang and longer trunk. This would be renamed the 3102 in time. A few were built with a V8 as the 31011, but this never entered serial production, nor did the continuing GAZ-desired V6 model. (Among its standard features were a fire extinguisher.) It was powered by a twelve-valve version (ZMZ-402.10) of the venerable inline four with electronic ignition, producing , enough for . Disk brakes were fitted in front, while the rear drums were equipped with a crude antiskid system.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Manufacture of the 3102 began in 1981, with its official launch the next year. However, such car would never see light, as the 1970s unrolled, the stagnation era effects has significantly thwarted any innovation in Soviet Union's planned economy structure. Moreover, the Minister of Automotive Industry, Viktor Polyakov, had open favouritism for the new VAZ giant, and thus neither AZLK's 3-5 project, nor GAZ's ambitious third-generation Volga would see their respective conveyors. In 1973 more economic solution was adopted for the future car, that rotated around giving a major upgrade to the GAZ-24 by replacing most of the mechanics, the body panels, the interior yet keeping the skeletal body sections and platform, thus avoiding the most costly replacement of production press stamping.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The first users of the 3102 were the KGB and other government bodies through 1983. It proved unavailable to the public until after the collapse of the Soviet Union. This limited availability has given the 3102 a particular cachet in Russia (even over the Mercedes common among the privileged), allowing GAZ sell it at a markup.


title: GAZ Volga

text: By 1980 a replacement was developed, the GAZ-3102, which was based on the central platform and body of the GAZ-24, but with original fascia, interior, engine and chassis. However, political and economic stagnation of the late Brezhnev years continuously delayed the car's launch. When the first pre-production vehicles were evaluated by Party garages, the leadership was so impressed with the car, that they barred its mass production as to avoid devaluing its status by its use in taxicabs. As a result, from 1982 and all the way until 2008, the GAZ-3102 was produced in parallel with other Volgas, though in lesser smaller quantity. Originally having its own production line and many distinct features (including a novel, but ultimately unreliable stratified charge ignition), by 1997 the differences between production, trim and accessories of GAZ-3102 and latter Volga's remained only in its exterior. GAZ-3102 originally being an exclusive car for higher ranking authorities, retained its business image during the 1990s and well into the 2000s.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The GAZ-24 continued to be produced until 1985, when using some of the technical developments of GAZ-3102 was deeply modified, resulting in the GAZ-24-10. Starting with 24-10 the Volga began a slow transformation as the Perestroika reforms took shape. Though still remaining a status car, it quickly lost that prestige as market economy allowed free import of automobiles. However its simple and robust design and still good quality assembly, and the lack of a domestic light commercial vehicle the GAZ-24-10 was quickly seized by the new generation of commerce.


title: GAZ Volga

text: In 1992 when the original machine tooling for the GAZ-24 body panels disintegrated, GAZ took the panels of GAZ-3102 and stripping them of any decorations, launched the GAZ-31029 Volga. Although being obsolete (kingpin front and leaf spring rear suspensions, front drum brakes, carburetted OHV engine etc.), production was doubled in quantity and halved in quality. As a result, the car transformed from a symbol of status into a disposable workhorse, barely meeting the astronomic demand of the emerging market economy.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Though deemed temporary until GAZ's own LCV cars, the GAZelle and Sobol, entered production, the GAZ-31029 Volga occupied a major market niche, and demand for the vehicle remained. Thus in 1997 GAZ modernised the car once more, creating original body panels, whilst retaining the GAZ-24's central shell. This removed the visual dissonance that the 31029 created, and by incorporating the chassis and powertrain developed for the new Gazelle families (which in turn were designed for the aborted GAZ-3103/04/05 Volgas), combined with a new interior resulted in GAZ-3110 model. Given the timing, with the 1998 financial crises that followed, which left many foreign equivalents outside the budget Russia's business and public alike, the GAZ-3110 proved a necessity rather than a cheap alternative during the post-crises years.


title: GAZ Volga

text: GAZ-31105 was a second stage of the GAZ-3110's modernisation, though the designation was applied to cars produced from January 2004, the mechanical features were introduced almost a year earlier, and certain external ones were available in separate batches as standard or optional in others.


title: GAZ Volga

text: During the late 1980s GAZ developed a concept car for a future replacement for both the business -3102 Volga and the luxury limousine GAZ-14 Chaika. However the resulting GAZ-3105, which was never to be part of the Volga family, as it would be produced on the Chaika's conveyor (presently still used for the -3102) due to the economic problems never reached production.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The GAZ-3111 was scheduled to launch in 2000, but the factory's new owner Oleg Deripaska, was unimpressed with the vehicle visually and once again, the high price of the car prevented any interest to sales, as a result only 428 cars were built as part of the pre-production batch.


title: GAZ Volga

text: Although GAZ was developing a "spiritual successor" to the 3111, the front-wheel drive Volga 3115, in December 2005 RusPromAvto, the parent company of GAZ, announced that production of Volga passenger cars would be phased out over a 2-year period, with production to end in 2007. GAZ stated that they would instead concentrate on their more profitable truck, bus, and commercial vehicle businesses. At the same time the announcement was made, GAZ also introduced the Volga 311055, a long wheelbase derivative of the 31105. However, in the summer of 2006, GAZ reversed its earlier decision, announcing that further investments would be made in upgrading the styling and technology of the Volga saloons, keeping them in production as "retro" or "historical" vehicles. In early 2006, GAZ signed a deal with DaimlerChrysler to acquire the tooling and intellectual property rights for the Chrysler Sebring mid-size car design. GAZ stated that the new car would not carry the Volga brand.


title: GAZ Volga

text: When GAZ acquired the Chrysler Sebring license, it decided to further modify the car, and the Volga Siber was the result.


title: GAZ Volga

text: The Volga Siber was unveiled in August 2007, and production began in July 2008, with a goal of producing 20,000 units the first year. However, sales figures were not met and only 2,500 Sibers were built in all of 2009.


title: Bass-baritone

text: A bass-baritone is a high-lying bass or low-lying "classical" baritone voice type which shares certain qualities with the true baritone voice. The term arose in the late 19th century to describe the particular type of voice required to sing three Wagnerian roles: the title role in "Der fliegende Holländer", Wotan/Der Wanderer in the "Ring Cycle" and Hans Sachs in "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg". Wagner labelled these roles as "Hoher Bass" ("high bass")—see fach for more details.


title: Bass-baritone

text: The bass-baritone voice is distinguished by two attributes. First, it must be capable of singing comfortably in a baritonal tessitura. Secondly, however, it needs to have the ripely resonant lower range typically associated with the bass voice. For example, the role of Wotan in "Die Walküre" covers the range from F (the F at the bottom of the bass clef) to F (the F above middle C), but only infrequently descends beyond C (the C below middle C). Bass-baritones are typically divided into two separate categories: lyric bass-baritone and dramatic bass-baritone.


title: Bass-baritone

text: Bass-baritones should not be confused with their vocal cousin—the so-called Verdi baritone. This type of Italianate baritone voice has a brighter tone colour and sings at a slightly higher tessitura than that possessed by the bass-baritone. In addition to the operas of Giuseppe Verdi, its natural home is to be found in operatic music composed after about 1830 by the likes of Donizetti, Ponchielli, Massenet, Puccini and the verismo composers.


title: Bass-baritone

text: The term bass-baritone is roughly synonymous with the Italian vocal classification basso cantante; for example, in the Verdian repertoire, Philip II in "Don Carlos" is sung by a true bass, while Ferrando in "Il trovatore" is often taken by a bass - baritone, though the two roles' ranges are very similar. In Debussy's "Pelléas et Mélisande" the role of Golaud, created by Hector Dufranne, sits between Pelleas (high baritone) and Arkel (bass). Some of the classical Mozart baritone roles such as Don Giovanni, Figaro and Gugliemo—composed before the term "baritone" gained currency—are occasionally played by a bass-baritone.


title: Bass-baritone

text: Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy operas usually featured a comic bass-baritone character, created to make use of D'Oyly Carte company member Richard Temple.


title: Bass-baritone

text: In short: the "bass-baritone" is a voice that has the resonant low notes of the typical bass allied with the ability to sing in a baritonal tessitura. Colloquially, it refers to a voice with a range and tone somewhere between a bass and a baritone.


title: Bass-baritone

text: The bass-baritone's required range can vary tremendously based on the role, with some less demanding than others. Many bass-baritones have ventured into the baritone repertoire, including (among others) Leopold Demuth, Georges Baklanoff, Rudolf Bockelmann, George London, Thomas Stewart, James Morris, and Bryn Terfel.


title: Peasant foods

text: They may use ingredients, such as offal and less-tender cuts of meat, which are not as marketable as a cash crop. One-dish meals are common.


title: Peasant foods

text: Ground meat or meat scraps mixed with grain in approximately equal proportions, then often formed into a loaf, sliced, and fried


Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP; ) is a research and coeducational state university in Manila, Philippines. It was founded on 19 October 1904, as the Manila Business School (MBS) and as part of Manila's public school system. It was eventually promoted to a chartered state university in 1978, by virtue of Presidential Decree 1341. PUP has more than 20 branches and campuses across Central Luzon, Southern Luzon and Metro Manila. With over 70,000 enrolled students, PUP claims to be the largest state university in the Philippines by student population.


title: Polytechnic University of the Philippines

text: As of July 2022, the university offers 68 undergraduate and graduate programs. All programs are accredited by the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP), with 28 earning the highest level of accreditation. Two of these programs, Journalism and Filipino, were granted Center of Development status by the Commission on Higher Education. In 2013, PUP ranked 300+ in the QS Asia University Rankings. In the same year, the QS World University Rankings Country File on the Philippines also placed PUP third in Life Science and Medicine, fifth in Natural Science (Chemistry), fourth in Economics and Econometrics, and fifth in Communication and Media Studies. A 2018 survey of 503 JobStreet employers ranked PUP as the top choice of employers in general, the top choice in the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry, and the second choice in the Manufacturing, IT, and Banking industries.


text: The Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act of 2017 mandates free tuition and fees for all students of state universities and colleges. Before the act was enforced, the tuition was exactly ₱12 (roughly 24 US cents) per unit (since 1979) for undergraduate students. Students may opt out of the subsidy and choose to pay the full tuition instead. PUP has a reputation for student activism against tuition fee hikes.


text: PUP's athletic team is known as the Mighty Maroons and plays in the National Capital Region Conference of the State Colleges and Universities Athletic Association (SCUAA). The team also played in the National Athletic Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (NAASCU) in 2013. Its official volleyball team, the PUP Lady Radicals, played in the Shakey's V-League in 2015.


text: PUP traces its roots from the Manila Business School which was founded by the Civil Government of the Philippines and was established on October 19, 1904. It is also referred to as the Manila School of Commerce. The school was delegated to create businessmen and businesswomen for government service and private employment. It was a part of the city school system of Manila which was under the superintendence of Gabriel A. O’Reilly. It held its first classes at a small two-storey building in No. 38 Gunao Street corner Arlegui in Quiapo.


text: The influx of students from different provinces elevated the school's status as an Insular (or national) school and was renamed as Philippine School of Commerce in 1908. The school moved out from its Arlegui building and continued its operation on Goldenberg Mansion located on Gen. Solano Street in San Miguel which was formerly occupied by the Bureau of Audits and the Philippine Senate. Its faculty was composed of Filipino and American teachers. For administrative purposes, the school was placed under the administration of the Superintendent of City Schools but kept its status as a national school.


text: In 1933, the school was merged with the Philippine Normal School and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades. During the merger that lasted 12 years, PSC was administered by the PNS Superintendent and its students who completed their courses were considered graduates of Philippine Normal School. The existence of the Philippine School of Commerce caught the attention of President Manuel L. Quezon. In his graduation address on March 26, 1940, at the Rizal Memorial Stadium, he promised a new building for the school where its graduates can be recognized. Two years later, Congressman Manuel A. Alazarte together with the Department Head of the Philippine School of Commerce Luis F. Reyes, formulated a bill to this effect and presented it to Congress. Unfortunately, the plan was not carried out because of the Japanese occupation of the Philippines that occurred between 1942 and 1945 during World War II.


text: Shortly after Philippine liberation, Superintendent Luis F. Reyes resumed the task for the re-establishment and rehabilitation of the school. The Bureau of Public Works released more than ₱8,000 for the repairs and maintenance of public buildings of which the school is a beneficiary. The ruins of the Normal Hall was reconstructed and the college resumed its classes there on August 4, 1946. In 1947, the Philippine Normal School converted the Normal Hall into a dormitory, resulting in the Philippine School of Commerce to relocate to its former lot, where it held classes with overcrowded rooms. Because of its unbearable condition, the school made representations in the Philippine Alien Property Administrator, through Malacañang and the Department of Foreign Affairs, for the acquisition of the Lepanto site in Sampaloc. By August 4, 1947, the school transferred to its new Lepanto campus, and Luis F. Reyes was appointed as its superintendent.


text: The Philippine School of Commerce was elevated into a college and was renamed as the Philippine College of Commerce in 1952 by virtue of Republic Act 778. Superintendent Luis F. Reyes became the President of the college. It broadened its course offerings and the Annex Building, which had formerly housed the Congress of the Philippines, was turned over to the college. The Business Writers Association of the Philippines awarded the college the title of "Business College of the Year” in 1955.


text: In 1962, Dr. Nemesio E. Prudente was appointed as president. He implemented numerous initiatives that greatly benefits the students such as student loans and the inclusion of the student council in the policy-making body of the college. Three years later, President Diosdado Macapagal proclaimed that the Pandacan site of the Bureau of Animal Industry (which is a slaughterhouse) to be reserved for the exclusive use of the college. In 1968, the college offered social science courses related to business education. Also, the college was granted to use and dispose the A. Mabini Campus in Santa Mesa, Manila adjoining the former site of National Development Corporation, which will eventually become the main and flagship campus of the institution. It was also awarded the title lot for its S.H. Loyola (Lepanto) Campus. As a hotbed of student activism, a handful of its students participated in the First Quarter Storm, one of the factors leading up to the declaration of Martial Law in 1972.


text: The college moved out from its Lepanto campus and completed its transfer to the A. Mabini Campus in 1971. Through Presidential Decree 1341 that was proclaimed on April 1, 1978, the Philippine College of Commerce became a chartered state university and was accordingly renamed as the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. It strengthened PUP Manila campus' designation as the main and flagship campus because it hosts the offices of PUP's Executive Officials.


text: In 1979, the construction of the Main Library, the University Canteen (Sampaguita Building), the Interfaith Chapel, and the addition of third-fifth floors of the Main Academic Building was completed (although the fifth floor finished its construction in 1984). The Institute of Technology was also created, which was later known as the College of Engineering and Architecture. Because of the addition of more technical, undergrad and postgraduate programs, PUP adopted the "cluster colleges" setup in 1984, where each college prepared the program and supervise all the subjects required in the degree program offered in the college.


text: In 1986, Dr. Nemesio E. Prudente re-assumed the presidency of PUP. Under his presidency, PUP developed its physical facilities in Manila and in other campuses. He also formulated a new PUP logo, hymn and philosophy and had the university's organization restructured. PUP experienced enhancement in its academic and co-curricular programs, upsurge in cultural activities, and a dynamic physical education and sports program during his term. Because of what Prudente did, he was credited with revitalizing public education in the Philippines by institutionalizing much-needed changes in the state university he led, which will eventually become the largest state university.


text: In the 1990s, PUP had its first female president appointed, Dr. Zenaida A. Olonan. PUP established its Information and Technology Center (ICTC) in 1999. It started its operations a year later in 2000. By February 2000, PUP was conferred by the Commission on Higher Education as a Center of Development for Excellence (CODE) in Information Technology. PUP was also recognized as a Virtual Center for Technology Innovation in Information Technology by the Department of Science and Technology (Philippines).


text: PUP celebrated its Centennial Year in 2004. The countdown for the Centennial started in 1999. In 2003, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed 2004 as the "PUP Centennial Year". She also declared that the PUP Mabini Campus be the official and permanent home of the Mabini Shrine. The Shrine was transferred to PUP to protect it from the flood control project of the Metro Manila Development Authority. As a part of its Centennial Year, plans were drawn to construct the Diosdado P. Magapagal Law Center (College of Law Building) in the Lepanto Campus and Freedom Plaza. Only the Plaza was constructed and the lot at Lepanto Campus where the Law Center is supposed to stand remains empty. PUP made the world's largest human rainbow during its centennial celebration held in Rizal Park to highlight the signing of the Declaration of Peace to be put before the United Nations. PUP's largest human rainbow is made of 30,365 students, faculty, staff and alumni.


text: In 2005, Dr. Dante G. Guevarra was appointed as the Officer-in-Charge of PUP. A year later, he became the Acting President. Notable achievements during his term include the creation of the web-based application system PUP iApply, the designation of PUP as Southeast Asia's first railway academy in 2007, and PUP becoming as one of the sites for the entire nation's commemoration of the 110th Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence. Among the notable structures built during this time include the Mabini Obelisk, Freedom Plaza, and the Fort Santiago replica walls of the Luntiang Pilipinas Forest Park. Despite these achievements, however, Dr. Guevarra's tenure was also controversial due to allegations of graft and corruption, which was linked to the assassination of the Vice President for Administration during his term, Augustus Cezar. Because of his unsatisfactory performance after the recent events, he was suspended from his duty as the President of PUP along with other University officials that are believed to be involved in the aforementioned the scandals. In February 2020, Dr. Manuel M. Muhi was appointed as the new President of PUP.


text: PUP participated in a successful attempt to set a world record for most organ donation pledges in 2014, a project spearheaded by the Department of Health. It broke the record for most organ donation pledges in one hour. 3,548 people signed up in the span of 30 minutes, beating India's 2,755 pledged organ donors. PUP placed third in the "Go Green in the City" contest held at Paris, France in June 2015, representing the Philippines. Engineering students John Paul Santos and Christian Santa Romana won the award for their invention, the ELECTRIFILTER (Electricity Generation from Filthy Water). It generates electricity from waste water, has the capability to filter and cleanse water and is portable so that it can be delivered to places where clean water and electricity are in short supply.


text: In September 2019, multiple bills have been filed in the House of Representatives and the Senate to elevate the status of PUP into the national polytechnic university. The consolidated bill was vetoed by the President. Of all the state universities and colleges, only the University of the Philippines have a chartered national university status.


text: Polytechnic University of the Philippines is located in three campuses that form a university town in Santa Mesa, Manila. These campuses are commonly referred as PUP Santa Mesa. The Mabini and NDC campuses lie adjacent to the banks of Pasig River and host a ferry station. These campuses are serviced by the PNR Metro Commuter Line Santa Mesa station and the LRT Line 2 Pureza station. New buildings for the College of Law and Institute and Technology are being constructed in another campus in the university belt, which served as PUP's former headquarters.


text: The PUP Main Campus was named after Apolinario Mabini by Dr. Nemesio Prudente, when he reorganized the university in 1988. The sprawling A. Mabini Campus, with 10.71 hectares, hosts the core cluster of academic buildings and services. The entrance to the campus is flanked by the PUP Pylon and Mural, which serve as icons of the university. The first building built on the site is the Main Academic Building, which was originally intended to be a military tenement. The Main Library, known as Ninoy Aquino Library and Learning Resources Center, is regarded as one of the largest libraries in Southeast Asia. The historic Mabini Shrine located east of the Freedom Plaza, is the house where Apolinario Mabini died.