title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: Reinhard Heydrich called a follow-up conference on 6 March 1942, which further discussed the problems of "mixed blood" individuals and mixed marriage couples. At this meeting, Stuckart argued that only first degree "Mischlinge" (persons with two Jewish grandparents) should be sterilized by force, after which they should be allowed to remain in Germany and undergo a "natural extinction". He had stated:


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: Stuckart was also concerned about causing distress to German spouses and children of 'interracial' couples.


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: After World War II, Stuckart was arrested, interned in Camp Ashcan and tried by the Allies in the Ministries Trial for his role in formulating and carrying out anti-Jewish laws. The court characterized him as an ardent Jew-hater, who was able to pursue his anti-Semitic campaign from the safety of his ministerial office. Former co-worker Bernhard Lösener from Interior Ministry testified that Stuckart had been aware of the murder of the Jews even before the Wannsee Conference. Stuckart's defense argued that his support for the forced sterilization of "Mischlinge" was in order to prevent or delay even more drastic measures. The court was unable to resolve the question, and sentenced him to time served in April 1949.


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: After being released from captivity, Stuckart went to work as city treasurer in Helmstedt and then as the manager of the Institute for the Promotion of Economy in Lower Saxony. In 1951 he was tried in a de-Nazification court, classified as a "fellow traveller" ("Mitläufer") and fined five hundred marks.


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: Stuckart was killed on 15 November 1953 near Hanover, West Germany, in a car accident a day before his 51st birthday. There has been widespread speculation that the "accident" was in reality a staged collision targeting Stuckart as a former Nazi involved in Nazi racial and anti-Jewish policies and activities, although nothing has ever been openly admitted by Mossad or other groups known to have been involved in other attacks on former Nazis.


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: Stuckart held firm opinions concerning racial legislation and administrative organisation. At the Ministries Trial, his personal assistant Hans Globke described him as a "convinced Nazi", whose political faith weakened as time went on. From May 1940 onward Stuckart made a number of requests to be released from his job to military service in the "Wehrmacht", but these were turned down personally by Hitler.


title: Wilhelm Stuckart

text: Wilhelm Stuckart is portrayed by actor Peter Fitz in the 1984 German film and by actor Colin Firth in the 2001 film.


title: Elliot Knight

text: Elliot Knight is an English actor. He made his acting debut as the title character on the Sky1 action-adventure series "Sinbad" (2012). Continuing to work on television, Knight appeared as a series regular on the BBC One crime drama "By Any Means" (2013), the CBS mystery "American Gothic", and The CW comedy-drama "Life Sentence" (2018), in addition to portraying Merlin on the ABC fantasy "Once Upon a Time" (2015) and Don Hall / Dove on the DC Universe / HBO Max superhero drama "Titans" (2018; 2021). On film, he appeared in the science fiction horror "Color Out of Space" (2020). Knight also portrayed Sergeant Kyle "Gaz" Garrick in the first-person shooters' "" (2019), and "" (2022).


title: Elliot Knight

text: Knight was born in Birmingham, United Kingdom to Stuart and Lorna Knight, who are both teachers. His father works at Broadway Secondary School in Perry Barr, Birmingham. He was a pupil at King Edward VI Aston School and studied subsequently at the Manchester Metropolitan School of Theatre, where he graduated with a BA (Hon) degree in 2011.


title: Elliot Knight

text: In June 2011, Sky1 announced that Knight had won the lead role in the television drama "Sinbad" which was his first professional role. The series premiered in July 2012. In 2013, Knight joined the cast of BBC crime drama "By Any Means". In 2015, Knight was cast to play Merlin in the fifth season of "Once Upon a Time".


title: Elliot Knight

text: In March 2017, Knight was cast as Wes Charles in The CW series "Life Sentence". The series was picked up in May for a midseason premiere some time in 2018.


title: Elliot Knight

text: In 2020, Knight starred opposite Nicolas Cage and Joely Richardson in the sci-fi cosmic horror film "Color Out of Space", directed by Richard Stanley.


title: S.W.A.T. (2017 TV series, season 2)

text: The second season of the American action drama television series "S.W.A.T." premiered on September 27, 2018, and ended on May 16, 2019 on CBS with 23 episodes.


title: Axial compressor

text: An axial compressor is a gas compressor that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially. This differs from other rotating compressors such as centrifugal compressor, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow compressors where the fluid flow will include a "radial component" through the compressor. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or a steam or a gas turbine.


title: Axial compressor

text: Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size and cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a large pressure rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressors).


title: Axial compressor

text: Axial compressors are integral to the design of large gas turbines such as jet engines, high speed ship engines, and small scale power stations. They are also used in industrial applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and propane dehydrogenation. Due to high performance, high reliability and flexible operation during the flight envelope, they are also used in aerospace rocket engines, as fuel pumps and in other critical high volume applications.


title: Axial compressor

text: Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum which is retained by bearings inside of a stationary tubular casing. Between the drum and the casing are rows of airfoils, each row connected to either the drum or the casing in an alternating manner. A pair of one row of rotating airfoils and the next row of stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid in both the axial and circumferential directions. The stationary airfoils, also known as vanes or stators, convert the increased kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the flow direction of the fluid to prepare it for the rotor blades of the next stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an optimum Mach number axial velocity as the fluid is compressed.


title: Axial compressor

text: As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in the stator converts the absolute kinetic head of the fluid into a rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles increases their velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the reaction principle in turbomachines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.


title: Axial compressor

text: The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15% and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a polytropic efficiency in the region of 90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a rule of thumb we can assume that each stage in a given compressor has the same temperature rise (Delta T). Therefore, at the entry, temperature (Tstage) to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and the ratio (Delta T)/(Tstage) entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the first stage.


title: Axial compressor

text: Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets.


title: Axial compressor

text: The airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed).


title: Axial compressor

text: Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight conditions.


title: Axial compressor

text: The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of external forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net change of angular momentum flux through the control volume.


title: Axial compressor

text: The swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius, formula_1, with tangential velocity, formula_2, and leaves at radius, formula_3, with tangential velocity, formula_4.


title: Axial compressor

text: The pressure difference between the entry and exit of the rotor blade is called reaction pressure. The change in pressure energy is calculated through "degree of reaction".


title: Axial compressor

text: Greitzer used a Helmholtz resonator type of compression system model to predict the transient response of a compression system after a small perturbation superimposed on a steady operating condition. He found a non-dimensional parameter which predicted which mode of compressor instability, rotating stall or surge, would result. The parameter used the rotor speed, Helmholtz resonator frequency of the system and an "effective length" of the compressor duct. It had a critical value which predicted either rotating stall or surge where the slope of pressure ratio against flow changed from negative to positive.


title: Axial compressor

text: Axial compressor performance is shown on a compressor map, also known as a characteristic, by plotting pressure ratio and efficiency against corrected mass flow at different values of corrected compressor speed.


title: Axial compressor

text: Axial compressors, particularly near their design point are usually amenable to analytical treatment, and a good estimate of their performance can be made before they are first run on a rig. The compressor map shows the complete running range, i.e. off-design, of the compressor from ground idle to its highest corrected rotor speed, which for a civil engine may occur at top-of-climb, or, for a military combat engine, at take-off on a cold day. Not shown is the sub-idle performance region needed for analyzing normal ground and in-flight windmill start behaviour.


title: Axial compressor

text: The performance of a single compressor stage may be shown by plotting stage loading coefficient (formula_26) as a function of flow coefficient (formula_27)


title: Axial compressor

text: Stage pressure ratio against flow rate is lower than for a no-loss stage as shown. Losses are due to blade friction, flow separation, unsteady flow and vane-blade spacing.


title: Axial compressor

text: The performance of a compressor is defined according to its design. But in actual practice, the operating point of the compressor deviates from the design- point which is known as off-design operation.


title: Axial compressor

text: The value of formula_29 doesn't change for a wide range of operating points till stalling. Also formula_30 because of minor change in air angle at rotor and stator, where formula_31 is diffuser blade angle.


title: Axial compressor

text: In the plot of pressure-flow rate the line separating graph between two regions- unstable and stable is known as the surge line. This line is formed by joining surge points at different rpms. Unstable flow in axial compressors due to complete breakdown of the steady through flow is termed as surging. This phenomenon affects the performance of compressor and is undesirable.


title: Axial compressor

text: The following explanation for surging refers to running a compressor at a constant speed on a rig and gradually reducing the exit area by closing a valve. What happens, i.e. crossing the surge line, is caused by the compressor trying to deliver air, still running at the same speed, to a higher exit pressure. When the compressor is operating as part of a complete gas turbine engine, as opposed to on a test rig, a higher delivery pressure at a particular speed can be caused momentarily by burning too-great a step-jump in fuel which causes a momentary blockage until the compressor increases to the speed which goes with the new fuel flow and the surging stops.


title: Axial compressor

text: Suppose the initial operating point D (formula_34) at some rpm N. On decreasing the flow-rate at same rpm along the characteristic curve by partial closing of the valve, the pressure in the pipe increases which will be taken care by increase in input pressure at the compressor. Further increase in pressure till point P (surge point), compressor pressure will increase. Further moving towards left keeping rpm constant, pressure in pipe will increase but compressor pressure will decrease leading to back air-flow towards the compressor. Due to this back flow, pressure in pipe will decrease because this unequal pressure condition cannot stay for a long period of time. Though valve position is set for lower flow rate say point G but compressor will work according to normal stable operation point say E, so path E-F-P-G-E will be followed leading to breakdown of flow, hence pressure in the compressor falls further to point H(formula_35). This increase and decrease of pressure in pipe will occur repeatedly in pipe and compressor following the cycle E-F-P-G-H-E also known as the surge cycle.


title: Axial compressor

text: This phenomenon will cause vibrations in the whole machine and may lead to mechanical failure. That is why left portion of the curve from the surge point is called unstable region and may cause damage to the machine. So the recommended operation range is on the right side of the surge line.


title: Axial compressor

text: Stalling is an important phenomenon that affects the performance of the compressor. An analysis is made of rotating stall in compressors of many stages, finding conditions under which a flow distortion can occur which is steady in a traveling reference frame, even though upstream total and downstream static pressure are constant. In the compressor, a pressure-rise hysteresis is assumed. It is a situation of separation of air flow at the aero-foil blades of the compressor. This phenomenon depending upon the blade-profile leads to reduced compression and drop in engine power.


title: Axial compressor

text: Negative stall is negligible compared to the positive stall because flow separation is least likely to occur on the pressure side of the blade.


title: Axial compressor

text: In a multi-stage compressor, at the high pressure stages, axial velocity is very small. Stalling value decreases with a small deviation from the design point causing stall near the hub and tip regions whose size increases with decreasing flow rates. They grow larger at very low flow rate and affect the entire blade height. Delivery pressure significantly drops with large stalling which can lead to flow reversal. The stage efficiency drops with higher losses.


title: Axial compressor

text: Non-uniformity of air flow in the rotor blades may disturb local air flow in the compressor without upsetting it. The compressor continues to work normally but with reduced compression. Thus, rotating stall decreases the effectiveness of the compressor.


title: Axial compressor

text: In a rotor with blades moving say towards right. Let some blades receives flow at higher incidence, this blade will stop positively. It creates obstruction in the passage between the blade to its left and itself. Thus the left blade will receive the flow at higher incidence and the blade to its right with decreased incidence. The left blade will experience more stall while the blade to its right will experience lesser stall. Towards the right stalling will decrease whereas it will increase towards its left. Movement of the rotating stall can be observed depending upon the chosen reference frame.


title: Axial compressor

text: From an energy exchange point of view axial compressors are reversed turbines. Steam-turbine designer Charles Algernon Parsons, for example, recognized that a turbine which produced work by virtue of a fluid's static pressure (i.e. a reaction turbine) could have its action reversed to act as an air compressor, calling it a turbo compressor or pump. His rotor and stator blading described in one of his patents had little or no camber although in some cases the blade design was based on propeller theory. The machines, driven by steam turbines, were used for industrial purposes such as supplying air to blast furnaces. Parsons supplied the first commercial axial flow compressor for use in a lead smelter in 1901. Parsons' machines had low efficiencies, later attributed to blade stall, and were soon replaced with more efficient centrifugal compressors.


title: Axial compressor

text: Brown Boveri & Cie produced "reversed turbine" compressors, driven by gas turbines, with blading derived from aerodynamic research which were more efficient than centrifugal types when pumping large flow rates of 40,000 cu.ft. per minute at pressures up to 45 p.s.i.


title: Axial compressor

text: Because early axial compressors were not efficient enough a number of papers in the early 1920s claimed that a practical axial-flow turbojet engine would be impossible to construct. Things changed after A. A. Griffith published a seminal paper in 1926, noting that the reason for the poor performance was that existing compressors used flat blades and were essentially "flying stalled". He showed that the use of airfoils instead of the flat blades would increase efficiency to the point where a practical jet engine was a real possibility. He concluded the paper with a basic diagram of such an engine, which included a second turbine that was used to power a propeller.


title: Axial compressor

text: Although Griffith was well known due to his earlier work on metal fatigue and stress measurement, little work appears to have started as a direct result of his paper. The only obvious effort was a test-bed compressor built by Hayne Constant, Griffith's colleague at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. Other early jet efforts, notably those of Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, were based on the more robust and better understood centrifugal compressor which was widely used in superchargers. Griffith had seen Whittle's work in 1929 and dismissed it, noting a mathematical error, and going on to claim that the frontal size of the engine would make it useless on a high-speed aircraft.


title: Axial compressor

text: Real work on axial-flow engines started in the late 1930s, in several efforts that all started at about the same time. In England, Hayne Constant reached an agreement with the steam turbine company Metropolitan-Vickers (Metrovick) in 1937, starting their turboprop effort based on the Griffith design in 1938. In 1940, after the successful run of Whittle's centrifugal-flow design, their effort was re-designed as a pure jet, the Metrovick F.2. In Germany, von Ohain had produced several working centrifugal engines, some of which had flown including the world's first jet aircraft (He 178), but development efforts had moved on to Junkers (Jumo 004) and BMW (BMW 003), which used axial-flow designs in the world's first jet fighter (Messerschmitt Me 262) and jet bomber (Arado Ar 234). In the United States, both Lockheed and General Electric were awarded contracts in 1941 to develop axial-flow engines, the former a pure jet, the latter a turboprop. Northrop also started their own project to develop a turboprop, which the US Navy eventually contracted in 1943. Westinghouse also entered the race in 1942, their project proving to be the only successful one of the US efforts, later becoming the J30.


title: Axial compressor

text: As Griffith had originally noted in 1929, the large frontal size of the centrifugal compressor caused it to have higher drag than the narrower axial-flow type. Additionally the axial-flow design could improve its compression ratio simply by adding additional stages and making the engine slightly longer. In the centrifugal-flow design the compressor itself had to be larger in diameter, which was much more difficult to fit properly into a thin and aerodynamic aircraft fuselage (although not dissimilar to the profile of radial engines already in widespread use). On the other hand, centrifugal-flow designs remained much less complex (the major reason they "won" in the race to flying examples) and therefore have a role in places where size and streamlining are not so important.


title: Axial compressor

text: In the jet engine application, the compressor faces a wide variety of operating conditions. On the ground at takeoff the inlet pressure is high, inlet speed zero, and the compressor spun at a variety of speeds as the power is applied. Once in flight the inlet pressure drops, but the inlet speed increases (due to the forward motion of the aircraft) to recover some of this pressure, and the compressor tends to run at a single speed for long periods of time.


title: Axial compressor

text: There is simply no "perfect" compressor for this wide range of operating conditions. Fixed geometry compressors, like those used on early jet engines, are limited to a design pressure ratio of about 4 or 5:1. As with any heat engine, fuel efficiency is strongly related to the compression ratio, so there is very strong financial need to improve the compressor stages beyond these sorts of ratios.


title: Axial compressor

text: Additionally the compressor may stall if the inlet conditions change abruptly, a common problem on early engines. In some cases, if the stall occurs near the front of the engine, all of the stages from that point on will stop compressing the air. In this situation the energy required to run the compressor drops suddenly, and the remaining hot air in the rear of the engine allows the turbine to speed up the whole engine dramatically. This condition, known as surging, was a major problem on early engines and often led to the turbine or compressor breaking and shedding blades.


title: Axial compressor

text: For all of these reasons, axial compressors on modern jet engines are considerably more complex than those on earlier designs.


title: Axial compressor

text: All compressors have an optimum point relating rotational speed and pressure, with higher compressions requiring higher speeds. Early engines were designed for simplicity, and used a single large compressor spinning at a single speed. Later designs added a second turbine and divided the compressor into low-pressure and high-pressure sections, the latter spinning faster. This "two-spool" design, pioneered on the Bristol Olympus, resulted in increased efficiency. Further increases in efficiency may be realised by adding a third spool, but in practice the added complexity increases maintenance costs to the point of negating any economic benefit. That said, there are several three-spool engines in use, perhaps the most famous being the Rolls-Royce RB211, used on a wide variety of commercial aircraft.


title: Axial compressor

text: As an aircraft changes speed or altitude, the pressure of the air at the inlet to the compressor will vary. In order to "tune" the compressor for these changing conditions, designs starting in the 1950s would "bleed" air out of the middle of the compressor in order to avoid trying to compress too much air in the final stages. This was also used to help start the engine, allowing it to be spun up without compressing much air by bleeding off as much as possible. Bleed systems were already commonly used anyway, to provide airflow into the turbine stage where it was used to cool the turbine blades, as well as provide pressurized air for the air conditioning systems inside the aircraft.


title: Axial compressor

text: A more advanced design, the "variable stator", used blades that can be individually rotated around their axis, as opposed to the power axis of the engine. For startup they are rotated to "closed", reducing compression, and then are rotated back into the airflow as the external conditions require. The General Electric J79 was the first major example of a variable stator design, and today it is a common feature of most military engines.


title: Axial compressor

text: Closing the variable stators progressively, as compressor speed falls, reduces the slope of the surge (or stall) line on the operating characteristic (or map), improving the surge margin of the installed unit. By incorporating variable stators in the first five stages, General Electric Aircraft Engines has developed a ten-stage axial compressor capable of operating at a 23:1 design pressure ratio.


title: Axial compressor

text: The relative motion of the blades to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both to the fluid as it passes through the rotor. The fluid velocity is increased through the rotor, and the stator converts kinetic energy to pressure energy. Some diffusion also occurs in the rotor in most practical designs.


title: Axial compressor

text: The increase in velocity of the fluid is primarily in the tangential direction (swirl) and the stator removes this angular momentum.


title: Axial compressor

text: The pressure rise results in a stagnation temperature rise. For a given geometry the temperature rise depends on the square of the tangential Mach number of the rotor row. Current turbofan engines have fans that operate at Mach 1.7 or more, and require significant containment and noise suppression structures to reduce blade loss damage and noise.


title: Axial compressor

text: A map shows the performance of a compressor and allows determination of optimal operating conditions. It shows the mass flow along the horizontal axis, typically as a percentage of the design mass flow rate, or in actual units. The pressure rise is indicated on the vertical axis as a ratio between inlet and exit stagnation pressures.


title: Axial compressor

text: A surge or stall line identifies the boundary to the left of which the compressor performance rapidly degrades and identifies the maximum pressure ratio that can be achieved for a given mass flow. Contours of efficiency are drawn as well as performance lines for operation at particular rotational speeds.


title: Axial compressor

text: Operating efficiency is highest close to the stall line. If the downstream pressure is increased beyond the maximum possible the compressor will stall and become unstable.


title: Axial compressor

text: Typically the instability will be at the Helmholtz frequency of the system, taking the downstream plenum into account.


title: Bean bag round

text: A bean bag round, also known by its trademarked name flexible baton round, is a type of baton round, fired from a shotgun, and used for less lethal apprehension of suspects.


title: Bean bag round

text: The bean bag round consists of a small fabric "pillow" filled with #9 lead shot weighing about . It is fired from a normal 12-gauge shotgun. When fired, the bag is expelled at around ; it spreads out in flight and distributes its impact over about of the target. It is designed to deliver a blow that will cause minimum long-term trauma and no penetration but will result in a muscle spasm or other reaction to briefly render a violent suspect immobile. It still can cause serious injury and death. The shotgun round is inaccurate over about and has a maximum range of around . Changes to the bean bag round since its inception in the early 1970s have included a velocity reduction from 120 to 90 meters per second (400 to 300 ft/s) as well as a shift from a square shape to a more rounded sock-shaped projectile.


title: Bean bag round

text: Shotguns dedicated to being used for bean bag rounds are often visibly modified with either yellow or green markings, or bright orange stocks and stops, to reduce the possibility that a user might inadvertently load lethal munitions into the weapon.


title: Bean bag round

text: Bean bag rounds are used when a person is a danger to themselves or others but is not a direct threat in such a manner that deadly force would be appropriate – typically a suicidal individual with a bladed weapon. The round is intended to disable the person without killing them.


title: Bean bag round

text: A bean bag round can severely injure or kill in a wide variety of ways. They have caused around one death a year since their introduction in the US. A round can hit the chest, break the ribs and send the broken ribs into the heart. A shot to the head can break the nose, crush the larynx or break the neck or skull of the subject. This is why many officers are taught to aim for the extremities when using a bean bag round. A strike in the abdominal area can cause internal bleeding or strike the celiac plexus which can disrupt breathing or heartbeat, but such a hit is generally safer than most other areas as well as presenting a larger target than an extremity. Fatalities are occasionally the result of mistaking other shotgun rounds for bean bags.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Marcus Hutchins (born 1994), also known online as MalwareTech, is a British computer security researcher known for stopping the WannaCry ransomware attack. He is employed by cybersecurity firm Kryptos Logic. Hutchins is from Ilfracombe in Devon.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins is the elder son of Janet Hutchins, a Scottish nurse, and Desmond Hutchins, a Jamaican social worker. Around 2003, when Hutchins was nine years old, the parents moved the family from urban Bracknell, near London, to rural Devon. Hutchins had shown early aptitude with computers and learned simple hacking skills early on such as bypassing security on school computers to install video game software. In addition, he spent time learning to be a surf lifeguard.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: He became involved with an online forum that promoted malware development, more as a means to show off their skills to each other rather than for nefarious purposes. When he was about 14 years old, he created his own contribution, a password stealer based on Internet Explorer's AutoFill feature, which was met with approval by the forum. He spent much of his time with this community to the extent his school work began to fail. When the school's systems were compromised, the school authorities claimed Hutchins was the culprit. Though he denied any involvement, school authorities permanently suspended him from using the computers at school, which further pushed Hutchins to skip school more often and spend more time in the malware forums.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: At around this time, the original malware forums had been closed, and Hutchins transferred to another hacker community, HackForums. In this new forum, members were expected to show more skill by demonstrating possession of a botnet. Hutchins, 15 years old at the time, successfully created an 8,000-computer botnet for HackForums by tricking BitTorrent users into running his fake files to take control of their machines. From this exploit, Hutchins saw financial opportunities for his hacking skills, though at the time he did not feel these were tied to any type of cybercrime, as he stated in a 2020 interview. These activities included setting up "ghosted" web hosting for others on the HackForums for "all illegal sites" except child porn, and created custom malware, often based on evaluating how others' rootkits operated.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: According to Hutchins in later interviews and in his plea agreement, when he was around 16, having gained a reputation in hacking circles for his custom malware, he was approached by an online entity he knew only as "Vinny", who asked him to write a well-maintained, multifaceted rootkit that could be sold on multiple hacker marketplaces, with Hutchins to be paid half of the profits of each sale. Hutchins agreed, and by mid-2012, had completed writing UPAS Kit, named after the poisonous upas tree. During this period, Hutchins had once complained in his conversations with Vinny about the lack of good weed in the country. Vinny asked for his address, which Hutchins gave, and later on his 17th birthday, he received a package full of various recreational drugs. Sales of UPAS Kit earned Hutchins thousands of dollars through bitcoin, allowing him to drop out of school and live a comfortable life, though he kept the nature of his work secret from his family.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Vinny shortly came back to Hutchins to ask him to write UPAS Kit 2.0, specifically adding keylogging and web inject for browser form pages. At this point, Hutchins recognized these features were likely for targeting financial transactions on bank websites, and thus he would be enabling cybercrime if he wrote the update. Hutchins told Vinny that he refused to write such code, but Vinny held him over the fact he knew his date of birth and address from his prior gift of recreational drugs and was willing to give that to the FBI if Hutchins did not cooperate. Hutchins reached an agreement to add in the keylogging to UPAS Kit 2.0 but left out anything to do with web inject, which took another nine months to complete.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: After this, Vinny told him that he'd had hired another programmer to update UPAS Kit with the web injects, and now wanted Hutchins and this programmer to work together to combine the code to a single package. Though he was ethically torn on the decision, Hutchins opted to continue working with Vinny to at least make sure he got paid for the work that he did already do, though procrastinated as much as he could. The new code was completed by June 2014, and as Vinny started selling it to the dark web he renamed UPAS Kit 2.0 to Kronos, based on the mythological Greek Titan.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins had entered community college and was struggling between completing his last year of work and the fixes to Kronos demanded by Vinny, further complicated with a drug addiction he gained while working on Kronos. During this time, he met a person he knew as "Randy" online through hacking forums. Randy, who was based in Los Angeles, had sought a banking rootkit like Kronos, which Hutchins did not mention, but led to longer talks to learn that Randy had more philanthropic goals. To help Randy, Hutchins offered to help him with trading bitcoin. However, a power failure one night caused Hutchins to lose more than of Randy's bitcoin, and in exchange, Hutchins revealed his connection to Kronos and offered a free copy to Randy. After they had completed that deal, Hutchins realized the mistake he had made in revealing this to a stranger, and started to fear he would be approached by law enforcement.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins graduated from community college in 2015 and dropped his drug addiction cold turkey. He put off requests from Vinny for updates to Kronos claiming he was busy with schoolwork, until soon the requests stopped as well as any further payments from Vinny. After several months of dread, he decided to start an anonymously written blog on deep analysis of hacks that he called MalwareTech, based on what he had learned evaluating others' rootkits and his own work on UPAS Kit and Kronos, though he spoke nothing of his connection to these rootkits. As new rootkits appeared, Hutchins began reverse engineering those and writing the details on MalwareTech, such as the Kelihos and Necurs botnet, and wrote his own botnet tracking service that could join the botnet and monitor what operations the controllers of the botnets were doing. His writings drew the interest of Kryptos Logic's CEO Salim Neino, who offered the writer a job.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins accepted; while still working from Ilfracombe, he would reverse engineer new botnets and provide the detailed information to Kryptos Logic while writing on the high-level functionality he had discovered to MalwareTech, while Kryptos Logic would monitor the botnets for ongoing cybersecurity threats. Through this relationship, Hutchins' reputation via his MalwareTech identity grew, being called a "reversing savant" by a former NSA hacker, though only a few associates at Kryptos knew of his true identity. Hutchins and Kryptos Logic were instrumental in stopping one offshoot of the Mirai botnet/distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack in 2016 that had hit Lloyds Bank, as Hutchins had been able to plead to the hacker behind it, once he had tracked him down, with his own experiences to convince him to stop the botnet.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: The WannaCry ransomware attack had started around 12 May 2017; using an exploit in Microsoft Windows' Server Message Block, it quickly spread from its initial point of injection believed to be in North Korea to over 230,000 computers in 150 countries within the day. Computers infected were seemingly locked out from use and could be unlocked only if the user sent a quantity of Bitcoin to a given account.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins had become aware of WannaCry the afternoon of 12 May, and though he had been on vacation, he began reverse engineering the code from his bedroom. He discovered that the malware was tied to an odd-looking domain name, suggesting the malware would be part of a command-and-control structure common to botnets, but to his surprise, the domain name was not registered. He quickly registered the domain and set up servers at Kryptos Logic within it to act as honeypots, allowing them to track the infected computers. While the WannaCry worm continued to spread over the next few hours, security researchers found that because Hutchins had registered the domain name when he did, WannaCry would not execute further, effectively becoming the worm's killswitch. Hutchins and Kryptos, along with the UK's National Cyber Security Centre, spent the next several days maintaining the honeypot servers from additional DDoS attacks, some restarted by ongoing Mirai botnets as to make sure the killswitch remained active while Microsoft and other security workers rushed to patch the exploit in the Server Message Block and issue it to end users. A separate effort from French cybersecurity researchers found a method to unlock and decrypt affected computers without having to pay the ransom.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins' work, as MalwareTech, to stop WannaCry, was highly praised, but this led to the press figuring out Hutchins' identity behind MalwareTech in the days that followed. Hutchins tried to avoid the press including the more-invasive tabloids who had published his name and address tied to the MalwareTech name, though did agree to a single Associated Press interview under his real name, trying to defuse the "hero" perception he had been given. In this coverage, he kept his past history quiet, simply stating that he got his job with Kryptos Logic based on his software skills and MalwareTech blog hobbies he developed during school. He gained a type of a celebrity status within the cybersecurity world for his actions against WannaCry, and plans were made for him to attend the 2017 DEF CON cybersecurity conference in Las Vegas that August.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: On 3 August 2017, Hutchins was arrested by the FBI as he was preparing to return to England from DEF CON on six hacking-related federal charges in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Wisconsin for creating and spreading Kronos in 2014 and 2015. Based on documents obtained by "Vice" through Freedom of Information Act requests, the FBI had tied Hutchins to Kronos after they had seized the assets of AlphaBay in July 2017, where they found evidence of at least one sale of Kronos. The FBI had obtained copies of his conversations with Randy from another dark web server seizure prior to AlphaBay to prove his connection to the software, which he confessed to while questioned.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: Hutchins was kept in a Las Vegas jail overnight after calling Neino about his plight. Neino alerted his own associates, which set off a chain of alerts across the cybersecurity community about Hutchins' situation, though many mistakenly believed that the arrest was due to the WannaCry attacks. A large number of cybersecurity workers and hackers rallied to his aid to help make Hutchins' bail, though as some of the contributions included stolen credit cards and bitcoin, it raised further suspicions on Hutchins' activities; ultimately, Tarah Wheeler and her husband Deviant Ollam were able to front the bail money and help find Hutchins a place in Los Angeles to live as he was barred from leaving the country.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: At his arraignment, he pleaded not guilty to the charges, and was put under house arrest in Los Angeles, initially with strict curfew limits and GPS monitoring, but these were lifted after a few months. Hutchins had intended his "not guilty" to be used as part of a plea bargain with the FBI, rather than to deny any involvement with Kronos, though some in the hacker community took this as his denial, and vocally fought for Hutchins' release on this claim.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: In early 2018, the FBI began to negotiate with Hutchins as they desired information he had on Vinny and several other hackers that he knew, offering to reduce his sentence to a zero-prison term. Hutchins could not provide any significant information about Vinny, and did not want to reveal information on the other hackers, refusing the offer. The FBI added four charges to his indictment by June 2018, which Hutchins was told by his lawyers was in response to refusing their offer.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: On 19 April 2019 Hutchins pleaded guilty to two of the ten charges, conspiring to commit wire fraud, as well as distributing, selling, promoting, and advertising a device used to intercept electronic communications. His statement included the quote "I regret these actions and accept full responsibility for my mistakes. Having grown up, I’ve since been using the same skills that I misused several years ago for constructive purposes." Hutchins faced up to five years in prison and $250,000 in fines for the two charges. On 26 July 2019, Judge Joseph Peter Stadtmueller sentenced Hutchins to time served and one year of supervised release, recognizing that Hutchins had "turned the corner" from using his skills for criminal purpose into beneficial uses well before he had faced justice.


title: Marcus Hutchins

text: According to a 2020 "Wired" profile, Hutchins stated that while he preferred to stay in Los Angeles, he expected following the year of supervised release he would be deported back to the United Kingdom, as he had long overstayed his travel visa.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The West Midlands Metro (originally named Midland Metro) is a light-rail/tram system in the county of West Midlands, England. Opened on 30 May 1999, it currently consists of a single route, Line 1, which operates between the cities of Birmingham and Wolverhampton via the towns of Bilston, West Bromwich and Wednesbury, running on a mixture of reopened disused railway line (the Birmingham Snow Hill to Wolverhampton Low Level Line) and on-street running in urban areas. The line originally terminated at Birmingham Snow Hill station but, with extensions opened in 2015, 2019 and 2022, now runs via Birmingham city centre to terminate at Edgbaston. A further extension in Wolverhampton was scheduled to open in 2022, but has been pushed back to 2023.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The system is owned by the public body Transport for West Midlands, and operated through Midland Metro Ltd, a company wholly owned by the West Midlands Combined Authority.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: An extension to Wolverhampton railway station is scheduled to open in spring 2023. Construction of a new Line 2 & 3 from Wednesbury to Brierley Hill was approved in March 2019, started in February 2020 and was intended to be completed for the 2022 Commonwealth Games. However, delays in construction of the extension due to COVID-19 have delayed the project. A further extension will create a new Line 4 from Edgbaston to Curzon Street, Digbeth, Solihull or Chelmsley Wood and Birmingham Airport planned to open in phases in 2023 and 2024–2026 depending on when planning permission is accepted.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Birmingham once had an extensive tram network run by Birmingham Corporation Tramways. However, as in most British cities, the network was wound down and closed by the local authority, with the last tram running in 1953.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: There had been proposals for a light rail or Metro system in Birmingham and the Black Country put forward as early as the 1950s and 1960s, ironically at a time when some of the region's lines and services were beginning to be cut back. However, serious inquiry into the possibility started in 1981 when the West Midlands County Council and the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive formed a joint planning committee to look at light rail as a means of solving the conurbation's congestion problems. In the summer of 1984 they produced a report entitled "Rapid Transit for the West Midlands" which set out ambitious proposals for a £500 million network of ten light rail routes which would be predominantly street running, but would include some underground sections in Birmingham city centre. One of the proposed routes would have used part of the existing line as far as West Bromwich.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The scheme suffered from several drawbacks, one being that three of the proposed routes, from Birmingham to Sutton Coldfield, Shirley, and Dorridge would take over existing railways, and would have included the conversion into a tramway of the Cross-City Line, between Aston and Blake Street, ending direct rail services to Lichfield. The northern section of the North Warwickshire Line was also to be converted as far as Shirley station, leaving a question mark over existing train services to Stratford-upon-Avon. Tram tracks would also run alongside the existing line to Solihull and Dorridge, with local train services ended.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The most serious drawback however, which proved fatal to the scheme, was that the first proposed route of the network, between Five Ways and Castle Bromwich via the city centre would have involved the demolition of 238 properties. This invoked strong opposition from local residents. The scheme was spearheaded by Wednesfield Labour councillor Phil Bateman, but was eventually abandoned in late 1985 in the face of public opposition, and the Transport Executive was unable to find a Member of Parliament willing to sponsor an enabling Bill.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Following the abolition of the West Midlands County Council and establishment of a new Passenger Transport Authority in 1986, a new light-rail scheme under the name "Midland Metro" was revived with a different set of lines. The first of up to 15 lines was intended to be operating by the end of 1993, and a network of 200 kilometres was planned to be in use by 2000.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In February 1988, it was announced that the first route, Line 1, would be between Birmingham and Wolverhampton, using much of the mothballed trackbed of the former Birmingham Snow Hill to Wolverhampton Low Level Line, a route not included in the 1984 recommended network, partly as at that stage the section between Wednesbury and Bilston was still in use, not closing until 1992. The Wednesbury to Birmingham section had closed back in 1972, and the section between Bilston and Wolverhampton was last used in 1983.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: A Bill to give West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive powers to build the line was deposited in Parliament in November 1988, and became an Act of Parliament a year later, with completion expected by the mid 1990s.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: A three-line network was initially planned, and powers were also obtained to build two further routes. Firstly an extension of Line 1 through the city centre to Five Ways, then a second line, Midland Metro Line 2, running to Chelmsley Wood, and then Birmingham Airport. A third line, Line 3 was also proposed, running from Line 1 at Wolverhampton to Walsall, using much of the disused trackbed of the Wolverhampton and Walsall Railway, and then, using the Wednesbury to Brierley Hill trackbed of the South Staffordshire Line (which would close in 1993), running southwards to Dudley intersecting with Line 1 along the route. This would provide a direct link with the new Merry Hill Shopping Centre, which was built between 1984 and 1989.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Some 25 years later, Line 2 and Line 3 have not been built. In 1997 Centro accepted that they were unable to get funding for the proposed lines, and therefore adopted a strategy of expanding the system in "bite-sized chunks", with the city-centre extension of Line 1 as the first priority. The intention was that the first decade of the 21st century would see the completion of the first of these projects.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Work on the Birmingham Metro tram extension began in June 2012, launched by transport minister Norman Baker. The dig was begun at the junction of Corporation Street and Bull Street, with work to move water pipes and power cables.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: A contract for the construction and operation of Line 1 was awarded to the Altram consortium in August 1995, and construction began three months later.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The estimated construction cost in 1995 was £145 million, of which loans and grants from central government accounted for £80M, the European Regional Development Fund contributed £31M, while the West Midlands Passenger Transport Authority provided £17.1M and Altram contributed £11.4M. The targeted completion date of August 1998 was missed by ten months, leading to compensation being paid by Altram. The original part of Line 1, Birmingham to Wolverhampton, was opened on 30 May 1999.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: For nearly two decades, Line 1 between Birmingham to Wolverhampton was the solitary operating section of the Midland Metro. It runs mostly along the trackbed of the former Great Western Railway line between the two cities which was closed in phases between 1972 and 1992. Originally, the line terminated at Birmingham Snow Hill station, using the space of one of the former rail platforms. However, in 2015–16, the line was extended across Birmingham city centre as far as Birmingham New Street station. From December 2019 onwards, trams terminated in Centenary Square at Birmingham Library. The line was extended and now ends at Edgbaston tram stop.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: From the Grand Central tram stop, which allows interchange with the National Rail network at Birmingham New Street station, West Midlands Metro then runs on street through the city-centre to Birmingham Snow Hill station. From there, the line runs north-west, and for the first few miles it runs alongside the Birmingham to Worcester railway line, before the two diverge. Two stations on this stretch (Jewellery Quarter and The Hawthorns) are also tram/railway interchange stations.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: At the northern end trams leave the railway trackbed at Priestfield to run along Bilston Road to St George's terminus in Bilston Street, Wolverhampton city centre. St George's has no direct interchange with rail services although frequent buses serve the stops outside the police station opposite. The railway station can be reached on foot in a few minutes via Pipers Row and footway at the northern end of the bus station.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The original proposal was to run into the former Wolverhampton Low Level station, giving the terminus a link to the very centre of Wolverhampton, but this was abandoned.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Mondays to Saturdays, services run at six to eight-minute intervals during the day. Evening and Sunday service is at fifteen-minute intervals. Trams take roughly 45 minutes to complete the route.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In February 2012, Centro announced that it was planning a £44.2million replacement of the entire existing T-69 tram fleet. CAF was named preferred bidder for 19 to 25 Urbos 3 trams. A £40million order for 20 was signed, with options for five more. The new fleet provided an increased service of ten trams per hour in each direction, with an increased capacity of 210 passengers per tram (compared to 156 passengers on the T69 trams).


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The first four new trams entered service on 5 September 2014; all of the T-69s had been replaced by August 2015.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In October 2019, WMCA awarded CAF a contract to supply an additional 21 Urbos 3 trams worth £83.5million for the expanding network, with the option to purchase a further 29. The contract includes technical support and battery management services over 30years.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Cracks were found in a couple of the new trams during routine inspection in June 2021 leading to all services being briefly suspended. Services were suspended again in November 2021 for four weeks as further inspections had discovered that more significant permanent repairs were required.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The service was suspended again on 20 March 2022 for replacement of body panels and recommenced on 9 June 2022.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The T-69s were built in Italy by AnsaldoBreda (now Hitachi Rail Italy), and were used only on the Midland Metro (as it was called then).


title: West Midlands Metro

text: After withdrawal, all sixteen were transferred to the tram test centre at Long Marston. Most of the trams were sold for scrap, but four of them still remain at Long Marston.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Line 1 is a standard gauge double-track tramway. Trams are driven manually under a mix of line-of-sight and signals. Turnback crossovers along the line, including in the street section, have point indicators.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: On the trackbed section Birmingham to Priestfield, signals are at Black Lake level crossing, Wednesbury Parkway, and Metro Centre. The street section has signals at every set of traffic lights, tied into the road signals to allow tram priority.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The tram stops are unstaffed raised platforms with two open-fronted cantilever shelters equipped with seats, a 'live' digital display of services, closed circuit television, and an intercom linked to Metro Centre.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The line is electrified at 750 V DC using overhead lines. The system was renewed in 2010/11, requiring short-term closures.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The Metro Centre control room, stabling point and depot is near Wednesbury Great Western Street tram stop, on land once used as railway sidings.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Unlike many other tram and train networks in the UK, West Midlands Metro does not offer ticket machines or ticket offices at tram stops although machines were provided when the system opened. They were later replaced by conductors. Single, return, and all-day tickets are sold by the on-tram conductors. Tickets valid for 1, 4, or 52 weeks are sold from seven "Travel Shops" located around the West Midlands, though only four are in locations served by the Metro.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Up until 2018 single, return, and day tickets could only be purchased with cash or Swift cards. Contactless payment cards are now accepted, though notes larger than £10 are not. Using a Swift card attracts a small discount, usually 10p.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: As well as the above, West Midlands Metro accepts a range of interavailable Transport for West Midlands (TfWM) tickets such as nbus+Metro and , which can be bought on buses and at railway stations, as well as on the trams.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Cash fares are distance-related. The scale was originally intended to be broadly comparable with buses, but this caused the system to run at a significant loss and fares rose. In January 2013 the adult single fare from Birmingham to Wolverhampton was £2 by bus and £3.60 by tram, although the tram journey is much quicker even when the bus routes are congestion-free. By 2016 the tram fare had risen to £4. In November 2013 Birmingham City Council indicated plans to introduce a smart-card system (similar to Transport for London's Oyster Card) to improve access, alongside a range of measures including a new Tube-style map and electric bus networks. This has now launched and is called the Swift card.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In March 2022, the fares system was amended again, with the graduated fares replaced by four Zones:<br>


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Fares were now charged on a per-Zone basis, with fares payable for travel in Zone 1 slightly higher than Zones 2-4 (this applies to single Zone, two Zone and three Zone fares). The stops at Jewellery Quarter, Black Lake and Priestfield are "Boundary Stations", meaning they sit in both Zones.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: When the Midland Metro system opened in 1999, it was originally operated by Altram, a joint venture of the infrastructure company John Laing, the engineering firm Ansaldo, and the transport group National Express. In 2006, Ansaldo and Laing officially withdrew from the venture after financial difficulties, and day-to-day operation was taken over by the remaining partner, National Express, who ran the system as National Express Midland Metro.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In October 2018, the National Express concession ended and the system was taken over by Transport for West Midlands, the transport arm of the West Midlands Combined Authority (WMCA). Operation of Midland Metro was taken over by Midland Metro Ltd, a company wholly owned by WMCA, and the system was rebranded "West Midlands Metro". WMCA subsequently set up a consortium of various engineering and consultancy firms, the Midland Metro Alliance, to design and construct future network extensions.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The current operator, Midland Metro Ltd, has produced accounts from 1 October 2017. (Beforehand, between 1999 and 2003, Altram had operated Midland Metro unsuccessfully on a for-profit basis. However, operating revenue did not cover costs, and in February 2003, auditors refused to sign off Midland Metro's accounts as a going concern. From 2006, under National Express, losses were largely covered by cross-subsidy from other parts of the National Express group, but the figures were not shown separately in their published accounts.)


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Usage on the initial line averaged about five million passenger journeys annually, but numbers remained static for many years. This was not seen as successful, as 14 to 20 million passengers per year had been projected.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Numerous reasons were suggested for the underperformance, including: that the line has lacked visibility, being confined to Snow Hill station at the edge of Birmingham city centre; that there are quicker trains running between Birmingham and Wolverhampton; that the line did not serve New Street station or any of Birmingham's major visitor attractions (except for the Jewellery Quarter, already well-served by suburban trains). Nonetheless, overcrowding sometimes occurred on trams at peak hours.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Passenger numbers increased sharply following the opening of the extension into Birmingham city centre in June 2016, with figures for 2016/17 exceeding six million for the first time.<ref name="16/17DfTstats"></ref>


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The original Midland Metro branding consisted of a blue, green and red livery on tram vehicles with yellow doors. Upon the change to National Express operation in 2006, Midland Metro was rebranded with Network West Midlands livery, then a sub-brand of the transport authority Centro, and trams were painted in a magenta and silver livery with blue doors.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Since 2017, West Midlands Metro has adopted shared branding with other transport modes consisting of a common hexagonal logo formed from the letters "WM". This common brand has been introduced in order to created a common identity for an integrated transport system for the region. Each mode bears a coloured variant of the logo: blue for trams, red for buses, orange for trains, magenta for roads, purple for taxis and green for cycling and walking initiatives. The primary typeface is LL Circular by Lineto.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The Midland Metro Alliance was set up in 2017 by WMCA as a long-term framework agreement with transport contractors Colas Rail, Barhale, Thomas Vale, Auctus Management Group, Egis Rail, Tony Gee and Pell Frischman to design and construct future extensions of the West Midlands Metro system.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: An extension of Line 1 through Birmingham city centre opened in phases in 2015, 2019 and 2022. An extension through Wolverhampton city centre is also in progress with the same opening date along with a new line from Wednesbury to Brierley Hill through Dudley Town Centre; this is scheduled to open in 2023.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Until 2015, the southern end of the Metro line terminated at Snow Hill station, on the periphery of Birmingham city centre. From its inception, Midland Metro had failed to attain projected passenger numbers and to operate at a profit, and this was attributed to the fact that the line could not carry passengers all the way into the urban centre. The Birmingham City Centre Extension (BCCE) was conceived to solve this problem by extending Line 1 into the streets of central Birmingham. Originally it was planned to terminate the extension at Stephenson Street, adjacent to New Street railway station, but the plans were revised to continue the extension to Birmingham Library, and eventually as far as Five Ways. A Transport and Works Order authorising the BCCE was made in July 2005, and Government approval was given in February 2012. A new fleet of trams and a new depot at Wednesbury were also authorised, with a budget of £128million, of which £75million was to be funded by the Department for Transport (DfT). Extension works began in June 2012.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The northern part of the Line 1 extension scheme is the addition of a tram line into Wolverhampton city centre. The laying of the new track was completed in December 2019 and it is anticipated that passenger services will commence in 2021 once the renovation of Wolverhampton railway station has been completed.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: It was originally proposed in 2009 as a single-track loop running clockwise from the existing St George's terminus via Princess Street, Lichfield Street and Pipers Row (for Wolverhampton bus station), with a spur to Wolverhampton railway station. The scheme had an estimated cost of £30million. In 2010 Centro considered revised proposals that involved an extended route along part of the Wolverhampton Ring Road, serving the University of Wolverhampton campus. The original loop scheme was selected and in 2012 Centro decided to proceed by constructing it in phases. A Transport and Works Act Order was approved in 2016, and in March 2014, a £2billion connectivity funding package was announced to support a number of transport projects, including phase 1 of the Wolverhampton extension.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The first phase will see the construction of the eastern section of the Wolverhampton loop, consisting of a line branching off before the existing St. George's terminus and running north up Piper's Row to terminate at the railway station. Northbound trams will terminate alternately at the station and at St George's. The estimated completion date was 2015, although a succession of delays means that this section is scheduled to open in spring 2023. The remaining part of the Wolverhampton loop will be completed at a later date, subject to funding.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In November 2013, Centro announced a proposal for a tram or bus rapid transit route from Birmingham city centre to Coventry, with a loop connecting the Birmingham Airport with Birmingham city centre via Small Heath and Lea Hall, and a line to , however Coventry may be connected to the Metro by a line of the Coventry Very Light Rail, which is planned to terminate at Birmingham Interchange HS2. The line would also serve the planned High Speed 2 interchange at . In February 2014, it was announced that funding had been secured for the first phase of the Line 2 Eastside extension as far as Curzon Street, before a terminus at Adderley Street.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: The new Line 2 will branch off from Line 1 at a junction at meeting point of Bull St and Corporation St. In 2014, Centro considered two proposed routes, one running via Bull Street and Carrs Lane and serving Moor Street station, and a more direct route via Bull Street and Albert Street, bypassing Moor Street.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: A Transport and Works Act application was submitted by the Metro Alliance for the first phase of the Line 2 Eastside extension, following the route via Albert Street and Curzon Street and terminating at Digbeth.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Construction of the Eastside extension, including a new tramway junction at Lower Bull St and Corporation St, began in June 2021. The first phase of the works involved utility upgrades and diversions in the area. The closure of Lower Bull street is expected to be in place until Spring 2022. During works, trams from Wolverhampton are terminating at Upper Bull Street, with no service to Grand Central or beyond.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Wednesbury–Brierley Hill extension (WBHE) is an line which will run south-west from Line 1, branching off east of . The route would be constructed on the track bed of the disused South Staffordshire Line, running through Tipton and close to the former Dudley Town station. The line would then run on-street into Dudley town centre, before following the A461 Southern Bypass to rejoin the railway corridor. After running along part of the former Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Line, the tram line would diverge south to serve the Waterfront Business Park and Merry Hill Shopping Centre, terminating at Brierley Hill. In 2012, the estimated cost of the WBHE was £268million, and a frequency of ten trams per hour was envisaged, alternately serving Wolverhampton and Birmingham. A further extension to Stourbridge has also been proposed, with a junction at Canal Street, allowing trams to access the remainder of the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Line to Stourbridge Junction and possibly Stourbridge Town.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Network Rail have announced plans to reopen the South Staffordshire Line for the use of freight trains. Metro planners considered operating light rail trams on segregated tracks, but in 2011 put forward proposals to introduce tram-train operation on the route to allow Metro vehicles to share tracks with heavy rail freight trains.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: Due to funding constraints, it was decided to construct Line 2 in phases, with the first section from Wednesbury to Dudley opening first.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In early 2017, work began to clear vegetation and disused track from the former railway line. And in Early 2021, work started on construction of the line It is estimated that the entire line to Brierley Hill will be completed by 2023. The estimated cost of Line 2 is now £449million. In July 2022, it was revealed that due to spiralling costs, the line to Brierley Hill will be built in two phases. Phase 1 will see a line open to Dudley, construction of which is well underway. Subject to further funding, Phase 2 will extend the line to Brierley Hill.


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In September 2021, £2.1billion in funding was applied for, of which £1billion was received, for new Metro and upgraded bus routes around the West Midlands, consisting of many new lines and extensions, these are:


title: West Midlands Metro

text: In 2004–05, Birmingham City Council also evaluated the possibility of constructing an underground railway, and the scheme was advocated by the leader of the council, Mike Whitby, and deputy leader of the council, Paul Tilsley. A feasibility report by Jacobs Engineering and Deloitte concluded that the tunnelling scheme would be unaffordable and not meet government funding criteria.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The Motorola StarTAC, first released on January 3, 1996, is often assumed to be the first ever clamshell (flip) mobile phone. Technically, however, NEC had been releasing flip phones on NTT Docomo's PDC Mova network long before 1996, namely the TZ-804 and TZ-1501, both respectively launched in 1991 and late 1994. Another early precursor of this form factor was the Grillo, which was designed in Italy by Richard Sapper and Marco Zanuso in 1965. The StarTAC is the successor of the MicroTAC, a semi-clamshell design first launched in 1989. Whereas the MicroTAC's flip folded down from below the keypad, the StarTAC folded up from above the display. In 2005, "PC World" named the StarTAC as the "6th Greatest Gadget of the Past 50 Years" (out of a list of fifty). The StarTAC was among the first mobile phones to gain widespread consumer adoption; approximately 60 million StarTACs were sold.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC brand was revived in 2004 and 2007 for a series of flip phones exclusive to some Asian markets, and again for a cordless phone model.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Motorola applied for the "StarTAC" trademark name in September 1995. The StarTAC was unveiled in North America on January 3, 1996. Then the smallest cell phone available, this AMPS phone was an immediate success. Successor TDMA and cdmaOne StarTACs were equally popular. GSM models were available in North America through Powertel, VoiceStream and other early GSM carriers. The StarTAC, which closely resembles Star Trek's Communicator, remained popular until the early 2000s, appearing in many Hollywood movies of the period such as "8mm" starring Nicolas Cage. During its initial launch, magazine ads for the phone would include an actual size cardboard facsimile that could be pulled from the page to demonstrate the diminutive nature of the device.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: In October 2010, the now defunct French company Lekki, which refurbished iconic vintage products from the 1990s, released a line of refurbished StarTACs in new colourful bodies for €220 each.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: In addition, a version with an 18K gold directional keypad and brightwork was released as StarTAC 2004 SE.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The regular edition was released without the Mobile Banking function as the Motorola V628 in China. The 18K gold edition remained Korea-only.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The base model, which lacks the side volume controls, the smart button, and the contacts for an auxiliary battery. Also the only StarTAC model with a segmented LED display, as opposed to dot matrix LED displays found on other models.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Released in 1997, it included a built-in answering machine and a voice recorder with a recording capacity of 4 minutes.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The 70 and 80 series StarTACs are cosmetically identical, sharing the same housing and keypad layout. The 80 series models were released with higher resolution dot matrix displays, capable of displaying basic graphics like logos. The StarTac 70 series has only a two-line alphanumeric LCD.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC 75 is the only single-band GSM 1800 model of the entire range excluding some carrier specific models. .


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC 70 was also sold in a multi-coloured edition, popularly known as the StarTAC Rainbow. The colourful casings could also be used to house the internal PCB and display from the 85, 7000g and 8000g. This would enable fans of the Rainbow series to have the features of the 85 such as the alphanumeric LCD display, or one which would operate on GSM 1900. These modified versions are often sold on the used market being touted as original.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC D was a GSM 900 model based on the 85 which allowed users to make mobile payments. The rear slot usually reserved for a full-sized (1FF) SIM card would instead take an EMV debit card or credit card. This was possible as both 1FF SIM cards and debit/credit cards met the same ISO/IEC 7810 specifications. The phone accepted a 2FF mini SIM card behind the battery for mobile network connectivity. The StarTAC D was the world's first dual-sim mobile phone.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC D was released following a partnership between Barclaycard and Cellnet in the UK, and also France Telecom and Cartes Bancaires in France.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: A user could reload their debit card by inserting it into the phone and entering the withdrawal amount followed by a PIN code to load cash onto their card. In France, goods and services could be purchased by inserting the card into the slot and contacting the retailer. The price then appears on the screen and a password is entered to complete the transaction. Motorola eventually partnered with Giesecke & Devrient in Germany to offer similar services with their Geldkarte product.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The StarTAC 130 was released as a GSM 900 phone, although similar models that operated on the ETACS network were also produced. Along with the M6088, it was the only StarTAC to use a mini-SIM card (2FF). All other GSM models used a full-sized SIM card (1FF), the size of a standard debit/credit card meeting ISO/IEC 7810 specifications.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: On the used market there are many 130 models that are sold as dual-band, operating on GSM 900 and 1800. These can be identified by the boot screen which will say "Motorola Dual Band". However, these are not genuine Motorola releases but are instead modified phones using a 130 housing, and the internals of a StarTAC M6088. The M6088 is an almost identical model to the 130. The phones differed slightly with the M6088 having a different silver housing, a fixed antenna and no rear contact points for accessories. However, both models use the same software and button layout. The internal PCB, keypad and LCD are interchangeable between the housings. With the exception of being dual-band and not working with rear-clip on accessories, the phones appear identical.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The 130 was popular with car manufacturers who were offering car phones and hands-free phones in their models. As such, models of the 130 can be found with automotive logos such as BMW, Mercedes and Jaguar. These would also often contain boot screens with their respective logos. These were otherwise identical in terms of hardware.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The cosmetically identical StarTAC X and Xe (it had a different TAC number) was sold in Asian markets.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The UK network operator Orange released two StarTAC models; the MR501 and the MR701. It was common practice at the time for Orange to release their own variants of popular phones with different model names. In this case, "MR' refers to Motorola. This was their naming convention at the time with "NK" for Nokia etc. These Orange-specific models would generally be the same cosmetically but would often include Orange branding, boot logos and be modified to operate on GSM1800 instead of GSM900 (providing the handset was single-band only). Of the four GSM networks in the UK at that time, Orange was one of the two that were GSM1800 only.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The MR501 is a variant of the StarTAC 70/75 and with the exception of the additional branding and GSM band was identical.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The MR701 was a variant of the StarTAC 80/85. This model had some minor cosmetic changes compared to the original with a different keypad design. Like the MR501, it was modified to run on GSM1800. In addition to the Orange logo inside the clamshell, the phone displayed the Orange logo on bootup which it was able to do due to its higher resolution dot matrix display.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Both of these models came locked to the Orange network when purchased. Orange was merged with T-Mobile to become EE in 2010. EE still maintains the GSM1800 2G network, the only compatible network for these models in the UK.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: The vast majority of these models on the second-hand market still have the original subscriber lock. The phone will request an unlock code if a non-Orange SIM card is inserted. In its original state, these phones can only work if one still has an active Orange SIM card. However, if unlocked both these models will function on the EE network (either directly or via an MVNO on EE's network).


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Due to the popularity of the StarTAC, it has gained a cult following by enthusiasts and vintage mobile phone collectors. Despite its age, many models can still be used to this day in regions where cellular providers still operate a compatible network. For the most part, this is limited to GSM models operating on the 2G network.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Later GSM models continue to work in regions where 2G is available. Often these phones will first need to be unlocked to allow the use of SIM cards from modern cellular providers. Due to the price of the phone when new, the vast majority were purchased on contract. These models came locked to that particular provider, many of which are now defunct or have merged with other providers.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: GSM StarTAC models were mostly single-band only operating on the GSM900 band. In some markets, variants were available that operated on GSM1800 for compatibility with certain carriers. The StarTac M6088 was the only commercially available dual-band model which was capable of using GSM900 and GSM1800 bands. Motorola did produce a prototype tri-band StarTAC 130 compatible with GSM900, 1800, and 1900 which would have made it the only model capable of working in both North America and Europe. While at least one of these models did make its way into private ownership, it was never made available for purchase by Motorola.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: North American wireless carriers did not offer GSM StarTACs with their plans, instead opting to provide CDMA and TDMA variants of the StarTAC.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: GSM models were primarily released in Europe. These models do not work in North America as wireless carriers operate their 2G bands on GSM850 and GSM1900.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Motorola released two GSM models for the US market; the 7000g and the 8000g. These are variants of the 70/75 and 80/85 respectively. While they are cosmetically the same and have the same features, both operate on GSM1900 instead of GSM900 thus making them compatible with the 2G networks available in the US. These models were only available to purchase directly from Motorola only and could not be purchased through a carrier. Most users opted to purchase a CDMA or TDMA model.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Using CDMA and TDMA StarTACs in recent times has become increasingly difficult and now can no longer be done because AT&T shut down their 2G network in 2017. rendering TDMA models obsolete. Carriers such as Verizon still operate a compatible CDMA network. However, they will no longer activate CDMA StarTACs on their network as they are not E911 compliant. The FCC has made this a legally required feature for cellular phones. Verizon also requires that handsets on their network support HD Voice and VoLTE.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Users who wished to continue to use CMDA StarTACs following the introduction of E911 were able to do so for some time by activating them with a MVNO operating on Verizon's network such as PagePlus or Tello. MVNOs often didn't perform the proper due diligence to ensure a handset was compliant and allowed these handsets to be activated onto a new plan. This has since changed and activating a CDMA model is no longer possible.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: With CMDA and TDMA models no longer working, this has made the aforementioned 7000g and 8000g models even more sought after by collectors as these can still be used with carriers that still support 2G such as T-Mobile.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Most network providers across the globe still provide 2G services meaning GSM models can still be used to this day. The StarTAC 80 and 85 can have compatibility issues with modern SIM cards depending on the variant. However, all other models are fully compatible with modern SIM cards.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: With the exception of the 130 which takes a 2FF mini-SIM, GSM StarTACS accept a standard (1FF) SIM card. This format follows the same dimensions as a conventional debit/credit card and was the format used in the first GSM phones before the switch to the 2FF standard.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: To this day, many cellular providers still deliver SIM cards in full-size cards which allow the user to remove the SIM card as either a Mini-SIM (2FF), a Micro-SIM (3FF), and Nano-SIM (4FF).


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Network providers do not advertise that these are 1FF size SIM cards as the format is considered obsolete. However, the spacing of the SIM is identical to that of a vintage 1FF card. These modern cards can simply be inserted into the handset as one piece.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: With the 1FF format being obsolete for some time, many providers are designing smaller SIM packs with the largest size provided being the 2FF format. In this case, the SIM can be transplanted into an adapter; either purchases or fashioned from another 1FF card.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Due to the original price of these phones, the majority were purchased with a contract rather than directly from Motorola. When purchased with a cellular plan, the phone will come with a network lock meaning it will not accept a SIM card from another provider.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: If another SIM card is inserted, it will ask for a "special code"; usually referred to as a Network Unlock Code (NUC). Once this code has been entered, it will accept any SIM card and connect to any network providing it is compatible.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: An unlock code would usually be obtained from the original network provider. However, due to the age of these phones, the codes are no longer available. Many of the original providers are defunct or have merged with other companies.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: In order to network unlock a StarTAC now, dedicated hardware is needed in order to change the lock status of the phone such as a RoEMMI Box or a Motorola Emmi Clip. These devices are able to reprogram the EEPROM and set the SIM lock flag.


title: Motorola StarTAC

text: Internally, Motorola developed a SIM card which when inserted would place the device in a service mode, allowing a technician to change parameters on the handset itself including the lock status. This card was never released to the general public although there are a small number of them in private hands.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: With 65 million tourists per year (2019) according to ISTAT, Italy is the fifth most visited country in international tourism arrivals, but the second after Spain in terms of nights spent in hotel, with 220,7 million foreign visitor nights spent and a total of 436,7 million nights. According to 2018 estimates by the Bank of Italy, the tourism sector directly generates more than five percent of the national GDP (13 percent when also considering the indirectly generated GDP) and represents over six percent of the employed.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: People have visited Italy for centuries, yet the first to visit the peninsula for tourist reasons were aristocrats during the Grand Tour, beginning in the 17th century, and flourishing in the 18th and the 19th century. This was a period in which European aristocrats, many of whom were British and French, visited parts of Europe, with Italy as a key destination. For Italy, this was in order to study ancient architecture, local culture and to admire the natural beauties.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Nowadays the factors of tourist interest in Italy are mainly culture, cuisine, history, fashion, architecture, art, religious sites and routes, naturalistic beauties, nightlife, underwater sites and spas. Winter and summer tourism are present in many locations in the Alps and the Apennines, while seaside tourism is widespread in coastal locations along the Mediterranean Sea. Rome is the 3rd most visited city in Europe and the 12th in the world, with 9.4 million arrivals in 2017 while Milan is the 27th worldwide with 6.8 million tourists. In addition, Venice and Florence are also among the world's top 100 destinations. Italy is also the country with the highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world (58). Out of Italy's 58 heritage sites, 53 are cultural and 5 are natural.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: The Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance and the following centuries of the history of Italy have left many cultural artifacts that attract tourists. In general, the Italian cultural heritage is the largest in the world since it consists of 60 to 75 percent of all the artistic assets that exist on each continent, with over 4,000 museums, 6,000 archaeological sites, 85,000 historic churches and 40,000 historic palaces, all subject to protection by the Italian Ministry of Culture. As of 2018, the Italian places of culture (which include museums, attractions, parks, archives and libraries) amounted to . Italy is the leading cruise tourism destination in the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: In Italy there is a broad variety of hotels, going from 1-5 stars. According to ISTAT, in 2017, there were 32,988 hotels with 1,133,452 rooms and 2,239,446 beds. As for non-hotel facilities (campsites, tourist villages, accommodations for rent, agritourism, etc.), in 2017 their number was 171,915 with 2,798,352 beds. The tourist flow to coastal resorts is 53 percent; the best equipped cities are Grosseto for farmhouses (217), Vieste for campsites and tourist villages (84) and Cortina d'Ampezzo mountain huts (20).


title: Tourism in Italy

text: People have visited Italy for centuries, yet the first to visit the peninsula for touristic reasons were aristocrats during the Grand Tour, beginning in the 17th century, and flourishing in the 18th and the 19th century.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Rome, as the capital of the powerful and influential Roman Empire, attracted thousands to the city and country from all over the empire, which included most of the Mediterranean, Northern Africa, mainland Great Britain (England) and parts of Western Asia. Traders and merchants came to Italy from several different parts of the world.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: When the empire fell in 476 AD, Rome was no longer the epicentre of European politics and culture; on the other hand, it was the base of the papacy, which then governed the growing Christian religion, meaning that Rome remained one of Europe's major places of pilgrimage. Pilgrims, for centuries and still today, would come to the city, and that would have been the early equivalent of "tourism" or "religious tourism". The trade empires of Venice, Pisa and Genoa meant that several traders, businessmen and merchants from all over the world would also regularly come to Italy. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, with the height of the Renaissance, several students came to Italy to study Italian architecture, such as Inigo Jones.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Real "tourism" only affected Italy in the second half of the 17th century, with the beginning of the Grand Tour. This was a period in which European aristocrats, many of whom were British, visited parts of Europe, with Italy as a key destination. For Italy, this was in order to study ancient architecture, local culture and to admire the natural beauties. The Grand Tour was in essence triggered by the book "Voyage to Italy", by Roman Catholic priest Richard Lassels, and published in 1670.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Due to the Grand Tour, tourism became even more prevalent – making Italy one of the most desired destinations for millions of people. Once inside what would be modern-day Italy, these tourists would begin by visiting Turin for a short while. On the way there, Milan was also a popular stop, yet a trip to the city was not considered essential, and several passed by, or simply stayed for a short period of time. If a person came via boat, then they would remain a few days in Genoa. Yet, the main destination in Northern Italy was Venice, which was considered a vital stop, as well as cities around it such as Verona, Vicenza and Padua.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: As the Tour went on, Tuscan cities were also very important itinerary stops. Florence was a major attraction, and other Tuscan towns, such as Siena, Pisa, Lucca and San Gimignano, were also considered important destinations. The most prominent stop in Central Italy, however, was Rome, a major centre for the arts and culture, as well as an essential city for a Grand Tourist. Later, they would go down to the Bay of Naples, and after their discovery in 1710, Pompeii and Herculaneum were popular too. Sicily was considered a significant part of the trail, and several, such as Goethe, visited the island.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Throughout the 17th to 18th centuries, the Grand Tour was mainly reserved for academics or the elite. Nevertheless, circa 1840, rail transport was introduced and the Grand Tour started to fall slightly out of vogue; hence, the first form of mass tourism was introduced. The 1840s saw the period in which the Victorian middle classes toured the country. Several Americans were also able to visit Italy, and many more tourists came to the peninsula. Places such as Venice, Florence, Rome, Naples and Sicily still remained the top attractions.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Like many other Europeans, Italians rely heavily on public transport. Italy is a relatively small country and distances are reduced.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: As the century progressed, fewer cultural visits were made, and there was an increase in tourists coming for Italy's nature and weather. The first seaside resorts, such as those on the Ligurian coast, around Venice, coastal Tuscany and Amalfi, became popular. This vogue of summer holidays heightened in the fin-de-siècle epoch, when numerous "Grand Hotels" were built (including places such as Sanremo, Lido di Venezia, Viareggio and Forte dei Marmi). Islands such as Capri, Ischia, Procida and Elba grew in popularity, and the Northern lakes, such as Lake Como, Maggiore and Garda were more frequently visited. Tourism to Italy remained very popular until the late-1920s and early-1930s, when, with the Great Depression and economic crisis, several could no longer afford to visit the country; the increasing political instability meant that fewer tourists came. Only old touristic groups, such as the Scorpioni, remained alive.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: After a big slump in tourism beginning from approximately 1929 and lasting after World War II, Italy returned to its status as a popular resort, with the Italian economic miracle and raised living standards; films such as "La Dolce Vita" were successful abroad, and their depiction of the country's perceived idyllic life helped raise Italy's international profile. By this point, with higher incomes, Italians could also afford to go on holiday; coastline resorts saw a soar in visitors, especially in Romagna. Many cheap hotels and "pensioni" (hostels) were built in the 1960s, and with the rise of wealth, by now, even a working-class Italian family could afford a holiday somewhere along the coast. The late-1960s also brought mass popularity to mountain holidays and skiing; in Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, numerous ski resorts and chalets started being built. The 1970s also brought a wave of foreign tourists to Italy in search of a sentimental trip Villoresi old charm -The Trip to Italy, since Mediterranean destinations saw a rise in global visitors.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Despite this, by the late-1970s and early-1980s, economic crises and political instability meant that there was a significant slump in the Italian tourist industry, as destinations in the Far East or South America rose in popularity. Yet, by the late-1980s and early-1990s, tourism saw a return to popularity, with cities such as Milan becoming more popular destinations. Milan saw a rise in tourists since it was ripening its position as a worldwide fashion capital.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Italy is located in southern Europe and it is also considered a part of western Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north, Italy borders Switzerland, France, Austria and Slovenia and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed, enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula crossed by the Apennines and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia, in addition to many smaller islands. The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Italy is part of the Northern Hemisphere. The country's total area is , of which is land and is water. Including islands, Italy has a coastline of on the Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Sea of Sardinia and Strait of Sicily, and borders shared with France (), Austria (), Slovenia () and Switzerland (). San Marino () and Vatican City (), both enclaves, account for the remainder.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: The climate of Italy is influenced by the large body of water of the Mediterranean Sea that surrounds Italy on every side except the north. These seas constitute a reservoir of heat and humidity for Italy. Within the southern temperate zone, they determine a particular climate called Mediterranean climate with local differences due to the geomorphology of the territory, which tends to make its mitigating effects felt, especially in high pressure conditions.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Because of the length of the peninsula and the mostly mountainous hinterland, the climate of Italy is highly diverse. The inland northern areas of Italy (for example Turin, Milan, and Bologna) have a relatively cool, mid-latitude version of the Humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), while the coastal areas of Liguria and the peninsula south of Florence generally fit the Mediterranean climate profile (Köppen climate classification Csa).


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Conditions on the coast are different from those in the interior, particularly during winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and warm and generally dry summers, although lowland valleys can be quite hot in summer. Between the north and south there can be a considerable difference in temperature, above all during the winter: on some winter days it can be and snowing in Milan, while it is in Rome and in Palermo. Temperature differences are less extreme in the summer.


title: Tourism in Italy

text: Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were of serviceable roads in Italy, including of motorways, the so-called "autostrade", state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia.