title: Somali Republic

text: Candidates who had lost seats in the assembly and those who had supported them were frustrated and angry. A number of charges were made of government election fraud, at least some firmly founded. Discontent was exacerbated when the Supreme Court, under its newly appointed president, declined to accept jurisdiction over election petitions, although it had accepted such jurisdiction on an earlier occasion.


title: Somali Republic

text: Neither the president nor the prime minister seemed particularly concerned about official corruption and nepotism. Although these practices were conceivably normal in a society based on kinship, some were bitter over their prevalence in the National Assembly, where it seemed that deputies ignored their constituents in trading votes for personal gain.


title: Somali Republic

text: Among those most dissatisfied with the government were intellectuals and members of the armed forces and police. (General Mohamed Abshir Muse, the chief of police, had resigned just before the elections after refusing to permit police vehicles to transport SYL voters to the polls.) Of these dissatisfied groups, the most significant element was the military, which since 1961 had remained outside politics. It had done so partly because the government had not called upon it for support and partly because, unlike most other African armed forces, the Somali National Army had a genuine external mission in which it was supported by all Somalis – that of protecting the borders with Ethiopia and Kenya.


title: Somali Republic

text: On October 15, 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on October 21, 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The coup was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.


title: Somali Republic

text: Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination, was led by Mohamed Ainanshe Guleid, Mohammad Ali Samatar, Abdullah Mohamed Fadil, and Salaad Gabeyre Kediye, a paid KGB agent code-named "OPERATOR". Also included in the coup leaders was Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel.


title: Somali Republic

text: Barre was the most senior and the leader the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, arrested members of the former government, banned political parties, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.


title: Extreme Movie

text: Extreme Movie (formerly Parental Guidance Suggested; known as Hotdogs & Doughnuts: An Extreme Movie in Australia) is a 2008 American satirical sex comedy film composed of sketches focusing on teen sex. Adam Jay Epstein and Andrew Jacobson direct, with segments co-written by "Saturday Night Live" performers Will Forte, Andy Samberg, and writers Akiva Schaffer, Jorma Taccone, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller. The ensemble cast includes Frankie Muniz, Ryan Pinkston, Jamie Kennedy, Danneel Harris, Andy Milonakis, Matthew Lillard, Rob Pinkston and Michael Cera.


title: Extreme Movie

text: The film is a series of vignettes with Matthew Lillard's sex advice intercut within every couple segments. Mike (Ryan Pinkston) tries to impress his crush, Stacy (Cherilyn Wilson). Fred (Michael Cera) meets a girl (Joanna Garcia) online and they arrange for "menacing action", only for Fred to break into the wrong apartment. The promiscuous Betty (Ashley Schneider) going to the "next level" (kinkier and more outrageous sexual adventures) with Chuck (Frankie Muniz), and later Fred. Justin (Andy Milonakis) buys a vibrating vagina and falls in love with it, all the time while crushing on another girl; the vibrating vagina has a personality of its own and commits "suicide" when Justin rejects it.


title: Extreme Movie

text: A "Real Sex"-esque skit where a girl admits to having sex with two black men on camera. Two guys, Barry and Leon (Kevin Hart and Jermaine Williams), create a woman on their computer, only for her to run wild.


title: Extreme Movie

text: Jessica (Rheagan Wallace), in an attempt to become horny, puts her vibrating cell phone in her vagina, only for it to fall in. Len (Ben Feldman) wakes up to find a girl and another guy (Jamie Kennedy) in his bed, and his parents home as well; the whole thing turns out to be a hidden camera bi sexual show.


title: Extreme Movie

text: Sex education teacher Mr. Matthews (John P. Farley) teaches his class with no rules and a lot of embarrassment, usually centering on Mike. Ronny (Hank Harris), obsessed with Abraham Lincoln, creates a time machine and travels back in time to have sex with Lincoln (Ed Trotta).


title: Extreme Movie

text: The film was theatrically released internationally by Dimension Films. In the United States, it received a straight-to-DVD release by Dimension Extreme on December 5, 2008, and filming in New York City, New York, Boston, Massachusetts and Los Angeles, California.


title: Extreme Movie

text: Common Sense Media rated the film 1 out of 5 and called it "an extreme waste of time" and compares it unfavorably to Woody Allen's 1972 film "Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex".


The 2018 United States Senate election in Indiana took place on November 6, 2018, along with other elections to the United States Senate and House of Representatives and various state and local elections. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Joe Donnelly sought reelection to a second term, facing Republican businessman and former state representative Mike Braun and Libertarian Party nominee Lucy Brenton. In 2017, "Politico" described the race as "possibly the GOP's best opportunity to seize a Senate seat from Democrats" in the 2018 elections. The primary election was held on May 8, 2018. In October 2018, RealClearPolitics rated the race a toss-up between the Democratic and Republican nominees, with the Libertarian receiving a poll average of 6%. Braun defeated Donnelly in the general election by a margin of 6 percent.


title: 2018 United States Senate election in Indiana

text: In 2012, Joe Donnelly was elected to the Senate with 50% of the vote to Republican nominee Richard Mourdock's 44%. In the 2016 presidential election, Republican nominee Donald Trump won Indiana with about 56.5% of the vote to Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton's 37.5%.


text: On November 6, 2018, Braun won the general election. He swept southern Indiana, the exurbs of Indianapolis, and most other rural areas in the state. Donnelly ran well behind his 2012 vote totals, winning only in Indianapolis, the university centers (Bloomington, Terre Haute, West Lafayette, South Bend), and the suburbs of Chicago in Northwest Indiana.


title: Kurdish population

text: The Kurdish population is estimated to be between 30 and 45 million. Most Kurdish people live in Kurdistan, which today is split between Iranian Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Turkish Kurdistan, and Syrian Kurdistan.


title: Kurdish population

text: The bulk of Kurdish groups in Kurdistan are Sunni (mostly of the Shafi'i school), but there are significant minorities adhering to Shia Islam (especially Alevis), Yazidism, Yarsanism, Christianity and Judaism.


title: Kurdish population

text: According to a report by Turkish agency KONDA, in 2006, out of the total population of 73 million people in Turkey there were 11.4 million Kurds and Zazas living in Turkey (close to 15.68% of the total population). The Turkish newspaper Milliyet reported in 2008 that the Kurdish population in Turkey is 12.6 million; although this also includes 3 million Zazas. According to the World Factbook, Kurdish people make up 18% of Turkey's population (about 14 million, out of 77.8 million people). Kurdish sources put the figure at 10 to 15 million Kurds in Turkey.


title: Kurdish population

text: Kurds mostly live in Northern Kurdistan, in Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia. But large Kurdish populations can be found in western Turkey due to internal migration. According to Rüstem Erkan, Istanbul is the province with the largest Kurdish population in Turkey.


title: Kurdish population

text: From the 7 million Iranian Kurds, majority who are Sunni. Shia Kurds inhabit Kermanshah Province, except for those parts where people are Jaff, and Ilam Province Province; as well as some parts of Kurdistan, Hamadan and Zanjan provinces. The Kurds of Khorasan Province in northeastern Iran are also adherents of Shia Islam. During the Shia revolution in Iran the major Kurdish political parties were unsuccessful in absorbing Shia Kurds, who at that period had no interest in autonomy. However, since the 1990s Kurdish nationalism has seeped into the Shia Kurdish area partly due to outrage against government's violent suppression of Kurds farther north.


title: Kurdish population

text: Kurds constitute approximately 17% of Iraq's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq which are together known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq.


title: Kurdish population

text: Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years. However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil-rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin. The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk. Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.


title: Kurdish population

text: Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria and make up nine percent of the country's population. Syrian Kurds have faced routine discrimination and harassment by the government.


title: Kurdish population

text: Syrian Kurdistan is an unofficial name used by some to describe the Kurdish inhabited regions of northern and northeastern Syria. The northeastern Kurdish inhabited region covers the greater part of Hasakah Governorate. The main cities in this region are Qamishli and Hasakah. Another region with significant Kurdish population is Kobanê (Ayn al-Arab) in the northern part of Syria near the town of Jarabulus and also the city of Afrin and its surroundings along the Turkish border.


title: Kurdish population

text: Many Kurds seek political autonomy for the Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria, similar to Iraqi Kurdistan in Iraq, or outright independence as part of Kurdistan. The name "Western Kurdistan" (Kurdish: Rojavayê Kurdistanê) is also used by Kurds to name the Syrian Kurdish inhabited areas in relation to Kurdistan. Since the Syrian civil war, Syrian government forces have abandoned many Kurdish-populated areas, leaving the Kurds to fill the power vacuum and govern these areas autonomously.


title: Kurdish population

text: According to the 2011 Armenian Census, 37,470 Kurds live in Armenia. They mainly live in the western parts of Armenia. The Kurds of the former Soviet Union first began writing Kurdish in the Armenian alphabet in the 1920s, followed by Latin in 1927, then Cyrillic in 1945, and now in both Cyrillic and Latin.


title: Kurdish population

text: The Kurds in Armenia established a Kurdish radio broadcast from Yerevan and the first Kurdish newspaper Riya Teze. There is a Kurdish Department in the Yerevan State Institute of Oriental studies. The Kurds of Armenia were the first exiled country to have access to media such as radio, education and press in their native tongue but many Kurds, from 1939 to 1959 were listed as the Azeri population or even as Armenians.


title: Kurdish population

text: According to the 2002 Georgian Census, 20,843 Kurds live in Georgia The Kurds in Georgia mainly live in the capital of Tbilisi and Rustavi. According to a United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report from 1998, about 80% of the Kurdish population in Georgia are assimilated Kurds.


title: Kurdish population

text: According to the 2010 Russian Census, 63,818 Kurds live in Russia. Russia has maintained warm relations with the Kurds for a long time, During the early 19th century, the main goal of the Russian Empire was to ensure the neutrality of the Kurds, in the wars against Persia and the Ottoman Empire. In the beginning of the 19th century, Kurds settled in Transcaucasia, at a time when Transcaucasia was incorporated into the Russian Empire. In the 20th century, Kurds were persecuted and exterminated by the Turks and Persians, a situation that led Kurds to move to Russia.


title: Kurdish population

text: The existence of a community of at least 125,000 Kurds is the product of several waves of immigrants, the first major wave was in the period of 1925–1950 when thousands of Kurds fled violence and poverty in Turkey. Kurds in Lebanon go back far as the twelfth century A.D. when the Ayyubids arrived there. Over the next few centuries, several other Kurdish families were sent to Lebanon by a number of powers to maintain rule in those regions, others moved as a result of poverty and violence in Kurdistan. These Kurdish groups settled in and ruled many areas of Lebanon for a long period of time. Kurds of Lebanon settled in Lebanon because of Lebanon's pluralistic society.


title: Kurdish population

text: The Kurdish diaspora in the European Union is most significant in Germany, France, Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands. Kurds from Turkey went to Germany and France during the 1960s as immigrant workers. Thousands of Kurdish refugees and political refugees fled from Turkey to Sweden during the 1970s and onward, and from Iraq during the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Kurdish population

text: In France, the Iranian Kurds make up the majority of the community. However, thousands of Iraqi Kurds also arrived in the mid-1990s. More recently, Syrian Kurds have been entering France illegally


title: Kurdish population

text: In the United Kingdom, Kurds first began to immigrate between 1974 and 1975 when the rebellion of Iraqi Kurds against the Iraqi government was repressed. The Iraqi government began to destroy Kurdish villages and forced many Kurds to move to barren land in the south. These events resulted in many Kurds fleeing to the United Kingdom. Thus, the Iraqi Kurds make up a large part of the community. In 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran and installed Islamic law. There was widespread political oppression and persecution of the Kurdish community. Since the late 1970s the number of people from Iran seeking asylum in Britain has remained high. In 1988, Saddam Hussein launched the Anfal campaign in the northern Iraq. This included mass executions and disappearances of the Kurdish community. The use of chemical weapons against thousands of towns and villages in the region, as well as the town of Halabja increased the number of Iraq Kurds entering the United Kingdom. A large number of Kurds also came to the United Kingdom following the 1980 military coup in Turkey. More recently, immigration has been due to the continued political oppression and the repression of ethnic and religious minorities in Iraq and Iran. Estimates of the Kurdish population in the United Kingdom are as high as 200–250,000.


title: Kurdish population

text: In Finland, most Kurds arrived in the 1990s as Iraqi refugees. Kurds in Finland have no great attachment to the Iraqi state because of their position as a persecuted minority. Thus, they feel more accepted and comfortable in Finland, many wanting to get rid of their Iraqi citizenship.


title: Kurdish population

text: From 1994 to 1999, 43,759 Kurds entered Greece illegally and of the 9,797 who applied for asylum 524 were granted it.


title: Kurdish population

text: In the United States, it is believed that the Kurdish population is from 15,000 to 20,000. other sources claim approximately 58,000, During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, about 10,000 Iraqi refugees were admitted to the United States, most of which were Kurds and Shiites who had assisted or were sympathisers of the U.S –led war. Nashville, Tennessee has the nation's largest population of Kurdish people, with an estimated 8,000–11,000. There are also Kurds in Southern California, Los Angeles, San Diego, and Dallas, Texas.


title: Kurdish population

text: In Canada, the Kurdish community is 11,685 based on the Canadian Census 2011, among which the Iraqi Kurds make up the largest group of Kurds in Canada, exceeding the numbers of Kurds from Turkey, Iran and Syria. Kurdish immigration was largely the result of the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War and Syrian Civil War. Thus, many Iraqi Kurds immigrated to Canada due to the constant wars and suppression of Kurds and Shiites by the Iraqi government.


title: Kurdish population

text: In Australia, Kurdish migrants first arrived in the second half of the 1960s, mainly from Turkey. However, in the late 1970s families from Syria and Lebanon were also present in Australia. Since the second half of the 1980s, the majority of Kurds arriving in Australia have been from Iraq and Iran; many of them were accepted under the Humanitarian Programme. However, Kurds from Lebanon, Armenia and Georgia have also migrated to Australia. The majority live in Melbourne and Sydney.


title: Kurdish population

text: The Japanese government has not granted refugee status. While 3,415 Kurds have so far applied for refugee status, none has yet received it.


title: Natural product

text: A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical synthesis (both semisynthesis and total synthesis) and have played a central role in the development of the field of organic chemistry by providing challenging synthetic targets. The term natural product has also been extended for commercial purposes to refer to cosmetics, dietary supplements, and foods produced from natural sources without added artificial ingredients.


title: Natural product

text: Within the field of organic chemistry, the definition of natural products is usually restricted to organic compounds isolated from natural sources that are produced by the pathways of primary or secondary metabolism. Within the field of medicinal chemistry, the definition is often further restricted to secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites (or specialized metabolites) are not essential for survival, but nevertheless provide organisms that produce them an evolutionary advantage. Many secondary metabolites are cytotoxic and have been selected and optimized through evolution for use as "chemical warfare" agents against prey, predators, and competing organisms. Secondary or specialized metabolites are often unique to species, which is contrasted to primary metabolites which have broad use across kingdoms. Secondary metabolites are marked by chemical complexity which is why they are of such interest to chemists.


title: Natural product

text: Natural sources may lead to basic research on potential bioactive components for commercial development as lead compounds in drug discovery. Although natural products have inspired numerous drugs, drug development from natural sources has received declining attention in the 21st century by pharmaceutical companies, partly due to unreliable access and supply, intellectual property, cost, and profit concerns, seasonal or environmental variability of composition, and loss of sources due to rising extinction rates.


title: Natural product

text: The broadest definition of natural product is anything that is produced by life, and includes the likes of biotic materials (e.g. wood, silk), bio-based materials (e.g. bioplastics, cornstarch), bodily fluids (e.g. milk, plant exudates), and other natural materials (e.g. soil, coal).


title: Natural product

text: Natural products may be classified according to their biological function, biosynthetic pathway, or source. Depending on the sources, the number of known natural product molecules ranges between 300,000 and 400,000.


title: Natural product

text: Following Albrecht Kossel's original proposal in 1891, natural products are often divided into two major classes, the primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites have an intrinsic function that is essential to the survival of the organism that produces them. Secondary metabolites in contrast have an extrinsic function that mainly affects other organisms. Secondary metabolites are not essential to survival but do increase the competitiveness of the organism within its environment. Because of their ability to modulate biochemical and signal transduction pathways, some secondary metabolites have useful medicinal properties.


title: Natural product

text: Natural products especially within the field of organic chemistry are often defined as primary and secondary metabolites. A more restrictive definition limiting natural products to secondary metabolites is commonly used within the fields of medicinal chemistry and pharmacognosy.


title: Natural product

text: Primary metabolites as defined by Kossel are components of basic metabolic pathways that are required for life. They are associated with essential cellular functions such as nutrient assimilation, energy production, and growth/development. They have a wide species distribution that span many phyla and frequently more than one kingdom. Primary metabolites include the basic building blocks of life: carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, and nucleic acids.


title: Natural product

text: Primary metabolites that are involved with energy production include respiratory and photosynthetic enzymes. Enzymes in turn are composed of amino acids and often non-peptidic cofactors that are essential for enzyme function. The basic structure of cells and of organisms are also composed of primary metabolites. These include cell membranes (e.g. phospholipids), cell walls (e.g. peptidoglycan, chitin), and cytoskeletons (proteins).


title: Natural product

text: Primary metabolite enzymatic cofactors include members of the vitamin B family. Vitamin B1 as thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase, 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, and transketolase which are all involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is a constituent of FMN and FAD which are necessary for many redox reactions. Vitamin B3 (nicotinic acid or niacin), synthesized from tryptophan is a component of the coenzymes NAD and NADP which in turn are required for electron transport in the Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, as well as many other redox reactions. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) is a constituent of coenzyme A, a basic component of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism as well as the biosynthesis of fatty acids and polyketides. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxol, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine) as pyridoxal 5′-phosphate is a cofactor for many enzymes especially transaminases involve in amino acid metabolism. Vitamin B12 (cobalamins) contain a corrin ring similar in structure to porphyrin and is an essential coenzyme for the catabolism of fatty acids as well for the biosynthesis of methionine.


title: Natural product

text: DNA and RNA which store and transmit genetic information are composed of nucleic acid primary metabolites.


title: Natural product

text: First messengers are signaling molecules that control metabolism or cellular differentiation. These signaling molecules include hormones and growth factors in turn are composed of peptides, biogenic amines, steroid hormones, auxins, gibberellins etc. These first messengers interact with cellular receptors which are composed of proteins. Cellular receptors in turn activate second messengers are used to relay the extracellular message to intracellular targets. These signaling molecules include the primary metabolites cyclic nucleotides, diacyl glycerol etc.


title: Natural product

text: Secondary in contrast to primary metabolites are dispensable and not absolutely required for survival. Furthermore, secondary metabolites typically have a narrow species distribution.


title: Natural product

text: Secondary metabolites have a broad range of functions. These include pheromones that act as social signaling molecules with other individuals of the same species, communication molecules that attract and activate symbiotic organisms, agents that solubilize and transport nutrients (siderophores etc.), and competitive weapons (repellants, venoms, toxins etc.) that are used against competitors, prey, and predators. For many other secondary metabolites, the function is unknown. One hypothesis is that they confer a competitive advantage to the organism that produces them. An alternative view is that, in analogy to the immune system, these secondary metabolites have no specific function, but having the machinery in place to produce these diverse chemical structures is important and a few secondary metabolites are therefore produced and selected for.


title: Natural product

text: General structural classes of secondary metabolites include alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids.


title: Natural product

text: Carbohydrates are an essential energy source for most life forms. In addition, polysaccharides formed from simpler carbohydrates are important structural components of many organisms such the cell walls of bacteria and plants.


title: Natural product

text: Carbohydrate are the products of plant photosynthesis and animal gluconeogenesis. Photosynthesis produces initially 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde, a three carbon atom containing sugar (a triose). This triose in turn may be converted into glucose (a six carbon atom containing sugar) or a variety of pentoses (five carbon atom containing sugars) through the Calvin cycle. In animals, the three carbon precursors lactate or glycerol can be converted into pyruvate which in turn can be converted into carbohydrates in the liver.


title: Natural product

text: Through the process of glycolysis sugars are broken down into acetyl-CoA. In an ATP dependent enzymatically catalyzed reaction, acetyl-CoA is carboxylated to form malonyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA undergo a Claisen condensation with lose of carbon dioxide to form acetoacetyl-CoA. Additional condensation reactions produce successively higher molecular weight poly-β-keto chains which are then converted into other polyketides. The polyketide class of natural products have diverse structures and functions and include prostaglandins and macrolide antibiotics.


title: Natural product

text: One molecule of acetyl-CoA (the "starter unit") and several molecules malonyl-CoA (the "extender units") are condensed by fatty acid synthase to produce fatty acids. Fatty acid are essential components of lipid bilayers that form cell membranes as well as fat energy stores in animals.


title: Natural product

text: Natural products may be extracted from the cells, tissues, and secretions of microorganisms, plants and animals. A crude (unfractionated) extract from any one of these sources will contain a range of structurally diverse and often novel chemical compounds. Chemical diversity in nature is based on biological diversity, so researchers collect samples from around the world to analyze and evaluate in drug discovery screens or bioassays. This effort to search for biologically active natural products is known as bioprospecting.


title: Natural product

text: Pharmacognosy provides the tools to detect, isolate and identify bioactive natural products that could be developed for medicinal use. When an "active principle" is isolated from a traditional medicine or other biological material, this is known as a "hit". Subsequent scientific and legal work is then performed to validate the hit (eg. elucidation of mechanism of action, confirmation that there is no intellectual property conflict). This is followed by the hit to lead stage of drug discovery, where derivatives of the active compound are produced in an attempt to improve its potency and safety. In this and related ways, modern medicines can be developed directly from natural sources.


title: Natural product

text: Although traditional medicines and other biological material are considered an excellent source of novel compounds, the extraction and isolation of these compounds can be a slow, expensive and inefficient process. For large scale manufacture therefore, attempts may be made to produce the new compound by total synthesis or semisynthesis. Because natural products are generally secondary metabolites with complex chemical structures, their total/semisynthesis is not always commercially viable. In these cases, efforts can be made to design simpler analogues with comparable potency and safety that are amenable to total/semisynthesis.


title: Natural product

text: The serendipitous discovery and subsequent clinical success of penicillin prompted a large-scale search for other environmental microorganisms that might produce anti-infective natural products. Soil and water samples were collected from all over the world, leading to the discovery of streptomycin (derived from "Streptomyces griseus"), and the realization that bacteria, not just fungi, represent an important source of pharmacologically active natural products. This, in turn, led to the development of an impressive arsenal of antibacterial and antifungal agents including amphotericin B, chloramphenicol, daptomycin and tetracycline (from "Streptomyces" spp.), the polymyxins (from "Paenibacillus polymyxa"), and the rifamycins (from "Amycolatopsis rifamycinica"). Antiparasitic and antiviral drugs have similarly been derived from bacterial metabolites.


title: Natural product

text: Although most of the drugs derived from bacteria are employed as anti-infectives, some have found use in other fields of medicine. Botulinum toxin (from "Clostridium botulinum") and bleomycin (from "Streptomyces verticillus") are two examples. Botulinum, the neurotoxin responsible for botulism, can be injected into specific muscles (such as those controlling the eyelid) to prevent muscle spasm. Also, the glycopeptide bleomycin is used for the treatment of several cancers including Hodgkin's lymphoma, head and neck cancer, and testicular cancer. Newer trends in the field include the metabolic profiling and isolation of natural products from novel bacterial species present in underexplored environments. Examples include symbionts or endophytes from tropical environments, subterranean bacteria found deep underground via mining/drilling, and marine bacteria.


title: Natural product

text: Because many Archaea have adapted to life in extreme environments such as polar regions, hot springs, acidic springs, alkaline springs, salt lakes, and the high pressure of deep ocean water, they possess enzymes that are functional under quite unusual conditions. These enzymes are of potential use in the food, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries, where biotechnological processes frequently involve high temperatures, extremes of pH, high salt concentrations, and / or high pressure. Examples of enzymes identified to date include amylases, pullulanases, cyclodextrin glycosyltransferases, cellulases, xylanases, chitinases, proteases, alcohol dehydrogenase, and esterases. Archaea represent a source of novel chemical compounds also, for example isoprenyl glycerol ethers 1 and 2 from "Thermococcus" S557 and "Methanocaldococcus jannaschii", respectively.


title: Natural product

text: Several anti-infective medications have been derived from fungi including penicillin and the cephalosporins (antibacterial drugs from "Penicillium rubens" and "Cephalosporium acremonium", respectively) and griseofulvin (an antifungal drug from "Penicillium griseofulvum"). Other medicinally useful fungal metabolites include lovastatin (from "Pleurotus ostreatus"), which became a lead for a series of drugs that lower cholesterol levels, cyclosporin (from "Tolypocladium inflatum"), which is used to suppress the immune response after organ transplant operations, and ergometrine (from "Claviceps" spp.), which acts as a vasoconstrictor, and is used to prevent bleeding after childbirth. Asperlicin (from "Aspergillus alliaceus") is another example. Asperlicin is a novel antagonist of cholecystokinin, a neurotransmitter thought to be involved in panic attacks, and could potentially be used to treat anxiety.


title: Natural product

text: Plants are a major source of complex and highly structurally diverse chemical compounds (phytochemicals), this structural diversity attributed in part to the natural selection of organisms producing potent compounds to deter herbivory (feeding deterrents). Major classes of phytochemical include phenols, polyphenols, tannins, terpenes, and alkaloids. Though the number of plants that have been extensively studied is relatively small, many pharmacologically active natural products have already been identified. Clinically useful examples include the anticancer agents paclitaxel and omacetaxine mepesuccinate (from "Taxus brevifolia" and "Cephalotaxus harringtonii", respectively), the antimalarial agent artemisinin (from "Artemisia annua"), and the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor galantamine (from "Galanthus" spp.), used to treat Alzheimer's disease. Other plant-derived drugs, used medicinally and/or recreationally include morphine, cocaine, quinine, tubocurarine, muscarine, and nicotine.


title: Natural product

text: Animals also represent a source of bioactive natural products. In particular, venomous animals such as snakes, spiders, scorpions, caterpillars, bees, wasps, centipedes, ants, toads, and frogs have attracted much attention. This is because venom constituents (peptides, enzymes, nucleotides, lipids, biogenic amines etc.) often have very specific interactions with a macromolecular target in the body (e.g. α-bungarotoxin from cobras). As with plant feeding deterrents, this biological activity is attributed to natural selection, organisms capable of killing or paralyzing their prey and/or defending themselves against predators being more likely to survive and reproduce.


title: Natural product

text: Because of these specific chemical-target interactions, venom constituents have proved important tools for studying receptors, ion channels, and enzymes. In some cases, they have also served as leads in the development of novel drugs. For example, teprotide, a peptide isolated from the venom of the Brazilian pit viper "Bothrops jararaca", was a lead in the development of the antihypertensive agents cilazapril and captopril. Also, echistatin, a disintegrin from the venom of the saw-scaled viper "Echis carinatus" was a lead in the development of the antiplatelet drug tirofiban.


title: Natural product

text: In addition to the terrestrial animals and amphibians described above, many marine animals have been examined for pharmacologically active natural products, with corals, sponges, tunicates, sea snails, and bryozoans yielding chemicals with interesting analgesic, antiviral, and anticancer activities. Two examples developed for clinical use include ω-conotoxin (from the marine snail "Conus magus") and ecteinascidin 743 (from the tunicate "Ecteinascidia turbinata"). The former, ω-conotoxin, is used to relieve severe and chronic pain, while the latter, ecteinascidin 743 is used to treat metastatic soft tissue sarcoma. Other natural products derived from marine animals and under investigation as possible therapies include the antitumour agents discodermolide (from the sponge "Discodermia dissoluta"), eleutherobin (from the coral "Erythropodium caribaeorum"), and the bryostatins (from the bryozoan "Bugula neritina").


title: Natural product

text: Natural products sometimes have pharmacological activity that can be of therapeutic benefit in treating diseases. Moreover, synthetic analogs of natural products with improved potency and safety can be prepared and therefore natural products are often used as starting points for drug discovery. Natural product constituents have inspired numerous drug discovery efforts that eventually gained approval as new drugs


title: Natural product

text: Indigenous peoples and ancient civilizations experimented with various plant and animal parts to determine what effect they might have. Through trial and error in isolated cases, traditional healers or shamans found some sources to provide therapeutic effect, representing knowledge of a crude drug that was passed down through generations in such practices as traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda. Extracts of some natural products led to modern discovery of their active constituents and eventually to the development of new drugs.


title: Natural product

text: A large number of currently prescribed drugs have been either directly derived from or inspired by natural products.


title: Natural product

text: Some of the oldest natural product based drugs are analgesics. The bark of the willow tree has been known from antiquity to have pain relieving properties. This is due to presence of the natural product salicin which in turn may be hydrolyzed into salicylic acid. A synthetic derivative acetylsalicylic acid better known as aspirin is a widely used pain reliever. Its mechanism of action is inhibition of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. Another notable example is opium is extracted from the latex from "Papaver somniferous" (a flowering poppy plant). The most potent narcotic component of opium is the alkaloid morphine which acts as an opioid receptor agonist. A more recent example is the N-type calcium channel blocker ziconotide analgesic which is based on a cyclic peptide cone snail toxin (ω-conotoxin MVIIA) from the species "Conus magus".


title: Natural product

text: A significant number of anti-infectives are based on natural products. The first antibiotic to be discovered, penicillin, was isolated from the mold "Penicillium". Penicillin and related beta lactams work by inhibiting DD-transpeptidase enzyme that is required by bacteria to cross link peptidoglycan to form the cell wall.


title: Natural product

text: Several natural product drugs target tubulin, which is a component of the cytoskeleton. These include the tubulin polymerization inhibitor colchicine isolated from the "Colchicum autumnale" (autumn crocus flowering plant), which is used to treat gout. Colchicine is biosynthesized from the amino acids phenylalanine and tryptophan. Paclitaxel, in contrast, is a tubulin polymerization stabilizer and is used as a chemotherapeutic drug. Paclitaxel is based on the terpenoid natural product taxol, which is isolated from "Taxus brevifolia" (the pacific yew tree).


title: Natural product

text: A class of drugs widely used to lower cholesterol are the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, for example atorvastatin. These were developed from mevastatin, a polyketide produced by the fungus "Penicillium citrinum". Finally, a number natural product drugs are used to treat hypertension and congestive heart failure. These include the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril. Captopril is based on the peptidic bradykinin potentiating factor isolated from venom of the Brazilian arrowhead viper ("Bothrops jararaca").


title: Natural product

text: Numerous challenges limit the use of natural products for drug discovery, resulting in 21st century preference by pharmaceutical companies to dedicate discovery efforts toward high-throughput screening of pure synthetic compounds with shorter timelines to refinement. Natural product sources are often unreliable to access and supply, have a high probability of duplication, inherently create intellectual property concerns about patent protection, vary in composition due to sourcing season or environment, and are susceptible to rising extinction rates.


title: Natural product

text: The biological resource for drug discovery from natural products remains abundant, with small percentages of microorganisms, plant species, and insects assessed for bioactivity. In enormous numbers, bacteria and marine microorganisms remain unexamined. As of 2008, the field of metagenomics was proposed to examine genes and their function in soil microbes, but most pharmaceutical firms have not exploited this resource fully, choosing instead to develop "diversity-oriented synthesis" from libraries of known drugs or natural sources for lead compounds with higher potential for bioactivity.


title: Natural product

text: All natural products begin as mixtures with other compounds from the natural source, often very complex mixtures, from which the product of interest must be isolated and purified. The "isolation" of a natural product refers, depending on context, either to the isolation of sufficient quantities of pure chemical matter for chemical structure elucidation, derivitzation/degradation chemistry, biological testing, and other research needs (generally milligrams to grams, but historically, often more), or to the isolation of "analytical quantities" of the substance of interest, where the focus is on identification and quantitation of the substance (e.g. in biological tissue or fluid), and where the quantity isolated depends on the analytical method applied (but is generally always sub-microgram in scale). The ease with which the active agent can be isolated and purified depends on the structure, stability, and quantity of the natural product. The methods of isolation applied toward achieving these two distinct scales of product are likewise distinct, but generally involve extraction, precipitation, adsorptions, chromatography, and sometimes crystallizations. In both cases, the isolated substance is purified to "chemical homogeneity", i.e. specific combined separation and analytical methods such as LC-MS methods are chosen to be "orthogonal"—achieving their separations based on distinct modes of interaction between substance and isolating matrix—with the goal being repeated detection of only a single species present in the putative pure sample. Early isolation is almost inevitably followed by "structure determination", especially if an important pharmacologic activity is associated with the purified natural product.


title: Natural product

text: Structure determination refers to methods applied to determine the chemical structure of an isolated, pure natural product, a process that involves an array of chemical and physical methods that have changed markedly over the history of natural products research; in earliest days, these focused on chemical transformation of unknown substances into known substances, and measurement of physical properties such as melting point and boiling point, and related methods for determining molecular weight. In the modern era, methods focus on mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance methods, often multidimensional, and, when feasible, small molecule crystallography. For instance, the chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945, work for which she later received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1964).


title: Natural product

text: Many natural products have very complex structures. The perceived complexity of a natural product is a qualitative matter, consisting of consideration of its molecular mass, the particular arrangements of substructures (functional groups, rings etc.) with respect to one another, the number and density of those functional groups, the stability of those groups and of the molecule as a whole, the number and type of stereochemical elements, the physical properties of the molecule and its intermediates (which bear on the ease of its handling and purification), all of these viewed in the context of the novelty of the structure and whether preceding related synthetic efforts have been successful (see below for details). Some natural products, especially those less complex, are easily and cost-effectively prepared via complete chemical synthesis from readily available, simpler chemical ingredients, a process referred to as total synthesis (especially when the process involves no steps mediated by biological agents). Not all natural products are amenable to total synthesis, cost-effective or otherwise. In particular, those most complex often are not. Many are accessible, but the required routes are simply too expensive to allow synthesis on any practical or industrial scale. However, to be available for further study, all natural products must yield to isolation and purification. This may suffice if isolation provides appropriate quantities of the natural product for the intended purpose (e.g. as a drug to alleviate disease). Drugs such as penicillin, morphine, and paclitaxel proved to be affordably acquired at needed commercial scales solely via isolation procedures (without any significant synthetic chemistry contributing). However, in other cases, needed agents are not available without synthetic chemistry manipulations.


title: Natural product

text: The process of isolating a natural product from its source can be costly in terms of committed time and material expense, and it may challenge the availability of the relied upon natural resource (or have ecological consequences for the resource). For instance, it has been estimated that the bark of an entire yew tree ("Taxus brevifolia") would have to be harvested to extract enough paclitaxel for just a single dose of therapy. Furthermore, the number of structural analogues obtainable for structure–activity analysis (SAR) simply via harvest (if more than one structural analogue is even present) is limited by the biology at work in the organism, and so outside of the experimentalist's control.


title: Natural product

text: In such cases where the ultimate target is harder to come by, or limits SAR, it is sometimes possible to source a middle-to-late stage biosynthetic precursor or analogue from which the ultimate target can be prepared. This is termed semisynthesis or "partial synthesis". With this approach, the related biosynthetic intermediate is harvested and then converted to the final product by conventional procedures of chemical synthesis.


title: Natural product

text: This strategy can have two advantages. Firstly, the intermediate may be more easily extracted, and in higher yield, than the ultimate desired product. An example of this is paclitaxel, which can be manufactured by extracting 10-deacetylbaccatin III from "T. brevifolia" needles, then carrying out a four-step synthesis. Secondly, the route designed between semisynthetic starting material and ultimate product may permit analogues of the final product to be synthesized. The newer generation semisynthetic penicillins are an illustration of the benefit of this approach.


title: Natural product

text: In general, the total synthesis of natural products is a non-commercial research activity, aimed at deeper understanding of the synthesis of particular natural product frameworks, and the development of fundamental new synthetic methods. Even so, it is of tremendous commercial and societal importance. By providing challenging synthetic targets, for example, it has played a central role in the development of the field of organic chemistry. Prior to the development of analytical chemistry methods in the twentieth century, the structures of natural products were affirmed by total synthesis (so-called "structure proof by synthesis"). Early efforts in natural products synthesis targeted complex substances such as cobalamin (vitamin B), an essential cofactor in cellular metabolism.


title: Natural product

text: Examination of dimerized and trimerized natural products has shown that an element of bilateral symmetry is often present. Bilateral symmetry refers to a molecule or system that contains a C, C, or C point group identity. C symmetry tends to be much more abundant than other types of bilateral symmetry. This finding sheds light on how these compounds might be mechanistically created, as well as providing insight into the thermodynamic properties that make these compounds more favorable. Density functional theoretical (DFT), Hartree Fock, and semiempirical calculations also show some favorability for dimerization in natural products due to evolution of more energy per bond than the equivalent trimer or tetramer. This is proposed to be due to steric hindrance at the core of the molecule, as most natural products dimerize and trimerize in a head-to-head fashion rather than head-to-tail.


title: Natural product

text: Research and teaching activities related to natural products fall into a number of diverse academic areas, including organic chemistry, medicinal chemistry, pharmacognosy, ethnobotany, traditional medicine, and ethnopharmacology. Other biological areas include chemical biology, chemical ecology, chemogenomics, systems biology, molecular modeling, chemometrics, and chemoinformatics.


title: Natural product

text: Natural products chemistry is a distinct area of chemical research which was important in the development and history of chemistry. Isolating and identifying natural products has been important to source substances for early preclinical drug discovery research, to understand traditional medicine and ethnopharmacology, and to find pharmacologically useful areas of chemical space. To achieve this, many technological advances have been made, such as the evolution of technology associated with chemical separations, and the development of modern methods in chemical structure determination such as NMR. Early attempts to understand the biosynthesis of natural products, saw chemists employ first radiolabelling and more recently stable isotope labeling combined with NMR experiments. In addition, natural products are prepared by organic synthesis, to provide confirmation of their structure, or to give access to larger quantities of natural products of interest. In this process, the structure of some natural products have been revised, and the challenge of synthesising natural products has led to the development of new synthetic methodology, synthetic strategy, and tactics. In this regard, natural products play a central role in the training of new synthetic organic chemists, and are a principal motivation in the development of new variants of old chemical reactions (e.g., the Evans aldol reaction), as well as the discovery of completely new chemical reactions (e.g., the Woodward cis-hydroxylation, Sharpless epoxidation, and Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling reactions).


title: Natural product

text: The concept of natural products dates back to the early 19th century, when the foundations of organic chemistry were laid. Organic chemistry was regarded at that time as the chemistry of substances that plants and animals are composed of. It was a relatively complex form of chemistry and stood in stark contrast to inorganic chemistry, the principles of which had been established in 1789 by the Frenchman Antoine Lavoisier in his work "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie".


title: Natural product

text: Lavoisier showed at the end of the 18th century that organic substances consisted of a limited number of elements: primarily carbon and hydrogen and supplemented by oxygen and nitrogen. He quickly focused on the isolation of these substances, often because they had an interesting pharmacological activity. Plants were the main source of such compounds, especially alkaloids and glycosides. It was long been known that opium, a sticky mixture of alkaloids (including codeine, morphine, noscapine, thebaine, and papaverine) from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), possessed a narcotic and at the same time mind-altering properties. By 1805, morphine had already been isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Sertürner and in the 1870s it was discovered that boiling morphine with acetic anhydride produced a substance with a strong pain suppressive effect: heroin. In 1815, Eugène Chevreul isolated cholesterol, a crystalline substance, from animal tissue that belongs to the class of steroids, and in 1819 strychnine, an alkaloid was isolated.


title: Natural product

text: A second important step was the synthesis of organic compounds. Whereas the synthesis of inorganic substances had been known for a long time, the synthesis of organic substances was a difficult hurdle. In 1827 the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius held that an indispensable force of nature for the synthesis of organic compounds, called vital force or life force, was needed. This philosophical idea, vitalism, well into the 19th century had many supporters, even after the introduction of the atomic theory. The idea of vitalism especially fitted in with beliefs in medicine; the most traditional healing practices believed that disease was the result of some imbalance in the vital energies that distinguishes life from nonlife. A first attempt to break the vitalism idea in science was made in 1828, when the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler succeeded in synthesizing urea, a natural product found in urine, by heating ammonium cyanate, an inorganic substance:


title: Natural product

text: This reaction showed that there was no need for a life force in order to prepare organic substances. This idea, however, was initially met with a high degree of skepticism, and only 20 years later, with the synthesis of acetic acid from carbon by Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe, was the idea accepted. Organic chemistry has since developed into an independent area of research dedicated to the study of carbon-containing compounds, since that element in common was detected in a variety of nature-derived substances. An important factor in the characterization of organic materials was on the basis of their physical properties (such as melting point, boiling point, solubility, crystallinity, or color).


title: Natural product

text: A third step was the structure elucidation of organic substances: although the elemental composition of pure organic substances (irrespective of whether they were of natural or synthetic origin) could be determined fairly accurately, the molecular structure was still a problem. The urge to do structural elucidation resulted from a dispute between Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig, who both studied a silver salt of the same composition but had different properties. Wöhler studied silver cyanate, a harmless substance, while von Liebig investigated silver fulminate, a salt with explosive properties. The elemental analysis shows that both salts contain equal quantities of silver, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen. According to the then prevailing ideas, both substances should possess the same properties, but this was not the case. This apparent contradiction was later solved by Berzelius's theory of isomers, whereby not only the number and type of elements are of importance to the properties and chemical reactivity, but also the position of atoms in within a compound. This was a direct cause for the development of structure theories, such as the radical theory of Jean-Baptiste Dumas and the substitution theory of Auguste Laurent. However, it took until 1858 before by August Kekulé formulated a definite structure theory. He posited that carbon is tetravalent and can bind to itself to form carbon chains as they occur in natural products.


title: Natural product

text: The concept of natural product, which initially based on organic compounds that could be isolated from plants, was extended to include animal material in the middle of the 19th century by the German Justus von Liebig. Hermann Emil Fischer in 1884, turned his attention to the study of carbohydrates and purines, work for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. He also succeeded to make synthetically in the laboratory in a variety of carbohydrates, including glucose and mannose. After the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928, fungi and other micro-organisms were added to the arsenal of sources of natural products.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: The Alang Ship Breaking Yard is claimed to be the world's largest ship breaking yard, responsible for dismantling a significant number of retired freight and cargo ships salvaged around the world. It's located on the Gulf of Khambhat in the town of Alang, which is located in the district of Bhavnagar in the state of Gujarat in India.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: Since its establishment in 1983, the shipyard is believed to have acquired a total of 110.6 billion in aggregate value US dollars, including total assets. Its growth has prompted its extension north-east towards Sosiya in Gujarat, and it's now often referred to as the Alang-Sosiya Yard.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: The Alang facility consists of 183 ship breaking yards along of coast that total 4.5 million Light Displacement Tonnage (LDT) of capacity.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: Large super-tankers, car ferries, container ships and a dwindling number of ocean liners are beached on the mud flats during high tide. As the tide recedes, manual labourers move onto the beach to dismantle each ship, salvaging what they can and reducing the rest to scrap.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: The first ship broken down at Alang, MV "Kota Tenjong", was beached on 13 February 1983. Alang's processing volume peaked between 2011 and 2012 at 415 vessels per year, and has been declining since. In 2020, Alang Ship Breaking Yard recycled 196 ships.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: The governments of Japan and Gujarat signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 2010, which focused on technology transfer and financial assistance from Japan to upgrade the yard's operations to meet international standards. The project aimed to make Alang the largest International Maritime Organization-compliant ship recycling yard in the world. This evolved as part of the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor, an international industrial development project supported by the governments of India and Japan and carried out as a public-private partnership.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: Improvement efforts started in 2017, with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency providing a soft loan of $76 million and the Gujarati Maritime Board providing $35 million toward improvements.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: In 2004, the "Regal V", famous for a deadly fire in 1990 when it was known as the "Scandinavian Star", was broken up at Alang.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: On 31 December 2005, the French aircraft carrier "Clemenceau" left Toulon to be dismantled in Alang, despite protests about improper disposal and mismanagement of toxic waste at the facility. In January 2006, the Supreme Court of India temporarily prohibited the "Clemenceau" from entering the port. Attempts to reach a settlement were unsuccessful, and "Clemenceau" was sent to a ship-breaking harbour in Britain instead. On 15 January, a court ruling by France's "Conseil d'État" ordered "Clemenceau" to return to French waters. Shortly after, Able UK, based at the Graythorp yard near Hartlepool, received a disassembly contract to use accepted practices in scrapping the ship. Disassembly began on 18 November 2009 and was completed by the end of 2010.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: The salvage yards at Alang have generated controversies about numerous environmental, health and safety issues, including working conditions, workers' living conditions, and environmental impact. The recycling activities pollute the beach and surrounding areas, including the water, with heavy metals. Additionally, the nearest full-service hospital was 50 km (31 miles) away in Bhavnagar. In March 2019, the Alang Hospital, a multi-speciality hospital at Alang, was inaugurated by Vijay Rupani, the Chief Minister of Gujarat. This hospital was set up by the Gujarat Maritime Board, is operated by the Indian Red Cross Society, and is able to provide immediate medical services. There are ongoing troubles often reported by local media regarding migrant workers' rights and discrimination by local owners or workers. Migrant workers' income is believed to be half that of laborers from nearby sites. According to news reports, there have been fatal accidents involving migrant workers, prompting various companies to destroy the employment records of such workers to avoid compensation dues. However, apart from these news reports, no formal evidence for such incidents exists.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: Other large facilities on the scale of Alang Ship Breaking Yard include the Aliağa Ship Breaking Yard (Turkey), Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard (Bangladesh) and Gadani ship-breaking yard (Pakistan). In the 1980s, Gadani was the largest ship breaking yard, however, competition from newly established yards such as Alang resulted in a significant reduction in output, with Gadani today producing less than one-fifth of the scrap it produced in the 1980s.


title: Alang Ship Breaking Yard

text: 2005: "On the Road to Alang", by Peter Knego of "Maritime Matters", is a documentary on passenger ships scrapped at Alang.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury, billed as Kollisionskurs (German for Collision Course), was a professional boxing match contested between WBA (Unified), IBF, WBO, IBO, and "The Ring" heavyweight champion, Wladimir Klitschko, and Tyson Fury. The fight took place on 28 November 2015 at the Esprit Arena in Düsseldorf, Germany. Fury was declared the winner by unanimous decision. This ended Klitschko's reign of nearly 10 years, the second longest in heavyweight history. Klitschko was entitled to a rematch per the fight contract. Despite this, Fury was stripped of the IBF heavyweight title for agreeing to the rematch instead of facing the IBF mandatory challenger, Vyacheslav Glazkov.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: In 2013, after he had defeated both Kevin Johnson and Steve Cunningham in world title eliminator fights, Tyson Fury repeated that he wanted to fight Wladimir Klitschko because he was the Number 1 in the division. He had previously called him out during video interviews, but believed that the Ukrainian would retire before facing him. Fury could have fought Kubrat Pulev for the mandatory slot to fight Klitschko in mid-2013, but chose to set up an all English showdown with David Haye because "it was a far bigger fight." After originally being scheduled for 28 September 2013, Haye pulled out a week before the fight with a cut above his eye that he said happened during sparring. After the fight was rescheduled for 8 February 2014, Haye pulled out for a second time after he underwent surgery on his shoulder. However, many people including Fury believed that Haye, who had already pulled out of a fight with Manuel Charr before Fury, had perhaps lost some of his passion for the sport and didn't want to fight because he feared losing, and was unnerved by Fury's attempts to sell the fight with his trash talk. Haye also reportedly said that he wasn't going to give Fury a pay day, a decision that would later come back to haunt him when he eventually made his return to boxing. After Fury defeated Klitschko, he stated that he would never give Haye the chance to fight him again after he let him down twice and wasted his time and money.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: After nearly a year out of the ring as a result of the Haye saga, Fury knocked out Joey Abell in February 2014 and was then left to face Derek Chisora for a second time, in his third world title eliminator bout. He emerged comfortably as the winner, with Chisora retiring from the fight after the tenth round. Fury then defeated Christian Hammer in February 2015, whilst maintaining that he wanted to fight Klitschko and even though promoters were now sure that they could make the fight happen, Fury himself still believed that it was unlikely to be made.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Meanwhile, Klitschko had fought off several challengers to retain his world titles since his own victory over David Haye in 2011, which saw him win the WBA Super title, his fourth heavyweight belt out of the available five. His best victory since then had come over the then unbeaten Alexander Povetkin in 2013. Klitschko had been champion since he won the IBF and IBO belts for beating Chris Byrd in 2006. After defeating Bryant Jennings in April 2015, Klitschko acknowledged his next opponent should be Fury, saying that,


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: ""I believe that the fight with Tyson Fury will look different to this one because of the size difference – Fury is taller than me. He is definitely the guy who is ambitious and I think it is going to be exciting. I think that he is going to engage in the fight. There was not much engagement through Jennings today but I think the Fury fight will be exciting and I’m looking forward to it.""


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: After the fight was finally announced in July 2015 and scheduled originally for 24 October, Fury said,


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: "‘The heavyweight division has been dull for over a decade, I’m going to shake it up and bring back the sparkle.’"


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The late Emanuel Steward, who had been Klitschko's trainer up until his death in 2012 and had also worked with Fury, had described Fury as "the next dominant heavyweight champion" and "the heir to Klitschko's throne."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The 39 year old Klitschko would go into the fight with a record of 64–3 and unbeaten in 11 years since his defeat by Lamon Brewster in 2004, while the 27 year old Fury was unbeaten with a record of 24-0.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The first press conference for the fight was held in Düsseldorf towards the end of July 2015, and Fury showed that despite this being the biggest fight of his career, his pre fight tactics wouldn't change. After Klitschko said that the fight was "nothing personal but business", Fury stated that it was personal because fighting is personal. He went on to launch a rant at Klitschko, calling him "boring" both in and out of the ring, and that he wanted to rid him and his jab and grab style out of the division. He also said that Klitschko, at 39 years of age, must be past his best and that he is no better than the great champions of the past, all of whom showed decline from Klitschko's age. He rounded off with a comical one liner when he said "The one thing I do know for sure is, this 'klit' is getting licked."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Klitschko himself drew comparisons between Fury and David Haye, saying that like Haye, Fury would be undergoing therapy when he fought him and after he had beaten him Fury would learn a lesson and become a better person. Fury said that he was nothing like Haye and shouldn't be compared to him, because "I'm not an idiot" or a "fraud", he also branded Haye a "bitch" and a "pussy" because he twice pulled out of fights against him.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: In September, a second press conference was held in London and Fury upped the antics again, dressing up as the superhero Batman and flooring a villain in front of Klitschko in an attempt to unnerve him. Fury told Klitschko that he had dominated a weak era for heavyweights and that he had "reigned supreme over a load of bums". Fury also said that Klitschko could play the nice guy and the role model to try to get his television deals and sponsorships, "but quite frankly I don't care about all that stuff, all I care about is winning." Klitschko continued his talk of therapy, saying that Fury needed help, before telling Fury he was a clown and that he would get him a job at a circus after the fight. Fury continued the mind games by getting up from his chair and kicking it aside, challenging Klitschko to call him a clown again and shouting that he would fight him now and appeared to have to be restrained. Despite all this, there was still a handshake from the pair after an intense face off, with both men wishing each other good luck. Fury later stated that he didn't actually mind being called a clown, and that his act was all part of the entertainment that boxing needed.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The pair then met for a face to face interview 'The Gloves Are Off', and Klitschko stated that Fury tries to be a bully because inside he is weak and insecure, but Fury retorted that it was Klitschko who was insecure about Fury's unpredictable behaviour because he's a "control freak", who doesn't like it when he isn't in control of his opponent. Fury stated that Klitschko was the man standing in front of his entire future and he couldn't let the opportunity slip. He said, "the difference [between me and Klitschko] is that he's been made to look like that, everything he does is manufactured. Everything that I do is natural, off the cuff. Nobody tells me what to do, nobody sticks a key in my back and turns it. I do it myself. I wake up in the morning and do what I want to do, because I'm my own man. And when it comes to that night, I think the world will change because they'll have the most charismatic, the most colourful, the most controversial champion since Muhammad Ali. And that's what the world's been waiting for. If I'm not the man to fill those boots, they'll be waiting a hell of a lot time more. Because all I see is robots, people being turned and told what to say. So the world needs me to change the landscape of the division."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Fury also explained an infamous sauna incident at a Klitschko training camp in Austria in 2010, (the first time the pair had met) where according to Fury, "there were about 10 guys in the sauna, everyone started popping off around us and it came down to just me and Wlad in the sauna. In my mind I was mentally in a competition with him, he can deny it if he wants but I was prepared to die in that sauna, I stayed in for about 40 minutes, and he got out first." Klitschko claimed that he could remember the training camp and the sauna but not any mental competition, after Fury described the incident as a "mental victory." Klitschko said that he didn't know what Fury was talking about and that Fury, "built this in his own world and it didn't exist", but Fury replied "well you can say you don't know what I'm talking about, but we both know it did exist."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: When discussing each other's boxing skills, Klitschko said that he thought Fury was a good counter puncher and moved well for a tall man. Meanwhile, Fury stated that although Klitschko had perfected a safe style and had immense power in right hand and left hook, he didn't know what he was in for because he was facing an opponent that was not only bigger than him but quicker, stating that he himself was blessed with unnatural speed and movement for a man of his size. When asked the question as to why the behaviour was so different to that of the press conference, Klitschko said "I'm not acting differently, Tyson acts differently because he's bipolar." Fury then replied, "maybe I am bipolar, who knows, but there's a time for play and there's a time for seriousness. Wladimir is not stupid, he knows I'm serious."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Fury once again mentioned Klitschko's age, telling him that he couldn't compete with a younger athlete, while Klitschko responded by saying that "age is just a number". Fury actually agreed, but still stated that at 40 years old, you can't do what you could do at 25. When asked whether he had been studying Klitschko's previous defeats, Fury said that he hadn't been because those losses were a long time ago and Klitschko had matured as a fighter since then. Fury said that unlike Klitschko's previous opponents, he genuinely believed he could beat him. Despite previously telling Klitschko he was going to knock him out, Fury revealed that (unlike David Haye in his opinion) he wasn't looking for that one punch and wasn't going to make the same mistake, and told Klitschko to expect something new. Also, unlike Haye, Fury shook Klitschko's hand when it was offered. Fury had also said to Klitschko that all he wanted him to do was "turn up and fight", to which Klitschko replied "I will, I'm looking forward to it" but Fury still believed that he may pull out. Ironically, within a couple of days Klitschko did pull out with a calf injury, and the fight on 24 October was cancelled and rescheduled for 28 November.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: At the public training workout in Düsseldorf, Fury sang a version of "The Wind Beneath My Wings" to Klitschko and his team, which Klitschko said he enjoyed. However, the Fury camp were not happy with the gloves the Klitschko camp had chosen, and threatened to pull out of the fight if it was not sorted out. An inspection of the ring also ended with layers of padding foam being removed from under the canvas.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: From the off, Fury kept constantly on the move boxing off the back foot and throwing many feints, beating Klitschko to the punch from range whilst not letting Klitschko set his feet to land his own shots. Despite the fact that it was usually Klitschko on the offensive coming towards him, Fury made himself difficult to be hit with his head and body movement, also switching to a southpaw stance at times to confuse Klitschko. Due to both fighter's style and defensive skill, there were very few punch combinations landed during the fight, when one punch was landed the next punches were nearly always evaded or missed.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Some of the rounds were close but were decisive in Fury's favor due to his ring generalship and being more active than Klitschko who appeared flustered, this gave Fury what was more or less an insurmountable lead going into the later rounds. From the start Fury's tactics appeared to be to try and nullify Klitschko and make him feel uncomfortable, even putting both his hands behind his back several times during the fight. As a result of this, Klitschko was noticeably gun shy during the fight, particularly with his right hand, seemingly wary of being countered.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Fury landed the best punch of the fight in the ninth round, after the pair had been holding Klitschko turned his back momentarily and when he turned to face Fury again he was caught with a left hook to the face, with Klitschko just managing to avoid some follow up punches. In the eleventh round, Fury landed another two big left hooks and Klitschko appeared to be hurt before referee Tony Weeks docked a point for a third punch that was behind the head having already warned Fury for rabbit punching. In the twelfth and final round Klitschko finally appeared to fight more aggressively, but Fury did the same and traded punches with him and although most scored the final round for Klitschko, when the bell sounded most people felt that Fury had done more than enough.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Two judges scored the bout 115–112, while the other scored it 116–111, all in favour of Fury which meant that he won by unanimous decision and became the new unified heavyweight champion. This nullified any fears that there could be a controversial, disputed or an unfair decision.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: After the fight Fury apologised to Klitschko for some of his behaviour in the buildup, stating that he just wanted to be confident. Fury then celebrated by singing a version of Aerosmith's "I Don't Wanna Miss A Thing" to his wife Paris.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: In the post-fight press conference, Klitschko was asked whether his right hand was injured as he hadn't thrown it very often but he replied, "no it wasn't injured, but my right hand is supposed to land after my left, and I couldn't find the right distance to land the shots that I wanted." Fury's trainer and uncle Peter Fury said, "this is what we've been working on in the gym for five months, to beat someone like Wladimir Klitschko you have to take boxing to a whole new level." Klitschko congratulated Fury on winning the fight and Fury also gave credit to Klitschko for the shots he did land, saying that they both found each other awkward to land on. He then said "tonight was my night and God gave me the victory, so I hope to have many more defences of these titles. And if I could just say one thing, if I could be half as good a champion as Wladimir Klitschko, I'd be very very happy."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The fight was broadcast in countries across the world including by RTL in host country Germany, HBO in the United States and Sky Sports Box Office in the United Kingdom, where it saw over 500,000 pay per view buys. Viewing figures on HBO reached 1.714million.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: In December, Klitschko exercised his rematch clause, albeit without the IBF title at stake. This was due to Fury having to fight Klitschko as opposed to the IBF's mandatory challenger, Vyacheslav Glazkov. Instead Glazkov fought Charles Martin for the vacant title.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: After months of negotiation, the Klitschko–Fury rematch was announced on 8 April 2016, with the fight scheduled to take place in the new champion's home town of Manchester at Manchester Arena on 9 July 2016. In the United Kingdom, the fight was to be shown live and exclusively on BoxNation. On 24 June 2016, Tyson Fury announced that the fight would be postponed due to an ankle sprain he received during training. He apologised to his fans and confirmed the fight would be rescheduled for a later date.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: Also in June 2016, it was announced that Fury had tested positive for the banned substance nandrolone, a performance-enhancing drug, in his previous fight with Christian Hammer, which was held nine months prior to the Klitschko bout. Fury and his cousin Hughie Fury both tested positive for metabolites of the substance in urine samples taken in February 2015. Fury blamed the results on him eating uncastrated wild boar, denied any accusations he had cheated, and complained he was not notified about the test result until 14 months after it was taken. In December 2017, Tyson and Hughie received backdated two-year suspensions from UKAD. The report stated "UKAD's position is that the anti-doping rule violations it has asserted have been committed and the consequences set out in the UK Anti-Doping Rules should apply. Tyson and Hughie Fury's position is that they have never knowingly or deliberately committed any anti-doping rule violation."


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: On 7 July 2016, Fury announced that the rescheduled fight would take place on 29 October 2016 at Manchester Arena. It was confirmed officially on 7 September 2016.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: On 23 September 2016, Fury again postponed the fight after being declared "medically unfit". On 12 October, Fury vacated the remaining titles, citing problems with depression after testing positive for cocaine.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: After the rematch was cancelled, Klitschko agreed to fight IBF champion Anthony Joshua for the vacant WBA and IBO titles as well as Joshua's IBF title. The pair fought at Wembley Stadium in London on 27 April 2017, with Joshua winning by TKO in the eleventh round.


title: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Tyson Fury

text: The vacant WBO title was fought for between WBO's number one ranked Joseph Parker and number three ranked Andy Ruiz on 10 December in Auckland, New Zealand, with Parker winning by majority decision.


title: Boilerplate text

text: Boilerplate text, or simply boilerplate, is any written text (copy) that can be reused in new contexts or applications without significant changes to the original. The term is used about statements, contracts, and computer code, and is used in the media to refer to hackneyed or unoriginal writing.


title: Boilerplate text

text: "Boiler plate" originally referred to the rolled steel used to make boilers to heat water. Metal printing plates (type metal) used in hot metal typesetting of prepared text such as advertisements or syndicated columns were distributed to small, local newspapers, and became known as 'boilerplates' by analogy. One large supplier to newspapers of this kind of boilerplate was the Western Newspaper Union, which supplied "ready-to-print stories [which] contained national or international news" to papers with smaller geographic footprints, which could include advertisements pre-printed next to the conventional content.


title: Boilerplate text

text: In contract law, the term "boilerplate language" or "boilerplate clause" describes the parts of a contract that are considered standard. A standard form contract or boilerplate contract is a contract between two parties, where the terms and conditions of the contract are set by one of the parties, and the other party has little or no ability to negotiate more favorable terms and is thus placed in a "take it or leave it" position.


title: Boilerplate text

text: Boilerplate language may also exist in pre-created form letters. The person sending the form letter then usually only needs to add his or her name at the end of the pre-written greeting and body.


title: Boilerplate text

text: In computer programming, boilerplate is the sections of code that have to be included in many places with little or no alteration. Such boilerplate code is particularly salient when the programmer must include a lot of code for minimal functionality.


title: Boilerplate text

text: A related phenomenon, bookkeeping code, is code that is not part of the business logic, but is interleaved with it to keep data structures updated or able to handle secondary aspects of the program.


title: Boilerplate text

text: A boilerplate statement or response generally refers to a message used with minimal effort for multiple different situations. Examples include official statements from government officials like ""Our thoughts and prayers go to those affected"" or messages left by companies' staff like ""Thank you for contacting us. Most issues are solved by going to our website.""


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Goodbye to Berlin is a 1939 novel by Anglo-American writer Christopher Isherwood set during the waning days of the Weimar Republic. The novel recounts Isherwood's 1929–1932 sojourn as a pleasure-seeking British expatriate on the eve of Adolf Hitler's ascension as Chancellor of Germany and consists of a "series of sketches of disintegrating Berlin, its slums and nightclubs and comfortable villas, its odd maladapted types and its complacent burghers." The novel's plot recounts factual events in Isherwood's life, and most of the novel's characters were based upon actual persons. The insouciant flapper Sally Bowles was based on teenage cabaret singer Jean Ross who became Isherwood's intimate friend during his sojourn and, after an unplanned pregnancy, she had a near-fatal abortion which the shy gay author facilitated.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: While Ross recovered from the abortion procedure, the political situation rapidly deteriorated in Germany. As Berlin's daily scenes featured "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right," Isherwood realised that he must flee the country. Following the Enabling Act which cemented Hitler's power, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England. Afterwards, Berlin's seedy cabarets were shuttered by the Nazis, and many of Isherwood's cabaret friends fled abroad or perished in concentration camps. These factual events served as the genesis for Isherwood's Berlin stories.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The novel received positive reviews by newspaper critics and contemporary writers. Critic Anne Margaret Angus praised Isherwood's literary mastery in conveying the ingravescent despair of Berlin's denizens and "their hopeless clinging to the pleasures of the moment". She believed Isherwood skillfully evoked "the psychological and emotional hotbed which forced the growth of that incredible tree, 'national socialism'." George Orwell hailed the novel for its "brilliant sketches of a society in decay". "Reading such tales as this," Orwell wrote, "the thing that surprises one is not that Hitler came to power, but that he did not do so several years earlier."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The 1939 novel was republished together with Isherwood's 1935 novel, "Mr Norris Changes Trains", in a 1945 collection titled "The Berlin Stories". Literary critics praised the collection as deftly capturing the bleak nihilism of the Weimar period. In 2010, "Time" magazine hailed the collection as one of the 100 Best English-language novels of the 20th century. "Goodbye to Berlin" was adapted into the 1951 Broadway play "I Am a Camera", the 1966 musical "Cabaret", and the 1972 film of the same name. According to critics, the novel's character Sally Bowles purportedly inspired Truman Capote's character Holly Golightly in his 1958 novella "Breakfast at Tiffany's".


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The autobiographical novel recounts Christopher Isherwood's extended residence in Jazz Age Berlin and describes the pre-Nazi social milieu as well as the colourful persons he encountered. While sojourning in the city, Isherwood socialised with a blithe coterie of expatriate writers that included W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Edward Upward, and Paul Bowles. As a gay man, Isherwood frequently interacted with marginalised enclaves of Berliners and foreigners who later would be at greatest risk from Nazi persecution, and various Berlin denizens befriended by Isherwood would later flee abroad or die in labour camps.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The novel's most memorable character—the "divinely decadent" Sally Bowles—was based upon 19-year-old flapper Jean Ross with whom Isherwood briefly shared lodgings at Nollendorfstraße 17 in Schöneberg. Much like the character in the novel, Ross was a sexually promiscuous young woman and a bohemian chanteuse in lesbian bars and second-rate cabarets. Isherwood visited these dingy nightclubs to hear Ross sing, and he described her singing talent as mediocre: "She had a surprisingly deep, husky voice. She sang badly, without any expression, her hands hanging down at her sides—yet her performance was, in its own way, effective because of her startling appearance and her air of not caring a curse of what people thought of her."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Likewise, mutual acquaintance Stephen Spender recalled that Ross' singing ability was quite underwhelming and forgettable: "In my mind's eye, I can see her now in some dingy bar standing on a platform and singing so inaudibly that I could not hear her from the back of the room where I was discreetly seated."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Although Isherwood sometimes had sex with women, Ross—unlike the fictional character Sally—never tried to seduce Isherwood, although they were forced to share a bed whenever their tiny flat became overcrowded with visiting revelers. Instead, Isherwood settled into a same-sex relationship with a working-class German boy named Heinz Neddermeyer, while Ross entered into a variety of heterosexual liaisons, including one with the blond musician Peter van Eyck, the future star of Henri-Georges Clouzot's "The Wages of Fear".


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Soon after their separation, Ross realised she was pregnant. As a personal favour to Ross, Isherwood helped facilitate an abortion procedure. Ross nearly died as a result of the botched abortion procedure. Isherwood visited Ross in the hospital following her abortion. Wrongly assuming he was the father, the hospital staff despised him for impregnating Ross and then callously forcing her to have an abortion. These tragicomic events inspired Isherwood to write his 1937 novella "Sally Bowles" and serves as its narrative climax.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: While Ross recovered from the abortion procedure, the political situation rapidly deteriorated in Germany. As Berlin's daily scenes featured "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right," Isherwood, Spender, and other British nationals soon realised that they must leave the country. "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets," Spender recalled.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Two weeks after the Enabling Act cemented Adolf Hitler's power, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England on 5 April 1933. Afterwards, most of Berlin's seedy cabarets were shuttered by the Nazis, and many of Isherwood's cabaret friends later fled abroad or perished in concentration camps. These factual events served as the genesis for Isherwood's Berlin tales.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Following her departure from Germany, Ross became a devout Stalinist and a lifelong member of Harry Pollitt's Communist Party of Great Britain. She served as a war correspondent for the "Daily Express" during the subsequent Spanish Civil War (1936–39), and she is alleged to have been a propagandist for Joseph Stalin's Comintern. A skilled writer, Ross also worked as a film critic for the "Daily Worker", and her criticisms of early Soviet cinema were later described by critics as ingenious works of "dialectical sophistry". She often wrote political criticism, anti-fascist polemics, and manifestos. For the remainder of her life, Ross believed the public association of herself with the naïve and apolitical character of Sally Bowles occluded her lifelong work as a professional writer and political activist.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Ross particularly resented how Isherwood depicted Sally Bowles expressing antisemitic bigotry. In the original 1937 novella "Sally Bowles", the character laments having sex with an "awful old Jew" to obtain money. Ross' daughter, Sarah Caudwell, said such racial bigotry "would have been as alien to my mother's vocabulary as a sentence in Swahili; she had no more deeply rooted passion than a loathing of racialism and so, from the outset, of fascism."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Due to her unyielding dislike of fascism, Ross was incensed that Isherwood had depicted her as thoughtlessly allied in her beliefs "with the attitudes which led to Dachau and Auschwitz". In the early 21st century, some writers have argued the antisemitic remarks in "Sally Bowles" are a reflection of Isherwood's own much-documented racial prejudices. In Peter Parker's 2004 biography, he writes that Isherwood was "fairly anti-Semitic to a degree that required some of the Berlin novels when they were republished after the war".


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Although Isherwood's stories about the Jazz Age nightlife of Weimar-era Berlin became commercially successful, Isherwood later denounced his writings. He lamented that he had not understood the suffering of the people which he depicted. He stated that 1930s Berlin had been "a real city in which human beings were suffering the miseries of political violence and near-starvation. The 'wickedness' of Berlin's night-life was of the most pitiful kind; the kisses and embraces, as always, had price-tags attached to them... As for the 'monsters', they were quite ordinary human beings prosaically engaged in getting their living through illegal methods. The only genuine monster was the young foreigner who passed gaily through these scenes of desolation, misinterpreting them to suit his childish fantasy."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: After relocating to Weimar-era Berlin in order to work on his novel, an English writer explores the decadent nightlife of the city and becomes enmeshed in the colorful lives of a diverse array of Berlin denizens. He acquires modest lodgings in a boarding house owned by Fräulein Schroeder, a caring landlady.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: At the boarding house, he interacts with the other tenants, including the brazen prostitute Fräulein Kost, who has a Japanese patron, and the decadent Sally Bowles, a young English flapper who sings tunelessly in a seedy cabaret called "The Lady Windermere". Due to a mutual lack of funds, Christopher and Sally soon become roommates, and he learns a great deal about her sex life as well as her coterie of "marvelous" lovers.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: When Sally becomes pregnant after a brief fling, Christopher facilitates an abortion, and the painful incident draws them closer together. When he visits Sally at the hospital, the hospital staff assume he is Sally's impregnator and despise him for forcing her to have an abortion. Later during the summer, Christopher resides at a beach house near the Baltic Sea with Peter Wilkinson and Otto Nowak, a gay couple who are struggling with their sexual identities. Jealous of Otto's endless flirtations with other men, Peter departs for England, and Christopher returns to Berlin to live with Otto's family, the Nowaks.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: During this time, Christopher meets teenage Natalie Landauer whose wealthy Jewish family owns a department store. After the Nazis smash the windows of several Jewish shops, Christopher learns that Natalie's cousin Bernhard is dead, likely murdered by the Nazis. Ultimately, Christopher is forced to leave Germany as the Nazis continue their ascent to power, and he fears that many of his beloved Berlin acquaintances are now dead.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: "Goodbye to Berlin" received positive reviews by newspaper critics and contemporary writers. Critics praised Isherwood's "flair for sheer story-telling" and his ability to spin "an engrossing tale without bothering you with a plot." In a review for "The Observer", novelist L. P. Hartley wrote that Isherwood "is an artist to his finger-tips. If he were not, these sketches of pre-Hitlerian Berlin (the Nazi regime is coming into force when the book closes) would make still sadder reading, for all around is poverty, suspicion, and the threat of violence." Hartley concluded by noting that "if his glimpses are oblique and partial, they are also revealing: "Goodbye to Berlin" is a historical as well as a personal record."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Critic Anne Margaret Angus praised Isherwood's mastery in conveying the ingravescent despair of Berlin's denizens, "with their febrile emotionalism" and "their hopeless clinging to the pleasures of the moment". She believed Isherwood skillfully evoked "the psychological and emotional hotbed which forced the growth of that incredible tree, 'national socialism'." She concluded by noting that "suffering sometimes from too great restraint, his studies, when they do succeed, surely (and often painfully) enlarge our knowledge of human nature."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Contemporary writer and literary critic George Orwell likewise praised by the novel. Although Orwell believed the work to be inferior to Isherwood's earlier novel, "Mr Norris Changes Trains", he nonetheless believed that "Goodbye to Berlin" contained "brilliant sketches of a society in decay". In particular, Orwell singled out for praise the chapter titled "The Nowaks" which concerns a working-class Berlin family on the verge of destitution and disaster. "Reading such tales as this," Orwell observed, "the thing that surprises one is not that Hitler came to power, but that he did not do so several years earlier. The book ends with the triumph of the Nazis and Mr. Isherwood's departure from Berlin."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: In her book " Anti-Nazi Modernism: The Challenges of Resistance in 1930s Fiction", author Mia Spiro remarks that "despite that which they could not know, the novels that Barnes, Isherwood, and Woolf wrote do reveal the historical, cultural, political, and social conditions in 1930s Europe that made the continent ripe for disaster".


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The novel was adapted by John Van Druten into a 1951 Broadway play called "I Am a Camera". The play was a personal success for Julie Harris as the insouciant Sally Bowles, winning her the first of her five Tony Awards for Best Leading Actress, although it earned the infamous review by Walter Kerr, "Me no Leica." The play's title is a quote taken from the novel's first page ("I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking."). The play was then adapted into a commercially successful film, also called "I Am a Camera" (1955), featuring Laurence Harvey, Shelley Winters and Julie Harris, with screenplay by John Collier and music by Malcolm Arnold.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: The book was next adapted into the Tony Award-winning musical "Cabaret" (1966) and the film "Cabaret" (1972) for which Liza Minnelli won an Academy Award for playing Sally. Isherwood was highly critical of the 1972 film due to what he perceived as its negative portrayal of homosexuality. He noted that, "in the film of "Cabaret", the male lead is called Brian Roberts. He is a bisexual Englishman; he has an affair with Sally and, later, with one of Sally's lovers, a German baron... Brian's homosexual tendency is treated as an indecent but comic weakness to be snickered at, like bed-wetting."


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: Isherwood's friends, especially the poet Stephen Spender, often lamented how the cinematic and stage adaptations of "Goodbye to Berlin" glossed over Weimar-era Berlin's crushing poverty: "There is not a single meal, or club, in the movie "Cabaret," that Christopher and I could have afforded [in 1931]." Spender, Isherwood, W.H. Auden and others asserted that both the 1972 film and 1966 Broadway musical deleteriously glamorised the harsh realities of the 1930s Weimar era.


title: Goodbye to Berlin

text: According to literary critics, the character of Sally Bowles in "Goodbye to Berlin" inspired Truman Capote's Holly Golightly in his later novella "Breakfast at Tiffany's". Critics have alleged that both scenes and dialogue in Capote's 1958 novella have direct equivalencies in Isherwood's earlier 1937 work. Capote had befriended Isherwood in New York in the late 1940s, and Capote was an admirer of Isherwood's novels.