title: Islam and violence

text: Media coverage of terrorist attacks plays a critical role in creating negative perceptions of Islam and Muslims. Powell described how Islam initially appeared in U.S. news cycles because of its relationships to oil, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and terrorism (92). Thus the audience was provided the base to associate Muslims to control of the resource of oil, war, and terrorism. A total of 11 terrorist attacks in the U.S. soil since the 9/11 and their content coverage (in 1,638 news stories) in the national media had been analyzed "through frames composed of labels, common themes, and rhetorical associations" (Powell 94). The key findings are summarized below:


title: Islam and violence

text: Islamophobia denotes the prejudice against, the hatred towards, or the fear of the religion of Islam or Muslims. While the term is now widely used, both the term itself and the underlying concept of Islamophobia have been heavily criticized. In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam other terms have been proposed. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are still debated. Some commentators have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the September 11 attacks, while others have associated it with the increased presence of Muslims in the United States, the European Union and other secular nations. Steven Salaita contends that indeed since 9/11, Arab Americans have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition.


title: Islam and violence

text: In response to these perceptions, Ram Puniyani, a secular activist and writer, says that "Islam does not condone violence but, like other religions, does believe in self-defence".


title: Islam and violence

text: Mark Juergensmeyer describes the teachings of Islam as ambiguous about violence. He states that, like all religions, Islam occasionally allows for force while stressing that the main spiritual goal is one of nonviolence and peace. Ralph W. Hood, Peter C. Hill and Bernard Spilka write in "The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach", "Although it would be a mistake to think that Islam is inherently a violent religion, it would be equally inappropriate to fail to understand the conditions under which believers might feel justified in acting violently against those whom their tradition feels should be opposed."


title: Islam and violence

text: Similarly, Chandra Muzaffar, a political scientist, Islamic reformist and activist, says, "The Quranic exposition on resisting aggression, oppression and injustice lays down the parameters within which fighting or the use of violence is legitimate. What this means is that one can use the Quran as the criterion for when violence is legitimate and when it is not."


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Jackal is an alias used by several supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, usually depicted as enemies of the superhero Spider-Man. The original and best known incarnation Miles Warren was originally introduced in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #31 (December 1965) as a professor at the fictional Empire State University. Later storylines established him as also being a scientist researching genetics and biochemistry, and revealed an unhealthy romantic obsession he had for Gwen Stacy. Warren was driven mad with grief and jealousy so he created his Jackal alter-ego to seek revenge on Spider-Man, whom he blamed for Gwen's tragic death. To this end, he trained himself in martial arts, and created a green suit and gauntlets with claw-like razors. Although the Jackal initially didn't possess any superpowers, he later gained enhanced strength, speed and agility by mixing his genes with those of a jackal.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Jackal was introduced in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #129 (February 1974), but his human identity was not revealed until "The Amazing Spider-Man" #148 (September 1975). Originally one of Spider-Man's less popular rogues, the character rose to prominence after being one of the first in the Marvel Universe to master cloning technology, and creating various clones of Spider-Man, like Ben Reilly and Kaine Parker, as well as of other characters, including himself. His experiments went on to play a major role in several popular Spider-Man storylines, such as the "Clone Saga" (1994-1996), "Spider-Island" (2011), and "" (2016-2017).


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: In 2014, "IGN" ranked the Jackal as Spider-Man's 17th greatest enemy. The character has been featured in several media adaptations of Spider-Man, including animated series and video games.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The character first appears in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #129 (February 1974), and was created by writer Gerry Conway and artist Ross Andru. In "The Amazing Spider-Man" #148 (September 1975), the Jackal's identity was revealed to be Professor Miles Warren who first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #31 (December 1965), and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko. Prior to his Jackal reintroduction, his appearances were essentially limited to the occasional cameo in which he acts as simple background to Spider-Man's civilian life as a college student.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: When named at all in these early appearances, he is called only "Professor Warren". A "Mister Warren" had previously appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #8 (January 1964) but he is a high school science teacher rather than a college professor, and is physically very distinct from Miles Warren. Despite this, Conway has said it was always his interpretation that "Mister Warren", "Professor Warren", and Professor Miles Warren/Jackal were the same character.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The character was featured in the controversial 1990s "Clone Saga" story arc, the 2011 storyline "Spider-Island", and the 2016-2017 storyline "".


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Miles Warren was a professor of biology at Empire State University, where he would meet Peter Parker and Gwen Stacy. During his tenure there, Warren becomes secretly infatuated with the much younger Gwen to the point of obsession and jealousy of Parker. After Gwen is murdered by the Green Goblin, Warren swears vengeance on Spider-Man, since it was reported that it was Spider-Man who killed Gwen. Gwen's death drives Warren into depression, despair, and insanity as a mad geneticist who eventually turns into the Jackal. Miles is also the brother of science teacher Raymond Warren of Midtown High School.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Miles is an assistant of the High Evolutionary at Wundagore Mountain after earning his Ph.D in biochemistry. Warren assists the High Evolutionary in experiments that involve turning animals into humans and vice versa. There is conflict between Warren and the High Evolutionary because Warren succeeds in creating "New Men" who looked practically human, whereas the High Evolutionary is not able to. Eventually, Warren evolves a jackal that exhibits a Jekyll and Hyde personality. When the test subject escapes, the High Evolutionary banishes Warren from Wundagore. Warren continues his research and eventually settles down with a woman named Monica who bears him two children who are all killed in what was originally believed to be a car crash; however, it is later revealed to be an assault by his highly evolved Man-Jackal envious of his creator.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The day after Gwen's death, Warren's lab assistant Anthony Serba reveals he successfully cloned a frog using their research technology. Warren gives Serba tissue samples of Gwen and Peter, telling Serba it's of rat cells. Sometime later, Serba confronts Warren, stating that the clones are human and must be destroyed immediately. Panicking, Warren attempts to cover Serba's mouth to shut up, accidentally suffocating Serba. Unable to accept responsibility for his actions, Warren develops a second personality to carry the weight of his misdeeds dubbed "The Jackal". He further develops his alter ego by fashioning a green suit and gauntlets with sharp, claw-like razors on each finger, and by training himself athletically. During this time, he also continues to experiment with cloning humans. Kaine is the first successful clone of Peter despite suffering from a slow cloning degeneration and having regenerative abilities to elude death several times.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Jackal's hatred for Spider-Man manifests in his belief that Spider-Man is solely responsible for allowing Gwen, whom he loved, to die at the Goblin's hands. He harasses Spider-Man numerous times, setting Spider-Man up against other adversaries. Warren allies himself with the Punisher against Spider-Man. The Jackal next attempts to incite a gang war between Hammerhead and Doctor Octopus. Later, he equips wrestler Maxwell Markham with the Grizzly costume and powerful exoskeleton to assassinate newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson. The Jackal then holds Parker hostage in a scheme to trap Spider-Man. Sometime after, he learns Spider-Man's identity.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Out of his numerous attempts to create clones of Peter, only one is a perfect copy of the original. He also creates two clones of himself, one a direct copy and the other a modified clone harboring the Carrion virus. The Jackal helps the Tarantula (Anton Miguel Rodriguez) escape prison, and the two become partners. The Jackal captures Spider-Man, but promptly lets go after proving that Spider-Man is no match for the Jackal in a fair fight. He then lures his nemesis to Shea Stadium and manipulates into battling his perfect clone of Peter by binding "Daily Bugle" reporter Ned Leeds to a bomb that only the original Spider-Man can disarm. But when a clone of Gwen tears off the Jackal's mask and confronts him on his crimes, Warren finally accepts responsibility for his actions. He attempts to correct his wrongdoings by freeing Leeds, only to be caught in the bomb's explosion.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: During the "Clone Saga", it was much later revealed that the clone of Peter had survived the explosion and gone into hiding under the alias of Ben Reilly, and the Jackal who died at Shea Stadium was later revealed to be a clone. Nearly five years later, another clone of Jackal would marry the original clone of Gwen and the two would live under the assumed names Warren Miles and Gwen Miles. This clone of Warren eventually died of the clone degeneration that afflicted most of the Jackal's clones. The real Jackal resurfaced, where his experiments mutated his own DNA and give himself an actual jackal's attributes; his physical abilities had previously been the result of training rather than any superhuman powers.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: When Reilly returns years later to New York City as the Scarlet Spider and allied with Spider-Man, the Jackal also returned to unleash his clone army and convinced both Parker and Reilly that the latter was the original Spider-Man, and the former was the clone. The Jackal created a number of clones of Peter who came into conflict with Spider-Man, the Scarlet Spider, and Kaine. Ultimately, the Jackal, in the process of attempting to kill and replace millions of people with clones that he could control, was killed falling off a tall building while trying to save the clone of Gwen.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: It was ultimately revealed that the Jackal and this storyline's other major players had unknowingly been duped by Norman Osborn. The Jackal and various others (including Kaine) had been tricked into thinking that Reilly was the original and that Peter was the clone. All of the Jackal's machinations were influenced by his incorrect assertion that he knew who the real Peter was.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Jackal later returned in the "Spider-Island" storyline, being further genetically altered to the point where he frequently displayed animalistic tendencies. His body is always cold, requiring him to wear a thick fur coat even in the hottest weather. He's now a crime lord calling himself "The Professor", and allied himself with Hammerhead but the two eventually went to jail. He returns in the "Infestation" back-up feature of "The Amazing Spider-Man", unleashing genetically-engineered bedbugs to pass on Spider-like abilities to thousands of citizens in Manhattan. He achieved this through the aid of several human clones of himself, and funding from Adriana Soria. Although the bedbugs had later died, the virus gave New York's citizens spider-powers and had now been airborne to infect the world to create a new race of Homo-Arachnus as part of his co-conspirator's plan to overtake the Great Web of Life. The Jackal has also enlisted the aid of his mutated henchman Tarantula. It was revealed that the clone of Gwen introduced in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #144 was only Abby-L (Gwen's second clone and the first cloning attempt) was a flawed clone with degenerative debilities. Before this seemingly perfect copy of Gwen died at Abby-L's hands, it was revealed the copy actually had some degeneration on her hand, suggesting not being perfect after all. Abby-L was also infected with the Carrion virus and had Carrion's same abilities. Abby-L was manipulated into killing the other clone of Gwen who was living in London under the alias of Joyce Delaney, and coming into conflict with the Jackal and Kaine. With his own ulterior motives, the Jackal manipulated various gang leaders into adorning duplicate costumes of Spider-Man to cause chaos in New York City. He experimented on the Spider King's host form to spread of New York City's infestation on a global scale. The Jackal also reveals that he still knows Spider-Man's despite the worldwide mindwipe to the rest of the world. After a cure was created by Reed Richards with Max Modell's Horizon Labs using Anti-Venom's antibodies, the Jackal assured Soria that no cure was possible to which Soria killed him after realizing his co-conspirator's powers were amplified into the god-like Spider Queen due to a frequency that returned Spider-Man's spider-sense. The aftermath revealed that the one who died was a clone while the real Jackal had kept his distance the entire time with his former self's surviving clones, anticipating the outcome and gaining a sample of his slain female co-conspirator's DNA, recognizing his success in obtaining DNA unbeknownst to the Avengers and Spider-Man.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: It's later revealed that the Jackal has been monitoring Peter's accidental creation of Alpha, and has set his sights on Spider-Man's new protégé. The Jackal resurfaces accompanied by his cloned mutated human-spider hybrids of Soria and is bent on harvesting Alpha's powers for himself in order to clone a race of Alpha males. But his plans fail as the Alpha energy cannot be cloned, resulting in a collection of powerless, near-mindless copies of Alpha, all of which are destroyed when the enraged Alpha breaks free. It was revealed that the two versions of Jackal that Spider-Man and Alpha fought were also clones.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: When Otto Octavius's mind possessed Spider-Man's body, the X-Men battles a 30 ft. human-spider hybrid attacking New York which turns out to be a human created by the Jackal using Mister Sinister's works. The Jackal later attacks the Superior Spider-Man and the new Scarlet Spider with some mutant-powered spider-clones. Superior Spider-Man kills the clones by destroying the Jackal's hideout, but the Jackal escapes. It is revealed that he kept samples of Scarlet Spider's DNA. The Jackal tells Carrion that he is prepared to develop Spidercide 2.0.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Ben's dissolved remains were collected by the Jackal and was resurrected thanks to a new cloning process. However, the Jackal found problems with the cellular degradation. He had Ben killed 26 more times, all of which had Ben's life (and most of Peter's) flash before his eyes. The ordeal of repeated death caused Ben to become mentally unbalanced and morally ambiguous, due to the trauma and very soul being damaged from being removed and replaced over and over. Ben eventually breaks free and knocks out the Jackal. After improving Warren's formula, Ben makes clones of Miles and persuades the Jackal that "he" is a clone, thereby making it nearly impossible to tell who is the real one. Now free with a number of clone of Miles as servants, Ben acts as the new Jackal during the "" storyline and is determined to repay the people who have heavily influenced Ben's and Peter's lives with the Jackal's technology to make sure that no one has to suffer again and that those who have can become whole, and even does this by establishing New U Technologies.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: When Spider-Man activates the Webware to stabilize the human and clone cells all across the world that were in danger of succumbing to clone degradation, the various clone of Miles melt as Ben fights Doctor Octopus. The so-called clone that does not melt realizes that he "is" the true Warren and vows to have revenge on Ben as the true Jackal. Ben returns to a safe-house and finds Miles in his Jackal outfit waiting in the living room. The Jackal proceeds to burn Ben's safe-house down and engages in one final battle. Ben defeats the Jackal and leaves him in the burning house to die.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Jackal however, survived the fire and targeted the neural net that was built by Dr. Yesenia Rosario when the woman was doing a presentation of it at Empire State University. The Jackal was defeated by Spider-Man and Ms. Marvel as Dr. Rosario destroys her own invention by setting it to self-destruct.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: He later surfaced in the Empire State University once more, under the guise of "Professor Guarinus" and is shocked to bump into a super-powered counterpart of Gwen Stacy from another universe, who had recently enrolled in this universe's ESU. He injected himself with actual jackal DNA, allowing himself to transform into looking exactly like his iconic green costume but for real. He recruited another new student, Benji, to befriend Gwen in exchange for the possibility of great power if she does her job well and while Benji is able to tell Miles that Gwen is a costumed hero from another world, she somehow had failed Warren and was punished for it.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Prior to his regeneration, Miles Warren is a genius in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, and cloning. The Jackal was a talented martial artist and gymnast. He later spliced his genes with the DNA of a jackal, having the strength, durability, speed, and agility amplified to inhuman levels. Warren can access to state-of-the-art laboratories, as well as advanced gadgets or devices if needed.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Prior to the death of the Warren clone at Shea Stadium, he had created a clone of himself. The clone remained in stasis within a cloning casket that malfunctioned and super-aged the clone beyond death. Eventually, it emerged and became known as Carrion that wielded power and had no conscience for its actions. He was the first carrier of the Carrion virus, which Warren designed to destroy humanity. Carrion contained all Warren's memories which contained within his RNA, that included his hatred and knowledge of Spider-Man's secret identity. Carrion wielded the power to create a Red Dust that would spread as pestilence as well as his touch that would incapacitate or even cause organic matter to degenerate to the point of disintegration. The original Carrion intended to kill Spider-Man with a spider-amoeba, but failed as Carrion was absorbed by the amoeba, engulfed in flames that ensued from his battle.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Much later, fellow ESU rival Malcolm McBride stumbled across Warren's old lair, where he was infected with a strain of the Carrion virus and became the second incarnation of Carrion. The virus allowed McBride to become endowed with the knowledge of Spider-Man's secret identity; however, he was unsure whether he was Dr. Warren's first clone or Malcolm McBride. Eventually, McBride teamed with the likes of Demogoblin and Carnage, but was later cured of his condition and incarcerated in Ravencroft Asylum.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: A man dressed as the Jackal once attacked Alpha Flight and claimed to be Miles Warren's son. It was later indicated that this Jackal was the Ani-Man Warren created that ultimately murdered the Professor's family.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: He used multiple stand-ins, such as the clones of his human form and the Jackal in "Spider-Island". There was also an additional clone accompanying the Jackal in "Sibling Rivalry" after targeting the Superior Spider-Man and Scarlet Spider.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: J. M. DeMatteis, the creator of the "Clone Saga", claimed in an interview that he thought Jackal is "a terrific villain...one of his favorites", and that it "was a blast bringing the character back, if only for this one story." Dan Slott claimed in an interview with "Newsarama" about the "Spider-Island" saga that the Jackal is "one of the wonderful mad scientists of Spider-Man's world."


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: In the "Marvel Zombies" universe, when the Zombie Galacti left the Earth (after eating Galactus), Wilson Fisk (Kingpin) makes an empire. The zombiefied Jackal plays an important part in it, creating human clones to feed the remaining Marvel Zombies. This process utilizes Inhuman technology.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: Jackal appears in the re-imagining of the Clone Saga by Tom DeFalco, who was exploring the storyline as it was originally conceived. He infects both May Parker and Mary Jane Watson with a genetic virus. When Kaine betrays Jackal and leads Spider-Man and Scarlet Spider to his lair, all three are captured. The Jackal then reveals his plan to create an army of Spider-Clones to take over the world and clone Gwen Stacy. The clones prove unstable, however, and the Jackal comes to the conclusion that Ben is the original. Before he can do anything, Kaine breaks free and burns his mark onto the Jackal's face before breaking his neck.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of Miles Warren is a hypnotherapist for Harry Osborn to help repress memories about the Green Goblin. Later in the Deadpool story arc of "Ultimate Spider-Man", he was revealed to be dating May Parker. Additionally, his Clone Saga involvement has been taken over by Doctor Octopus. He last appeared when May tried to introduce him to Peter, but they had to leave town because of Norman Osborn and he had a patient to handle.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: "Spider-Man: Life Story" features an alternate continuity where the characters naturally age after Peter Parker becomes Spider-Man in 1962. After the 60s, Miles eventually leaves Empire State and forms his own bio-engineering company. Peter Parker's wife, Gwen Stacy, became his chief biologist. During this time, he was also hired by Norman Osborn to create clones of Norman and Peter, but he also secretly created a clone of Gwen. In 1977, Norman gets word of Warren's additional clone and sends Harry Osborn as the Black Goblin to attack Warren's company, revealing the clones to Harry, Peter, and Gwen in the process. Harry blows up the containment tubes containing the clones, which kills all of them except for Peter's clone. However, Warren reveals that the "Gwen" that Peter was with was actually her clone, while the real Gwen died in the explosion, as he wanted to keep her for himself.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: In the "Spider-Verse" storyline, the Miles Warren of Earth-802 is one of the top scientists working for Jennix of the Inheritors. Jennix once quoted to Miles "I keep you around because you were once the most brilliant mind on the planet." Spider-Man of Earth-94, Scarlet Spider, and Black Widow of Earth-1610 later encounter Miles Warren when they infiltrate the Baxter Building to disable Jennix' cloning device (which is used to create new bodies for the Inheritors if they get killed in action).


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: During the "Secret Wars" storyline, Spider-Gwen encounters the Jackal of Arachnia and covers him with webbing as he is robbing a grave after which he exclaims he is the best geneticist of his generation.


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: In "What If The Punisher Had Killed Spider-Man?", Warren successfully dupes the Punisher into killing Spider-Man and abandons him to take the fall in his place. Being a hunted fugitive, the Punisher eventually hunts Warren down and intends to surrender him to the police. But when the NYPD is about to arrest him instead, threatening to kill him should he shoot Warren, Warren is executed (off-panel) by the Punisher after the latter gleefully concludes the story with the words: "See you on the other side, Jackal."


title: Jackal (Marvel Comics character)

text: When Warren reveals his plans for New U, Kaine and the Gwen Stacy of Earth-65 step in to stop him from winning Peter to his side. Kaine later told Spider-Man that they have visited various unidentified alternate universes where Peter agreeing to Jackal's plans for New U Technologies have led to catastrophe in the form of the Carrion Virus.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Powderham Castle is a fortified manor house situated within the parish and former manor of Powderham, within the former hundred of Exminster, Devon, about south of the city of Exeter and mile (0.4 km) north-east of the village of Kenton, where the main public entrance gates are located. It is a Grade I listed building. The park and gardens are Grade II* listed in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.


title: Powderham Castle

text: It is situated on flat, formerly marshy ground on the west bank of the River Exe estuary where it is joined by its tributary the River Kenn. On the opposite side of the Exe is the small village of Lympstone. Starting with a structure built sometime after 1390, the present castle was expanded and altered extensively in the 18th and 19th centuries. The castle remains the seat of the Courtenay family, Earls of Devon.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The manor of Powderham is named from the ancient Dutch word polder, and means "the hamlet of the reclaimed marsh-land".


title: Powderham Castle

text: At some time after 1390 the medieval core of the present structure was built by Sir Philip Courtenay (d. 1406), the 5th or 6th son of Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon (d. 1377). The Earls of Devon were seated at Tiverton Castle until 1556, and their cousins of this cadet line known as "Courtenay of Powderham" continued to exist in parallel, not always on amicable terms, as prominent county gentry, arguably the leading and most prestigious gentry family of Devon, actively engaged in the local administration of Devon as JP's, sheriffs and MP's. From 1556, with the extinction of the senior line of Courtenay of Tiverton, the Courtenays of Powderham became "de jure" Earls of Devon, and became "de facto" Earls from 1831 when the title was confirmed to them in law. They had, however, obtained the right to sit in the House of Lords when created Viscounts in 1762.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The original building on the site was a fortified manor house, the appellation "castle" was added probably no earlier than the 17th century. The building has never been a true castle, that is to say with a keep and moat, although it did possess a curtain wall and yard on the east side (now the rose garden) as shown in the 1745 engraving by Buck. Leland mentioned a barbican or bulwark in this area, but these were demolished as part of the 18th-century landscaping works designed to provide an uninterrupted view from the lower rooms towards the Exe Estuary. Many castle-like elements on the west front (main entrance) were added in the 19th century. The gatehouse was built between 1845–47 to a design by Charles Fowler. The tall rectangular structure beyond with a tower to the north is essentially the original fortified manor house. The projection from the lower storey to the north in lighter stone with three Gothic-style windows is the Victorian dining hall, designed by Fowler.


title: Powderham Castle

text: During the Wars of the Roses the enemies of the Courtenay Earls of Devon of Tiverton Castle were the Bonville family of Shute. Their distant cousin at Powderham, Sir William Courtenay (d. 1485) married Margaret Bonville, daughter of William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville (1392–1461), which confirmed Powderham as a Bonville stronghold against the Earls of Devon. On 3 November 1455 Thomas de Courtenay, 5th Earl of Devon (1414–1458), at the head of a private army of 1,000 men, seized control of Exeter and its castle and laid siege to Powderham for two months. Lord Bonville attempted to raise the siege and approached from the east, crossing the River Exe; he was unsuccessful and was driven back by the earl's forces. On 15 December 1455 the Earl of Devon and Lord Bonville met decisively at the First Battle of Clyst Heath in Exeter, where Bonville was defeated and after which the earl sacked and pillaged Shute.


title: Powderham Castle

text: During the Civil War Powderham Castle was garrisoned by 300 Royalist soldiers under the command of Sir Hugh Meredith. In December 1645 a Parliamentarian detachment under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax tried, without initial success, to capture it but it fell on 25 January 1646 to Col. Robert Hammond. The castle was badly damaged in the assault and remained, in places, open to the elements until the early 1700s when it was repaired by Sir William Courtenay, 2nd Baronet (d. 1735).


title: Powderham Castle

text: The house is centred on the 14th- and 15th-century thickly-walled double-height rectangular building formerly comprising from north to south the withdrawing room, great hall, screens passage and kitchens, which are now represented in the same orientation by the ante-room, staircase hall, marble hall and Victorian kitchen.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The Marble Hall, named from its black and white marble floor, was completed in 1755 and forms the lower and southern part of the former medieval great hall, which was divided by an internal wall in the early 18th century into staircase hall and marble hall. Originally it was double height, as high as the staircase hall to the north, before the ceiling was added in the 18th century to form bedrooms above. At the same time the staircase was inserted into the upper part to form the staircase hall.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The screens passage was located in this end of the hall. The timber screen which formed the north side of the screens passage was demolished at the time of the partition, but three medieval Gothic-arched doorways through the south stone wall of the screens passage into the kitchen remain. A single more flatly arched doorway remains high up on the south wall, which formed the entrance to the wooden minstrels' gallery overhanging the great hall.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The Marble Hall is used as a sitting room which has an 18th-century fireplace. Contents of the room include a high longcase clock made about 1745 by William Stumbels of Totnes; a large 17th-century Brussels tapestry with rustic farm-yard scenery after Teniers above the fireplace; and a 1553 carved wooden over-mantel decorated with the Courtenay arms. Two portraits of the present Earl of Devon and his wife hang on the north wall above the wooden panelling.


title: Powderham Castle

text: The house has a mixture of medieval features and fine 18th-century decoration. Upstairs there is a narwhal tusk, sometimes said to be a unicorn horn able to detect poison.


title: Powderham Castle

text: William Courtenay, 11th Earl of Devon (d. 1888) installed a heraldic chimneypiece in the Dining Hall in memory of his grandfather Reginald Courtenay (1741–1803), Bishop of Exeter from 1797 to 1803, and of his parents. The Dining Hall was built by his father William Courtenay, 10th Earl of Devon (d. 1859) between 1847 and his death in 1859, and the 11th Earl completed the internal decorations in 1860, including the linen fold panelling containing several dozen ancestral heraldic shields. It is copied from the medieval chimneypiece in the Bishop's Palace, Exeter, installed c. 1485 by Peter Courtenay (d. 1492) Bishop of Exeter, a younger son of Sir Philip Courtenay (1404–1463) of Powderham. The armorials on the lowest row are from left to right:


title: Powderham Castle

text: A further copy of the Courtenay Exeter Bishop's Palace chimneypiece can be found, in Italian grey marble, at Kentwell Hall in Suffolk, bearing the arms of the Clopton and Logan families.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Since 1745 the second library has extended the chapel wing, the two low rooms either side of the clock tower have been converted to bow-window fronts, and the castellated gatehouse tower, which might have blocked this view, has been demolished. In addition, the harbour on the River Kenn, which here flows into the River Exe, has been altered by landscaping.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Powderham Castle has been a Grade I listed building since 1952, and recognised as an internationally important structure. The staircase, hall, music room and master bedroom of the house were used as locations for the 1993 film "The Remains of the Day". The house was also used as a setting for a recent film comedy, "".


title: Powderham Castle

text: On 3 December 2008, the earl auctioned off the Courtenay Compendium, a 14th-century manuscript discovered in Powderham. The castle's licence to host wedding ceremonies was revoked with effect from 1 January 2009 after Hugh Courtenay, 18th Earl of Devon, refused a gay couple use of the building to hold their civil partnership ceremony because it did not fit with his religious beliefs. On 29 September 2009, the Earl auctioned some items from the castle at Sotheby's in London. The sale raised £1,013,638, which was used to pay off debts. He denied that the auction was prompted by the loss of revenue from weddings. Subsequently, the Earl handed control of the estate to his son, Charles, Lord Courtenay, now the 19th Earl of Devon. The licence to host weddings, civil ceremonies and civil partnerships at the Castle has now been reinstated.


title: Powderham Castle

text: In 2017 Mary Berry visited and filmed an hour-long programme as part of her 4-part series, "Mary Berry's Country House Secrets", broadcast on BBC One.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Powderham Castle features as the photographic location of the rebranding of the Historic Houses Association in 2018. In 2018 the Castle opened up new rooms, and previous private family-only areas as part of two new guided tours, the first time the tours have been altered since opening in the 1950s.


title: Powderham Castle

text: On 2 August 2004, Irish boy band Westlife held a concert for their Turnaround Tour supporting their album "Turnaround".


title: Powderham Castle

text: Rock band Status Quo played a concert at Powderham Castle in 2003, in support of their "Riffs" album. The band played there again in 2009, alongside other performers including ABC, Go West, Kid Creole and the Coconuts, Howard Jones, Nik Kershaw, Cutting Crew, Doctor and the Medics, Altered Images and Marc Almond.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Powderham Castle hosted BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend in May 2016, featuring Ellie Goulding, Coldplay, The 1975, Craig David, Nick Jonas, and Iggy Azalea.


title: Powderham Castle

text: Since the Big Weekend, Powderham has hosted concerts by artists such as Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds, Little Mix, Bryan Adams and Tom Jones.


title: Powderham Castle

text: In 1924 the Great Western Railway named a 4-6-0 'Castle class' locomotive "Powderham Castle"; the main GWR line from Exeter to Plymouth runs alongside the castle grounds and passengers can see the castle from the train as they pass.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The desert rain frog, web-footed rain frog, or Boulenger's short-headed frog ("Breviceps macrops") is a species of frog in the family Brevicipitidae. It is found in Namibia and South Africa. Its natural habitat is the narrow strip of sandy shores between the sea and the sand dunes. It is threatened by habitat loss by such factors as mining and tourism.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The desert frog is a plump species with bulging eyes, a short snout, short limbs, spade-like feet, and webbed toes. On the underside, it has a transparent area of skin through which its internal organs can be seen. It can be between long. Its color is yellowish-brown, and sand often adheres to its skin.


title: Desert rain frog

text: Unlike most other species of frogs, it develops directly from the egg into adults without passing through the tadpole stage. It has a stout body, with small legs, which makes it unable to hop or leap – instead, it walks around on the sand. Unusually for a frog, it does not require water in its habitat to survive. Its eyes are comparatively large and bulging. The lifespan ranges between 4 and 14 years.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The desert rain frog is mostly found on a small strip of land about wide along the coast of Namibia and South Africa. The small area of sand dunes often gets a lot of fog, which supplies moisture in an otherwise arid and dry region.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The habitat of desert rain frogs is limited to a narrow strip of land along the western coast of southern Africa, specifically in South Africa and Namibia. This area is characterized by sandy shores and sand dunes, and it is one of the few places in the world where these frogs can be found. The climate in this region is dry and arid, with very little rainfall, and the frogs are adapted to living in these conditions. They are able to survive in areas with very little water by burrowing underground and waiting out dry periods, and they are also able to absorb water through their skin. The desert rain frog's habitat is characterized by xerophytic vegetation, which is adapted to living in dry environments, and in the spring, the area blooms with a variety of flowering plants. Fog is also an important part of the desert rain frog's habitat, as it provides some moisture in an otherwise dry region.


title: Desert rain frog

text: During the breeding season, which occurs between June and October, male Desert Rain Frogs emerge from their underground burrows at night and call out to females using a distinctive squeaking sound. When a female hears a male's call and is interested in mating, she will approach him and the two will mate underground. After mating, the female will lay a clutch of eggs, which can range in size from 12 to 40 eggs. The eggs hatch into froglets, which do not go through a free-living tadpole stage like many other frog species. Instead, the froglets emerge fully formed from the eggs and are able to move and hunt for insects on their own.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The desert rain frog is nocturnal, spending the day in a burrow which is dug to a depth of where the sand is moist. It emerges on both foggy and clear nights and wanders about over the surface of the dunes. Its footprints are distinctive and are often found around patches of dung where it is presumed to feed on moths, beetles, and insect larvae. It digs its way into the sand in the morning and its presence in a locality can be deduced from the little pile of loose sand dislodged by its burrowing activities. Breeding is by direct development of eggs laid in its burrow, there is no aquatic tadpole stage. It produces a high-pitched squeaking sound when threatened. The male's croaking is also distinctly high-pitched.


title: Desert rain frog

text: The frog's total habitat range is smaller than and is fragmented. The number of individual frogs were previously decreasing but it is now unknown whether the population is decreasing or not. It is threatened by habitat loss caused by opencast diamond mining and road construction, as well as increased human settlement. Fortunately, Opencast diamond mining has recently ceased in south Africa. Attempts to restore the frogs' habitat by mining companies could mean that the frog is no longer threatened. However, no evidence has indicated that the frogs have actually recolonized their restored habitat.


title: Louver

text: A louver (American English) or louvre (British English; see spelling differences) is a window blind or shutter with horizontal slats that are angled to admit light and air, but to keep out rain and direct sunshine. The angle of the slats may be adjustable, usually in blinds and windows, or fixed.


title: Louver

text: Louvers originated in the Middle Ages as lantern-like constructions in wood that were fitted on top of roof holes in large kitchens to allow ventilation while keeping out rain and snow. They were originally rather crude constructions consisting merely of a barrel. Later they evolved into more elaborate designs made of pottery, taking the shape of faces where the smoke and steam from cooking would pour out through the eyes and mouth, or into constructions that were more like modern louvers, with slats that could be opened or closed by pulling on a string.


title: Louver

text: Modern louvers are often made of aluminum, metal, wood, or glass. They may be opened and closed with a metal lever, pulleys, or through motorized operators. The Standard specifies requirements for the construction of buildings using louver in bushfire-prone areas in order to improve their resistance to bushfire attack from burning embers, radiant heat, flame contact and combinations of the three attack forms. The revised building standard details various construction methods and materials that must be used depending on the homes level of bushfire risk. This includes changes to the window and glazing requirements for homes located in a Bushfire Attack Level category greater BAL-Low.


title: Louver

text: Often used interchangeably by mistake, the key difference between louvers and jalousies is that louvers are fixed position. Jalousies are installed within a movable adjustable mechanism which positions all jalousies into any parallel position with respect to each other.


title: Louver

text: Louvers are rarely seen as primary design elements in the language of modern architecture, but rather simply a technical device. Louvers are part of the design of Demerara windows to help keep 18th and 19th century buildings cool in hot climates and block direct sunlight. Some modern louver systems serve to improve indoor daylighting. Fixed mirrored louver systems can limit glare and of redirect diffuse light. Such louvers may be integrated in between two panes of double glazing. In industrial facilities such as steel foundries and power plants, louvers are very common. They are utilized for natural ventilation and temperature control.


title: Louver

text: Louvers are frequently found in bell towers, where they are utilised to let out as much sound as possible, while having the bells remain unexposed to the weather.


title: Louver

text: There are examples of architects who use louvers as part of the overall aesthetic effect of their buildings. The most well-known example is Finnish modernist architect Alvar Aalto who would create aesthetic effects in the facades of his buildings through the combination of different types and sizes of louvers, some fixed some moveable, and made mostly from wood (e.g., the various buildings of the Helsinki University of Technology). A second example, taking influence from Aalto, is the second-generation modernist architect Juha Leiviskä.


title: Louver

text: Louvers may be used as a type of flood opening, usually covered by one or more moving flaps. They are designed to allow floodwaters to enter and leave the building, equalizing hydrostatic pressure on the walls and mitigating structural damage due to flooding. Louver windows are a staple in the design of homes and perfect to withstand the pressures of future cyclonic conditions. Cyclone homes have always been synonymous with louver windows, louver blades have been tested for ‘debris type B’ for cyclonic regions.


title: Louver

text: Rear window louvers are also available as an accessory for some automobiles. They have also been used over the years in hoods, trunk lids, and other various body panels; typically hot rods, but by no means exclusive to that period. Their purpose in this regard is both as a functional means of ventilation, but also as a styling modification.


title: Louver

text: Louvers may also be used on traffic light lenses to prevent traffic from seeing the wrong traffic signal.


title: Bleed from Within

text: Bleed from Within are a Scottish heavy metal band from Glasgow, formed in 2005. The band's current lineup consists of lead vocalist Scott Kennedy, drummer Ali Richardson, bassist Davie Provan, lead guitarist Craig Gowans, and rhythm guitarist, clean vocalist Steven Jones. The band has released six studio albums and three EPs, with their latest "Shrine" released on 3 June 2022 through Nuclear Blast.


title: Bleed from Within

text: The band formed in Glasgow where they initially met at a youth club where they would cover Lamb of God songs. The first tour that garnered them large scale exposure was in 2010 when they supported Sylosis and While She Sleeps on the Metal Hammer Razor Tour. Early in their career, Bleed from Within also toured with Soilwork, All that Remains, After the Burial, Suicide Silence, Caliban and Rise to Remain.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In August 2012, the band signed to Century Media Records. Their talks with the label started when they were approached after their performance at the 2011 Graspop festival in Belgium, where they were called up as a replacement. After its announcement Bleed From Within issued a very positive statement about their opportunity to join the label's roster: "Century Media have always been a powerhouse in bringing cutting edge new music to the world and we will endeavour to live up to the name." Between September and November 2012, the band supported While She Sleeps across the UK and co-headlined a tour around Europe with Bury Tomorrow. They supported Miss May I on their UK tour in November/December, before starting their studio sessions.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In March 2013, the band completed their first tour of the year, supporting Testament in mainland Europe. Singer Scott Kennedy commented on the difficulty of performing to Testament's crowd citing the older average age of the audience and their lack of familiarity with Bleed from Within's music, but also stated that he felt the band had won over the crowd eventually. On 25 March 2013, Bleed from Within's third studio album "Uprising" was released on Century Media. Kennedy, when commenting on the album, said that "While it's angry, it's still positive. It's about looking to the light and realising that you're the only person who can make a difference in your life." The drums and vocals were recorded with producer Romesh Dodangoda and guitars and bass with Adam Getgood of Periphery. "Uprising" spawned two music videos; one for the album's lead single "It Lives in Me" and another for the title track. The album was later made available as a stream prior to its release. It also charted in the United Kingdom at number 13 on the UK Rock Chart. Critically, the album was well received and praised for its improved production and improved songwriting but was also criticised for offering very little in the way of innovation. To promote the album, the band embarked on a headlining tour of the UK.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In June 2013, Bleed from Within supported Megadeth on their four date tour of the United Kingdom. The band stated their excitement about the opportunity to support Megadeth, with Kennedy commenting "As a metal band, to go and support any of the is something I never, ever though would happen". Their performances with Megadeth were met with widespread critical acclaim despite reports of ambivalent crowd reactions with English music journalist Malcolm Dome commenting that "You have to feel sorry for Bleed From Within [...] [they] get no more than polite attention from the crowd, and they deserve more". Later in the month, the band was awarded British publication Metal Hammer's Golden Gods Awards for 'Best New Band'.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In November 2013, Bleed from Within were one of four acts alongside Amon Amarth, Hell and Carcass for Metal Hammer's Defenders of the Faith IV tour.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In April 2014, the band announced they had launched an Indiegogo campaign to help crowdfund a 4-track EP, which would act as a bridge between "Uprising" and their fourth full-length album.


title: Bleed from Within

text: In 2017 it was announced that Steven Jones would join the band as a new guitarist and the added addition of clean vocals, replacing Martyn Evans. It was later announced in December that Bleed from Within had finished working on a new studio album set for release in early 2018 and that the first single would be released in January 2018.


title: Bleed from Within

text: The band's fourth album "Era" was released on 6 April 2018. The first single from the album, "Alive", was released on 19 January 2018.


title: Bleed from Within

text: On 29 November 2019, the band released a new single "The End of All We Know" and also confirmed that the band was working on a new album, which was later titled "Fracture" and released on 29 May 2020. Matt Heafy from Trivium performs a guest solo on "Night Crossing" from "Fracture".


title: Bleed from Within

text: On 12 November 2021, the band released a new single titled "I Am Damnation" and announced that they had signed to metal heavyweight label, Nuclear Blast Records, joining the worldwide family.


title: Bleed from Within

text: On 3 March 2022, Bleed From Within announced that their sixth studio album "Shrine" was set to be released on 3 June 2022 through Nuclear Blast Records, and released the album's second single "Levitate". The album's third single "Stand Down" was released on 14 April, followed by the fourth single "Flesh and Stone" on 12 May.


title: Bleed from Within

text: Bleed from Within's earlier material has been considered deathcore, but the band's general musical style has been stated by critics to be a blend of metalcore, melodic death metal and groove metal. Their stylistic features are their use of "deep heavy breakdowns", growling vocals and groove infused riffs. Metal Hammer Magazine's online editor Merlin Alderslade summarised Bleed from Within's style saying they are "power and groove-laden muscle that modern metal is able to produce".


title: Bleed from Within

text: Their first two albums, "Humanity" and "Empire" have been described as "bruising yet melodic" and their debut album "Humanity" was considered "straight-up deathcore" as it came out. Their third album "Uprising" has been described "parts Lamb of God, parts Black Crown-era Suicide Silence and parts Pantera" and Metal Hammer writer Merlin Alderslade believes the band should now be compared to Lamb of God and Machine Head rather than the deathcore style of Suicide Silence and early Bring Me the Horizon. The album's typical song structure features sinister guitar riffs to open a song which transitions into "epic metal melodies".


title: Bleed from Within

text: Across the group's discography, it has been noted that Kennedy's vocal style has shifted from the typical deathcore scream/growl vocals of their early releases to a strict throaty growl on more recent albums, with guitarist Steven Jones adding in clean vocals, which has been said to bring more clearness to the lyrics.


title: Maayon (film)

text: Maayon is a 2022 Tamil-language mythological thriller film produced by Arun mozhi Manickam. The film stars Sibi Sathyaraj and Tanya Ravichandran in the lead roles. Ilaiyaraaja has been roped into compose music for the film. The film released theatrically on 24 June 2022.


title: Maayon (film)

text: A gang of idol smugglers plan to steal a hidden treasure in an ancient Hindu temple, that has mysterious secrets. The film received positive reviews from audiences and was a success at the box office.


title: Maayon (film)

text: An archaeological team is assigned to research an ancient temple which is headed by a shrewd and tactful archaeologist, the team embarks on a quest of exploration, unraveling the mystery.


title: Maayon (film)

text: The film is produced by "Double meaning Productions" with screenplay by Arun Mozhi Manickam and star Sibi Sathyaraj in the lead role. The film is reported to be based on the mystery of a 5000-year-old temple, and the makers stated the film is made in the genre of a "mythological thriller". Ilaiyaraaja was signed as the film's music composer and cinematographer Ram Prasad. The film's official motion poster was released online on 25 August 2018.


title: Maayon (film)

text: Tanya Ravichandran signed the film in October 2018 and stated that she would begin working on her scenes during the following month.


title: Maayon (film)

text: The film was shot across regular schedules in late 2018 and early 2018, with the team filming scenes at Binny Mills during January 2019.


title: Maayon (film)

text: M. Suganth of "The Times of India" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Most of the plot developments are delivered through exposition, and the staging doesn't give us a sense of the geography of the place. The casting and characterisation, too, don't work. Sibi Sathyaraj strains to pull off the layers in the character while Tanya's Anjana is mainly a token female presence. The tacky visual effects pretty much belong to the films we got when Marma Desam was on air. Perhaps realising this, Ilaiyaraaja comes up with an uncharacteristically bombastic score that tries to compensate for the lack of visual grandeur. The film leaves us with the feeling of having squandered an opportunity to give us a desi version of The Da Vinci Code." Ram Venkat Srikar of "Cinema Express" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars stating that "Maayon is one of those films that is more amusing as an idea in mind or as text on paper. You can see the effort being poured in to translate this vision onto the screen, but somehow, the execution, although adequate, doesn’t do justice to the imagination of both the creator and the viewer." "Indiaglitz" gave 2.75 out of 5 and stated "Go for this one if you fancy action adventures with the proper mix of myths and science." Sruthi Ganapathy Raman of "Film Companion" after reviewing the film, stated "The issue with the film, which actually has a lineup of impressive actors (including KS Ravikumar in a small role), is that neither does it take its cheesiness seriously nor does it take its archeology seriously. This is clear when Arjun, a few minutes into the film, flips an ancient Chola-period coin and puts on his sunglasses to evoke “style points”, only for everyone to break into applause."


title: Maayon (film)

text: Owing to the film’s success, the makers of the film have announced a sequel to "Maayon", under the title "Maayon: Chapter 2".


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The cingulate cortex is a part of the brain situated in the medial aspect of the cerebral cortex. The cingulate cortex includes the entire cingulate gyrus, which lies immediately above the corpus callosum, and the continuation of this in the cingulate sulcus. The cingulate cortex is usually considered part of the limbic lobe.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: It receives inputs from the thalamus and the neocortex, and projects to the entorhinal cortex via the cingulum. It is an integral part of the limbic system, which is involved with emotion formation and processing, learning, and memory. The combination of these three functions makes the cingulate gyrus highly influential in linking motivational outcomes to behavior (e.g. a certain action induced a positive emotional response, which results in learning). This role makes the cingulate cortex highly important in disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. It also plays a role in executive function and respiratory control.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Based on cerebral cytoarchitectonics it has been divided into the Brodmann areas 23, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33. The areas 26, 29 and 30 are usually referred to as the retrosplenial areas.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: This corresponds to areas 24, 32 and 33 of Brodmann and LA of Constantin von Economo and Bailey and von Bonin.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: It is continued anteriorly by the subgenual area (Brodmann area 25), located below the genu of the corpus callosum).


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Anterior cingulate cortex can further be divided in the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (near the genu) and midcingulate cortex. The anterior cingulate cortex receives primarily its afferent axons from the intralaminar and midline thalamic nuclei (see thalamus).


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The nucleus anterior receives mamillo-thalamic afferences. The mamillary neurons receive axons from the subiculum.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The anterior cingulate cortex sends axons to the anterior nucleus and through the cingulum to other Broca's limbic areas. The ACC is involved in error and conflict detection processes.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: This corresponds to areas 23 and 31 of Brodmann LP of von Economo and Bailey and von Bonin. Its cellular structure is granular. It is followed posteriorly by the retrosplenial cortex (area 29).


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Dorsally is the granular area 31. The posterior cingulate cortex receives a great part of its afferent axons from the superficial nucleus (or nucleus superior- falsely LD-) of the thalamus (see thalamus), which itself receives axons from the subiculum. To some extent it thus duplicates Papez' circuit. It receives also direct afferents from the subiculum of the hippocampus. Posterior cingulate cortex hypometabolism (with 18F-FDG PET) has been defined in Alzheimer's disease.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: A retrograde tracing experiment on macaque monkeys revealed that the ventral anterior nucleus (VA) and the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus are connected with motor areas of the cingulate sulcus. The retrosplenial region (Brodmann's area 26, 29 and 30) of cingulate gyrus can be divided into three parts: "i.e.", retrosplenial granular cortex A, retrosplenial granular cortex B and retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The hippocampal formation sends dense projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A and B and fewer projections to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The postsubiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A and B and to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The dorsal subiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex B, while ventral subiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A. Entorhinal cortex – caudal parts – sends projections to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The rostral cingulate gyrus (Brodmanns's area 32) projects to the rostral superior temporal gyrus, midorbitofrontal cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The ventral anterior cingulate (Brodmann's area 24) sends projections to the anterior insular cortex, premotor cortex (Brodmann's area 6), Brodmann's area 8, the perirhinal area, the orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 12), the laterobasal nucleus of amygdala, and the rostral part of the inferior parietal lobule. Injecting wheat germ agglutinin and horseradish peroxidase conjugate into the anterior cingulate gyrus of cats, revealed that the anterior cingulate gyrus has reciprocal connections with the rostral part of the thalamic posterior lateral nucleus and rostral end of the pulvinar.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The postsubiculum receives projections from the retrospleinal dysgranular cortex and the retrosplenial granular cortex A and B. The parasubiculum receives projections from the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex and retrosplenial granular cortex A. Caudal and lateral parts of the entorhinal cortex get projections from the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex, while the caudal medial entorhinal cortex receives projections from the retrosplenial granular cortex A. The retrosplenial dysgranular cortex sends projections to the perirhinal cortex. The retrospleinal granular cortex A sends projection to the rostral presubiculum.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The posterior cingulate cortex (Brodmann's area 23) sends projections to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 9), anterior prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 10), orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmanns’ area 11), the parahippocampal gyrus, posterior part of the inferior parietal lobule, the presubiculum, the superior temporal sulcus and the retrosplenial region.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The retrosplenial cortex and caudal part of the cingulate cortex are connected with rostral prefrontal cortex via cingulate fascicule in macaque monkeys Ventral posterior cingulate cortex was found to be reciprocally connected with the caudal part of the posterior parietal lobe in rhesus monkeys. Also the medial posterior parietal cortex is connected with posterior ventral bank of the cingulate sulcus.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The anterior cingulate is connected to the posterior cingulate at least in rabbits. Posterior cingulate gyrus is connected with retrosplenial cortex and this connection is part of the dorsal splenium of the corpus callosum. The anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus and retrosplenial cortex send projections to subiculum and presubiculum.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Using a three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging procedure to measure the volume of the rostral anterior cingulate gyrus (perigenual cingulate gyrus), Takahashi et al. (2003) found that the rostral anterior cingulate gyrus is larger in control (healthy) females than males, but this sex difference was not found in people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia also had a smaller volume of perigenual cingulate gyrus than control subjects.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Haznedar et al. (2004) studied metabolic rate of glucose in anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia, schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) and compared them with a control group. The metabolic rate of glucose was found to be lower in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and the right posterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia relative to controls. Although people with SPD were expected to show a glucose metabolic rate somewhere between the individual with schizophrenia and controls, they actually had higher metabolic glucose rate in the left posterior cingulate gyrus. The volume of the left anterior cingulate gyrus was reduced in people with schizophrenia as compared with controls, but there was not any difference between people with SPD and people with schizophrenia. From these results it appears that the schizophrenia and SPD are two different disorders.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: A study of the volume of the gray and white matter in the anterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia and their healthy first and second degree relatives revealed no significant difference in the volume of the white matter in the people with schizophrenia and their healthy relatives. Nonetheless a significant difference in the volume of gray matter was detected, people with schizophrenia had smaller volume of gray matter than their second degree relatives, but not relative to their first degree relatives. Both the person with schizophrenia and their first degree healthy relatives have smaller gray matter volume than the second degree healthy relatives. It appears that genes are responsible for the decreased volume of gray matter in people with schizophrenia.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: Fujiwara et al. (2007) did an experiment in which they correlated the size of anterior cingulate gyrus in people with schizophrenia with their functioning on social cognition, psychopathology and emotions with control group. The smaller the size of anterior cingulate gyrus, the lower was the level of social functioning and the higher was the psychopathology in the people with schizophrenia. The anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be bilaterally smaller in people with schizophrenia as compared with control group. No difference in IQ tests and basic visuoperceptual ability with facial stimuli was found between people with schizophrenia and the control.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: People with schizophrenia have differences in the anterior cingulate gyrus when compared with controls. The anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be smaller in people with schizophrenia. The volume of the gray matter in the anterior cingulate gyrus was found to be lower in people with schizophrenia. Healthy females have larger rostral anterior cingulate gyrus than males, this sex difference in size is absent in people with schizophrenia. The metabolic rate of glucose was lower in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and in the right posterior cingulate gyrus.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: In addition to changes in the cingulate cortex more brain structures show changes in people with schizophrenia as compared to controls. The hippocampus in people with schizophrenia was found to be smaller in size when compared with controls of the same age group, and, similarly, the caudate and putamen were found to be smaller in volume in a longitudinal study of people with schizophrenia. While the volume of gray matter is smaller, the size of the lateral and third ventricles is larger in people with schizophrenia.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: "Cingulum" means "belt" in Latin. The name was likely chosen because this cortex, in great part, surrounds the corpus callosum.


title: Cingulate cortex

text: The cingulate cortex is a part of the ""grand lobe limbique"" of Broca (1878) that consisted of a superior cingulate part (supracallosa) and an inferior hippocampic part (infracallosal). The limbic lobe was separated from the remainder of the cortex by Broca for two reasons: first because it is not convoluted, and second because the gyri are directed parasagittally (contrary to the transverse gyrification). Since the parasagittal gyrification is observed in non-primate species, the limbic lobe was thus declared to be "bestial". As with other parts of the cortex, there have been and continue to be discrepancies concerning boundaries and naming. Brodmann (1909) further distinguished Areas 24 (anterior cingulate) and 23 (posterior) based on granularity. Most recently, it was included as a part of the limbic lobe in the Terminologia Anatomica (1998) following von Economo's (1925) system.


title: Jenniffer González

text: Jenniffer Aydin González Colón (born August 5, 1976) is a Puerto Rican politician who serves as the 20th Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico. González has served in leadership positions in the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico (PNP) and in the Republican Party of the United States. These positions included being the chairwoman of the Puerto Rico Republican Party, speaker and minority leader of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico, and vice-chair of the PNP. González is the youngest person to be Resident Commissioner and the first woman to hold the role.


title: Jenniffer González

text: González was born in San Juan to the late Jorge González and Nydia Colón. She graduated from University Gardens High School and then received a bachelor's degree in political science from the University of Puerto Rico's Río Piedras campus. During these years she served as the executive director of the Young Republican Federation of Puerto Rico.


title: Jenniffer González

text: She obtained both a Juris Doctor and an LL.M. from the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico School of Law.


title: Jenniffer González

text: González was first elected to the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico in a special election held on February 24, 2002, to fill the vacancy left by former House Speaker Edison Misla Aldarondo, after his resignation as representative from San Juan's 4th District. She was the first female elected representative of San Juan's Fourth District, the youngest member of the 14th Legislative Assembly, and the youngest woman ever to be elected to the Puerto Rico Legislative Assembly. Before being elected as representative, González served as chairwoman of the San Juan New Progressive Party Youth Organization and was very active in the pro-statehood student movement while attending college.


title: Jenniffer González

text: González was re-elected in the 2004 Puerto Rico general elections, this time as an at-large representative. She served as chairwoman of the House Government Affairs Committee and as ranking member of the Budget, San Juan Development, Women's Affairs, and Internal Affairs Committees, as well as the Joint Commission for the Revision of the Civil Code of Puerto Rico.


title: Jenniffer González

text: González was re-elected to another term in the 2008 Puerto Rico general elections obtaining the most votes from her party, and the second most votes overall. At the age of 32, she was elected House Speaker by members of her New Progressive Party delegation during a caucus held on November 7, 2008. González defeated incumbent House Speaker José Aponte Hernández in his bid for re-election to that post, becoming the youngest person in Puerto Rican history to be elected Speaker of the House, and the third woman to hold that seat.


title: Jenniffer González

text: In November 2015, González was unanimously elected as chairwoman of the Republican Party of Puerto Rico after being the party's vice-chair for eight years. She succeeded Aguadilla mayor Carlos Méndez in the position that once was held by former governor Don Luis A. Ferré, founder of the New Progressive Party, and Dr. Jose Celso Barbosa the founder of both the Republican Party and the statehood movement in Puerto Rico.


title: Jenniffer González

text: During the 2020 Republican National Convention, she was unable to travel to the convention venue due to the fact that she was in self-quarantine after having tested positive to the novel coronavirus or COVID-19. She delegated her role of delegation chair at the 2020 convention in Kevin Romero, who became the youngest delegation chair and roll call participant in 2020.


title: Jenniffer González

text: In 2012, González was again re-elected, this time gathering the most votes overall, despite the fact that her party lost the majority of seats. The same night of the election, she was selected to become minority leader of her party.


title: Jenniffer González

text: On September 14, 2015, González announced her candidacy to succeed Pedro Pierluisi as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico. Six days later, one of Pierluisi's rivals for the gubernatorial nomination, Ricardo Rosselló, agreed with her to become running mates for the June 5, 2016, primary and the November 8, 2016, general election. During the ten months the primary race lasted, various public opinion polls consistently showed González to have over 70% approval ratings of the electorate, making her the most popular politician of any political party on the island.


title: Jenniffer González

text: On June 5, 2016, González won the NPP primary by a landslide margin of 70.54% of the vote over her opponent Carlos Pesquera. She thus became the first woman in the history of the New Progressive Party to be nominated to the Resident Commissioner seat in Congress.


title: Jenniffer González

text: On November 8, 2016, González was elected Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, with 48.77% of the vote, over her main opponent, the late Héctor Ferrer of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico, becoming the first woman and youngest person to represent Puerto Rico in the U.S. Congress since the creation of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico seat 116 years prior in 1900.


title: Jenniffer González

text: So far in her time in Congress, González has focused on sponsoring or cosponsoring bills related to veterans affairs, health relief and tax relief for Puerto Rico. Congresswoman González is a member of the Republican Conference House Policy Committee. She is also a member of the House Committees on Natural Resources, Veterans’ Affairs, and Small Business, vice chair of the Subcommittee on Indian, Insular, and Alaska Native Affairs, member of Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations and co-chair of the Congressional Friends of Spain Caucus.


title: Jenniffer González

text: During her first two years in Congress, Rep. González-Colón spent a great deal of time and effort on efforts related to hurricane recovery after Hurricanes Irma and María. This included participating in multiple House and Senate trips to Puerto Rico and joining the president on Air Force One during his 2017 official visit to view the hurricanes' damage to Puerto Rico.


title: Jenniffer González

text: For the 116th Congress, González has served in the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure and the Committee on Natural Resources. Since 2019, she has continued focusing on disaster recovery issues. Her focus on disaster recovery for the island first began after hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017, but continued through 2020, after an earthquake on January 7, 2020, struck and caused significant damage to the south and southeastern regions of Puerto Rico.


title: Jenniffer González

text: In "The Hill"s article "The Hill's Latina Leaders to Watch", Resident Commissioner González is described as a pro-statehood, small government, pro-business conservative. In the first session of the 115th United States Congress, González was ranked the 19th most bipartisan member of the House by the Bipartisan Index, a metric published by The Lugar Center and Georgetown's McCourt School of Public Policy to assess congressional bipartisanship.


title: Jenniffer González

text: In 2019, González was one of three House Republicans, along with Brian Fitzpatrick and John Katko, to co-sponsor the Equality Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Although González could not vote for final passage of the bill due to U.S. House rules, the legislation passed the United States House of Representatives during the 116th Congress.


title: Jenniffer González

text: After the 2021 United States Capitol attack the commissioner condemned the violence and blamed President Donald Trump for inciting the riot. However, the commissioner still supported the majority of Republicans in their effort to remove Liz Cheney from her position as chair of House Republican Conference.


title: Jenniffer González

text: On August 24, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, González announced that she had tested positive for the virus.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Meissen porcelain or Meissen china was the first European hard-paste porcelain. Early experiments were done in 1708 by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. After his death that October, Johann Friedrich Böttger continued von Tschirnhaus's work and brought this type of porcelain to the market, financed by Augustus the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony. The production of porcelain in the royal factory at Meissen, near Dresden, started in 1710 and attracted artists and artisans to establish, arguably, the most famous porcelain manufacturer known throughout the world. Its signature logo, the crossed swords, was introduced in 1720 to protect its production; the mark of the swords is reportedly one of the oldest trademarks in existence.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: "Dresden porcelain" (or "china") was once the usual term for these wares, until in 1975 the (Higher Munich State Court) decided in favour of the Saxon Porcelain Manufactory Dresden, which alone was then allowed to use the name "Dresden Porcelain" (it ceased producing in 2020).


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Meissen remained the dominant European porcelain factory, and the leader of stylistic innovation, until somewhat overtaken by the new styles introduced by the French Sèvres factory in the 1760s, but has remained a leading factory to the present day. Among the developments pioneered by Meissen are the porcelain figurines, and the introduction of European decorative styles to replace the imitation of Asian decoration of its earliest wares.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Since 1991, the manufactory has been operating as the , whose owner is the Free State of Saxony. The company is one of the world's leading porcelain manufacturers and one of the oldest and most internationally known German luxury brands.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Chinese porcelain had gradually developed over centuries, and by the seventeenth century both Chinese and Japanese export porcelain were imported to Europe on a large scale by the Dutch East India Company and its equivalents in other countries. It was a very expensive product by the time it reached European customers, and represented wealth, importance and refined taste in Europe. European attempts to produce porcelain, such as the brief experiment that produced Medici porcelain in Florence, had met with failure.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: At the beginning of the eighteenth century Johann Friedrich Böttger pretended he had solved the dream of the alchemists, to produce gold from worthless materials. When King Augustus II of Poland heard of it, he kept him in protective custody and requested him to produce gold. For years Johann Friedrich Böttger was unsuccessful in this effort.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: At the same time, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, a mathematician and scientist, experimented with the manufacture of glass, trying to make porcelain as well. Crucially, his ingredients included kaolin, the vital ingredient of true porcelain, though he was unable to use it successfully. Tschirnhaus supervised Böttger and by 1707 Böttger reluctantly started to help in the experiments by Tschirnhaus.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: When Tschirnhaus suddenly died, the recipe apparently was handed over to Böttger, who within one week announced to the King that he could make porcelain. Böttger refined the formula and with some Dutch co-workers, experienced in firing and painting tiles, the stage was set for the manufacturing of porcelain. In 1709, the King established the "Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Manufactory" ("Königlich-Polnische und Kurfürstlich-Sächsische Porzellan-Manufaktur"), placed Böttger's laboratory at Albrechtsburg castle in Meissen and production started officially in 1710.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The first type of ware produced by Böttger was a refined and extremely hard red stoneware known as "Böttger ware" in English (in ). This copied Chinese Yixing ware, and like that was especially used for teapots, and now coffee pots. Similar wares had been made by the Dutch and the Elers brothers in England. Böttger's version was harder than any of these, and retained very crisp definition in its cast or applied ("sprigged") details, on bodies that could be polished to a gloss before firing. Models were derived from Baroque silver shapes and Chinese ceramic examples. There was also a softer stoneware, which was glazed and decorated. Meissen's production of a hard paste white porcelain that could be glazed and painted soon followed, and wares were put on the market in 1713.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Böttger's experimental wares rapidly gained quality but never achieved successful painted and fired decor. The first successful ornaments were gold decorations applied upon the fired body and finely engraved before they received a second firing at a lower temperature. The lacy frameworks outside painted scenes known in German as in red, gold or puce, were often used. Augustus II charged first Johann Jakob Irminger with the design of new vessels. In 1720 Johann Gregor Herold became the director and in 1723 introduced brilliant overglaze colours that made Meissen porcelain famous, with an increasingly broad palette of colors that marked the beginning of the classic phase of Meissen porcelain. His enamel paints are still the basis for ceramic paints today. Initially painting mostly imitated the oriental designs known from Chinese and Japanese export porcelain, but some European landscape scenes were painted from early on.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The signature underglaze "Meissen Blue" was introduced by Friedrich August Köttig. Soon minutely detailed landscapes and port scenes, animals, flowers, "galante" courtly scenes and "chinoiseries", fanciful Chinese-inspired decorations, were to be found on Meissen porcelain. The "Kakiemon" floral decoration of vases and tea wares in Japanese export porcelain were combined with Chinese famille verte to create a style known as ("Indian Flowers"); Augustus had large collections of both Chinese and Japanese porcelain. Coloured grounds with decoration painted on white in panels appear in the 1730s. Paintings by Watteau were copied. Wares were also sold with plain glazed colors, usually white, to be enamelled in private workshops (), many in Augsburg and Bayreuth, and independently retailed. The support of Augustus' patronage attracted to Meissen some of the finest painters and modellers of Europe as staff artists.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The Albrechtsburg was utilized to protect the secrets of the manufacture of the white gold. As a further precaution, very few workers knew the "arcanum" (hidden, secret knowledge) of how to make porcelain, and then perhaps only part of the process. Thus, for a few years, Meissen retained its monopoly on the production of hard-paste porcelain in Europe. By 1717, however, a competing production was set up at Vienna, as Samuel Stöltzel, head of the craftsmen and arcanist at Meissen, sold the secret recipe, which involved the use of kaolin, also known as china clay. By 1760 about thirty porcelain manufacturers were operating in Europe, most of them, however, producing frit based soft-paste porcelain.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: In order to identify the original Meissen products, Meissen developed markings that initially were painted on, but were soon fired in underglaze blue. Early markings such as "AR" (Augustus Rex, the monogram of the King), "K.P.M." (), "M.P.M." (), and "K.P.F." () were eventually replaced by the crossed swords logo, based on the arms of the Elector of Saxony as Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire. Introduced in 1720, the logo was used consistently after 1731 by official decree. Variations in the logo allow approximate dating of the wares. However, in the 18th century, the mark was not considered important, and it was commonly painted on in a crude manner. It wasn't until the "dot period" when a gentleman asked that the mark be adjusted to look older that the factory got serious about mark control.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: After Irminger, the next chief modeller, Johann Jakob Kirchner, was the first to make large-scale statues and figurines, especially of Baroque saints. His assistant was Johann Joachim Kaendler; in 1733 Kirchner resigned, and Kaendler took over as chief modeller, remaining in place until his death in 1775, and becoming the most famous of the Meissen modellers. Under his direction Meissen produced the series of small figurines, which brought out the best of the new material (see below). His menagerie of large-scale animals, left in the white, are some of the high points of European porcelain manufacture. His work resulted in the production of exquisite figurines in the rococo style that influenced porcelain making in all of Europe. He was supported by assistants like Johann Friedrich Eberlein and Peter Reinecke.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: In 1756, during the Seven Years' War, Prussian troops occupied Meissen, giving Frederick II of Prussia the opportunity to relocate some of the artisans to establish the Royal Porcelain Manufacture Berlin (; KPMB). With the changing tastes of the neoclassical period and the rise of Sèvres porcelain in the 1760s, Meissen had to readjust its production, and in the reorganization from 1763, C.W.E. Dietrich of the Dresden Academy became artistic director and Michel-Victor Acier from France became the modelmaster. The practice of impressing numerals that correspond to moulds in the inventory books began in 1763.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Count Camillo Marcolini ran the factory from 1774 to 1813, when after the Battle of Leipzig he followed Frederick Augustus I of Saxony into exile, dying in Prague the next year. This period's output was marked by Sèvres styles and ventures into Neoclassicism, such as unglazed matte biscuit porcelain wares that had the effect of white marble. Meissen wares were slightly reduced in quality, and considerably in quantity during this period, as both Austria and Prussia banned imports, and Britain, France and Russia placed high tariffs on imports - all now had their own industries to protect.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: In the nineteenth century Ernst August Leuteritz modernized many of the rococo figurines, and reissued them, creating a "Second Rococo" characterized by lacework details (made from actual lace dipped in slip and fired) and applied flowers. One of the flower painters was Georg Friedrich Kersting. After about 1830 the fortunes of the factory revived, although with wares that appeal less to modern taste than the 18th-century ones. The factory had great commercial success with the lithophane technique, introduced in 1829, which produced a picture when held up to the light.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Under Erich Hösel, who became head of the modelling department in 1903, old styles were revived and reinterpreted. Hösel also restored eighteenth century models. Some appealing work in the Art Nouveau style was produced, but Meissen's mainstay continued to be the constant production of revived eighteenth-century models.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: After 1933, the artistic freedom of the artists became restricted by the State of Saxony in accordance with the contemporary indoctrination process in Germany. Some artists (i.e. Ernst Barlach) who had contributed to progressive Meissen during the Weimar period were banned.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: After World War II and under Communist rule, the manufactory that had always catered to the rich and wealthy had some difficulty to find its way. The danger was that Meissen would become a factory merely producing for the masses. It was not until 1969, when Karl Petermann became the director, that Meissen went back to focus on its old traditions and was also allowed a freer artistic expression.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Figurines had been produced under Böttger, when a small white figure of Augustus II the Strong was produced. Johann Joachim Kändler modelled many of the most famous figures, which were initially made for decorating the tables at grand meals, usually in white, replacing sugar sculptures. However, they soon became very popular as ornaments for living rooms and were cheaper than an entire table service, so available to a rather wider market, both in terms of geography and social class. Kändler soon had them brightly painted, increasing their attraction.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Human figures were mostly courtiers, shepherds and shepherdesses (Dresden shepherdess is a proverbial term), characters, animals, personifications or "allegorical figures" (such the seasons, virtues, or continents) and figures in Chinese and Turkish costumes. As well as the pastoral fantasy shepherdesses there were also some more realistic figures of urban workers, based on print series of the street cries of Paris, London and other cities. In the 1750s a large series of miners was produced. The Meissen repertoire had a huge influence on other European porcelain factories, and the porcelain figure is a defining object for the Rococo.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Kändler also produced a modello of Augustus III of Poland on a horse which was intended to be a life size statue for the city. There is an all white figure of the "Triumph of Amphitrite" in Berlin that is the only known figure signed by Kändler.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: A famous large group, or menagerie, of animal figures were ordered by Augustus for the Japanese Palace he was building in the 1720s. Kändler took the series over in 1733, and modelled most of the figures. These were often many times the size of most figures, and making them posed great technical problems. Nonetheless, when seen as a group they were a sight that astonished and impressed visitors. Smaller figures of animals, especially birds, were also very popular.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The "Monkey Band" (, ), are a comic group of figures of monkey musicians, and a larger excited conductor, all in fancy contemporary costumes. They were first modelled by Kändler and Reinicke in 1753-54, with a later set in the 1760s. They were copied by Chelsea porcelain and others. Such singerie were popular in various media.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Böttger early foresaw the production of tableware, and the first services were made in the 1720s. Initial services were plain, but Kaendler soon introduced matching decorations. Kaendler also produced the 1745 "New Cutout" pattern, characterized by a wavy edge cut, and is presumed to have designed the much-copied osier pattern of a relief border imitating a woven wicker or osier fence.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Initially relatively small tea and coffee services were the most produced, but from the 1730s large armorial porcelain dinner services began to be made, initially for Augustus, but then other buyers in Germany and abroad. They also became used for diplomatic gifts. Maria Amalia of Saxony, granddaughter of Augustus, married the King of the Three Sicilies, later Charles III of Spain, and her dowry is said to have included 17 Meissen table services, inspiring the couple to found the Capodimonte porcelain factoruy in Naples.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The most famous of these is the Swan Service () made in 1737-1743, for the manufactory's director, Count Heinrich von Brühl; It eventually numbered more than a thousand pieces. At the end of World War II, the pieces of the Swan Service were scattered amongst collectors and museums. Yet, with the moulds still available, the pattern continues to be made today. The Möllendorff Dinner Service of the 1760s is another huge service, also today divided between many collections.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The Blue Onion pattern (in fact copying Chinese pomegranates) has been in production for close to three centuries. It was effectively designed by Höroldt in 1739 and is probably inspired by a Chinese bowl from the Kangxi period. Widely popular, the pattern has been copied extensively by over sixty companies; some of those competitors have even used the word "Meissen" as a marking. But the pattern became so popular and widespread that the German Supreme Court in 1926 ruled that the "Meissen Zwiebelmuster" was in the public domain.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: A series of "Court Dragon" and "Red Dragon" tableware patterns features Chinese dragons, generally in underglaze red with gilt details flying around the rim of the plate and with a medallion in the center of the cavetto. A version of this pattern was used in Hitler's "Kehlsteinhaus" retreat.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: Other popular patterns still in production include the "Purple Rose" pattern and the "Vine-leaf" pattern.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: At the beginning the Meissen manufactory was owned by the King of Saxony; by 1830 it came to belong to the State of Saxony. After World War II, most of the equipment was sent to the Soviet Union as part of war reparations. However, the workers using traditional methods and the kilns that had not been dismantled were able to resume production by 1946. The company became a Soviet Joint Stock Company in Germany. Almost all of the production was sent to the Soviet Union, a crucial step that kept the artisan community alive. After the establishment of the German Democratic Republic, the company was handed over to German ownership in 1950 and became a (VEB), a "people-owned company". turned out to be one of the few profitable companies in the economically troubled East German system, earning much needed foreign currency. After the German reunification in 1990, the company was restored to the State of Saxony which is the sole owner. While its products are expensive, the high quality and artistic value make Meissen porcelain desirable by collectors and connoisseurs.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: The rarity and expense of Meissen porcelain meant that originally it could be bought only by the upper classes; this gradually changed over the 19th century. When a wealthy class emerged in the United States in the nineteenth century, such families as the Vanderbilts started their own collections. Many of these collections then found their way into the world's great museums, including the Dixon Gallery and Gardens, featuring one of the largest collections in America.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: A collection of 117 chinoiserie items, including a mantel clock case made for Augustus the Strong dated 1727, which had been assembled by Dr Franz Oppenheimer and his wife, Margarethe, was auctioned by Sotheby's in September 2021.


title: Meissen porcelain

text: A Meissen porcelain chocolate pot, cover, and stand, dated c.1780, were amongst the wedding gifts of Queen Elizabeth II.


title: Lance Bangs

text: Lance Bangs (born September 4, 1972) is an American filmmaker and music video director. He has created videos for Sonic Youth, Nirvana, Neutral Milk Hotel, Green Day, Arcade Fire, The Shins, The Thermals, Belle & Sebastian, Menomena, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, R.E.M., Mike Watt, Death Cab for Cutie, The Black Keys, Kanye West, Odd Future, Pavement, and George Harrison. He directed the David Cross film "Let America Laugh". Bangs has also been heavily involved in the filming and production of MTV's "Jackass" television series and its subsequent movies.


title: Lance Bangs

text: Bangs was born in Sacramento, California. He founded "Flicker Film Festival", a series of Super8mm and 16mm film screenings, while in Athens, Georgia, in 1990 along with Michael Lachowski and Angie Grass.


title: Lance Bangs

text: As a commercial director he has worked with United Parcel Service, Nike, Subway, Rock Band and Volvo for several campaigns, including the Titanium Lion-winning campaign for Volvo's "Life on Board Project" campaign from the 2005 Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.


title: Lance Bangs

text: He produced DVDs for the Directors Label Series, covering the work of Chris Cunningham, Michel Gondry, Spike Jonze, Mark Romanek, Stéphane Sednaoui, Jonathan Glazer and Anton Corbijn. He has also been involved with Spike Jonze on a number of occasions, recently being one of the cameramen for "", "Jackass Number Two", "Jackass 2.5", "Jackass 3D", "Jackass 3.5", "", "", "Jackass Forever", and "Jackass 4.5". He also was a part of the "", filming behind the scenes material. In 2009, they were shortlisted for an Academy Award for "Tell Them Anything You Want: A Portrait of Maurice Sendak".


title: Lance Bangs

text: He has aired an ongoing series of short (often music-related) documentaries on VBS.TV since 2007 in the form of his show "Bangs". He also hosts a show on Viceland called Flophouse.


title: Lance Bangs

text: Bangs is married to Corin Tucker of Sleater-Kinney and together they have two children. He has performed musically as well, both with his wife and with Canadian indie rock group The Dudes. There were plans for a west coast summer 2009 tour, billed as Lance Bangs w/ The Dudes.


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: Tarell Alvin McCraney (born October 17, 1980) is an American playwright, screenwriter, and actor. He is the chair of playwriting at the Yale School of Drama and a member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Ensemble.


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: He co-wrote the 2016 film "Moonlight", based on his own play, for which he received an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. He also wrote the screenplay for the 2019 film "High Flying Bird" and 2019 television series "David Makes Man".


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: McCraney was born in Liberty City, Florida. He attended the New World School of the Arts (NWSA) in Miami, Florida. While attending NWSA, he also applied to and was awarded an honorable mention by the National YoungArts Foundation (1999, Theater). As a teenager, he was a member of an improv troupe directed by Teo Castellanos.


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: He matriculated into The Theatre School at DePaul University and received his BFA in acting. In May 2007 he graduated from Yale School of Drama's playwriting program, receiving the Cole Porter Playwriting Award upon graduation. He also is an Honorary Warwick University Graduate.


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: As an actor, he has worked with directors such as Tina Landau of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company, Chicago, Illinois, David Cromer, and B. J. Jones, artistic director of the Northlight Theatre (where McCraney co-starred in the Chicago premiere of Joe Penhall's "Blue/Orange"), and developed a working relationship with Peter Brook and Marie-Hélène Estienne of the Bouffes du Nord, Paris. He is a member of the D Projects Theater Company in Miami.


title: Tarell Alvin McCraney

text: From 2008 to 2010, he was the RSC/Warwick International Playwright in Residence at the Royal Shakespeare Company. In April 2010, McCraney became the 43rd member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Ensemble. In July 2017, he became the chair of playwriting at the Yale School of Drama.