title: Negative income tax

text: It has been concluded that the most relevant sample size is from the Seattle-Denver experiment, and the experiment should yield the most precise estimates. Importantly, the results may vary not only due to sample sizes but also due to different design, methods of analysis or operations.


title: Negative income tax

text: The individual results were districted into four categories: husbands, wives, single female heads, the youth. Firstly, it was noted that there is an unambiguous decrease in labour supply as a result of NIT and that there exists a pattern among each of the groups. The results show that husbands are the least responsive to NIT in terms of withdrawal from labour force while the youth is the most responsive. Moreover, the percentage responses are from 5-25% equalling 1–5 weeks of full-time work. The employment rate ranges from 1 to 10% . It is however important to note that while on one hand the youth was the most responsive to NIT, on the other hand the decrease in labour supply was equalled by increase in school attendance. Moreover, the chances of completing school education also rose notably in New Jersey by 5% and in Seattle-Denver by 11%.


title: Negative income tax

text: Considering results from the Seattle-Denver experiment, it can be shown that the two-parent families that received $2,700 decreased their earnings by almost $1,800. Therefore, spending $2,700 on transfers to two-parent families in Seattle-Denver increased their income by only $900. This raised the question whether taxpayers would be willing to pay $3 in order to increase the income of aforementioned families by $1.


title: Negative income tax

text: An attempt was made to synthesise the results and provide a nation-wide estimate of the effects of NIT in the US using two plans, one with 75% and the other with 100% guarantee and 50% and 70% tax rates. The corresponding programmes would cost between 6.7 and 16.3 billion dollars, (-5.3) to 4.5 billion dollars, 55.5 to 61.1 billion dollars and 15.4 to 25.7 billion dollars (value expressed in 1985 dollars) respectively. These are net costs, meaning how much more the NIT would cost relative to the welfare programmes in effect at the time. For the latter two options, i.e. 100% guarantee with either 50% or 70% tax rate, it would represent an increase in spending equal to 1.5 percent of the gross national product (GNP) and 0.4-0.6 percent of GNP. The net increase could be financed by increase in federal taxes from 2 to 4 percent. While the cost of eliminating poverty seemed attainable, the issue of decreased earnings and self-support among families remained prevalent. Hence, the issues likely caused the decrease in interest in implementation of NIT, as the work of donor is a bit higher than the work of the recipient and can potentially lead to free riding which would destroy the entire framework.


title: Negative income tax

text: A negative income tax is structurally similar to a universal basic income, as both are capable of achieving the exact same net transfer of income. However, the two mechanisms may differ in the cost to the government, the timing of tax payments, and the psychological perceptions from taxpayers.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Tests of general relativity serve to establish observational evidence for the theory of general relativity. The first three tests, proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915, concerned the "anomalous" precession of the perihelion of Mercury, the bending of light in gravitational fields, and the gravitational redshift. The precession of Mercury was already known; experiments showing light bending in accordance with the predictions of general relativity were performed in 1919, with increasingly precise measurements made in subsequent tests; and scientists claimed to have measured the gravitational redshift in 1925, although measurements sensitive enough to actually confirm the theory were not made until 1954. A more accurate program starting in 1959 tested general relativity in the weak gravitational field limit, severely limiting possible deviations from the theory.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In the 1970s, scientists began to make additional tests, starting with Irwin Shapiro's measurement of the relativistic time delay in radar signal travel time near the sun. Beginning in 1974, Hulse, Taylor and others studied the behaviour of binary pulsars experiencing much stronger gravitational fields than those found in the Solar System. Both in the weak field limit (as in the Solar System) and with the stronger fields present in systems of binary pulsars the predictions of general relativity have been extremely well tested.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger. This discovery, along with additional detections announced in June 2016 and June 2017, tested general relativity in the very strong field limit, observing to date no deviations from theory.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Albert Einstein proposed three tests of general relativity, subsequently called the "classical tests" of general relativity, in 1916:


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In the letter to "The Times" (of London) on November 28, 1919, he described the theory of relativity and thanked his English colleagues for their understanding and testing of his work. He also mentioned three classical tests with comments:


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Under Newtonian physics, an object in an (isolated) two-body system, consisting of the object orbiting a spherical mass, would trace out an ellipse with the center of mass of the system at a focus of the ellipse. The point of closest approach, called the periapsis (or when the central body is the Sun, perihelion), is fixed. Hence the major axis of the ellipse remains fixed in space. Both objects orbit around the center of mass of this system, so they each have their own ellipse. However, a number of effects in the Solar System cause the perihelia of planets to precess (rotate) around the Sun, or equivalently, cause the major axis to rotate about the center of mass, hence changing its orientation in space. The principal cause is the presence of other planets which perturb one another's orbit. Another (much less significant) effect is solar oblateness.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Mercury deviates from the precession predicted from these Newtonian effects. This anomalous rate of precession of the perihelion of Mercury's orbit was first recognized in 1859 as a problem in celestial mechanics, by Urbain Le Verrier. His re-analysis of available timed observations of transits of Mercury over the Sun's disk from 1697 to 1848 showed that the actual rate of the precession disagreed from that predicted from Newton's theory by 38″ (arcseconds) per tropical century (later re-estimated at 43″ by Simon Newcomb in 1882). A number of "ad hoc" and ultimately unsuccessful solutions were proposed, but they tended to introduce more problems. Le Verrier suggested that another hypothetical planet might exist to account for Mercury's behavior. The previously successful search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place some faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was even named Vulcan. Finally, in 1908, W. W. Campbell, Director of the Lick Observatory, after the comprehensive photographic observations by Lick astronomer, Charles D. Perrine, at three solar eclipse expeditions, stated, “In my opinion, Dr. Perrine’s work at the three eclipses of 1901, 1905, and 1908 brings the observational side of the famous intramercurial-planet problem definitely to a close.” Subsequently, no evidence of Vulcan was found and Einstein's 1915 general theory accounted for Mercury's anomalous precession. Einstein wrote to Michael Besso, "Perihelion motions explained quantitatively...you will be astonished".


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In general relativity, this remaining precession, or change of orientation of the orbital ellipse within its orbital plane, is explained by gravitation being mediated by the curvature of spacetime. Einstein showed that general relativity agrees closely with the observed amount of perihelion shift. This was a powerful factor motivating the adoption of general relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Although earlier measurements of planetary orbits were made using conventional telescopes, more accurate measurements are now made with radar. The total observed precession of Mercury is 574.10″±0.65 per century relative to the inertial ICRF. This precession can be attributed to the following causes:


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The correction by 42.980±0.001″/cy is the prediction of post-Newtonian theory with parameters formula_1. Thus the effect can be fully explained by general relativity. More recent calculations based on more precise measurements have not materially changed the situation.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In general relativity the perihelion shift "σ", expressed in radians per revolution, is approximately given by:


title: Tests of general relativity

text: where "L" is the semi-major axis, "T" is the orbital period, "c" is the speed of light, and "e" is the orbital eccentricity (see: Two-body problem in general relativity).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The other planets experience perihelion shifts as well, but, since they are farther from the Sun and have longer periods, their shifts are lower, and could not be observed accurately until long after Mercury's. For example, the perihelion shift of Earth's orbit due to general relativity is theoretically 3.83868" per century and experimentally 3.8387±0.0004"/cy, Venus's is 8.62473"/cy and 8.6247±0.0005″/cy and Mars' is 1.351±0.001"/cy. Both values have now been measured, with results in good agreement with theory. The periapsis shift has also now been measured for binary pulsar systems, with PSR 1913+16 amounting to 4.2° per year. These observations are consistent with general relativity. It is also possible to measure periapsis shift in binary star systems which do not contain ultra-dense stars, but it is more difficult to model the classical effects precisely – for example, the alignment of the stars' spin to their orbital plane needs to be known and is hard to measure directly. A few systems, such as DI Herculis, have been measured as test cases for general relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Henry Cavendish in 1784 (in an unpublished manuscript) and Johann Georg von Soldner in 1801 (published in 1804) had pointed out that Newtonian gravity predicts that starlight will bend around a massive object. The same value as Soldner's was calculated by Einstein in 1911 based on the equivalence principle alone. However, Einstein noted in 1915 in the process of completing general relativity, that his 1911 result (and thus Soldner's 1801 result) is only half of the correct value. Einstein became the first to calculate the correct value for light bending: 1.75 arcseconds for light that grazes the Sun.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the Sun on the celestial sphere. The observations were performed by Arthur Eddington and his collaborators (see Eddington experiment) during the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, when the stars near the Sun (at that time in the constellation Taurus) could be observed. Observations were made simultaneously in the cities of Sobral, Ceará, Brazil and in São Tomé and Príncipe on the west coast of Africa. The result was considered spectacular news and made the front page of most major newspapers. It made Einstein and his theory of general relativity world-famous. When asked by his assistant what his reaction would have been if general relativity had not been confirmed by Eddington and Dyson in 1919, Einstein famously made the quip: "Then I would feel sorry for the dear Lord. The theory is correct anyway."


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The early accuracy, however, was poor and there was doubt that the small number of measured star locations and instrument questions could produce a reliable result. The results were argued by some to have been plagued by systematic error and possibly confirmation bias, although modern reanalysis of the dataset suggests that Eddington's analysis was accurate. The measurement was repeated by a team from the Lick Observatory led by the Director W. W. Campbell in the 1922 eclipse as observed in remote Australian station of Wallal, with results based on hundreds of star positions that agreed with the 1919 results and has been repeated several times since, most notably in 1953 by Yerkes Observatory astronomers and in 1973 by a team from the University of Texas. Considerable uncertainty remained in these measurements for almost fifty years, until observations started being made at radio frequencies.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Einstein predicted the gravitational redshift of light from the equivalence principle in 1907, and it was predicted that this effect might be measured in the spectral lines of a white dwarf star, which has a very high gravitational field. Initial attempts to measure the gravitational redshift of the spectrum of Sirius-B, were done by Walter Sydney Adams in 1925, but the result was criticized as being unusable due to the contamination from light from the (much brighter) primary star, Sirius. The first accurate measurement of the gravitational redshift of a white dwarf was done by Popper in 1954, measuring a 21 km/s gravitational redshift of 40 Eridani B.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The redshift of Sirius B was finally measured by Greenstein "et al." in 1971, obtaining the value for the gravitational redshift of 89±16 km/s, with more accurate measurements by the Hubble Space Telescope showing 80.4±4.8 km/s.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The general theory of relativity incorporates Einstein's special theory of relativity, and hence tests of special relativity are also testing aspects of general relativity. As a consequence of the equivalence principle, Lorentz invariance holds locally in non-rotating, freely falling reference frames. Experiments related to Lorentz invariance special relativity (that is, when gravitational effects can be neglected) are described in tests of special relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The modern era of testing general relativity was ushered in largely at the impetus of Dicke and Schiff who laid out a framework for testing general relativity. They emphasized the importance not only of the classical tests, but of null experiments, testing for effects which in principle could occur in a theory of gravitation, but do not occur in general relativity. Other important theoretical developments included the inception of alternative theories to general relativity, in particular, scalar–tensor theories such as the Brans–Dicke theory; the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism in which deviations from general relativity can be quantified; and the framework of the equivalence principle.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Experimentally, new developments in space exploration, electronics and condensed matter physics have made additional precise experiments possible, such as the Pound–Rebka experiment, laser interferometry and lunar rangefinding.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Early tests of general relativity were hampered by the lack of viable competitors to the theory: it was not clear what sorts of tests would distinguish it from its competitors. General relativity was the only known relativistic theory of gravity compatible with special relativity and observations. Moreover, it is an extremely simple and elegant theory. This changed with the introduction of Brans–Dicke theory in 1960. This theory is arguably simpler, as it contains no dimensionful constants, and is compatible with a version of Mach's principle and Dirac's large numbers hypothesis, two philosophical ideas which have been influential in the history of relativity. Ultimately, this led to the development of the parametrized post-Newtonian formalism by Nordtvedt and Will, which parametrizes, in terms of ten adjustable parameters, all the possible departures from Newton's law of universal gravitation to first order in the velocity of moving objects ("i.e." to first order in formula_3, where "v" is the velocity of an object and "c" is the speed of light). This approximation allows the possible deviations from general relativity, for slowly moving objects in weak gravitational fields, to be systematically analyzed. Much effort has been put into constraining the post-Newtonian parameters, and deviations from general relativity are at present severely limited.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The experiments testing gravitational lensing and light time delay limits the same post-Newtonian parameter, the so-called Eddington parameter γ, which is a straightforward parametrization of the amount of deflection of light by a gravitational source. It is equal to one for general relativity, and takes different values in other theories (such as Brans–Dicke theory). It is the best constrained of the ten post-Newtonian parameters, but there are other experiments designed to constrain the others. Precise observations of the perihelion shift of Mercury constrain other parameters, as do tests of the strong equivalence principle.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: One of the goals of the BepiColombo mission to Mercury, is to test the general relativity theory by measuring the parameters gamma and beta of the parametrized post-Newtonian formalism with high accuracy. The experiment is part of the Mercury Orbiter Radio science Experiment (MORE). The spacecraft was launched in October 2018 and is expected to enter orbit around Mercury in December 2025.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: One of the most important tests is gravitational lensing. It has been observed in distant astrophysical sources, but these are poorly controlled and it is uncertain how they constrain general relativity. The most precise tests are analogous to Eddington's 1919 experiment: they measure the deflection of radiation from a distant source by the Sun. The sources that can be most precisely analyzed are distant radio sources. In particular, some quasars are very strong radio sources. The directional resolution of any telescope is in principle limited by diffraction; for radio telescopes this is also the practical limit. An important improvement in obtaining positional high accuracies (from milli-arcsecond to micro-arcsecond) was obtained by combining radio telescopes across Earth. The technique is called very long baseline interferometry (VLBI). With this technique radio observations couple the phase information of the radio signal observed in telescopes separated over large distances. Recently, these telescopes have measured the deflection of radio waves by the Sun to extremely high precision, confirming the amount of deflection predicted by general relativity aspect to the 0.03% level. At this level of precision systematic effects have to be carefully taken into account to determine the precise location of the telescopes on Earth. Some important effects are Earth's nutation, rotation, atmospheric refraction, tectonic displacement and tidal waves. Another important effect is refraction of the radio waves by the solar corona. Fortunately, this effect has a characteristic spectrum, whereas gravitational distortion is independent of wavelength. Thus, careful analysis, using measurements at several frequencies, can subtract this source of error.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The entire sky is slightly distorted due to the gravitational deflection of light caused by the Sun (the anti-Sun direction excepted). This effect has been observed by the European Space Agency astrometric satellite Hipparcos. It measured the positions of about 10 stars. During the full mission about relative positions have been determined, each to an accuracy of typically 3 milliarcseconds (the accuracy for an 8–9 magnitude star). Since the gravitation deflection perpendicular to the Earth–Sun direction is already 4.07 milliarcseconds, corrections are needed for practically all stars. Without systematic effects, the error in an individual observation of 3 milliarcseconds, could be reduced by the square root of the number of positions, leading to a precision of 0.0016 milliarcseconds. Systematic effects, however, limit the accuracy of the determination to 0.3% (Froeschlé, 1997).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Launched in 2013, the "Gaia" spacecraft will conduct a census of one billion stars in the Milky Way and measure their positions to an accuracy of 24 microarcseconds. Thus it will also provide stringent new tests of gravitational deflection of light caused by the Sun which was predicted by General relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Irwin I. Shapiro proposed another test, beyond the classical tests, which could be performed within the Solar System. It is sometimes called the fourth "classical" test of general relativity. He predicted a relativistic time delay (Shapiro delay) in the round-trip travel time for radar signals reflecting off other planets. The mere curvature of the path of a photon passing near the Sun is too small to have an observable delaying effect (when the round-trip time is compared to the time taken if the photon had followed a straight path), but general relativity predicts a time delay that becomes progressively larger when the photon passes nearer to the Sun due to the time dilation in the gravitational potential of the Sun. Observing radar reflections from Mercury and Venus just before and after they are eclipsed by the Sun agrees with general relativity theory at the 5% level.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: More recently, the Cassini probe has undertaken a similar experiment which gave agreement with general relativity at the 0.002% level. However, the following detailed studies revealed that the measured value of the PPN parameter gamma is affected by gravitomagnetic effect caused by the orbital motion of Sun around the barycenter of the solar system. The gravitomagnetic effect in the Cassini radioscience experiment was implicitly postulated by B. Berotti as having a pure general relativistic origin but its theoretical value has never been tested in the experiment which effectively makes the experimental uncertainty in the measured value of gamma actually larger (by a factor of 10) than 0.002% claimed by B. Berotti and co-authors in Nature.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Very Long Baseline Interferometry has measured velocity-dependent (gravitomagnetic) corrections to the Shapiro time delay in the field of moving Jupiter and Saturn.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The equivalence principle, in its simplest form, asserts that the trajectories of falling bodies in a gravitational field should be independent of their mass and internal structure, provided they are small enough not to disturb the environment or be affected by tidal forces. This idea has been tested to extremely high precision by Eötvös torsion balance experiments, which look for a differential acceleration between two test masses. Constraints on this, and on the existence of a composition-dependent fifth force or gravitational Yukawa interaction are very strong, and are discussed under fifth force and weak equivalence principle.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: A version of the equivalence principle, called the strong equivalence principle, asserts that self-gravitation falling bodies, such as stars, planets or black holes (which are all held together by their gravitational attraction) should follow the same trajectories in a gravitational field, provided the same conditions are satisfied. This is called the Nordtvedt effect and is most precisely tested by the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Since 1969, it has continuously measured the distance from several rangefinding stations on Earth to reflectors on the Moon to approximately centimeter accuracy. These have provided a strong constraint on several of the other post-Newtonian parameters.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Another part of the strong equivalence principle is the requirement that Newton's gravitational constant be constant in time, and have the same value everywhere in the universe. There are many independent observations limiting the possible variation of Newton's gravitational constant, but one of the best comes from lunar rangefinding which suggests that the gravitational constant does not change by more than one part in 10 per year. The constancy of the other constants is discussed in the Einstein equivalence principle section of the equivalence principle article.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The first of the classical tests discussed above, the gravitational redshift, is a simple consequence of the Einstein equivalence principle and was predicted by Einstein in 1907. As such, it is not a test of general relativity in the same way as the post-Newtonian tests, because any theory of gravity obeying the equivalence principle should also incorporate the gravitational redshift. Nonetheless, confirming the existence of the effect was an important substantiation of relativistic gravity, since the absence of gravitational redshift would have strongly contradicted relativity. The first observation of the gravitational redshift was the measurement of the shift in the spectral lines from the white dwarf star Sirius B by Adams in 1925, discussed above, and follow-on measurements of other white dwarfs. Because of the difficulty of the astrophysical measurement, however, experimental verification using a known terrestrial source was preferable.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Experimental verification of gravitational redshift using terrestrial sources took several decades, because it is difficult to find clocks (to measure time dilation) or sources of electromagnetic radiation (to measure redshift) with a frequency that is known well enough that the effect can be accurately measured. It was confirmed experimentally for the first time in 1959 using measurements of the change in wavelength of gamma-ray photons generated with the Mössbauer effect, which generates radiation with a very narrow line width. The Pound–Rebka experiment measured the relative redshift of two sources situated at the top and bottom of Harvard University's Jefferson tower. The result was in excellent agreement with general relativity. This was one of the first precision experiments testing general relativity. The experiment was later improved to better than the 1% level by Pound and Snider.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The blueshift of a falling photon can be found by assuming it has an equivalent mass based on its frequency formula_4 (where "h" is Planck's constant) along with formula_5, a result of special relativity. Such simple derivations ignore the fact that in general relativity the experiment compares clock rates, rather than energies. In other words, the "higher energy" of the photon after it falls can be equivalently ascribed to the slower running of clocks deeper in the gravitational potential well. To fully validate general relativity, it is important to also show that the rate of arrival of the photons is greater than the rate at which they are emitted. A very accurate gravitational redshift experiment, which deals with this issue, was performed in 1976, where a hydrogen maser clock on a rocket was launched to a height of 10,000 km, and its rate compared with an identical clock on the ground. It tested the gravitational redshift to 0.007%.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Although the Global Positioning System (GPS) is not designed as a test of fundamental physics, it must account for the gravitational redshift in its timing system, and physicists have analyzed timing data from the GPS to confirm other tests. When the first satellite was launched, some engineers resisted the prediction that a noticeable gravitational time dilation would occur, so the first satellite was launched without the clock adjustment that was later built into subsequent satellites. It showed the predicted shift of 38 microseconds per day. This rate of discrepancy is sufficient to substantially impair function of GPS within hours if not accounted for. An excellent account of the role played by general relativity in the design of GPS can be found in Ashby 2003.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Other precision tests of general relativity, not discussed here, are the Gravity Probe A satellite, launched in 1976, which showed gravity and velocity affect the ability to synchronize the rates of clocks orbiting a central mass and the Hafele–Keating experiment, which used atomic clocks in circumnavigating aircraft to test general relativity and special relativity together.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Tests of the Lense–Thirring precession, consisting of small secular precessions of the orbit of a test particle in motion around a central rotating mass, for example, a planet or a star, have been performed with the LAGEOS satellites, but many aspects of them remain controversial. The same effect may have been detected in the data of the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft, a former probe in orbit around Mars; also such a test raised a debate. First attempts to detect the Sun's Lense–Thirring effect on the perihelia of the inner planets have been recently reported as well. Frame dragging would cause the orbital plane of stars orbiting near a supermassive black hole to precess about the black hole spin axis. This effect should be detectable within the next few years via astrometric monitoring of stars at the center of the Milky Way galaxy. By comparing the rate of orbital precession of two stars on different orbits, it is possible in principle to test the no-hair theorems of general relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The Gravity Probe B satellite, launched in 2004 and operated until 2005, detected frame-dragging and the geodetic effect. The experiment used four quartz spheres the size of ping pong balls coated with a superconductor. Data analysis continued through 2011 due to high noise levels and difficulties in modelling the noise accurately so that a useful signal could be found. Principal investigators at Stanford University reported on May 4, 2011, that they had accurately measured the frame dragging effect relative to the distant star IM Pegasi, and the calculations proved to be in line with the prediction of Einstein's theory. The results, published in "Physical Review Letters" measured the geodetic effect with an error of about 0.2 percent. The results reported the frame dragging effect (caused by Earth's rotation) added up to 37 milliarcseconds with an error of about 19 percent. Investigator Francis Everitt explained that a milliarcsecond "is the width of a human hair seen at the distance of 10 miles".


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In January 2012, LARES satellite was launched on a Vega rocket to measure Lense–Thirring effect with an accuracy of about 1%, according to its proponents. This evaluation of the actual accuracy obtainable is a subject of debate.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: It is possible to test whether the gravitational potential continues with the inverse square law at very small distances. Tests so far have focused on a divergence from GR in the form of a Yukawa potential formula_6, but no evidence for a potential of this kind has been found. The Yukawa potential with formula_7 has been ruled out down to formula_8m.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: It was conceived as a means to measure the time dilation effect on Earth after being motivated by Einstein's equivalence principle that implies a rotating observer will be subject to the same transformations as an observer in a gravitational field. Mössbauer rotor experiments hence permit a precise terrestrial test of the relativistic Doppler effect. From a radioactive source fixed at the center of a spinning disc or rod, gamma rays travel to an absorber at the rim (in some variations of the experiment this scheme was reversed) and an unabsorbed number of them pass through depending on the rotational speed to arrive at a stationary counter ("i.e.", detector of gamma quanta resting in the lab frame). In lieu with the Clock hypothesis, Einstein's general relativity predicts that the moving absorber's clock at the rim should retard by a specific amount due to time dilation on account of centrifugal binding alone compared to a rest frame absorber. So the transmission of gamma photons through the absorber should increase during rotation, which can be subsequently measured by the stationary counter beyond the absorber. This prediction was actually observed using the Mössbauer effect, since the equivalence principle, as originally suggested by Einstein, implicitly allows the association of the time dilation due to rotation (calculated as a result of the change in the detector's count rate) with gravitational time dilation. Such experiments were pioneered by Hay "et al." (1960), Champeney "et al." (1965), and Kündig (1963), and all of them had declared confirmation of the prediction of Einstein's theory of relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Be that as it may, an early 21st Century re-examination of these endeavors called into question the validity of the past obtained results claiming to have verified time dilation as predicted by Einstein's relativity theory, whereby novel experimentations were carried out that uncovered an "extra energy shift" between emitted and absorbed radiation next to the classical relativistic dilation of time. This discovery was first explained as discrediting general relativity and successfully confirming at the laboratory scale the predictions of an alternative theory of gravity developed by T. Yarman and his colleagues. Against this development, a contentious attempt was made to explain the disclosed extra energy shift as arising from a so-far unknown and allegedly missed "clock synchronization effect", which was unusually awarded a prize in 2018 by the Gravity Research Foundation for having secured "a new proof of general relativity". However, at the same time period, it was revealed that said author committed several mathematical errors in his calculations, and the supposed contribution of the so-called clock synchronization to the measured time dilation is in fact practically null. As a consequence, a general relativistic explanation for the outcomes of Mössbauer rotor experiments remains open.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The very strong gravitational fields that are present close to black holes, especially those supermassive black holes which are thought to power active galactic nuclei and the more active quasars, belong to a field of intense active research. Observations of these quasars and active galactic nuclei are difficult, and interpretation of the observations is heavily dependent upon astrophysical models other than general relativity or competing fundamental theories of gravitation, but they are qualitatively consistent with the black hole concept as modeled in general relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Pulsars are rapidly rotating neutron stars which emit regular radio pulses as they rotate. As such they act as clocks which allow very precise monitoring of their orbital motions. Observations of pulsars in orbit around other stars have all demonstrated substantial periapsis precessions that cannot be accounted for classically but can be accounted for by using general relativity. For example, the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 (a pair of neutron stars in which one is detected as a pulsar) has an observed precession of over 4° of arc per year (periastron shift per orbit only about 10). This precession has been used to compute the masses of the components.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Similarly to the way in which atoms and molecules emit electromagnetic radiation, a gravitating mass that is in quadrupole type or higher order vibration, or is asymmetric and in rotation, can emit gravitational waves. These gravitational waves are predicted to travel at the speed of light. For example, planets orbiting the Sun constantly lose energy via gravitational radiation, but this effect is so small that it is unlikely it will be observed in the near future (Earth radiates about 200 watts of gravitational radiation).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The radiation of gravitational waves has been inferred from the Hulse–Taylor binary (and other binary pulsars). Precise timing of the pulses shows that the stars orbit only approximately according to Kepler's Laws: over time they gradually spiral towards each other, demonstrating an energy loss in close agreement with the predicted energy radiated by gravitational waves. For their discovery of the first binary pulsar and measuring its orbital decay due to gravitational-wave emission, Hulse and Taylor won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: A "double pulsar" discovered in 2003, PSR J0737-3039, has a periastron precession of 16.90° per year; unlike the Hulse–Taylor binary, both neutron stars are detected as pulsars, allowing precision timing of both members of the system. Due to this, the tight orbit, the fact that the system is almost edge-on, and the very low transverse velocity of the system as seen from Earth, J0737−3039 provides by far the best system for strong-field tests of general relativity known so far. Several distinct relativistic effects are observed, including orbital decay as in the Hulse–Taylor system. After observing the system for two and a half years, four independent tests of general relativity were possible, the most precise (the Shapiro delay) confirming the general relativity prediction within 0.05% (nevertheless the periastron shift per orbit is only about 0.0013% of a circle and thus it is not a higher-order relativity test).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In 2013, an international team of astronomers reported new data from observing a pulsar-white dwarf system PSR J0348+0432, in which they have been able to measure a change in the orbital period of 8 millionths of a second per year, and confirmed GR predictions in a regime of extreme gravitational fields never probed before; but there are still some competing theories that would agree with these data.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: A number of gravitational-wave detectors have been built with the intent of directly detecting the gravitational waves emanating from such astronomical events as the merger of two neutron stars or black holes. In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a stellar binary black hole merger, with additional detections announced in June 2016, June 2017, and August 2017.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: General relativity predicts gravitational waves, as does any theory of gravitation in which changes in the gravitational field propagate at a finite speed. Then, the LIGO response function could discriminate among the various theories. Since gravitational waves can be directly detected, it is possible to use them to learn about the Universe. This is gravitational-wave astronomy. Gravitational-wave astronomy can test general relativity by verifying that the observed waves are of the form predicted (for example, that they only have two transverse polarizations), and by checking that black holes are the objects described by solutions of the Einstein field equations.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Gravitational-wave astronomy can also test Maxwell-Einstein field equations. This version of the field equations predicts that spinning magnetars (i.e., neutron stars with extremely strong magnetic dipole field) should emit gravitational waves.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: "These amazing observations are the confirmation of a lot of theoretical work, including Einstein's general theory of relativity, which predicts gravitational waves," said Stephen Hawking.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The galaxy M87 was the subject of observation by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) in 2017; the 10 April 2019 issue of "Astrophysical Journal Letters" (vol. 875, No. 1) was dedicated to the EHT results, publishing six open-access papers. The event horizon of the black hole at the center of M87 was directly imaged at the wavelength of radio waves by the EHT; the image was revealed in a press conference on 10 April 2019, the first image of a black hole's event horizon.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In May 2022, the EHT provided the first image of the super massive black hole Sagittarius A* in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Gravitational redshift in light from the S2 star orbiting the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* in the center of the Milky Way has been measured with the Very Large Telescope using GRAVITY, NACO and SIFONI instruments. Additionally, there has now been detection of the Schwarzschild precession in the orbit of the star S2 near the Galactic centre massive black hole.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: The strong equivalence principle of general relativity requires universality of free fall to apply even to bodies with strong self-gravity. Direct tests of this principle using Solar System bodies are limited by the weak self-gravity of the bodies, and tests using pulsar–white-dwarf binaries have been limited by the weak gravitational pull of the Milky Way. With the discovery of a triple star system called PSR J0337+1715, located about 4,200 light-years from Earth, the strong equivalence principle can be tested with a high accuracy. This system contains a neutron star in a 1.6-day orbit with a white dwarf star, and the pair in a 327-day orbit with another white dwarf further away. This system permits a test that compares how the gravitational pull of the outer white dwarf affects the pulsar, which has strong self-gravity, and the inner white dwarf. The result shows that the accelerations of the pulsar and its nearby white-dwarf companion differ fractionally by no more than 2.6 (95% confidence level).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: This technique is based on the idea that photon trajectories are modified in the presence of a gravitational body. A very common astrophysical system in the universe is a black hole surrounded by an accretion disk. The radiation from the general neighborhood, including the accretion disk, is affected by the nature of the central black hole. Assuming Einstein's theory is correct, astrophysical black holes are described by the Kerr metric. (A consequence of the no-hair theorems.) Thus, by analyzing the radiation from such systems, it is possible to test Einstein's theory.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Most of the radiation from these black hole – accretion disk systems (e.g., black hole binaries and active galactic nuclei) arrives in the form of X-rays. When modeled, the radiation is decomposed into several components. Tests of Einstein's theory are possible with the thermal spectrum (only for black hole binaries) and the reflection spectrum (for both black hole binaries and active galactic nuclei). The former is not expected to provide strong constraints, while the latter is much more promising. In both cases, systematic uncertainties might make such tests more challenging.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Tests of general relativity on the largest scales are not nearly so stringent as Solar System tests. The earliest such test was the prediction and discovery of the expansion of the universe. In 1922, Alexander Friedmann found that the Einstein equations have non-stationary solutions (even in the presence of the cosmological constant). In 1927, Georges Lemaître showed that static solutions of the Einstein equations, which are possible in the presence of the cosmological constant, are unstable, and therefore the static universe envisioned by Einstein could not exist (it must either expand or contract). Lemaître made an explicit prediction that the universe should expand. He also derived a redshift-distance relationship, which is now known as the Hubble Law. Later, in 1931, Einstein himself agreed with the results of Friedmann and Lemaître. The expansion of the universe discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1929 was then considered by many (and continues to be considered by some now) as a direct confirmation of general relativity. In the 1930s, largely due to the work of E. A. Milne, it was realised that the linear relationship between redshift and distance derives from the general assumption of uniformity and isotropy rather than specifically from general relativity. However the prediction of a non-static universe was non-trivial, indeed dramatic, and primarily motivated by general relativity.


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Some other cosmological tests include searches for primordial gravitational waves generated during cosmic inflation, which may be detected in the cosmic microwave background polarization or by a proposed space-based gravitational-wave interferometer called the Big Bang Observer. Other tests at high redshift are constraints on other theories of gravity, and the variation of the gravitational constant since Big Bang nucleosynthesis (it varied by no more than 40% since then).


title: Tests of general relativity

text: In August 2017, the findings of tests conducted by astronomers using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope (VLT), among other instruments, were released, and positively demonstrated gravitational effects predicted by Albert Einstein. One of these tests observed the orbit of the stars circling around Sagittarius A*, a black hole about 4 million times as massive as the sun. Einstein's theory suggested that large objects bend the space around them, causing other objects to diverge from the straight lines they would otherwise follow. Although previous studies have validated Einstein's theory, this was the first time his theory had been tested on such a gigantic object. The findings were published in "The Astrophysical Journal".


title: Tests of general relativity

text: Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope and the Very Large Telescope have made precise tests of general relativity on galactic scales. The nearby galaxy ESO 325-G004 acts as a strong gravitational lens, distorting light from a distant galaxy behind it to create an Einstein ring around its centre. By comparing the mass of ESO 325-G004 (from measurements of the motions of stars inside this galaxy) with the curvature of space around it, astronomers found that gravity behaves as predicted by general relativity on these astronomical length-scales.


title: Rade Krunić

text: Rade Krunić (; born 7 October 1993) is a Bosnian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Serie A club Milan and the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team.


title: Rade Krunić

text: Krunić started his professional career at Sutjeska Foča, before joining Donji Srem in 2013. In 2014, he moved to Hellas Verona, who loaned him back to Donji Srem later that year. He switched to Borac Čačak in 2015. Later that year, Krunić signed with Empoli. In 2019, he was transferred to Milan.


title: Rade Krunić

text: A former youth international for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Krunić made his senior international debut in 2016, earning over 20 caps since.


title: Rade Krunić

text: Krunić came through youth setup of his hometown club Sutjeska Foča, which he joined in 2006. He made his professional debut in 2011 at the age of 17. On 6 November, he scored his first professional goal against Modriča, which secured the victory for his team.


title: Rade Krunić

text: In the summer of 2014, Krunić moved to Italian outfit Hellas Verona, who sent him back on a six-month loan to Donji Srem.


title: Rade Krunić

text: In July, Krunić joined Empoli on a three-year deal. He made his official debut for the team against Sassuolo on 4 October. On 24 October, he scored his first goal for Empoli in a triumph over Genoa.


title: Rade Krunić

text: Krunić was an important piece in Empoli's conquest of Serie B title, his first trophy with the club, which was sealed on 28 April 2018 and earned them promotion to Serie A just one season after being relegated. He had an impact of 5 goals and 10 assists.


title: Rade Krunić

text: In July 2019, Krunić was transferred to Milan for an undisclosed fee, speculated to be in the region of €8 million.


title: Rade Krunić

text: He made his competitive debut for the team on 29 September in a loss to Fiorentina. On 3 November, he started his first game for Milan against Lazio.


title: Rade Krunić

text: In February 2020, he suffered a foot injury, which was diagnosed as broken foot and was ruled out for at least a month. He returned to the pitch on 4 July, over four months after the injury.


title: Rade Krunić

text: Krunić made his season debut on 21 September against Bologna. On 22 October, he scored his first goal for Milan in UEFA Europa League game against Celtic. Four months later, he scored his first league goal.


title: Rade Krunić

text: He won his first title with the club on 22 May 2022, when they were crowned league champions after 11 years.


title: Rade Krunić

text: In November 2015, he received his first senior call-up, for UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying play-offs against Republic of Ireland, but had to wait until 3 June 2016 to make his debut in a friendly game against Denmark.


title: Rade Krunić

text: On 23 March 2019, in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifier against Armenia, Krunić scored his first senior international goal.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Australian Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime and other mythology. Reverence and respect for the land and oral traditions are emphasised. Over 300 languages and other groupings have developed a wide range of individual cultures. Due the colonization of Australia under terra nullius concept these cultures were treated as one monoculture. Australian Aboriginal art has existed for thousands of years and ranges from ancient rock art to modern watercolour landscapes. Aboriginal music has developed a number of unique instruments. Contemporary Australian Aboriginal music spans many genres. Aboriginal peoples did not develop a system of writing before colonisation, but there was a huge variety of languages, including sign languages.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Cultural traditions and beliefs as well as historical tellings of actual events are passed down in Aboriginal oral tradition, also known loosely as oral history (although the latter has a more specific definition). Some of the stories are many thousands of years old.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: In a study published in February 2020, new evidence produced using radiometric dating showed that both Budj Bim and Tower Hill volcanoes erupted at least 34,000 years and up to 400,000 years ago. Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted as evidence for the Gunditjmara oral histories which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence. An axe found underneath volcanic ash in 1947 was also proof that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Australian Aboriginal art has a history spanning thousands of years. Aboriginal artists continue these traditions using both modern and traditional materials in their artworks. Aboriginal art is the most internationally recognizable form of Australian art. Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times including the watercolour paintings of Albert Namatjira, the Hermannsburg School, and the acrylic Papunya Tula "dot art" movement. Painting is a large source of income for some Central Australian communities such as at Yuendumu.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Basket weaving has been traditionally practised by the women of many Aboriginal peoples across the continent for centuries.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: For many Aboriginal cultures, the night sky is a repository of stories and law. Songlines can be traced through the sky and the land. Stories and songs associated with the sky under many cultural tents.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Aboriginal Australians' oral tradition and spiritual values build on reverence for the land and on a belief in the Dreamtime, or Dreaming. The Dreaming is considered to be both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. It describes the Aboriginal cosmology, and includes the ancestral stories about the supernatural creator-beings and how they created places. Each story can be called a "Dreaming", with the whole continent criss-crossed by Dreamings or ancestral tracks, also represented by songlines.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: There are many different groups, each with their own individual culture, belief structure and language.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: To Aboriginal people, some places are sacred, owing to their central place in the mythology of the local people.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The words "law" and "lore" are commonly used interchangeably: "law" was introduced by the British, whereas "lore" relates to the customs and stories from the Dreamtime, which has been passed on through countless generations through songlines, stories and dance. Learned from childhood, lore dictates the rules on how to interact with the land, kinship and community.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Kurdaitcha (or kurdaitcha man, and also spelled "kurdaitcha", "gadaidja", "cadiche", "kadaitcha", or "karadji") is a type of shaman amongst the Arrernte people, an Aboriginal group in Central Australia. The kurdaitcha may be brought in to punish a guilty party by death. The word may also relate to the ritual in which the death is willed by the kurdaitcha man, known also as bone-pointing.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The expectation that death would result from having a bone pointed at a victim is not without foundation. Other similar rituals that cause death have been recorded around the world. Victims become listless and apathetic, usually refusing food or water with death often occurring within days of being "cursed". When victims survive, it is assumed that the ritual was faulty in its execution. The phenomenon is recognized as psychosomatic in that death is caused by an emotional response—often fear—to some suggested outside force and is known as "voodoo death". As this term refers to a specific religion, the medical establishment has suggested that "self-willed death", or "bone-pointing syndrome" is more appropriate. In Australia, the practice is still common enough that hospitals and nursing staff are trained to manage illness caused by "bad spirits" and bone pointing.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The complete system of Yolngu customary law is the "Madayin", which embodies the rights and responsibilities of the owners of the law, or citizens ("rom watangu walal", or simply "rom"). Madayin includes the rom, as well as the objects that symbolise the law, oral rules, names and song cycles, and the sacred places that are used to maintain, develop and provide education in the law. Rom can be roughly translated as "law" or "culture", but it embodies more than either of these words. Galarrwuy Yunupingu has described "Rom watangu" as the overarching law of the land, which is "lasting and alive... my backbone".


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: It covers ownership of land and waters and the resources within this region; it controls production trade; and includes social, religious and ethical laws. These include laws for conservation and farming of flora and fauna. Observance of Madayin creates a state of balance, peace and true justice, known as "Magaya".


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Rom includes bush crafts such as basket-weaving and mat-making, and stories which teach history, hunting, spear-making, gathering food, building shelters and rafts, various rituals, and taking care of others.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: "Rom" is a word and concept shared by at least one of the nearby peoples, the Anbarra, who also perform a Rom ceremony.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Aboriginal ceremonies have been a part of Aboriginal culture since the beginning, and still play a vital part in society. They are held often, for many different reasons, all of which are based on the spiritual beliefs and cultural practices of the community. They include Dreaming stories, secret events at sacred sites, homecomings, births and deaths. They still play a very important part in the lives and culture of Aboriginal people. They are performed in Arnhem Land and Central Australia with the aim of ensuring a plentiful supply of foods; in many regions they play an important part in educating children, passing on the lore of their people, spiritual beliefs and survival skills; some ceremonies are a rite of passage for adolescents; other ceremonies are around marriage, death or burial. Most include dance, song, rituals and elaborate body decoration and/or costume. Ancient Aboriginal rock art shows ceremonies and traditions are still continued today.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Ceremonies provide a time and place for everyone in the group and community to work together to ensure the ongoing survival of spiritual and cultural beliefs. Certain stories are individually "owned" by a group, and in some cases dances, body decoration and symbols in a ceremony pass on these stories only within the group, so it is vital that these ceremonies are remembered and performed correctly. Men and women have different roles, and are sometimes appointed as guardians of a sacred site, whose role it is to care for the site and the spiritual beings who live there, achieved partly by performing ceremonies. The terms “men’s business” and “women’s business” are sometimes used; neither have greater spiritual needs or responsibilities than the other, but jointly ensure that sacred practices are passed on. Men often conduct ceremonies, but women are also guardians of special knowledge, hold great spiritual power within a group, and conduct ceremonies. Participation in ceremonies can also be restricted by age, family group, language group, but are sometimes open to all, depending on the purpose of the ceremony.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Right of access to songs and dances pertaining to a specific ceremony belong to a certain defined group (known as manikay by the Yolngu peoples of north-east Arnhem Land, or clan songs); some may be shared with people outside the community, but some are never shared. There is a wide range of songs, dances, music, body ornamentation, costume, and symbolism, designed to connect the body with the spiritual world of the ancestors. Ceremonies help to sustain Aboriginal identity as well as the group's connection to country and family.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The didgeridoo originated in northern Australia, but is now used throughout the continent. Clapsticks, seed rattles and objects such as rocks or pieces of wood are used; in a few areas, women play a drum made from goanna, snake, kangaroo or emu skin.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Animal native foods include kangaroo, emu, witchetty grubs and crocodile, and plant foods include fruits such as quandong, kutjera, spices such as lemon myrtle and vegetables such as warrigal greens and various native yams. Since the 1970s, there has been recognition of the nutritional and gourmet value of native foods by non-Indigenous Australians, and the bushfood industry has grown enormously.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Pituri is a mixture of leaves and wood ash traditionally chewed as a stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) by Aboriginal Australians widely across the continent. Leaves are gathered from any of several species of native tobacco ("Nicotiana") or from at least one distinct population of the species "Duboisia hopwoodii". Various species of "Acacia", "Grevillea" and "Eucalyptus" are burned to produce the ash.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Cultural burning, identified by Australian archaeologist Rhys Jones in 1969, is the practice of regularly and systematically burning patches of vegetation used in Central to Northern Australia to facilitate hunting, to reduce the frequency of major bush-fires, and to change the composition of plant and animal species in an area. This "fire-stick farming", or "burning off", reduces the fuel-load for a potential major bush fire, while fertilising the ground and increasing the number of young plants, providing additional food for kangaroos and other fauna hunted for meat. It is regarded as good husbandry and "looking after the land" by Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The Australian Aboriginal languages consist of around 290–363 languages belonging to an estimated 28 language families and isolates, spoken by Aboriginal Australians of mainland Australia and a few nearby islands. The relationships between these languages are not clear at present. Many Australian Aboriginal cultures have or traditionally had a manually coded language, a signed counterpart of their oral language. This appears to be connected with various speech taboos between certain kin or at particular times, such as during a mourning period for women or during initiation ceremonies for men.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Avoidance speech in Australian Aboriginal languages is closely tied to elaborate tribal kinship systems in which certain relatives are considered taboo. Avoidance relations differ from tribe to tribe in terms of strictness and to whom they apply. Typically, there is an avoidance relationship between a man and his mother-in-law, usually between a woman and her father-in-law, and sometimes between any person and their same-sex parent-in-law. For some tribes, avoidance relationships are extended to other family members, such as the mother-in-law's brother in Warlpiri or cross-cousins in Dyirbal. All relations are classificatory – more people may fall into the "mother-in-law" category than just a man's wife's mother.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Australian Aboriginal English (AAE) is a dialect of Australian English used by a large section of the Indigenous Australian (Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander) population. Australian Kriol is an English-based creole language that developed from a pidgin used in the early days of European colonisation. The pidgin died out in most parts of the country, except in the Northern Territory, which has maintained a vibrant use of the language, spoken by about 30,000 people. It is distinct from Torres Strait Creole.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: At the point of the first colonisation, Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing, so the first literary accounts of Aboriginal people come from the journals of early European explorers, which contain descriptions of first contact.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: A letter to Governor Arthur Phillip written by Bennelong in 1796 is the first known work written in English by an Aboriginal person.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: While his father, James Unaipon (c.1835–1907), contributed to accounts of Ngarrindjeri mythology written by the missionary George Taplin in South Australia, David Unaipon (1872–1967) provided the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal person, "Legendary Tales of the Australian Aborigines" (1924–25), and was the first Aboriginal author to be published.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 are the first traditional Aboriginal document recognised by the Australian Parliament.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1993) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist credited with publishing the first Aboriginal book of verse: "We Are Going" (1964).


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Leading Aboriginal activists Marcia Langton ("First Australians" documentary TV series, 2008) and Noel Pearson ("Up from the Mission", 2009) are contemporary contributors to Australian non-fiction. Other voices of Indigenous Australians include the playwright Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include Kim Scott, Alexis Wright, Kate Howarth, Tara June Winch, Yvette Holt and Anita Heiss. Indigenous authors who have won Australia's Miles Franklin Award include Kim Scott, who was joint winner (with Thea Astley) in 2000 for "Benang" and again in 2011 for "That Deadman Dance." Alexis Wright won the award in 2007 for her novel "Carpentaria." Melissa Lucashenko won the Miles Franklin Award in 2019 for her novel "Too Much Lip".


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Traditional healers (known as Ngangkari in the Western jester areas of Central Australia) are highly respected men and women who not only acted as healers or doctors, but also generally served as custodians of important Dreaming stories.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Aboriginal people have developed unique musical instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo is often considered the national instrument of Aboriginal Australians; however, it was traditionally played by peoples of Northern Australia, and only by the men.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: It has possibly been used by the people of the Kakadu region for 1500 years. Clapping sticks are probably the more ubiquitous musical instrument, especially because they help maintain rhythm. More recently, Aboriginal musicians have branched into rock and roll, hip hop and reggae. Bands such as No Fixed Address and Yothu Yindi were two of the earliest Aboriginal bands to gain a popular following among Australians of all cultures.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: In 1997 the State and Federal Governments set up the Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts (ACPA) to preserve and nurture Aboriginal music and talent across all styles and genres from traditional to contemporary.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Woggabaliri is a traditional Indigenous Australian "co-operative kicking volley game". The Indigenous in areas of and near New South Wales played a ball game called Woggabaliri. The ball was usually made of possum fur, and was played in a group of four to six players in circle. It was a co-operative kicking game to see for how long the ball can be kept in the air before it touches the ground.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: The Djab Wurrung and Jardwadjali people of western Victoria once participated in the traditional game of Marn Grook, a type of football played with possum hide. The game is believed by some commentators, including Martin Flanagan, Jim Poulter and Col Hutchinson, to have inspired Tom Wills, inventor of the code of Australian rules football.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Similarity between Marn Grook and Australian football include jumping to catch the ball or high "marking", which results in a free kick. Use of the word "mark" in the game may be influenced by the Marn Grook word "mumarki", meaning "catch". However, this is likely a false etymology; the term "mark" is traditionally used in Rugby and other games that predate AFL to describe a free kick resulting from a catch, in reference to the player making a mark on the ground from which to take a free kick, rather than continuing to play on.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: There are many Indigenous AFL players at professional level, with approximately one in ten players being of Indigenous origin . The contribution of the Aboriginal people to the game is recognized by the annual AFL "Dreamtime at the 'G" match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground between Essendon and Richmond football clubs (the colors of the two clubs combine to form the colours of the Aboriginal flag). .


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Testifying to this abundance of Indigenous talent, the Aboriginal All-Stars, an AFL-level all-Aboriginal football side competes against any one of the Australian Football League's current football teams in pre-season tests. The Clontarf Foundation and football academy is just one organisation aimed at further developing aboriginal football talent. The Tiwi Bombers began playing in the Northern Territory Football League and became the first all-Aboriginal side to compete in a major Australian competition.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: Coreeda is a style of folk wrestling practiced in Australia and is based on Aboriginal combat sports that existed in the pre-colonial period before the 19th century. Combining the movements of the traditional kangaroo dance as a warm up ritual, with a style of wrestling that utilizes a yellow 4.5 meter diameter circle that has black and red borders (similar to the Aboriginal flag), Coreeda is often compared to sports as diverse as capoeira and sumo.


title: Australian Aboriginal culture

text: A popular children's game in some parts of Australia is weet weet, or throwing the play stick. The winner throws the weet weet furthest or the most accurately.


title: Directorate of Military Intelligence (United Kingdom)

text: Over its lifetime the Directorate underwent a number of organisational changes, absorbing and shedding sections over time.


text: The first instance of an organisation which would later become the DMI was the Department of Topography & Statistics, formed by Major Thomas Best Jervis, late of the Bombay Engineer Corps, in 1854 in the early stages of the Crimean War.


text: In 1873 the Intelligence Branch was created within the Quartermaster General's Department with an initial staff of seven officers. Initially the Intelligence Branch was solely concerned with collecting intelligence, but under the leadership of Henry Brackenbury, a protege of influential Adjutant-General Lord Wolseley, it was increasingly concerned with planning. However despite these steps towards a nascent general staff, the Intelligence Branch remained a purely advisory body, something that sharply limited its influence. The Branch was transferred to the Adjutant General's Department in 1888 and Brackenbury's title was changed to Director of Military Intelligence.


text: After Wolseley's appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1895, he made the Director of Military Intelligence directly responsible to him. At the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899 the Intelligence Branch had 13 officers. Prior to the war it produced a highly accurate summary of the Boer republics' military potential and was the only part of the War Office to escape criticism in the resulting Royal Commission. In the immediate aftermath of the Boer War the Intelligence Branch was enlarged and its head elevated to Director General of Mobilisation and Military Intelligence.


text: Following the Esher Report in 1904 the War Office was dramatically reorganized. The post of Commander-in-Chief was abolished and replaced by the Chief of the General Staff. Planning and intelligence would be the responsibility of the Directorate of Military Operations.


text: When the War Office was subsumed into the Ministry of Defence (MoD) in 1964, the DMI was absorbed into the Defence Intelligence Staff.


text: During World War I, British secret services were divided into numbered sections named "Military Intelligence", department number "x", abbreviated to MIx, such as MI1 for information management.


text: The branch, department, section, and sub-section numbers varied through the life of the department; however, examples include:


text: Two MI section-names remain in common use, MI5 and MI6, in most part due to their use in spy fiction and the news media.


text: "MI5" is used as the short form name of the Security Service, and is included in the agency's logo and web address. MI6 is included as an alias on the Secret Intelligence Service website, though the official abbreviation, SIS, is predominant.


text: While the names remain, the agencies are now responsible to different departments of state, MI5 to the Home Office, and MI6 the Foreign Office.


title: Film theory

text: Film theory is a set of scholarly approaches within the academic discipline of film or cinema studies that began in the 1920s by questioning the formal essential attributes of motion pictures; and that now provides conceptual frameworks for understanding film's relationship to reality, the other arts, individual viewers, and society at large. Film theory is not to be confused with general film criticism, or film history, though these three disciplines interrelate.


title: Film theory

text: Although some branches of film theory are derived from linguistics and literary theory, it also originated and overlaps with the philosophy of film.


title: Film theory

text: French philosopher Henri Bergson's "Matter and Memory" (1896) anticipated the development of film theory during the birth of cinema in the early twentieth century. Bergson commented on the need for new ways of thinking about movement, and coined the terms "the movement-image" and "the time-image". However, in his 1906 essay "L'illusion cinématographique" (in "L'évolution créatrice"; English: "The cinematic illusion") he rejects film as an example of what he had in mind. Nonetheless, decades later, in "Cinéma I and " (1983–1985), the philosopher Gilles Deleuze took "Matter and Memory" as the basis of his philosophy of film and revisited Bergson's concepts, combining them with the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce. Early film theory arose in the silent era and was mostly concerned with defining the crucial elements of the medium. Ricciotto Canudo was an early Italian film theoretician who saw cinema as ""plastic art in motion"", and gave cinema the label ""the Sixth Art"", later changed to ""the Seventh Art"".


title: Film theory

text: In 1915, Vachel Lindsay wrote a book on film, followed a year later by Hugo Münsterberg. Lindsay argued that films could be classified into three categories: "action films", "intimate films", as well as "films of splendour". According to him, the action film was "sculpture-in-motion", while the intimate film was "painting-in-motion", and splendour film "architecture-in-motion". He also argued against the contemporary notion of calling films "photoplays" and seen as filmed versions of theatre, instead seeing film with "camera-born" opportunities. He also described cinema as "hieroglyphic" in the sense of containing symbols in its images. He believed this visuality gave film the potential for universal accessibility. Münsterberg in turn noted the analogies between cinematic techniques and certain mental processes. For example, he compared the close-up to the mind paying attention. The flashback, in turn, was similar to remembering. This was later followed by the "formalism" of Rudolf Arnheim, who studied how techniques influenced film as art.


title: Film theory

text: Among early French theorists, Germaine Dulac brought the concept of "impressionism" to film by describing cinema that explored the malleability of the border between internal experience and external reality, for example through superimposition. "Surrealism" also had an influence on early French film culture. The term "photogénie" was important to both, having been brought to use by Louis Delluc in 1919 and becoming widespread in its usage to capture the unique power of cinema. Jean Epstein noted how filming gives a "personality" or a "spirit" to objects while also being able to reveal "the untrue, the unreal, the 'surreal'". This was similar to defamiliarization used by avant-garde artists to recreate the world. He saw the close-up as the essence of "photogénie". Béla Balázs also praised the close-up for similar reasons. Arnheim also believed defamiliarization to be a critical element of film.


title: Film theory

text: After the Russian Revolution, a chaotic situation in the country also created a sense of excitement at new possibilities. This gave rise to montage theory in the work of Dziga Vertov and Sergei Eisenstein. After the establishment of the Moscow Film School, Lev Kuleshov set up a workshop to study the formal structure of film, focusing on editing as "the essence of cinematography". This produced findings on the Kuleshov effect. Editing was also associated with the foundational Marxist concept of dialectical materialism. To this end, Eisenstein claimed that "montage is conflict". Eisenstein's theories were focused on montage having the ability create meaning transcending the sum of its parts with a "thematic effect" in a way that ideograms turned graphics into abstract symbols. Multiple scenes could work to produce themes ("tonal montage"), while multiple themes could create even higher levels of meaning ("intellectual montage"). Vertov in turn focused on developing Kino-Pravda, "film truth," and the Kino-Eye , which he claimed showed a deeper truth than could be seen with the naked eye.


title: Film theory

text: In the years after World War II, the French film critic and theorist André Bazin argued that film's essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality, not in its difference from reality. This had followed the rise of "poetic realism" in French cinema in the 1930's. He believed that the purpose of art is to preserve reality, even famously claiming that "The photographic image is the object itself". Based on this, he advocated for the use of long takes and deep focus, to reveal the "structural depth" of reality and finding meaning objectively in images. This was soon followed by the rise of Italian neorealism. Siegfried Kracauer was also notable for arguing that realism is the most important function of cinema.


title: Film theory

text: The Auteur theory derived from the approach of critic and filmmaker Alexandre Astruc, among others, and was originally developed in articles in "Cahiers du Cinéma", a film journal that had been co-founded by Bazin. François Truffaut issued auteurism's manifestos in two "Cahiers" essays: "Une certaine tendance du cinéma français" (January 1954) and "Ali Baba et la 'Politique des auteurs'" (February 1955). His approach was brought to American criticism by Andrew Sarris in 1962. The auteur theory was based on films depicting the directors' own worldviews and impressions of the subject matter, by varying lighting, camerawork, staging, editing, and so on. Georges Sadoul deemed a film's putative "author" potentially even an actor, but a film indeed collaborative. Aljean Harmetz cited major control even by film executives. David Kipen's view of screenwriter as indeed main author is termed "Schreiber theory".


title: Film theory

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, film theory took up residence in academia importing concepts from established disciplines like psychoanalysis, gender studies, anthropology, literary theory, semiotics and linguisticsas advanced by scholars such as Christian Metz. However, not until the late 1980s or early 1990s did film theory "per se" achieve much prominence in American universities by displacing the prevailing humanistic, auteur theory that had dominated cinema studies and which had been focused on the practical elements of film writing, production, editing and criticism. American scholar David Bordwell has spoken against many prominent developments in film theory since the 1970s. He uses the derogatory term "SLAB theory" to refer to film studies based on the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacques Lacan, Louis Althusser, and Roland Barthes. Instead, Bordwell promotes what he describes as "neoformalism" (a revival of formalist film theory).


title: Film theory

text: During the 1990s the digital revolution in image technologies has influenced film theory in various ways. There has been a refocus onto celluloid film's ability to capture an "indexical" image of a moment in time by theorists like Mary Ann Doane, Philip Rosen and Laura Mulvey who was informed by psychoanalysis. From a psychoanalytical perspective, after the Lacanian notion of "the Real", Slavoj Žižek offered new aspects of "the gaze" extensively used in contemporary film analysis. From the 1990s onward the Matrixial theory of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha L. Ettinger revolutionized feminist film theory. Her concept The Matrixial Gaze, that has established a feminine gaze and has articulated its differences from the phallic gaze and its relation to feminine as well as maternal specificities and potentialities of "coemergence", offering a critique of Sigmund Freud's and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis, is extensively used in analysis of films by female authors, like Chantal Akerman, as well as by male authors, like Pedro Almodovar. The matrixial gaze offers the female the position of a subject, not of an object, of the gaze, while deconstructing the structure of the subject itself, and offers border-time, border-space and a possibility for compassion and witnessing. Ettinger's notions articulate the links between aesthetics, ethics and trauma. There has also been a historical revisiting of early cinema screenings, practices and spectatorship modes by writers Tom Gunning, Miriam Hansen and Yuri Tsivian.


title: Film theory

text: In "Critical Cinema: Beyond the Theory of Practice" (2011), Clive Meyer suggests that 'cinema is a different experience to watching a film at home or in an art gallery', and argues for film theorists to re-engage the specificity of philosophical concepts for cinema as a medium distinct from others.


title: I've Got a Feeling

text: "I've Got a Feeling" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1970 album "Let It Be". It was recorded on 30 January 1969 during the Beatles' rooftop concert. It is a combination of two unfinished songs: Paul McCartney's "I've Got a Feeling" and John Lennon's "Everybody Had a Hard Year". The song features Billy Preston on electric piano.


title: I've Got a Feeling

text: A studio take of the song, recorded about a week earlier, was released on the "Anthology 3" compilation in 1996. The 2003 remix album "Let It Be... Naked" includes a version of the song that is a composite edit of the rooftop concert take used on "Let It Be" and a second attempt at the song from the same concert.


title: I've Got a Feeling

text: With Lennon's vocals isolated out during the production of Peter Jackson's "" documentary, McCartney performed the song live as a virtual duet on his 2022 Got Back tour.


title: I've Got a Feeling

text: Lennon's song was a litany where every line started with the word "everybody". The song had been recorded twice before by Lennon, prior to the "Let It Be" sessions. The first occurred in early December 1968 at Lennon's Kenwood estate on a portable cassette tape. For this, the lyric was "Every"one" had a hard year" instead of the later "Everybody". Later in December 1968, with the lyric changed to "everybody," Lennon was filmed performing the song in the back garden of Kenwood. This footage was used in the Yoko Ono art film "Rape: Film No. 6", which was broadcast on Austrian television on 31 March 1969.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Orange Sky Golden Harvest (OSGH) () , previously known as Golden Harvest () from 1970 to 2009, is a film production, distribution, and exhibition company based in Hong Kong. It dominated Hong Kong cinema box office sales from the 1970s to the 1980s, and played a major role in introducing Hong Kong action films to the world, especially those by Bruce Lee (Concord Production Inc.), Jackie Chan, and Sammo Hung.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Notable names in the company include its founders, the veteran film producers Raymond Chow () and Leonard Ho (). Chow and Ho were executives with Hong Kong's top studio Shaw Brothers but left in 1970 to form their own studio. They succeeded by taking a different approach from the highly centralised Shaw model. Golden Harvest contracted with independent producers and gave talent more generous pay and greater creative freedom. Some filmmakers and actors from Shaw Brothers defected. But what really put the company on the map was a 1971 deal with soon-to-be martial arts superstar Bruce Lee with the film "The Big Boss", after he had turned down the low-paying standard contract offered him by the Shaws. Golden Harvest's films with Lee were the first Hong Kong films to reach a large worldwide audience.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: In 1973, Golden Harvest entered into a pioneering co-production with Hollywood for the English-language Bruce Lee film, "Enter the Dragon" (), a worldwide hit made with the Warner Brothers studio and Concord Production Inc.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Following Lee's death, Golden Harvest found success with the Hui Brothers' comedies such as "Games Gamblers Play" (1974), "The Last Message" (1975), "The Private Eyes" (1976), "The Contract" (1978) and "Security Unlimited" (1981). The studio supplanted Shaw Brothers as Hong Kong's dominant studio by the end of the 1970s and retained that position into the 1990s.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Golden Harvest developed a worldwide film distribution operation and started producing films for an international market and had released eight by 1980, including "The Amsterdam Kill" (1978) starring Robert Mitchum and "The Boys in Company C" (1978) directed by Sidney J. Furie. It also released Jackie Chan's first film for the international market, "The Big Brawl" (1980), although it did not match the success of "Enter the Dragon". In 1981, "The Cannonball Run" was a big hit. The studio also made Tom Selleck's first two films with him in a starring role, "High Road to China" (1983) and "Lassiter" (1984). Following the disappointing performance of these and others, Golden Harvest quietly withdrew from the US market.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: From the 1980s until very recently, the studio produced almost all of the films of Jackie Chan, the studio's greatest asset for years. Golden Harvest has also produced a number of films with Jet Li and Donnie Yen.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Starting in 1990, Golden Harvest had a big international success again with the "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" trilogy.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: In 1992, Golden Village, a 50:50 joint venture between Golden Harvest and Village Roadshow of Australia was set up to develop and operate modern, multiplex cinemas in Singapore. In 1993, Golden Harvest sold its film library to Star TV.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Golden Harvest's activity has declined since the death of Leonard Ho in 1998. In 2003, they withdrew from film-making to concentrate on film financing, distribution, and cinema management in Hong Kong and in Mainland China.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: In 2004, Li Ka-shing and EMI became shareholders of the company. In 2007, Raymond Chow sold the company to Chinese businessman Wu Kebo, who owns the China-based Orange Sky Entertainment Group. In early 2009, Golden Harvest merged with Orange Sky and was renamed Orange Sky Golden Harvest (). From 2009 to 2011 it was operated by Kelvin Wu King Shiu who become the CEO of the company. At that time Golden Harvest announced their relaunch and previewed a new trailer set for movies in 2010.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: In October 2017, Golden Harvest acquired the other 50% stake of Golden Village from its joint venture partner, Village Roadshow, and therefore having full ownership of Golden Village. This was after a prior bid by Singapore-based media mini-conglomerate MM2 Asia to acquire the Village Roadshow stake in June 2017, as Village Roadshow failed to secure the approval of Golden Harvest. It is unknown whether the Village name will be dropped from Golden Village as a result of the acquisition.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: Orange Sky Golden Harvest has cinemas not only in Hong Kong, but also in Mainland China, Taiwan, and Singapore. Most of these are joint ventures. Golden Village, now fully owned by Orange Sky Golden Harvest, was a former joint venture with Village Roadshow responsible for the operation of Gold Class cinemas and Asia's first multiplex.


title: Orange Sky Golden Harvest

text: In Malaysia, the group was instrumental in the formation of the country's two largest cinema chains: Golden Screen Cinemas, a joint venture with Malaysia's PPB Group who bought out Golden Harvest's stake for full ownership, and TGV Cinemas (formerly Tanjong Golden Village), a joint venture with Tanjong of Malaysia and Village Roadshow of Australia, the former having bought out the remaining stakes for full ownership.


title: TNT Express

text: TNT Express was an international courier delivery services company with its headquarters in Hoofddorp, Netherlands.


title: TNT Express

text: The namesake Thomas Nationwide Transport grandfather company was originally started in 1946 with a single truck in Adelaide, South Australia.


title: TNT Express

text: On 26 May 2011, TNT Express separated from its parent company, TNT NV, being listing on the Euronext Amsterdam. TNT NV subsequently renamed itself PostNL.


title: TNT Express

text: In March 2012, UPS announced its intention to acquire TNT Express for . However, the deal fell through in January 2013, after it was announced that UPS had failed to obtain permission from the European Commission, and as such, had been blocked on competition grounds.


title: TNT Express

text: In April 2015, FedEx announced its agreed intention to buy TNT Express for , as it looked to expand its operations in Europe. The European Commission launched an investigation into the planned acquisition and on 8 January 2016, approved the deal. The transaction was complete 25 May 2016.


title: TNT Express

text: In August 2017, TNT Express was badly affected by the NotPetya cyber attack, partly because some operations and communication systems are based in Ukraine, where the cyber attack originated. TNT had to operate using manual processes for months creating very large backlogs. Some records were entirely lost.


title: TNT Express

text: On 1 December 2021, FedEx announced that the fusion is completed, TNT Express is now just a trade from FedEx.


title: TNT Express

text: TNT offered road and air delivery services in Europe, the Asia Pacific region, the Americas, the Middle East, and Africa. In June 2014, TNT conducted a rail freight trial assessing improving support to businesses in the United Kingdom, and cutting carbon emissions.


title: Payday 3

text: Payday 3 is an upcoming first-person shooter game developed by Overkill Software and Starbreeze Studios and published by Prime Matter.


title: Payday 3

text: The game will take place after the ending of "Payday 2" where the heisters went separate ways and left their lives of crime, but something is to re-motivate the Payday Gang to continue crime. The original crew of characters originating from "" ("Dallas", "Chains", "Wolf", and "Hoxton") will be in "Payday 3", and the game will take place mainly in New York. The first mission will take place at the "Gold & Sharke Incorporated" bank. "Payday 3" will take place in the 2020s, intended to add more depth to the Payday Gang's crimes with game-changing differences like more advanced surveillance or the rise of cryptocurrency.


title: Payday 3

text: Publisher Starbreeze Studios announced in May 2016 that "Payday 3" was in development at Overkill Software, after Starbreeze acquired the rights to the intellectual property for around . In March 2021, Koch Media committed to pay to assist in the game's development and marketing, including more than 18 months of post-launch support using the games as a service model. "Payday 3" will be developed using Unreal Engine. The game is planned to release in 2023.


title: The dose makes the poison

text: "The dose makes the poison" ( 'only the dose makes the poison') is an adage intended to indicate a basic principle of toxicology. It is credited to Paracelsus who expressed the classic toxicology maxim "All things are poison, and nothing is without poison; the dosage alone makes it so a thing is not a poison." This is often condensed to: "The dose makes the poison" or in Latin, . It means that a substance can produce the harmful effect associated with its toxic properties only if it reaches a susceptible biological system within the body in a high enough concentration (i.e., dose).


title: The dose makes the poison

text: The principle relies on the finding that all chemicals—even water and oxygen—can be toxic if too much is eaten, drunk, or absorbed. "The toxicity of any particular chemical depends on many factors, including the extent to which it enters an individual’s body." This finding also provides the basis for public health standards, which specify maximum acceptable concentrations of various contaminants in food, public drinking water, and the environment.


title: The dose makes the poison

text: However, there is no linear relationship and chemical toxicity is more complex than merely the acute effects caused by short-term exposure. Relatively low doses of contaminants in water, food, and environment can already have significant chronic effects if there is long-term exposure.


title: The dose makes the poison

text: Generally the effects of different doses can be very different at different levels (not only bigger and smaller impacts depending on dose).


title: Night of the Demon

text: Night of the Demon (in the United States, released as Curse of the Demon) is a 1957 British horror film, produced by Hal E. Chester and Frank Bevis, directed by Jacques Tourneur and starring Dana Andrews, Peggy Cummins and Niall MacGinnis. It is adapted from the M. R. James story "Casting the Runes".


title: Night of the Demon

text: The film's storyline concerns an American psychologist who travels to England to investigate a satanic cult suspected in more than one death.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Turbulent artistic differences arose between producer Hal E. Chester on one side and director Tourneur and writer Charles Bennett on the other. Chester's plan was to show the demon on screen, but Bennett, Tourneur, and lead actor Dana Andrews objected. To accelerate the pace and make the film more commercial, the 96-minute original feature was trimmed down to 82 minutes prior to its release in the United States. This shortened version was retitled "Curse of the Demon", playing in June 1958 as the second half of a double feature with either "The True Story of Lynn Stuart" or "The Revenge of Frankenstein" (1958), depending on the local film market.


title: Night of the Demon

text: In England, Professor Harrington begs his rival, Dr. Julian Karswell, to rescind a curse he inflicted on him; in return, Harrington will cease his investigation into Karswell's Satanic cult. After learning that a parchment he gave Harrington has been destroyed, Karswell promises to do what he can. As Harrington arrives home, he sees a gigantic demon in the trees. Harrington tries to escape in his car but crashes into power lines. The authorities declare electrocution as the cause of death.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Dr. John Holden arrives in Britain to attend a convention at which Harrington had intended to expose Karswell's cult. He is informed that the only link between Harrington's death and Karswell's cult is a man suspected of murder, Rand Hobart, who has fallen into a catatonic stupor. While Harrington's collaborators consider the possibility of supernatural forces, Holden rejects such an option.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Holden meets Karswell at the Reading Room of the British Museum. When a rare book that Holden requests goes missing, Karswell offers to show Holden his own copy at his mansion. At Harrington's funeral, Holden meets Harrington's niece, Joanna. She gives him Harrington's diary, which details Harrington's fear of Karswell's power. Holden remains sceptical, but goes with Joanna to Karswell's mansion the next day. When a strong windstorm abruptly starts, Karswell claims to have created it with a spell. When Holden mocks him, Karswell claims that Holden will die in three days.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Holden and his colleagues discuss Karswell and make plans to examine Rand Hobart. Holden goes to dinner with Joanna and she shows him her uncle's diary. Harrington's diary mentions a parchment with runic writing on it that was passed to him by Karswell, and Holden finds a similar parchment that Karswell secretly passed to him at the library. A powerful wind comes through the window, blowing the parchment from his fingers towards the fireplace, only to be stopped by a fire screen. Holden recovers and pockets it.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Holden visits Hobart's family to seek permission to hypnotise Hobart and find out about the death he is suspected of. The mother gives her consent but says that the family are "believers." As Holden leaves, the parchment is blown from his hand. Hobart's family becomes fearful and declares Holden to be "chosen." Later, Holden compares the parchment's runes to ones inscribed on the nearby stone circle at Stonehenge.


title: Night of the Demon

text: Joanna takes Holden to a séance at the invitation of Karswell's mother. A medium claims to channel Harrington, who tells them that Karswell has the key to reading the runes in his copy of the rare book. After Holden abruptly exits, dismissing the séance as nonsense, Joanna says she intends to search for the key and they drive to Karswell's mansion. Holden breaks into the house while she waits outside. Inside, he is attacked by a cat that seems to morph into a panther. Holden is rescued by Karswell entering and switching on the light, saying he knew Holden would come. Against Karswell's warning, Holden leaves through the woods, and believes he is chased by a cloud of smoke and fire before escaping.