title: Dillinger Gang

text: Bill Conklin of the Wilson service station on South Minnesota Avenue saw the Packard coming down the street with smoke pouring from the hood and assumed the car was on fire. He ran into the station, grabbed a fire extinguisher and ran back out. One of the robbers said, "Get back in there" as they had slowed up for him.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The car eventually began to slow down right outside of town, giving three pursuing police cars time to catch up. Two miles outside of the Lakeland farm, the gang got out of the Packard and made the hostages stand around them, then opened fire on their pursuers. The three squad cars retreated. The gang then hijacked a car owned by local farmer Alfred Musch, and transferred the gas cans and money into it.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: About 10 miles outside of Sioux Falls, the gang released the hostages and drove off. The hostages were eventually picked up by a passing motorist who drove them back to the bank.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The police scoured the highways by ground and by air over a 50-mile segment of territory south and east of Sioux Falls. The men they were looking for were believed to have ditched Musch's Dodge for "a big Lincoln" about two or three miles northwest of Shindler. From St. Paul came the assurance that 20 police cars were patrolling all roads heading into St. Paul and Minneapolis, but the gang made it safely back to the Twin Cities and began preparing for the Mason City heist.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Seven days later, on the afternoon of March 13, at 2:40 p.m., the same six (Dillinger, Nelson, Hamilton, Green, Van Meter, and Carroll), plus an added seventh man as the probable driver, either Joseph Burns or Red Forsythe, drove down State Street in a 1933 blue Buick 90 series sedan (with the rear window removed) and parked in front of Mulcahy's prescription shop. All sources tell a different story as to who went in the bank and who patrolled outside, but it was believed certain that Dillinger took a position outside the front entrance, with Nelson on the north side of the street near the alley behind the bank, and at least Hamilton and Green entered the bank, with probably Van Meter. From descriptions by witnesses later, Tommy Carroll was also positioned outside. Carroll stood in the doorway of the prescription shop on State.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Freelance photographer H.C. Kunkleman happened to be filming the bank when the robbery began. Kunkleman was told by one of the bandits to turn the camera off, that they would be the ones doing all the shooting. He began filming again once the gang made their getaway (the five-minute film still exists). Green and Hamilton (and probably Van Meter) entered the bank and fired volleys into the walls and ceiling. Thirty-one employees and approximately 25 customers were ordered to put their hands up. Tom Walters, a bank guard positioned in an elevated bulletproof observation booth near the front entrance, fired a tear gas cartridge, according to procedure, which hit Green in the back. Walters' tear gas gun then jammed. One of the robbers, either Van Meter or Green, sprayed the booth with machine-gun fire, which shattered the glass, but left Walters unharmed. Tom Barclay, a clerk, threw a tear gas grenade over the balcony of the lobby. While the tellers' cash drawers were being emptied (drawers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7, missing 5, about $5,000), Hamilton grabbed assistant cashier Harry Fisher and brought him back to open the vault. About a week earlier, Eddie Green (most likely) had appeared at Fisher's door asking for directions, then peered attentively at Fisher's face, something Fisher would later remember. Directions for alternate routes for the getaway were also mapped out at this time.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Once they got to the vault, Hamilton erred by allowing a steel gate to close and lock between him and Fisher. Fisher now could only hand stacks of $5 bills to Hamilton through the bars, greatly reducing the gang's take from $250,000 to $52,000. During the robbery, Green would periodically yell out the time to the others.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Meanwhile, crowds began to form outside after word had spread that a robbery was in progress at the bank. James Buchanan, an off-duty officer, who had grabbed a sawed-off shotgun when he heard about the robbery, hid behind the Grand Army of the Republic monument. Unable to fire because of the crowd of people, he instead exchanged barbs with Dillinger. Of the robbers, Dillinger was the only one for whom a clothing description could be provided: light gray suit, dark overcoat and dark hat. Buchanan called back for him to get away from the crowd and he would fight it out with him. Buchanan said that Dillinger's upper lip turned into a snarl as he talked. Dillinger, armed with a Thompson, drew a .38 from an inside pocket and fired at Buchanan, but missed.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Outside the bank, Nelson was acting somewhat crazily, firing randomly in different directions. One man, R.L. James, was hit in the leg by one of Nelson's bursts. Tommy Carroll came over to check on James' condition. An oncoming car came and Carroll blasted it with his machine gun. "The radiator of the car was filled with lead and the frantic driver backed out at the rate of 25 mph."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: From his third-floor office above the bank, police judge John C. Shipley heard the gunfire and went to the window. Dillinger sent a volley of shots in Shipley's direction, warning him to stay back. The judge retreated, but went to his desk and grabbed a pistol, then returned to the window and fired, hitting Dillinger in the left shoulder.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Hamilton, Green and Van Meter, with a large canvas bag of cash, left through the front door of the bank, surrounding themselves with hostages that Dillinger had collected. The entire gang moved as one around the corner onto State Street, with Dillinger in the center of the group. Judge Shipley, again, was at a window from above the bank and risked firing into the group, this time striking Hamilton in the shoulder. When Hamilton saw R.L. James lying on the street wounded, he said, "I thought there wasn't going to be any more of this?" Nelson, who had now joined them, said, "I thought he was a copper."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Nelson then stopped two women who had just come out of a nearby butcher shop and were at the intersection of State Street and the alley directly east of the bank, and marshalled them to the car and commanded them to stand outside of it. Before they reached the car, Nelson snatched the package of meat from Mrs. Clark's hands, threw it to the ground and stomped on it, silencing her protests with, "You'll get paid plenty for it."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The number of hostages varies wildly in Dillinger books, but the "Mason City Globe-Gazette" from that day names 11 people. A couple women sat inside the car on the robbers' laps. Bill Schmidt, an employee of Killmer Drug, was delivering a bag of sandwiches to the bank and was stopped by Dillinger and also shoved into the Buick. While riding through town, the bag of sandwiches was discovered and they were quickly eaten by the gang.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The Buick slowly moved north on Federal Avenue to 2nd Street, taking a left, headed west to Adams, taking another left. The car stayed at about 25 mph within the downtown area. Near 4th Street, Clarence McGowan, along with his wife and five-year-old daughter, spotted the car. McGowan began to pursue the bandit car after mistakenly believing the vehicle, loaded with people on the outside of the car, to be part of a wedding or "some kind of wild demonstration." He was shot in the abdomen after pulling up too close to the Buick. McGowan went home and bathed before going to the hospital. Both McGowan and R.L. James, Nelson's casualty, recovered.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The Buick stopped from time to time so that roofing nails could be spread across the highway, "sacks full of them." Oncoming cars were stopped by the gang and were ordered to stay where they were for five minutes before moving on. Bill Schmidt said that "The bandits would drive fairly fast on the straight away, but slowed down for the bumps." The hostages were let off a few at a time and individually. Mrs. Clark (carrying the meat earlier) and Mrs. Graham were the last two hostages to be released, at a point three and a half miles south and a mile and a half east of Mason City. Asked if she'd be able to identify any of the men, Mrs. Clark said, "I sure would; especially the one who winked at me."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The Buick was found in a gravel pit about four miles south of the city later that evening. According to police, two cars had been waiting for the gang, with one driver in each vehicle.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Once the gang made it back to St. Paul, Green showed up at Pat Reilly's, 27-year-old fringe gang member, husband and father, and also bartender at St. Paul's Green Lantern, asking him if he knew where Dr. (Nels) Mortensen's home in St. Paul was, and requested that he accompany him to see the doctor. Reilly later stated to agents that at that time Eddie Green was driving a Hudson and that Dillinger and Hamilton were in the back seat; that both individuals had gunshot wounds in the shoulders and that Dillinger appeared to be nauseated and slightly dizzy. All four proceeded to Mortensen's home at 2252 Fairmount Avenue in St. Paul, arriving just after midnight. Mortensen answered the call in his night clothes. He examined both men, probing the wounds. Reilly said that during this time Dillinger was "quite ill and wobbly or faint" and had to sit down on the couch. Mortensen told them the wounds weren't serious and that he didn't have his medical bag there. He asked them if they had any liquor. They replied in the affirmative. He instructed them to go home and take a stiff drink and to return to his office the next day. They didn't appear. The four returned to Green's car and drove to the intersection of Snelling and Selby, where Green gave Reilly a $5 bill and let him out of the car. Reilly said he hailed a Blue and White taxi and then returned home.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Eddie Green was later questioned by the FBI, and gave the names of the two doctors to them while in a critical state in the hospital.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Proceeding the events of the Mason City, Iowa robbery, John Dillinger and his crew reached for safety at Little Bohemia Lodge, located in northern Wisconsin. The owner of the lodge grew suspicious after seeing the behavior of the group of men, and tipped the FBI. Three FBI agents positioned themselves about the cabin, and waited. Eventually, the agents opened fire on the lodge towards the gangsters, and Dillinger and his crew decided to flee through the woods after returning fire briefly. They escaped, and with no casualties.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Very early on April 20, Van Meter, Marie Comforti ("Mickey"), and Pat Reilly were the first to arrive at Little Bohemia Lodge in the town of Manitowish Waters in northern Wisconsin. Emil Wanatka, who had opened the resort four years prior, greeted them. Arriving later, were Dillinger, Hamilton, and Cherrington by way of Sault Ste. Marie. Then Nelson and wife Helen, came in from Chicago. and last to arrive were Tommy Carroll and Jean Delaney. Reilly stated that on that first night he, Carroll, Lester Gillis (Nelson), Dillinger, and Emil Wanatka played "hearts" till around midnight. He went to the bar while the others went to their rooms. Hamilton and Pat Cherrington had the end room on the left upstairs, while Van Meter and Comforti had the room opposite. Tommy Carroll and Jean Delaney, together with Gillis and Helen, occupied the little cottage on the right of the lodge driveway. Dillinger had the room on the left at the top of the stairs in the main lodge. Reilly stated to agents that Van Meter told him that Dillinger's room had two beds and that he and Dillinger would share the room.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Reilly stated that as he entered the room, Dillinger was lying on the bed on the left side of the room, reading with a bottle of whiskey on the stand near the bed. That as he entered Dillinger laid his magazine on the table, but nothing was said. He noticed when Dillinger turned over he had a .45 automatic under his pillow. Reilly stated that Dillinger then took a drink. That he himself, then locked the door, turned out the light, and went to bed on the right-hand side of the room.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The gang had assured the owners that they would give no trouble, but they monitored the owners whenever they left or spoke on the phone. Emil's wife Nan and her brother managed to evade Baby Face Nelson, who was tailing them, and mailed a letter of warning to a U.S. Attorney's office in Chicago, which later contacted the Division of Investigation. Days later, a score of federal agents led by Hugh Clegg and Melvin Purvis approached the lodge in the early morning hours. Two barking watchdogs announced their arrival, but the gang was so used to Nan Wanatka's dogs that they did not bother to inspect the disturbance. It was only after the federal agents mistakenly shot a local resident and two innocent Civilian Conservation Corps workers as they were about to drive away in a car that the Dillinger gang was alerted to the presence of the FBI. Gunfire between the groups lasted only momentarily, but the whole gang managed to escape in various ways despite the agents' efforts to surround the lodge.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: J.J. Dunn, Dakota County Sheriff, received a call from the Dept. of Justice at 3:40 a.m. on April 23, giving notice that the gang might be headed his way in a Model A, Wisconsin plate No. 92652. Dunn gathered a posse that included deputy sheriffs Joe Heinen, Norman Dieters, and Larry Dunn, with Hastings night policeman Fred McArdle. The coupe was spotted six hours later, shortly after 10 a.m., entering the city from the south on Highway 3, then "turned at the drug store corner to cross the high bridge, in the direction of St. Paul." The officers used Heinen's Buick sedan in the pursuit, with Heinen driving and McArdle armed with a .30-30 and Dieters a .30-40. A large cattle truck slipped between the officers' car and the Model A, and Heinen was unable to pass the truck until he reached the opposite side of the spiral bridge. Upon leaving the north end of the bridge, the bandit car was seen climbing the hill a half a mile across the valley. The Buick started to creep up on the trio. McArdle and Dieters fired warning shots outside their windows as the two cars were leaving St. Paul Park. Dillinger, the middle passenger, with Van Meter driving, returned fire with his .45 through the rear window of the coupe. As the cars roared up the highway toward Newport, approximately 50 shots were exchanged. The chase that started near St. Paul Park, according to the officers involved, was for about 20 miles, not 50, as it is usually reported.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: McArdle fired the shot that inflicted the mortal wound to Hamilton. In describing the shot, McArdle said, "When the bullet hit the car, the coupe seemed to wobble for a minute and then we thought it was going into the ditch. The driver managed to keep it on the pavement, however, and after doubling back to St. Paul Park and crossing the highway toward Cottage Grove, they lost us in the hills." The car would soon be replaced before heading to Chicago to seek out medical attention for Hamilton. It should be remembered that the trio hadn't slept at all the night before. It was also extremely cramped in the coupe with three people, one of them being mortally wounded, as the length of a Model A seat is only 39 inches across. Much has been written about the slowness of the Model A used in the escape (top speed about 45 mph), but with a large part of the driving done in darkness, Van Meter wouldn't have been going much faster than 40-45 mph in any car, since headlight systems in all cars of the period were notoriously inadequate. High speed at night was simply too dangerous. It's unfortunate for Dillinger, Van Meter and Hamilton that they didn't ditch the coupe for a faster car at daybreak. It probably wasn't possible to do so.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Hamilton was taken by Dillinger and Van Meter to see Joseph Moran in Chicago, though Moran refused to treat Hamilton. He died at a Barker-Karpis hideout in Aurora, Illinois, three days after the shooting near Hastings. Dillinger, Van Meter, Arthur Barker, Volney Davis, and Harry Campbell, members of the Barker-Karpis gang, buried him in Oswego, Illinois. On May 3, one week after Hamilton's death, Dillinger, Van Meter, and Tommy Carroll robbed the First National Bank of Fostoria, Ohio. In the robbery, Fostoria police chief Frank Culp was wounded when Van Meter shot him in the chest with a Thompson. Dillinger and Van Meter spent most of May living out of a red panel truck with a mattress in the back.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: In early May, Dillinger paid a visit to Fred Hancock at 3301 East New York Street, Indianapolis (the Shell filling station where Hubert and Fred worked), and gave him $1,200 in cash. Fred Hancock: "It was on Thursday, May 10, that I next saw John. A fellow came into the station between 5:00 and 4:00 p.m. on this date dressed in overalls, wearing glasses, no coat, wearing a sleeveless jacket. He was unshaven, and this party stood by the kerosene drum. I did not recognize him at the time and continued to wait upon a customer who was in the station, and then walked into the filling station house, thinking that this party standing by the kerosene drum was a kerosene customer. This party then walked over to the filling station house and knocked on the window to attract my attention. When I looked at him more closely I realized that it was John. He left with me a package containing money and told me where to take it. He said to tell Dad if anything happened to him to give Billie some of that money. He gave me $1,200 made up in four packages -- $500 for Grandpa, $500 for my mother, Audrey Hancock, $100 for Hubert and $100 for myself, and I personally delivered this money to the people it was intended for. John told me how 'hot' he was. This was after the time the shooting had occurred at Little Bohemia Lodge in Wisconsin. He said he would return in two weeks. He was walking at the time, and I do not know how he came into the station. When leaving, he walked out of the station and walked south on LaSalle Street to Washington Street. The money was all made up of one-, five- and ten-dollar bills. There were very few ten-dollar bills in the money, it being mostly ones and fives. I used the $100 John gave me in connection with some work I was having done on the eyes of my little girl, and I understand that Mother and Grandpa later paid out the $500 they each received to some attorney, possibly John (sic) Ryan, in connection with John's case."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: Agent Whitson had been observing the activity at the Shell station on the corner of New York and LaSalle. Whitson: "On 5-10-34 I noticed a stranger talking to Fred Hancock near the kerosene drum in the yard of the station at about 3:45 p.m. He was wearing blue overalls, brown vest, blue shirt and tie, dark hat, and wore spectacles, either rimless or with a thin metal rim. His complexion was ruddy and he had a stubble of beard. In his right hand he carried at all times what appeared to be a pint milk bottle wrapped in newspaper. About 3:50 p.m. the stranger left the station, going south on LaSalle Street toward Washington Street. Agent noted that the man appeared to have a deep cleft in his chin, and decided to follow him and have a better look at him. Agent reached the street without being observed by Hancock and followed the stranger, who was walking rapidly and without any noticeable lameness or infirmity in either leg. The man turned west on Washington Street when Agent was still between 25 and 30 yards behind him. When agent reached the street intersection, the man was nowhere in sight."


title: Dillinger Gang

text: On May 24, it is alleged that Van Meter killed East Chicago patrolmen Francis Mulvihill and Martin O'Brien who had tried to pull them over. On June 7, Tommy Carroll was shot and killed by police in Waterloo, Iowa. Dillinger and Van Meter reunited with Nelson a week later and went into hiding.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: On June 30, Dillinger, Van Meter, Nelson, and an unidentified "fat man" robbed the Merchants National Bank in South Bend, Indiana. The identity of the "fat man" has never been confirmed; it is widely suspected that he was one of Nelson's associates, or, as suggested by Fatso Negri to the BOI, Pretty Boy Floyd. During the robbery, a police officer named Howard Wagner was killed when Van Meter shot him in the chest as he responded to the sound of a burst of submachine gunfire coming from inside the bank. Van Meter was shot in the head during the resulting shootout, and was seriously wounded.


title: Dillinger Gang

text: The Green Lantern speakeasy opened for business in 1928. It was located at 229 E 6th St. in St. Paul Minnesota. It became notorious for being a favorite hangout for prohibition crime figures including the Dillinger gang. In 1933 two members of the gang, Tommy Gannon and William Albert "Pat" Reilly, took over its operations. The details of the how and why of that transaction are undocumented, but "Pat" Reilly was one of the Tavern's bartenders. Kay Glispie(Canadian), was a waitress there that at that time, said she was only to approach customers when summoned to their tables.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: Na-Dene (; also Nadene, Na-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit, Tlina–Dene) is a family of Native American languages that includes at least the Athabaskan languages, Eyak, and Tlingit languages. Haida was formerly included, but is now considered doubtful. By far the most widely spoken Na-Dene language today is Navajo.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: In February 2008, a proposal connecting Na-Dene (excluding Haida) to the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia into a Dené–Yeniseian family was published and well-received by a number of linguists. It was proposed in a 2014 paper that the Na-Dene languages of North America and the Yeniseian languages of Siberia had a common origin in a language spoken in Beringia, between the two continents.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: Edward Sapir originally constructed the term "Na-Dene" to refer to a combined family of Athabaskan, Tlingit, and Haida (the existence of the Eyak language was not known to him at the time). In his “The Na-Dene languages: A preliminary report”, he describes how he arrived at the term (Sapir 1915, p. 558):


title: Na-Dene languages

text: For linguists who follow Edward Sapir in connecting Haida to the above languages, Haida represents an additional branch, with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit together forming the other. Dene or Dine (the Athabaskan languages) is a widely distributed group of Native languages spoken by associated peoples in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, Yukon, Alaska, parts of Oregon, northern California, and the American Southwest as far as northern Mexico.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: The southwestern division of Athabaskan is also called Southern Athabaskan or Apachean, and includes Navajo and all the Apache languages. Eyak was spoken in south-central Alaska; the last first language speaker died in 2008. Navajo is by far the most widely spoken language of the Na-Dene family, spoken in Arizona, New Mexico, and other regions of the American Southwest.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: All of these languages share a highly complex prefixing verb structure in which tense and mood markers are interdigitated between subject and object agreement markers. The morphological hallmark of the family is a series of prefixes found directly before the verb root that raise or lower the transitivity of the verb word. These prefixes, traditionally known as "classifiers", derive historically from a combination of three distinct classes of morphemes and are not found in any other Native American language family.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: The phoneme system contains a large number of dorsal (velar or uvular) consonants (fronting in many modern Athabaskan languages to palatals and velars, correspondingly) as well as a general absence of labial obstruents (except where /b/ has arisen from *w). In the historical phonology there is a widespread tendency, observable across many Athabaskan languages, for phonemic tonal distinctions to arise from glottal features originally found at the end of the syllable. The glottal features in question are often evident in Eyak or Tlingit. These languages are typologically unusual in containing extensive prefixation yet being SOV and postpositional, features normally associated with suffixing languages.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: A genealogical connection between the Tlingit, Eyak and Athabaskan languages was suggested early in the 19th century, but not universally accepted until much later. Haida, with 15 fluent speakers (M. Krauss, 1995), was originally linked to Tlingit by Franz Boas in 1894. Both Haida and Tlingit were then connected to Athabaskan by Edward Sapir in 1915. Linguists such as Lyle Campbell (1997) today consider the evidence inconclusive. They have classified Haida as a language isolate. In order to emphasise the exclusion of Haida, Campbell refers to the language family as "Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit" rather than "Na-Dene". In 2010 Jeff Leer published extensive primary materials on what he calls "PAET" (Proto-Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit).


title: Na-Dene languages

text: In 2008, Edward Vajda of Western Washington University presented evidence suggesting that the Na-Dene languages (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) might be related to the Yeniseian (or Yeniseic) languages of Siberia, the only living representative of which is the Ket language.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: Key evidence by current comparative methodologies includes homologies in verb prefixes and also a systematic correspondence between the distribution of Ket tones and consonant articulations found in Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit. Vajda's paper has been favorably reviewed by several experts on Na-Dene and Yeniseic languages, including Michael Krauss, Jeff Leer, James Kari, and Heinrich Werner, as well as a number of other well-known linguists, including Bernard Comrie, Johanna Nichols, Victor Golla, Michael Fortescue, and Eric Hamp. The conclusion of this seminar was that the comparison with Yeniseic data shows that Haida cannot be classified in a genealogical unit with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: According to Joseph Greenberg's controversial classification of the languages of Native North America, Na-Dené (including Haida) is one of the three main groups of Native languages spoken in the Americas. Contemporary supporters of Greenberg's theory, such as Merritt Ruhlen, have suggested that the Na-Dené language family represents a distinct migration of people from Asia into the New World that occurred six to eight thousand years ago, placing it around four thousand years later than the previous migration into the Americas by Amerind speakers; this remains an unproven hypothesis. Ruhlen speculates that the Na-Dené speakers may have arrived in boats, initially settling near the Haida Gwaii, now in British Columbia, Canada.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: A fringe hypothesis by Sergei Starostin suggested that Na-Dené (including Haida) may belong to the much broader Dené–Caucasian superfamily, which also contains the North Caucasian languages, Sino-Tibetan languages, and Yeniseian languages. This proposal is rejected by nearly all current linguists.


title: Na-Dene languages

text: Around 1920 linguist Edward Sapir became convinced that Na–Dené was more closely related to Sino–Tibetan than to other American families. He suggested that the Sino-Tibetan languages are related to Na-Dené. Edward Vadja's Dené–Yeniseian proposal renewed interest among linguists such as Geoffrey Caveney (2014) to look into support for the Sino–Dené hypothesis. Caveney considered a link between Sino–Tibetan, Na–Dené, and Yeniseian to be plausible but did not support the hypothesis that Sino–Tibetan and Na–Dené were related to the North Caucasian languages (Sino–Caucasian and Dené–Caucasian).


title: Na-Dene languages

text: This phonological chart shows where the listed varieties have sounds which are the same, similar, and sometimes different. The sounds shown, obstruents, are a particular class of consonants. Where similarities are found between one or more varieties, this presents at least some evidence of genetic relatedness among those varieties.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Anousheh Ansari (; née Raissyan; born September 12, 1966) is an Iranian American engineer and co-founder and chairwoman of Prodea Systems. Her previous business accomplishments include serving as co-founder and CEO of Telecom Technologies, Inc. (TTI). The Ansari family is also the title sponsor of the Ansari X Prize. On September 18, 2006, a few days after her 40th birthday, she became the first Iranian in space. Ansari was the fourth overall self-funded space tourist, and the first self-funded woman to fly to the International Space Station. Her memoir, "My Dream of Stars", co-written with Homer Hickam, was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Born Anousheh Raissyan in Mashhad, Iran, she and her parents moved to Tehran shortly afterward. She witnessed the Iranian Revolution in 1979. She immigrated to the United States in 1984 as a teenager. Apart from her native Persian, she is fluent in English and French and acquired a working knowledge of Russian for her spaceflight experience.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: She received her Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering and computer science at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, and her master's degree at George Washington University in Washington D.C.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: After graduation, Raissyan began work at MCI, where she met her future husband, Hamid Ansari. They married in 1991.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: In 1993, she persuaded her husband and her brother-in-law, Amir Ansari, to co-found Telecom Technologies Inc., using their savings and corporate retirement accounts, as deregulation happened in the US telecommunications industry. The company was a supplier of Softswitch technology that enabled telecom "service providers to enhance system performance, lower operating costs and furnish new revenue opportunities." The company, headquartered in Richardson, Texas, offered products that allowed the integration between existing telecom networks and application-centric, next-generation networks via software switch technology. Telecom Technologies was acquired by Sonus Networks, Inc. in 2001 in a stock-for-stock transaction for 10.8 million shares of Sonus stock. Anousheh Ansari became "a vice president of Sonus and general manager of Sonus' new INtelligentIP division."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: In 2006, she co-founded Prodea Systems, and is the current chairwoman and CEO. Prodea is a technology and services management company. Prodea is a privately held company formed by the Ansari family with development centers in both Richardson, Texas, and Silicon Valley.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari has expressed that she does not consider herself a "space tourist," and prefers the title of "spaceflight participant."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari is a member of the X PRIZE Foundation's Vision Circle, as well as its Board of Trustees. Along with her brother-in-law, Amir Ansari, she made a multimillion-dollar contribution to the X PRIZE foundation on May 5, 2004, the 43rd anniversary of Alan Shepard's sub-orbital spaceflight. The X PRIZE has officially renamed the "Ansari X PRIZE" in honor of their donation. As demonstrated by her commitment to the X PRIZE and through presentations at Space Enthusiast conferences, Ansari is a spokesperson for the "privatization of space," a process enabling commercially viable companies to government-independently send equipment and/or people into space for exploration and other purposes.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: The Ansari family also invested in a partnership with Space Adventures, Ltd. and the Federal Space Agency of the Russian Federation (FSA) to create a fleet of suborbital spaceflight vehicles (the Space Adventures Explorer) for global commercial use.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari trained as a backup for Daisuke Enomoto for a Soyuz flight to the International Space Station, through Space Adventures, Ltd. On August 21, 2006, Enomoto was medically disqualified from flying the Soyuz TMA-9 mission that was due to launch the following month. The next day Ansari was elevated to the prime crew.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Asked what she hoped to achieve on her spaceflight, Ansari said, "I hope to inspire everyone—especially young people, women, and young girls all over the world, and in Middle Eastern countries that do not provide women with the same opportunities as men—to not give up their dreams and to pursue them... It may seem impossible to them at times. But I believe they can realize their dreams if they keep it in their hearts, nurture it, and look for opportunities and make those opportunities happen." The day before her departure, she was interviewed on Iran national television for the astronomy show "Night's Sky". The hosts wished her success and thanked her on behalf of Iranians. Ansari in return thanked them.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari lifted off on the Soyuz TMA-9 mission with commander Mikhail Tyurin (RSA) and flight engineer Michael Lopez-Alegria (NASA) at 04:59 (UTC) on Monday, September 18, 2006, from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. Ansari became the fourth (and first female) space tourist. Her contract did not allow for disclosure of the amount paid, but previous space tourists have paid in excess of $20 million USD. The spacecraft docked with the International Space Station (ISS) on Wednesday, September 20, 2006, at 05:21 (UTC). Ansari landed safely aboard Soyuz TMA-8 on September 29, 2006, at 01:13 UTC on the steppes of Kazakhstan (90 kilometers north of Arkalyk) with U.S. astronaut Jeffrey Williams and Russian cosmonaut Pavel Vinogradov. She was given red roses from an unidentified official, and a kiss from her husband, Hamid. The crew's rescuers moved them to Kustanai by helicopter for the welcome ceremony.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: During her nine-day stay on board the International Space Station, Ansari agreed to perform a series of experiments on behalf of the European Space Agency. She conducted four experiments, including:


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari intended to wear the U.S. flag on her spacesuit alongside a politically neutral version of the Iranian flag, i.e., the simple 3-color flag with no government-specific emblem, to honor the two countries that have contributed to her life. A few U.S.-based media wrongly speculated that she was intending to wear the version of the Iranian flag that predated the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: At the insistence of the NASA and Russian officials, she did not wear the Iranian flag officially, but wore the Iranian flag colors instead and kept the Iranian flag on her official flight patch. She and her husband said no political message was intended, despite the increasing tensions between the United States and Iran, which had dominated world headlines in the weeks leading up to her launch. She noted that she had "plans to devote her mission to expanding a global consciousness she expected would be seeded with her first look at Earth from space."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Michael López-Alegría, the Spanish-born NASA astronaut who flew on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft on the return flight with Ansari, expressed his doubts to reporters before the flight: "I'm not a big fan personally of having those guys go visit the space station because I think a space station is still a place that is under construction, and not quite operational. I don't think it's ideal."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: López-Alegría later stated that he was skeptical of private tourists a few years ago, but now believes it is essential to the survival of the Russian space program which is important to the U.S. space program: "If that's the correct solution... then not only is it good from the standpoint of supporting the Russian space program, but it's good for us as well," he said. Ansari's presence in space "is a great dream and a great hope not just for our country but for countries all around the world."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: The same Associated Press story also quoted Mikhail Tyurin describing Ansari as "very professional" and said he felt like they had worked together for a decade. López would eventually change his stance on tourism at the ISS and joined Axiom space eventually commanding their first tourist mission.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: The flight was given significant coverage by Iranian state television, with an hour-long live interview with Ansari being broadcast on the show "Asemane Shab" ("Night Sky"). Ansari was praised by newspapers such as "Hambastegi" and "Jam-e-Jam Daily", which published daily columns detailing the journey. The astronomy magazine "NOJUM" also published an exclusive interview of Pouria Nazemi with Ansari before her trip, in which she discussed her vision for commercial spaceflight. "NOJUM" also organized and held gatherings when the ISS passed over Iran's cities. Shahram Yazdanpanah made a special part about Anousheh's trip to space at the Persian "Space Science" website and covered all the news of the trip.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: On September 22, 2006, she told reporters that she has no regrets and said "I am having a wonderful time here. It's been more than what I expected, and I am enjoying every single second of it. The entire experience has been wonderful up here."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari has received multiple honors, including the George Mason University Entrepreneurial Excellence Award, the George Washington University Distinguished Alumni Achievement Award, the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award for the Southwest Region, and the Horatio Alger Award. While under her leadership, Telecom Technologies, Inc. earned recognition as one of "Inc. magazine"s 500 fastest-growing companies and one of Deloitte & Touche's Fast 500 technology companies. She was listed in "Fortune Magazine"s 40 under 40 list in 2001 and honored by "Working Woman" as the winner of the 2000 National Entrepreneurial Excellence award.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: In 2009, she received the first NCWIT Symons Innovator Award given annually by the National Center for Women & Information Technology to honor successful women entrepreneurs in technology.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: She received an Honorary Doctorate of Science from her alma mater George Mason University on December 20, 2012.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: The Ansari family was honored with an Orbit Award by the National Space Society and Space Tourism Society for underwriting the Ansari X Prize.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: In 2015, the National Space Society awarded Ansari the Space Pioneer Award for her "Service to the Space Community."


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari participated as a speaker at the 2010 Honeywell Leadership Academy with Homer Hickam at United States Space Camp in Huntsville, Alabama.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: In 2009, Ansari was featured in the documentary film "Space Tourists" by independent Swiss filmmaker Christian Frei about billionaires who paid to ride to the International Space Station aboard Russian spacecraft. The DVD of the film was released in 2011.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: She served as the commencement speaker at and received an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Utah Valley University on April 25, 2013.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: On February 26, 2017, she and Firouz Naderi represented Iranian filmmaker Asghar Farhadi at the 89th Academy Awards and accepted the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for "The Salesman" on Farhadi's behalf. Farhadi did not attend the ceremony due to his opposition to President Trump's immigration ban applying to seven Muslim countries including Iran. Farhadi selected Ansari and Naderi as his representatives because both are successful Iranian-Americans who immigrated to the US.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: Ansari has served on the boards of directors for Make-a-Wish Foundation of North Texas and Collin County Children's Advocacy Center. She has been active with several nonprofit organizations, including the nonprofit Iranian American Women Foundation organization. Other non-profit organizations include Ashoka in its support of social entrepreneurs.


title: Anousheh Ansari

text: While working at MCI, she met Hamid Ansari. They married in 1991. The Ansaris reside in Plano, Texas. She is also the aunt of the American actors Yara Shahidi and Sayeed Shahidi.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: "The Spanish Inquisition" is a series of sketches in "Monty Python's Flying Circus", Series 2 Episode 2, first broadcast 22 September 1971, satirizing the real-life Spanish Inquisition. This episode is itself titled "The Spanish Inquisition". The sketches are notable for their principal catchphrase, "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!", which has become a frequently used quote and internet meme. The final instance of the sketch uses music from the composition "Devil's Galop" by Charles Williams. Rewritten audio versions of the sketches were included on "Another Monty Python Record" in 1971.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: This recurring sketch is predicated on a seemingly unrelated narrative bit in which one character mentions that they "didn't expect a Spanish Inquisition!", often in irritation at being questioned by another. The first appearance of the Spanish Inquisition characters occurs in a drawing room set in "Jarrow, 1912," with a title card featuring a modern British urban area with a nuclear power plant. A mill worker (Graham Chapman) enters the room and tells a woman sitting on a couch knitting (Carol Cleveland) in a thick accent that "one of the cross beams has gone out askew on the treadle". When Cleveland says that she can't understand what he's talking about, Chapman repeats the line, this time "without" the thick accent, then grows defensive and says, "I didn't expect a kind of Spanish Inquisition!" Suddenly, the Inquisitionconsisting of Cardinal Ximénez (Michael Palin) and his assistants, Cardinal Biggles (Terry Jones) (who resembles his namesake Biggles wearing a leather aviator's helmet and goggles) and Cardinal Fang (Terry Gilliam)burst into the room to the sound of a jarring musical sting. Ximénez shouts, with a particular and high-pitched emphasis on the first word: "NO-body expects the Spanish Inquisition!"


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: After entering, Ximénez begins enumerating their weapons ("fear, surprise, ruthless efficiency, almost fanatical devotion to the Pope, nice red uniforms"), but interrupts himself as he keeps forgetting to mention additional weapons and has to begin numbering his list over again. After several attempts, Ximénez states that he will come in again, and herds the Inquisition back off the set. The straight man mill worker repeats the cue line, the Inquisition bursts back in (complete with jarring chord), and the introduction is tried anew. But Ximénez fails again and tries to get Cardinal Biggles to do the introduction, but Biggles is also unsuccessful.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: Ximénez decides to forget the introduction and has Cardinal Fang read out charges of heresy against Cleveland who pleads "innocent", and the cardinals respond with laughter (as an on-screen caption reads "DIABOLICAL LAUGHTER") and threats (as the on-screen caption changes to "DIABOLICAL ACTING"). Ximénez intends to torture the woman with "the rack", but Cardinal Biggles instead produces a dish-drying rack. This rack is tied to Cleveland and Biggles pretends to turn a lever, but it has no effect whatsoever. As they work, Chapman answers the door to find a BBC employee (John Cleese) requesting him to open a door for a gag on "the neighboring sketch", leading into the "Jokes and Novelties Salesman" segment.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: The Inquisition returns in a later sketch as an older woman (Marjorie Wilde) shares photographs from a scrapbook with another woman (Cleveland), who rips them up as they are handed to her. When the older woman presents a photo of the Spanish Inquisition hiding behind the coal shed, Cleveland says, "I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition!" The three cardinals then reappear and take the older woman away to a dungeon.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: Biggles tries to torture the woman by poking her repeatedly with soft cushions. When this fails, Ximénez orders Fang to get "the comfy chair", which is brought out and the woman placed in it. Ximénez states that she must stay in the chair "until lunch time with only a cup of coffee at 11", and begins to shout at her to confessonly to have Biggles break down and confess. This frustrates Ximénez, but he cannot complain about it since he is distracted by a cartoon character from the next scene.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: At the end of the show, in the "Court Charades" sketch, a judge (Jones) who is also a defendant in an obscenity trial at the Old Bailey is casually sentenced by another judge (Chapman) to be burned at the stake. The convicted judge responds, "Blimey, I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition!" The whole court rises and looks expectantly at the witness entrance door. As the closing credits of the episode begin, the Inquisitors race out of a house and hop on a double-decker bus to the Old Bailey, all to the tune of "Devil's Galop". As the Inquisitors ride in the bus, they comment worriedly that they are running out of credits (which are seen superimposed over them) and are panicked that the episode will soon end. The bus reaches the courthouse and the cardinals charge up the steps of the Old Bailey. They finally burst into the courtroom and Ximénez begins to shout, "NO-body expects the Span...," but a black title card with the words, "THE END", interrupts him. In resignation, he says, "Oh, bugger", and the episode concludes.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: In the "Monty Python Live (Mostly)" stage show, the sketch ends when Ximénez orders Biggles to "torture" the victim (who is sitting in the comfy chair) by giving her a glass of cold milk from the fridge. When Biggles opens the door, the Man in the Fridge (Eric Idle) emerges and begins singing the "Galaxy Song" to the victim, while the Inquisition exit through the fridge.


title: The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)

text: Cardinal Ximénez briefly appears two episodes later ("The Buzz Aldrin Show") in a vox pop, again displaying difficulty counting (in this instance, the kinds of aftershave he uses). Later in that episode during the "Police Constable Pan Am Sketch", the policeman tells a chemist "one more peep out of you and I'll do you for heresy", with the chemist (played by Palin) responding that he "didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition"; except that instead of the Spanish Inquisition arriving, PC Pan Am (played by Graham Chapman) simply tells the chemist to shut up.


title: Hey! Baby

text: "Hey! Baby" is a song written by Margaret Cobb and Bruce Channel, first recorded at Clifford Herring Studios in Ft. Worth Tx, and recorded by Channel in 1961, first released on LeCam Records, a local Fort Worth, Texas label. After it hit, it was released on Smash Records for national distribution. Channel co-produced the song with Major Bill Smith (owner of LeCam) and released it on Mercury Records' Smash label. It reached number 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for three weeks, starting the week ending March 10, 1962.


title: Hey! Baby

text: The song features a prominent riff from well-known harmonica player Delbert McClinton, and drums played by Ray Torres. Other musicians on the record included Bob Jones and Billy Sanders on guitar and Jim Rogers on bass. According to a CNN article from 2002, while touring the UK in 1962 with the Beatles, McClinton met John Lennon and gave him some harmonica tips. Lennon put the lessons to use right away on "Love Me Do" and later "Please Please Me". Lennon included the song in his jukebox, and it is also featured on the 2004 related compilation album "John Lennon's Jukebox".


title: Hey! Baby

text: "Hey! Baby" was used in the 1987 hit film "Dirty Dancing" in the scene in which Johnny and Baby dance on top of a log.


title: Hey! Baby

text: Canadian country pop singer Anne Murray covered the song in 1982, reaching number 7 on the US Country Singles chart and number 26 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Murray also reached number 1 on the "RPM" country and adult contemporary charts in Canada.


title: Hey! Baby

text: Austrian artist DJ Ötzi recorded a cover version titled "Hey Baby (Uhh, Ahh)". It was released in July 2000 as the lead single from his debut solo album, "Love, Peace & Vollgas". In 2002, it was re-released when it became the unofficial theme song for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. It reached number one in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia. Darts player Tony O'Shea uses it as his walk-on song.


title: Hey! Baby

text: The official music video features large groups of people singing along to the song in a taxi at different times, interspersed with DJ Ötzi singing on a TV screen. An animated music video was also produced featuring a cartoon version of DJ Ötzi performing with a band of robots while trying to woo a princess.


title: Jökull Júlíusson

text: Jökull Júlíusson (born 20 March 1990; or just JJ) is an Icelandic singer-songwriter, best known as the lead singer of Kaleo. He gained national fame for covering the song ""Vor í Vaglaskógi"" with Kaleo in 2013.


title: Jökull Júlíusson

text: Jökull was born in Reykjavík and spent his first years there and in Mosfellsbær. At the age of six, he moved with his family to Höfn before moving to Denmark six years later. The family returned to Mosfellsbær in 2004 and he finished his primary school education at Varmárskóli, where he met his future bandmates Davíð Antonsson and Daníel Ægir Kristjánsson. As a child, he learned the piano and taught himself to play the guitar. An avid football fan, he played for Sindri Höfn, TRIF and Afturelding's youth teams until the age of 16.


title: Jökull Júlíusson

text: After primary school, he founded the band "Timburmenn" along with Davíð Antonsson and Daníel Ægir Kristjánsson which performed mostly covers. In 2009, he participated in Músíktilraunir with the band "St. Peter the Leader". In 2012, he founded Kaleo , along with Davíð, Daníel and Rubin Pollock, ahead of the Iceland Airwaves music festival. In 2014, he won the 2013 Icelandic Audience Award Singer of the Year.


title: Jökull Júlíusson

text: In 2017, he was admitted to hospital due to stress related illness, forcing Kaleo to cancel several concerts.


title: Vespula germanica

text: Vespula germanica, the European wasp, German wasp, or German yellowjacket, is a species of wasp found in much of the Northern Hemisphere, native to Europe, Northern Africa, and temperate Asia. It has spread and become well-established in many other places, including North America, South America (Argentina and Chile), Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand. German wasps are part of the family Vespidae and are sometimes mistakenly referred to as paper wasps because they build grey paper nests, although strictly speaking, paper wasps are part of the subfamily Polistinae. In North America, they are also known as yellowjackets.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "Vespula germanica" belongs to the genus "Vespula", which includes various species of social wasps that are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, these wasps are most commonly known as yellowjackets, but this name also applies to species within the sister genus "Dolichovespula". Members of "Vespula" are often confused with other genera, especially the paper wasp "Polistes dominula". Colonies of "V. germanica" share many characteristics with those of "V. vulgaris" (common wasp) and "V. pensylvanica" (western yellowjacket), so they are very often studied together.


title: Vespula germanica

text: The German wasp is about 13 mm (0.5 in) long, has a mass of 74.1 ± 9.6 mg, and has typical wasp colours of black and yellow. It is very similar to the common wasp ("V.vulgaris"), but unlike the common wasp, has three tiny black dots on the clypeus. To further complicate the issue this only applies to workers. To help with identification, a good practice to observe is to first categorize the wasp as worker, queen, or drone before identifying it as "V.vulgaris" or "V.germanica". Gastral pattern (the black dots or marks on the abdomen) are highly variable and not good characteristics to use in identifying. However, the identification of a wasp as "V.vulgaris" may be difficult because the normally unbroken black mark on its clypeus can sometimes appear broken (particularly males) making it look extremely similar to "V.germanica".


title: Vespula germanica

text: "V. germanica" originated in Europe, Asia, and North Africa and can now be found in sections of every continent but Antarctica. It has established populations in North America, South America, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. German yellowjackets are known to be especially successful and destructive invaders of new territories. These wasps are polyphagous predators which feed on native arthropods, and because they are able to outdo many other animals for food, they have caused considerable harm to the indigenous wildlife of areas which they have invaded. For a given year, "V. germanica" disperses at distances of no more than 1000 m, so that their rapid dispersal is likely to be aided by accidental human transport of hibernating queens. This normally leads to a bottleneck effect during the establishment of new populations, which explains the significant genetic differentiation often found among geographically distant populations.


title: Vespula germanica

text: The nest is made from chewed plant fibres, mixed with saliva. The majority of nests are found in the soil below ground. A significant portion of nests are found in artificial structures such as attics, and a small portion are found above ground.


title: Vespula germanica

text: A single queen initiates a nest in the spring by constructing an embryonic nest, which contains a series of hexagonal cells. These cells are used to house one wasp through the immature stages of life: egg, larval instar, and pupa. The colony grows rapidly during the summer with a huge increase in worker numbers and nest size. By the end of summer, the rate of growth slows considerably and more males are produced than workers, and the focus is shifted from building small cells to building cells that are 30-40 percent larger. These new cells house the new queens and males. In the fall, the new queens begin hibernation, while the old queens die off and the colony collapses. In some cases, the nests may survive through the winter and reach the next season. If this occurs, the nest will become polygynous and reach a much larger size than in the previous year.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "V. germanica" nests are strongly affected by climate. Average colonies in Australia contain over 9500 small workers and 3600 large queen and male cells. By the end of May, colonies in Australia have 15,000 wasps emerging from small cells and 2500 wasps emerging from the large cells. By comparison, nests in the British Isles only have 6100–6500 small cells and 1500 large cells on average, in roughly eight combs. Additionally, a significant number of nests in Australia are able to survive the winter, whereas in England none of the nests survive. This demonstrates how "V. germanica" nests can reach a substantial size in appropriate climate conditions.


title: Vespula germanica

text: High variation in the sequence and diversity of tasks performed by "V. germanica" workers suggests limited temporal polyethism exists within the species. Temporal polyethism is a mechanism in which workers specialize on tasks in a sequential order throughout their lives, instead of performing numerous tasks concurrently. The typical order of tasks in "V. germanica" is nest work, pulp foraging, carbohydrate foraging and protein foraging. Approximately 61 percent of the wasps observed perform more than two of these tasks during their lifetimes. Additionally, about 40 percent of the wasps specialize on only one task per day, but these individuals varied with respect to age and sequence of task performance. The schedule of temporal polyethism found in "V. germanica" is highly accelerated when compared to other Hymenoptera, which is likely related to worker lifespan. "Vespula" workers may not live long enough to benefit from a strict system of worker specialization, in which workers repeatedly perform one task.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "Vespula germanica" queens are typically polyandrous. The queens mate with a moderate number of males, usually between one and seven, with no optimal number of mates. In addition, mating events are independent of each other, which discredits the hypothesis that queens terminate mating behavior after mating with a male that possesses an optimal set of attributes.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "V. germanica" workers are unable to mate and so incapable of producing diploid offspring. In some nests, however, the workers produce haploid male offspring from unfertilized eggs. Worker reproduction has been documented in other "Vespula" wasp colonies, but usually only after the death of the queen. However, workers of "V. germanica" have been found reproducing in the presence of a queen.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "Vespula germanica" workers are known to be opportunistic predators and scavengers. They are efficient at hunting for small, live food sources and at collecting from large stationary sources. It is believed that the flexibility in "V. germanica"'s foraging behavior is a key factor in their ability to rapidly colonize new areas in a variety of ecological environments. As scavengers, "V. germanica" are forced to make numerous trips between the location of the food source and the nest, where the larvae are kept and fed. This calls for "V. germanica" foragers to be adept at relocating earlier food sources.


title: Vespula germanica

text: The ability to relocate previously discovered food sources is only one example of the diverse cognitive mechanisms at play within "V. germanica"'s behaviors. "V. germanica" foragers continue to visit a feeder after food removal, but are able to rapidly remove associations that no longer provide a reward. The amount of time that the foragers continue to search these sites depends on the number of times they had visited it in the past. The choices made by "V. germanica" take into account both current and past experiences. These abilities imply that these wasps have important learning and memory capacities which enable them to memorize various resource characteristics, including the route to resources, as well as specific spatial location with respect to local landmarks. In addition, "V. germanica" wasps have been shown to have sensorimotor learning capacities which allow them to associate visual stimuli with certain motor responses. This reported high cognitive plasticity enables "V. germanica" wasps to inhabit a variety of regions. Its flexibility in nesting and diet habits in conjunction with its foraging capabilities may help explain the success with which "V. germanica" has invaded so many different ecological areas.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "V. germanica" queens are typically polyandrous. Because the queen mates with multiple males, the workers are more closely related to the queen's sons than to sons of other workers. These asymmetries in relatedness are believed to be a factor leading to worker policing within colonies.


title: Vespula germanica

text: Male reproductive skew within "V. germanica" indicates that males do not contribute equally to the production of offspring when compared to females. The level of skew observed was higher among males in nests with queens that mated with multiple males. Reproductive skew may be linked to patterns of sex allocation, but sex ratio data for "Vespula" colonies suggest that a split-sex ratio is not produced. This contradicts the theory that the reproductive skew seen in "V. germanica" is part of an evolutionary strategy of males due to asymmetries in relatedness.


title: Vespula germanica

text: Worker policing is selected for when it benefits the colony. The benefits are gained through various measures, such as increasing colony efficiency and establishing a female-based sex-allocation ratio. Worker policing is especially common in colonies where queens mate with multiple males. Thus on average, the workers are more closely related to sons of the queen than to those of other workers. In the past, "V. germanica" was thought to be an exception to the general pattern that high mating frequency led to low levels of worker reproduction. However, recent studies indicate that while worker reproduction occurs at a considerable rate, worker policing keeps these worker-laid eggs from reaching adulthood. This is demonstrated by a study carried out in Belgium, showing that while an estimated 58.4 percent of male eggs were laid by workers, only 0.44 percent of adult males were workers' sons. The numbers indicate the efficiency with which worker policing is carried out. Policing by aggression, which prevents workers from laying eggs in the first place, leads to increases in colony productivity, while policing by eating the eggs of workers is more likely to result in sex-ratio benefits.


title: Vespula germanica

text: "V. germanica" wasps have a diverse diet. They are known to eat carrion, live arthropods (including spiders;), fruit, honeydew, and processed human food and garbage. They are opportunistic scavengers and hunters able to obtain food from a variety of different sources. For example, many "Vespula" species have been observed feeding on dead honey bees ("Apis mellifera") found outside the beehive entrance in the late summer. This flexibility in diet is beneficial, as "V. germanica" must often compete for resources with native biota in areas it invades.


title: Vespula germanica

text: Female bee moths ("Aphomia sociella") have been known to lay eggs in the nests of "V. germanica". Hatched larvae will then feed on the eggs, larvae, and pupae left unprotected by the wasp, sometimes destroying large parts of the nest as they tunnel throughout looking for food.


title: Vespula germanica

text: The species is considered a pest in most areas outside its native range, although its long residency in North America means it is not treated with any level of urgency there, unlike in areas such as South America, where the introduction is more recent and the impacts more dramatic.


title: Vespula germanica

text: Along with the closely related common wasp ("Vespula vulgaris") and three species of "Polistes" paper wasps, the German wasp is considered a pest in New Zealand. It was probably introduced in the late 19th century, but did not appear in large numbers until around 1940. Wasp numbers reach their greatest densities in beech forest of the South Island, due to the abundant honeydew produced by the beech-scale insect there. This has a serious effect on forest ecology, as less honeydew remains available for native birds. However, German wasps were quickly succeeded in much of the South Island and its beech forests by "Vespula vulgaris" accidentally introduced in the 1970s.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: Summit or OLCF-4 is a supercomputer developed by IBM for use at Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF), a facility at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, capable of 200 petaFLOPS thus making it the 4th fastest supercomputer in the world after Frontier (OLCF-5), Fugaku, and LUMI. It held the number 1 position from November 2018 to June 2020. Its current LINPACK benchmark is clocked at 148.6 petaFLOPS.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: As of November 2019, the supercomputer had ranked as the 5th most energy efficient in the world with a measured power efficiency of 14.668 gigaFLOPS/watt. Summit was the first supercomputer to reach exaflop (a quintillion operations per second) speed, achieving 1.88 exaflops during a genomic analysis and is expected to reach 3.3 exaflops using mixed-precision calculations.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: The United States Department of Energy awarded a $325 million contract in November 2014 to IBM, NVIDIA and Mellanox. The effort resulted in construction of Summit and Sierra. Summit is tasked with civilian scientific research and is located at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. Sierra is designed for nuclear weapons simulations and is located at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California. Summit is estimated to cover 873 square meters and require 219 kilometers of cabling. Researchers will utilize Summit for diverse fields such as cosmology, medicine and climatology.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: In 2015, the project called Collaboration of Oak Ridge, Argonne and Lawrence Livermore (CORAL) included a third supercomputer named Aurora and was planned for installation at Argonne National Laboratory. By 2018, Aurora was re-engineered with completion anticipated in 2021 as an exascale computing project along with Frontier and El Capitan to be completed shortly thereafter; Aurora is now planned for completion in late 2022.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: The Summit supercomputer provides scientists and researchers the opportunity to solve complex tasks in the fields of energy, artificial intelligence, human health and other research areas. It has been used in Earthquake Simulation, Extreme Weather simulation using AI, Material science, Genomics and in predicting the lifetime of Neutrinos in physics.


title: Summit (supercomputer)

text: Each one of its 4,608 nodes (with 2 IBM POWER9 CPUs and 6 Nvidia Tesla GPUs in each node) has over 600 GB of coherent memory (96 GB HBM2 plus 512 GB DDR4 SDRAM) which is addressable by all CPUs and GPUs plus 800 GB of non-volatile RAM that can be used as a burst buffer or as extended memory. The POWER9 CPUs and Nvidia Volta GPUs are connected using NVIDIA's high speed NVLink. This allows for a heterogeneous computing model. To provide a high rate of data throughput, the nodes will be connected in a non-blocking fat-tree topology using a dual-rail Mellanox EDR InfiniBand interconnect for both storage and inter-process communications traffic which delivers both 200Gbit/s bandwidth between nodes and in-network computing acceleration for communications frameworks such as MPI and SHMEM/PGAS.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Al-Sultan Al-Mu’tassimu Billahi Muhibbuddin Tuanku Al-Haj Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Badlishah (Jawi: ; 28 November 1927 – 11 September 2017) was the 28th Sultan of Kedah, reigning from 1958 to 2017. He served as the fifth Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia from 1970 to 1975, and as the 14th Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 2011 to 2016. He was the first and only ruler to reign as Yang di-Pertuan Agong twice, as well as the oldest elected to the office. Immediately prior to his death, he was the second longest-reigning living monarch in the world after Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Born at Istana Anak Bukit near Alor Setar as Tunku Abdul Halim ibni Tunku Badlishah, he was the second, but eldest surviving son, of Sultan Badlishah (1894–1958; reigned 1943–1958), who later became the 28th Sultan of Kedah. Of Malay and Thai descent, his mother was the Kedah-born princess Tunku Sofiah binti Tunku Mahmud (born 29 April 1899), who died in an automobile accident on 28 February 1934. Abdul Halim's maternal grandfather, Tunku Mahmud, was once "Raja Muda" (heir presumptive) to the throne of Kedah.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: He was educated at Alor Merah and Titi Gajah Malay schools and Sultan Abdul Hamid College in Alor Star between 1946 and 1948. He went on to Wadham College, Oxford and obtained a Diploma in Social Science and Public Administration. He subsequently joined the Kedah Administrative Service, serving in the Alor Star district office and later, the state treasury.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: On 6 August 1949, Tuanku Abdul Halim was appointed "Raja Muda" or heir apparent, and acceded as the twenty-eighth Sultan of Kedah on his father's death on 14 July 1958. He was installed at the Balai Besar, Kota Star Palace in Alor Star on 20 February 1959, in a ceremony not held since 1710.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Tuanku Abdul Halim celebrated his silver jubilee on 15 August 1983 with his royal consort, Sultanah Bahiyah. To commemorate this occasion the Kedah government opened Jubli Perak Park at Sungai Petani, Kedah's second largest town.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: On 15 July 2008, Tuanku Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah celebrated his Golden Jubilee as the Sultan of Kedah. He was only the fourth sultan in a line of 28 who reigned in Kedah for at least 50 years.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: In conjunction with the Golden Jubilee, 15 July 2008 was declared as a public holiday for the state of Kedah. A ceremony of handing over the contributions in conjunction with the Golden Jubilee was held at the Istana Anak Bukit on 6 July 2008 by Kedah Chief Minister Azizan Abdul Razak. Throughout the week of the Golden Jubilee, various events were held to commemorate the Sultan.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Tuanku Abdul Halim served as Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 21 September 1965 to 20 September 1970.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: In July 1970, Tuanku Abdul Halim was elected as the fifth Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia and served his term in office from 21 September 1970 to 20 September 1975. He was the third youngest monarch to ascend the throne of Yang di-Pertuan Agong after Tuanku Syed Putra of Perlis and Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: During his kingship, Tuanku Abdul Halim presided over the first transfer of power of the civilian government when his uncle, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman resigned in favour of his deputy Tun Abdul Razak. Tunku Abdul Rahman had felt that he should not serve under a nephew, given strict Malay royal protocol, but agreed to stay on as prime minister for one day of Tuanku Abdul Halim's reign.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: On 2 November 2006, Tuanku Abdul Halim was elected for the second time to serve a five-year term as Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong. He was the first person to have been elected to this office twice.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: In October 2011, Abdul Halim was elected to a second term as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, which commenced on 13 December 2011. He was the first and only regnant sultan to hold the position twice. He was also the oldest Malay Ruler to be installed as Yang di-Pertuan Agong at 84 years and 15 days old, surpassing the previous record holder, Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz of Selangor, who was installed at 73 years and 49 days old. He was installed on 11 April 2012 at Istana Negara.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: During his tenure as Yang Di Pertuan Agong, a Council of Regency consisting of his brothers Tunku Annuar (d. May 2014), Tunku Sallehuddin, Tunku Abdul Hamid Thani, and daughter Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz was assigned to discharge Abdul Halim's duties as Sultan of Kedah. His tenure as Yang Di Pertuan Agong ended on 12 December 2016.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: 1. Sultanah Bahiyah, daughter of Tuanku Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, married 1956. She served as Sultanah of Kedah (1958–2003) and Raja Permaisuri Agong (1970–1975). She died on 26 August 2003 at Istana Kuala Cegar in Alor Star. They had only daughter:


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: They also adopted the twin daughters of his eldest sister, Tunku Hamidah, before the birth of their only child:


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Through Tunku Soraya, who married Raja Dato' Seri Diraja Tan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain, son of Almarhum Sultan Idris Shah II and current Raja Di-Hilir Perak (the second heir apparent of Perak), they gave him three grandsons and two granddaughters:


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: 2. Sultanah Haminah, married in 1975. A commoner from Perak, she was titled Che Puan Kedah until 9 January 2004 when she was installed as Sultanah. She served as Raja Permaisuri Agong during his second term as Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Sultan Abdul Halim died on at 2:30 pm 11 September 2017, at the age of 89 (about 3 months shy of his 90th birthday), at Istana Anak Bukit in Alor Setar. He was laid to rest next to grave of his late wife, Sultanah Bahiyah at Langgar Royal Mausoleum in Alor Setar, Kedah on the day after his death.


title: Abdul Halim of Kedah

text: Tuanku Abdul Halim held the rank of Marshal of the Royal Malaysian Air Force in his previous constitutional duties as Commander-in-Chief of the Malaysian Armed Forces as well as the ranks of Field Marshal of the Malaysian Army and Admiral of the Fleet of the Royal Malaysian Navy. Since 1972 he was the Royal Malay Regiment's Colonel-in-Chief, and also performed the same functions for the Malaysian Army's Royal Service Corps.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Inland Northern (American) English, also known in American linguistics as the Inland North or Great Lakes dialect, is an American English dialect spoken primarily by White Americans in a geographic band reaching from the major urban areas of Upstate New York westward along the Erie Canal and through much of the U.S. Great Lakes region. The most distinctive Inland Northern accents are spoken in Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. The dialect can be heard as far west as eastern Iowa and even among certain demographics in the Twin Cities, Minnesota. Some of its features have also infiltrated a geographic corridor from Chicago southwest along historic Route 66 into St. Louis, Missouri; today, the corridor shows a mixture of both Inland North and Midland American accents. Linguists often characterize the western Great Lakes region's dialect separately as North-Central American English.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The early 20th-century accent of the Inland North was the basis for the term "General American", though the regional accent has since altered, due to the Northern Cities Vowel Shift: its now-defining chain shift of vowels that began in the 1930s or possibly earlier. A 1969 study first formally showed lower-middle-class women leading the regional population in the first two stages (raising of the vowel and fronting of the vowel) of this shift, documented since the 1970s as comprising five distinct stages. Evidence in the mid-2010s has suggested a reversal of some features of the Northern Cities Shift in certain locations.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The dialect region called the "Inland North" consists of western and central New York State (Utica, Ithaca, Syracuse, Rochester, Buffalo, Binghamton, Jamestown, Fredonia, Olean); northern Ohio (Akron, Cleveland, Toledo), Michigan's Lower Peninsula (Detroit, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing); northern Indiana (Gary, South Bend); northern Illinois (Chicago, Rockford); southeastern Wisconsin (Kenosha, Racine, Milwaukee); and, largely, northeastern Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley/Coal Region (Scranton and Wilkes-Barre). This is the dialect spoken in part of America's chief industrial region, an area sometimes known as the Rust Belt. Northern Iowa and southern Minnesota may also variably fall within the Inland North dialect region; in the Twin Cities, educated middle-aged men in particular have been documented as aligning to the accent, though this is not necessarily the case among other demographics of that urban area.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Linguists identify the "St. Louis Corridor", extending from Chicago down into St. Louis, as a dialectally remarkable area, because young and old speakers alike have a Midland accent, except for a single middle generation born between the 1920s and 1940s, who have an Inland Northern accent diffused into the area from Chicago.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Erie, Pennsylvania, though in the geographic area of the "Inland North" and featuring some speakers of this dialect, never underwent the Northern Cities Shift and often shares more features with Western Pennsylvania English due to contact with Pittsburghers, particularly with Erie as their choice of city for summer vacations. Many African Americans in Detroit and other Northern cities are multidialectal and also or exclusively use African-American Vernacular English rather than Inland Northern English, but some do use the Inland Northern dialect.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The dialect's progression across the Midwest has stopped at a general boundary line traveling through central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois and then western Wisconsin, on the other sides of which speakers have continued to maintain their Midland and North Central accents. Sociolinguist William Labov theorizes that this separation reflects a political divide and a controlled study of his shows that Inland Northern speakers tend to be more associated with liberal politics than those of the other dialects, especially as Americans continue to self-segregate in residence based on ideological concerns. President Barack Obama, for example, has a mild Inland Northern accent.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: A Midwestern accent (which may refer to other dialectal accents as well), Chicago accent, or Great Lakes accent are all common names in the United States for the sound quality produced by speakers of this dialect. Many of the characteristics listed here are not necessarily unique to the region and are oftentimes found elsewhere in the Midwest.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The Northern Cities Vowel Shift or Northern Cities Shift is a chain shift of vowels and the defining accent feature of the Inland North dialect region, though it can also be found, variably, in the neighboring Upper Midwest and Western New England accent regions.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The first two sound changes in the shift, with some debate about which one led to the other or came first, are the general raising and lengthening (tensing) of the "short a" (the vowel sound of ), as well as the fronting of (the sound of and in this accent). Inland Northern raising was first identified in the 1960s, with coming to be articulated so that the tongue starts from a position that is closer than it used to be, and then often glides back toward the center of the mouth, thus producing a centering diphthong of the type or or at its most extreme ; e.g. "naturally" . As for fronting, it can go beyond to the front , and may, for the most advanced speakers, even be close to —so that "pot" or "sod" come to be pronounced how a mainstream American speaker would say "pat" or "sad"; e.g. "coupon" .


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The fronting of leaves a blank space in Inland North speakers' pronunciation that is filled by lowering (the "aw" vowel in ), which comes to be pronounced with the tongue in a lower position, closer to or . As a result, for example, people affected by the shift may pronounce "caught" the way speakers without the shift say "cot", with both using the vowel . However, a "cot"–"caught" merger is robustly avoided in many parts of Inland North, due to the prior fronting of . In other words, "cot" is and "caught" is . Even so, however, there is a definite scattering of Inland North speakers who are in a state of transition towards a "cot"–"caught" merger; this is particularly evident in northeastern Pennsylvania. Younger speakers reversing the fronting of , for example in Lansing, Michigan, also approach a merger.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The movement of to , in order to avoid overlap, presumably initiates the further movement of the original vowel (the "short e" in ) towards either , the near-open central vowel, or almost . As the vowel is pronounced with the tongue farther back and lower in the mouth than in the sound , this change is called "lowering and/or backing".


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The next change is the movement of from toward a very far back position . is the "short u" vowel in . People with the shift pronounce "bus" so that it sounds more like "boss" to people without the shift.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: The final change is the backing and lowering of , the "short i" vowel in , toward the schwa . Alternatively, is lowered to , without backing. This results in a considerable phonetic overlap between and , although there is no phonemic merger because the weak vowel merger is not complete ("Rosa's" , with a morpheme-final mid schwa is distinct from "roses" , with an unstressed allophone of that is phonetically near-close central ).


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Before , only undergoes the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, so that the vowel in "start" varies much like the one in "lot" described above. The remaining , and retain GenAm-like values in this position, so that "north" , "merry" and "near" are pronounced , with unshifted (though somewhat closer than in GenAm), and (as close as in GenAm). Inland Northern American English features the north-force merger, the Mary-marry-merry merger, the mirror–nearer and – mergers, the hurry-furry merger, and the nurse-letter merger, all unremarkable in most of the US. Those mergers ban and from ever occurring before .


title: Inland Northern American English

text: William Labov et al.'s "Atlas of North American English" (2006) presents the first historical understandings about the order in which the Inland North's vowels shifted. Speakers around the Great Lakes began to pronounce the short "a" sound, as in , as more of a diphthong and with a higher starting point in the mouth, causing the same word to sound more like "tray-ap" or "tray-up"; Labov et al. assume that this began by the middle of the 19th century. After roughly a century following this first vowel change—general raising—the region's speakers, around the 1960s, then began to use the newly opened vowel space, previously occupied by , for (as in and ); therefore, words like "bot", "gosh", or "lock" came to be pronounced with the tongue extended farther forward, thus making these words sound more like how "bat", "gash", and "lack" sound in dialects without the shift. These two vowel changes were first recognized and reported in 1967. While these were certainly the first two vowel shifts of this accent, and Labov et al. assume that raising occurred first, they also admit that the specifics of time and place are unclear. In fact, real-time evidence of a small number of Chicagoans born between 1890 and 1920 suggests that fronting occurred first, starting by 1900 at the latest, and was followed by raising sometime in the 1920s.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: During the 1960s, several more vowels followed suit in rapid succession, each filling in the space left by the last, including the lowering of as in , the backing and lowering of as in , the backing of as in (first reported in 1986), and the backing and lowering of as in , often but not always in that exact order. Altogether, this constitutes a chain shift of vowels, identified as such in 1972, and known by linguists as the "Northern Cities (Vowel) Shift" or NCS: the defining pattern of the current Inland Northern accent.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Migrants from all over the Northeastern U.S. traveled west to the rapidly industrializing Great Lakes area in the decades after the Erie Canal opened in 1825, and Labov suggests that the Inland North's general raising originated from the diverse and incompatible /æ/ raising patterns of these various migrants mixing into a new, simpler pattern. He posits that this hypothetical dialect-mixing event, which initiated the larger Northern Cities Shift (NCS), occurred by about 1860 in upstate New York, and the later stages of the NCS are merely those that logically followed (a "pull chain"). More recent evidence suggests that German-accented English helped to greatly influence the Shift, because German speakers tend to pronounce the English vowel as and the vowel as , both of which resemble NCS vowels, and there were more speakers of German in the Erie Canal region of upstate New York in 1850 than there were of any single variety of English. There is also evidence for an alternative theory, according to which the Great Lakes area—settled primarily by western New Englanders—simply inherited Western New England English and developed that dialect's vowel shifts further. 20th-century Western New England English variably showed NCS-like and pronunciations, which may have already existed among 19th-century New England settlers, though this has been contested. Another theory, not mutually exclusive with the others, is that the Great Migration of African Americans intensified White Northerners' participation in the NCS in order to differentiate their accents from Black ones.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Recent evidence suggests that the Shift has begun to reverse in at least some of the Inland North, such as Lansing, Michigan, and Ogdensburg, Rochester, and Syracuse, New York, in particular with regard to fronting and raising (though raising is persisting before nasal consonants, as is the General American norm). Several possible reasons have been proposed for the reversal, including growing stigma connected with the accent and the working-class identity it represents.


title: Inland Northern American English

text: Note that not all of these terms, here compared with other regions, are necessarily unique only to the Inland North, though they appear most strongly in this region:


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: Much of "Clock Tower"s plot and artistic style are inspired by the works of Italian horror film director Dario Argento, most notably "Phenomena" (1985). Director Hifumi Kono loved horror films like this and wanted the game to feel like one. Many of the game's character graphics were digitized from photos of real people. Jennifer's movements were constructed from a woman in Human's planning division acting out the scenes. Her design was inspired by Jennifer Connelly's character in "Phenomena".


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: The game sold well upon release. An updated version, titled Clock Tower: The First Fear, was ported to the PlayStation, WonderSwan, and Windows. Many years later, it was re-released again on the PlayStation Network, as well as the Wii and Wii U Virtual Console. The game has never been officially released outside Japan, although fan translations exist. In retrospective reviews, "Clock Tower" has been praised for its haunting atmosphere and is considered a predecessor to other horror video games and the survival horror genre, but the puzzles and exploration drew criticism for being tedious from some.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Clock Tower" is a survival horror point-and-click adventure game with 2D graphics. The player controls a cursor to direct the main character, Jennifer Simpson, and give commands such as investigating objects or opening doors. Jennifer can walk and run, although running will reduce her stamina. She may recover her stamina by sitting on the floor. Jennifer's character portrait in the corner of the screen will change depending on her stamina level. In addition to interacting with objects in the game, Jennifer can also store them in the inventory for later use. The layout of items changes with each playthrough.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: Jennifer is under the constant threat of a stalker named Scissorman. When Scissorman is confronted, the game will enter "panic mode". Depending on Jennifer's health status, she may begin to trip, slow down and eventually be killed. Jennifer cannot use weapons against Scissorman. Instead, the player must find hiding spots throughout the mansion, or use traps placed in the environment. If caught, the player can rapidly press a button which allows them an attempt to escape. If Jennifer dies, then it is game over, returning the player to the title screen with an option to continue the game. The game features nine possible endings.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: The story follows Jennifer Simpson, an orphan from the fictional Granite Orphanage in Romsdalen, Norway. She and other orphaned children named Laura, Anne, and Lotte are adopted in September 1995 by a wealthy recluse named Simon Barrows, who lives in a mansion known as the "Clock Tower", named after its predominant feature. After arriving at the mansion, Mary, the woman who brought the children to the mansion, leaves to find Mr. Barrows. When she takes an unusually long time, Jennifer offers to investigate. Upon leaving the room, she hears a scream coming from the main foyer. Jennifer returns to find the lights off and the girls missing. After finding either Laura or Anne killed, she finds herself being stalked by a murderous little boy with deformed features, wielding a huge pair of scissors, named Bobby Barrows, also known as the Scissorman in the game.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: While exploring the mansion, Jennifer searches for Mary's true intentions. Depending on choices made by the player, Jennifer will either discover Simon Barrows trapped in a jail cell inside the courtyard, or her father's corpse in a hidden room. If the former happens, Jennifer will need to give him a piece of ham as food. If the latter happens, Jennifer will find his death letter that tells of his account concerning Mary Barrows and her twins, Bobby and Dan. It says that he was trapped there for three days, until his death on November 10, 1986. Jennifer then visits a small, occult-looking church. If the player has collected all the necessary items and clues, then she gains access to the catacombs of the mansion - using either the Devil Idol or the Sceptor, but the former is canonical as it appears in the sequel. Jennifer sees a cloaked figure walking ahead of her; this is Mary. She follows it, wearing a disguise to fool the guard dog using Mary's perfume, and a black cloak found in the mansion. If Lotte did not need to rescue Jennifer from the jail cell, she can be found dying at an altar, and tells Jennifer about the switches in the clock tower. Otherwise, she rescues Jennifer from the jail cell, but is shot by a threatening Mary.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: Jennifer enters a room where she discovers Dan Barrows, a giant, gluttonous purple creature. Dan awakens from his slumber and chases Jennifer to a steep cliff. She successfully climbs over, knocking down a can of kerosene which splashes onto a nearby candle. This triggers an explosion that immolates Dan, while Jennifer rides an elevator out of the catacombs. She ends up defeating Bobby in the clock tower, and Mary as well in (or around, depending on prior actions) the clock tower. If Anne (or Laura) has not died yet, then this survivor reunites with Jennifer at the clock tower but is soon thrown down the tower by Mary. These actions would lead to one of Endings A, B, or C - any of these could be canonical according to the events of the next game. Because of the game's open-ended nature, the player can also discover other endings.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Clock Tower" was directed by Hifumi Kono, who wished to use the game to pay homage to one of his favorite film directors, Dario Argento. Most notably, the game borrows many ideas and is inspired by his film "Phenomena" (1985). "Clock Tower" has strong relations to its plot and shares other similarities with Argento's 1980s films, such as occult themes, distressed young women, and bright colors atop a foggy setting. Kono had a passion for old horror films, and wanted "Clock Tower" to feel like one.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: Kono described "Clock Tower" as an experimental project with a small budget and staff. His peers believed that a game where the protagonist runs away from the enemy would not work, but he continued on despite these concerns. Due to lack of staffing resources, developer Human Entertainment could not include mouse support and also needed to shrink the map down significantly. Although the graphics are two-dimensional, the mansion is designed within a 3D space. The character graphics in "Clock Tower" were created by digitizing photographs of real people, a popular technique at the time. The actress for Jennifer was a woman in Human's planning division. Many of the motions in the game came from her acting, such as hanging from a roof and stumbling in the hallway.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Clock Tower" was first released on the Super Famicom on September 14, 1995. According to Kono, the game sold "fairly well". It was later re-released under the title "Clock Tower: The First Fear" on PlayStation on July 17, 1997. Upon release, the PlayStation version made it the 8th on the sales charts, selling 54,293 copies. This release featured a new dagger weapon, a new room, and minor scenario additions. It was also released for Windows 95, and both the PlayStation and Windows versions also featured full motion video scenes, and minor graphical improvements. It was later released for the WonderSwan, which was rendered the entire game in monochrome with some HUD changes and could not be paused.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Clock Tower" was digitally re-released for the Wii and Wii U Virtual Console in Japan in 2010 and 2013 respectively. It has also reached multiple PlayStation devices via a release on the PlayStation Network in 2011, also exclusively in Japan. "Clock Tower" has never been officially released outside Japan; however, fan translations exist. In 2015, the soundtrack was released, titled "CLOCK TOWER 20th Anniversary Sound Collection". This includes audio from the original, PlayStation, and Windows versions of the game, as well as music from the games "Clock Tower 2", and "".


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Famitsu" gave the Super Famicom version a score of 31 out of 40, and the PlayStation version a 27 out of 40 score, and the Wonderswan version a 22 out of 40.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: In a retrospective review, Hernando Vallejo of "Hardcore Gaming 101" described "Clock Tower" as "one of the most thrilling experiences the [horror] genre can offer". He praised the game's graphics and sound for building a strong atmosphere. Allistair Pinsof of "Destructoid" praised the graphics, story, and the Dario Argento-inspired style for creating a haunting mood and atmosphere. He also praised the multiple endings and unique gameplay design. However, he found "Clock Tower" failed to create an interesting adventure experience due to the difficulty of navigating the mansion layout, excessive item hunting, and simple puzzles. He criticized the game's attempt to place a 3D space within a 2D game, which created confusion when exploring. Despite these flaws, he still found "Clock Tower" worth playing, calling it "atmospheric horror at its most raw, for better or worse". Both "The A.V. Club" and Pinsof believed that although "Clock Tower" aged poorly, it was still worth experiencing.


title: Clock Tower (1995 video game)

text: "Clock Tower" has seen as influential on horror video games and is considered instrumental in establishing the survival horror genre alongside the 1992 video game "Alone in the Dark". It also solidified Human Entertainment as a developer along with "Twilight Syndrome" and "Laplace no Ma". The game has made it to many lists of best horror games. The 2016 mook "Perfect Guide to Nostalgic Super Famicom" ranked the game the second best horror game for the Super Famicom, in 2018, "The A.V. Club" placed the game as number thirty on its list of top thirty-five horror games of all time. In 2022 "Hobby Consolas" listed on their top 20 horror games of all time.


title: Foundation (nonprofit)

text: A foundation (also a charitable foundation) is a category of nonprofit organization or charitable trust that typically provides funding and support for other charitable organizations through grants, but may also engage directly in charitable activities. Foundations include public charitable foundations, such as community foundations, and private foundations, which are typically endowed by an individual or family. However, the term "foundation" may also be used by such organizations that are not involved in public grantmaking.


title: Foundation (nonprofit)

text: Legal entities existing under the status of "foundations" have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Nevertheless, there are some common structural elements.


title: Foundation (nonprofit)

text: Some of the above must be, in most jurisdictions, expressed in the document of establishment. Others may be provided by the supervising authority at each particular jurisdiction.


title: Foundation (nonprofit)

text: There is no commonly accepted legal definition across Europe for a foundation. There was a proposal for a European Foundation Statute, a legal form that would create a legal definition recognised across all EU Member States, however this proposal was withdrawn in 2015 following its failure to pass through COREPER 1.


title: Foundation (nonprofit)

text: The term "foundation", in general, is used to describe a distinct legal entity. Foundations as legal structures (legal entities) and/or legal persons (legal personality), may have a diversity of forms and may follow diverse regulations depending on the jurisdiction where they are created. Foundations are often set up for charitable purposes, family patrimony and collective purposes.