title: Chad Muska

text: While in Arizona, Muska first met and spent time skateboarding with professional skateboarder Erik Ellington prior to both of their careers. Muska eventually moved to Mission Beach in San Diego, California, with very little money, a sketch book, and a portable cassette player to further pursue skateboarding and art.


title: Chad Muska

text: Maple was Muska's first-ever skateboard deck company and he appeared in the 1994 video "Rites of Passage". At the time, Muska was homeless and living on the beach, with no conception of what the future held for him.


title: Chad Muska

text: After parting ways with Maple, Muska joined Toy Machine, which is prestigious among professional skateboarders. Muska became a leading member of the Toy Machine team, facilitating Elissa Steamer's sponsorship, and was a team member alongside Ed Templeton, Mike Maldonado, Jamie Thomas, and Brian Anderson. According to skateboarding journalist Adam Salo, in 2009: "In '95–'96, Toy Machine was one of the most respected and emulated teams in skateboarding."


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska filmed for the "Welcome to Hell" video, a 1996 project primarily driven by Thomas, and he was expected to receive the highly regarded last part of the video. However, his part was only shown at the premiere and was omitted from the public video release due to an altercation with both Templeton and Thomas—a skull was placed over his face in the video case artwork.


title: Chad Muska

text: Following the issues at Toy Machine, Muska joined the then-fledgling Shorty's brand. Muska was chosen to develop the Shorty's skateboard deck division and the company thrived as a result. He is popularly known for his part in the 1998 skateboarding video "Fulfill The Dream", and he appeared in a total of four videos for the company.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska was sponsored by the éS skate shoe company (manufactured and distributed by the Sole Technology, Inc. company) in the late 1990s. When the "éS Muska" signature model was released in 1998, it was a popular product in the footwear market, as Muska was an especially popular figure in skateboarding culture during the late 1990s (the shoe was designed with a hidden "stash pocket" in the tongue of the shoe for particularly valuable items). Muska explained in 2013 that he was heavily involved with every aspect of the shoe's design, which was the way he continued for his subsequent skate shoe designs, regardless of the brand.


title: Chad Muska

text: Following his time with éS, Muska joined the C1RCA footwear team in 1999 as the first pro skater for C1RCA and released numerous signature shoe models with the brand. Models such as the "CM901" and "CM902" were promoted in magazine advertisements, and Muska also continued with the hidden "stash pocket" design feature that he utilized at éS. Thomas was also with the brand at this time, but the previous issues at Toy Machine had been resolved by this time. Muska parted ways with Circa in 2005.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska then left Shorty's in early 2006, and selected Element Skateboards as his next skateboard deck sponsor in December. Following his move to Element, Muska stated, "I am very excited about joining the Element family! I look forward to this new chapter in my skateboarding career... And you can bet on it that we are going to make some big things happen." The company officially welcomed Muska with an advertisement in 2007 that featured a photograph of Muska performing a frontside flip on a street-based transitional structure—the byline for the promotion read "Welcome To The Family".


title: Chad Muska

text: After he left C1RCA, Muska subsequently founded the Supra footwear company in 2006 with Angel Cabada from One Distribution (owner of the KR3W apparel brand). The Supra footwear brand has been endorsed by Muska since the company's inception, and Muska's first Supra signature model—the "Skytop"—was one of the first team rider models that was released. The first Muska Supra advertisement appeared in 2006, while the inaugural official Skytop promotion appeared in 2007. Muska has designed the signature shoe models, the Skytop, "Skytop II" (2009), and "Skytop III"; a low-cut version was also released. All of the Skytop designs were created in collaboration with footwear designer Josh Brubaker and were initially perceived as outlandish by Muska's peers in the industry.


title: Chad Muska

text: In addition to introducing a new version of the Berrics indoor skateboard facility in early 2013, Muska appeared on numerous occasions as a referee for the sixth installment of the Battle at the Berrics contest series, run by The Berrics website.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska partnered with the New Image Arts gallery to open his first-ever solo art exhibition, titled "Transitions," in June 2013. Muska explained:


title: Chad Muska

text: ... I set up this space. It was sort of a concept space for me and just a trial thing to bring a lot of people together from skaters to photographers, to artists and designers, directors, architects – I mean all these different people in one space and I wanted to encourage creativity. There was a big 20ft wall with supplies and it was a non-stop changing graffiti wall. So anybody that came I encouraged them to paint, interact with each other, have a good time and then my work was being created there and displayed there as well and people came and saw that and asked me to do the show, and that's how it happened.


title: Chad Muska

text: The press release for the show explained the title's origins: "The title of Chad's first show ... is a word that not only stems from the curved surfaces skateboarders ride on in pools, parks, and ramps, but it's also a reference to the skateboard lifestyle which is defined by movement from place to place, and from one state of mind to the next."


title: Chad Muska

text: Supra expanded into Mexico in 2014, and Muska opened the brand's store in Mexico City in November/December. He designed a custom sculpture to reflect city's history—titled "El Sol, La Luna, Y Más Allá," the sculpture was installed as a permanent fixture in the store.


title: Chad Muska

text: As of December 2021, Muska's sponsors are Ghetto Child Wheels, Shorty's, Brooklyn Projects and Supra Footwear.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska was identified as the 12th most influential skateboarder of all time by "Transworld SKATEboarding" magazine in December 2011. In response to the matter of his influence on skateboarding, Muska stated in response:


title: Chad Muska

text: I'd like to think that I've brought something to the table. I caused a little bit of a stir at times in the industry when I think it needed it. People can talk shit about me or they love me—I don't know what they think about me—but at least I feel I added something to the industry and I had so much fun doing it.


title: Chad Muska

text: Professional skateboarder Tom Penny (identified as twenty-first on "Transworld SKATEboarding"'s list) named Muska as one of the five skateboarders who have influenced skateboarding the most.


title: Chad Muska

text: After his inclusion in the "30 Most Influential Skaters of All Time" list released by "Transworld SKATEboarding" magazine in 2011, Muska explained that his first influences were sponsored skateboarders in his local area.


title: Chad Muska

text: In addition to the influence that Muska has had on Penny, Muska revealed Penny's influence on his own skateboarding in 2012:


title: Chad Muska

text: I think what was cool is that he was pushing skateboarding in a direction that I wasn't ... and I was pushing towards bigger handrails, bigger "hubbas", and, kind of, unconventional skate spots. And so I think, the two of us, kind of got psyched off each other, you know? next thing I know, he was hitting, grinding bigger handrails; I started frontside flipping over handrails, you know, like? ... And just as people, I think, like, he remains-I don't have to see the guy for ten years and we'll still be best friends ... You meet people over the years that you connect with and are inspired by, you know? And I think me and Tom were definitely a major part of coming together and helping progress skateboarding at the time ...


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska has also identified Jamie Thomas as a major influence and described him as an individual who is readily able to identify others who are willing to work at their skateboarding diligently. Muska explained, "I'd just watch what he was doing ... he's talking and they're listening to him, you know? So I think Jamie really opened my eyes more that you could do more than just skate and get more involved with these companies, you know?"


title: Chad Muska

text: The top five skateboarding influences, as identified by Muska in 2012, are Christian Hosoi, Natas Kaupas, Mark Gonzales, Pat Duffy, and Nyjah Huston—during the same interview, Muska admitted that "there are so many" and also named Kris Markovic and Jeremy Wray. In response to the matter of who is the all-time, "number one" influential skateboarder in history, Muska named Gonzales, further explaining:


title: Chad Muska

text: ... just still to this day. Like, I mean, just because, for me, skateboarding was never about just progression; it was about, like, the individual, and the person, and what they brought to, to skateboarding. Not many skaters could have a career as long as he has and still maintain that idea, you know? Like, still, he is skateboarding; that is, everything, is Mark—it's freedom; it's not caring about anything; it's about going on your board and enjoying yourself; pushing yourself physically, mentally, and having as much fun as you can possibly have. That's what skateboarding is and that's what Mark is.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska has named a variety of influences in regard to his shoe design work, such as Louis Vuitton and the Nike "Jordan" range, further explaining that he has attempted to merge the aesthetics of the fashion and sneaker cultures. In an interview to promote the third Skytop model, Muska elaborated on his future direction:


title: Chad Muska

text: Personally design-wise, I'm definitely all over the place and I'm thinking of so many new and exciting designs, but it's hard for me to find places to sell a lot of the stuff, because it will be too crazy for what the shops want, especially on the skateboarding side ... I mean, the same thing happened with the Skytop I and eventually all the shops that thought it was horrible and said they would never wear it couldn't deny the fact that people wanted this product ... I think it's time for the world to define a new style and a new chapter and go ahead.


title: Chad Muska

text: In 1997, Muska founded the skateboard wheel brand Ghetto Child. Started as a friendship between Chad Muska, Tom Penny and Sean Sheffey, Ghetto Child went on to sponsor some of today's most relevant skateboarders. In 2004, Ghetto Child went on a hiatus, ceasing distribution. In 2016, Bryan Herman and Braydon Szafranski collaborated with Muska to relaunch the brand.


title: Chad Muska

text: In 2008, Muska opened the store "Factory413" in Los Angeles, with business partner Cabada; The retail outlet is described on the store's website as "a hub for avant-garde Los Angeles brands and a creative outlet for both founders."


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska has released signature products using the "Factory413" name, such as sunglasses in 2010 and shoe collaboration with Supra in late 2012.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska is a playable character in the "Tony Hawk's" video game series, from "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater" to "Tony Hawk's Underground 2".


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska's music has been released under the alias "Muskabeatz" and he has produced music for old-school hip hop artists, such as Afrika Bambaataa, Biz Markie, MC Lyte, Guru, Melle Mel, Ice-T, Jeru the Damaja, and KRS-One, as well as Wu-Tang Clan members Raekwon and U-God. For his debut release, Muska had planned to produce a drum 'n' bass record, but he decided during the recording process that the album should have an "old-school feel" to it—the self-titled Muskabeatz record was released on February 13, 2003 on Muska's own 1212 Records.


title: Chad Muska

text: Following his move to Mission Beach as an adolescent, Muska was mostly homeless and spent a significant period of time sleeping on the beach; in 2012, Muska explained: "I had nothing and those were, I can still say, by far, the happiest days of my life. Happiest beyond, craziest times, test, gnarliest adventures, everything, you know?" As of 2012, Muska resided in Hollywood, California.


title: Chad Muska

text: Muska filmed a "Footnotes" segment for the Berrics website, in which he revealed his love of footwear, including his personal collection of footwear and models that he has designed. During the interview for the segment, Muska clarified, "I'm not, like, that 'sneaker collector guy' where, like, I buy one of each just to, like, save 'em and have 'em; when I like sneakers I like to get 'em and use them more, and wear 'em."


title: Chad Muska

text: On July 14, 2011, Muska was arrested for "felony vandalism" on Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles, California.


title: Chad Muska

text: The 1996 Toy Machine video "Welcome to Hell" features a bonus part from Muska that was edited to a song by Nappy Roots called "Right Now".


title: Lists of record labels

text: Lists of record labels cover record labels, brands or trademarks associated with marketing of music recordings and music videos. The lists are organized alphabetically, by genre, by company and by location.


title: Biba

text: Biba was a London fashion store of the 1960s and 1970s. Biba was started and primarily run by the Polish-born Barbara Hulanicki with help of her husband Stephen Fitz-Simon.


title: Biba

text: Biba's early years were rather humble, with many of the outfits being inexpensive and available to the public by mail order. The first store, in Abingdon Road in Kensington, was opened in September 1964. Biba's postal boutique had its first significant success in May 1964 when it offered a pink gingham dress with a hole cut out of the back of the neck with a matching triangular kerchief to readers of the "Daily Mirror". The dress had celebrity appeal, as a similar dress had been worn by Brigitte Bardot. By the morning after the dress was advertised in the "Daily Mirror", over 4,000 orders had been received. Ultimately, some 17,000 outfits were sold. Following this success, Biba moved to new, enhanced premises in Kensington Church Street.


title: Biba

text: Hulanicki worked as a fashion illustrator after studying at Brighton Art College in the late 1950s. She married advertising executive Stephen Fitz-Simon and they soon opened a mail order clothing company that she named Biba's Postal Boutique. Biba was the nickname of her younger sister Biruta.


title: Biba

text: In 1973 with the backing of Dorothy Perkins and British Land, the store moved to the seven-storey Derry & Toms department store, which immediately attracted up to a million customers weekly, making it one of the most visited tourist attractions in London. There were different departments, and each floor had its own theme, such as a children's floor, a floor for men, a book store, a food market, and a "home" floor which sold items such as wallpaper, paint, cutlery, soft furnishings and even statues. The overall design was produced by Whitmore-Thomas Partnership, run by artist/designers Steve Thomas and Tim Whitmore. Each department had its own logo or sign, which was based on the Biba logo and had a picture describing the department. These were commissioned by Thomas and Whitmore and designed by Kasia Charko.


title: Biba

text: The store had an Art Deco-interior reminiscent of the Golden Age of Hollywood and non-traditional displays, such as a giant Snoopy and his doghouse in the children's department, where merchandise based on the "Peanuts" comic strip was sold. The Biba Food Hall was also designed ingeniously, each part being aimed at one particular kind of product; a unit made to look like a dog (based on Hulanicki's own dog, a Great Dane named Othello) consisted of dog food; a huge baked beans tin can consisted of only tins of Baked beans; a can of "Warhol's Condensed Soup" etc., all foods having individual innovative units.


title: Biba

text: Also at the new "Big Biba" was "The Rainbow Restaurant", which was located on the fifth floor of the department store and was destined to become a major hang-out for rock stars, but which was not solely the reserve of the elite. With all of these renovations and additions, Biba became known as a "theatre for fashion." Also at the site was the Kensington Roof Gardens, which are still there today.


title: Biba

text: Big Biba was a huge responsibility in terms of expense and organization, but Hulanicki and Fitz felt they needed to "keep moving forward." Because of this massive undertaking, Hulanicki said, "Every time I went into the shop, I was afraid it would be for the last time." No one was aware of how serious the financial difficulties were going to be - and they proved too much for the new entrepreneurs; as a result Dorothy Perkins and Dennis Day came to save the day and bought 75% (approx.) of Biba. This led to the formation of Biba Ltd, which meant that the brand and the store could now be properly financed.


title: Biba

text: After disagreements with the Board over creative control, Hulanicki left the company and, shortly afterwards in 1975, Biba was closed by the British Land Company. The Dorothy Perkins shareholders decided that the Derry and Toms building that housed Big Biba was worth more than the ailing business itself. It sold the trademark to a consortium with no connection to Barbara Hulanicki, who opened a store in London on 27 November 1978, on two floors in Conduit Street in London's Mayfair. The store was not a success, and closed less than two years later.


title: Biba

text: There have been several attempts to relaunch Biba, the first occurring as soon after its closure as 1977. Another relaunch took place in the mid-1990s with Monica Zipper as head designer. Barbara Hulanicki has not been involved with any of these relaunches, and due to the use of Biba's logo and similar labels, these garments are easy to pass off as original vintage pieces.


title: Biba

text: The Biba label was relaunched again in May 2006 under designer Bella Freud. Again, Biba's founder, Barbara Hulanicki, was not contacted for the relaunch and said it was 'very, very painful', believing that the new Biba would 'betray its heritage.' Freud's first collection Spring/Summer 2007 was unveiled at London Fashion Week in September 2006, and was criticised for straying from the original concept of low-priced clothes for teenagers, needing 'more polish', as they 'had a Biba flavour but lacked the retro details that the original Biba designs had.' Freud's second attempt, Autumn/Winter 2007 was also panned as 'the kind of thing that's already over-available in fast fashion chains.' Freud left the company after just 2 seasons in June 2007 to relaunch her own label. The Biba relaunch failed and the company went into administration for a second time in 2008.


title: Biba

text: House of Fraser bought the company in November 2009 for a second relaunch by an in-house design team, announcing Daisy Lowe as the new face of the label. Hector Castro and a five-strong team were selected to replace Freud with couture hats created by Prudence Millinery. This relaunch was highly successful, outselling House of Fraser's other in-house brands in just two weeks of its launch, boosting its year end sales. Meanwhile, Hulanicki instead designed capsule collections for rival high-street company Topshop, and once again expressed her unhappiness with the relaunch, attacking the new Biba as "too expensive" and "for failing to reflect the original Biba style". She also signed with Asda to produce three to four collections of clothing retailing between £11 and £18.


title: Biba

text: In 2014, it was announced that Hulanicki would be a consultant to the Biba brand, after signing an agreement with House of Fraser.


title: It's a Trap!

text: "It's a Trap!" is a direct-to-video special of the animated series "Family Guy" which later served as the double-episode season finale of the ninth season and is the final part of the series' "Star Wars" parody trilogy "". It is named after the phrase uttered by Admiral Ackbar in the Star Wars film "Return of the Jedi". The home video was first released on December 21, 2010, and later aired on Fox in the United States on May 22, 2011.


title: It's a Trap!

text: The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and David A. Goodman and directed by Peter Shin. It retells the story of "Return of the Jedi" as "Blue Harvest" did with "Star Wars" and "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side" did with "The Empire Strikes Back" by recasting characters from "Family Guy" into roles from the film.


title: It's a Trap!

text: The Griffin family experience another power outage, forcing them to reluctantly go through "Return of the Jedi". Rather than setting up the plot, the opening crawl states that the Fox Broadcasting Company required Seth MacFarlane to complete the trilogy to be allowed to direct "Ted".


title: It's a Trap!

text: On Tatooine, R2-D2 and C-3PO find Jabba the Hutt's palace in order to initiate a plan to save Han Solo, still frozen in carbonite for posterity. Leia unfreezes Han but Jabba captures her and she is shackled by Jabba's side. Han, meanwhile, is thrown into a prison cell with Chewbacca. Luke arrives at the palace and attempts to bargain for the release of his friends. Jabba opens a trap door and Luke falls into a pit where he battles and kills the Rancor. Afterwards, Jabba orders Luke and his friends to be eaten by the Sarlacc. Luke initiates an assault on Jabba's crew with the help of Lando Calrissian. Leia chokes Jabba using her slave chains while the others commandeer a transport ship.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Luke and R2-D2 fly to Dagobah so Luke can finish his training with Yoda while the others rejoin the rebel fleet. On Dagobah, Yoda explains the final part of training is to face Vader. In his dying words, Yoda reveals that Luke has a sibling. The spirit of Obi-Wan Kenobi explains that his sibling is Princess Leia.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Admiral Ackbar explains that to destroy the Death Star they must first disable a shield generator on the forest moon of Endor. Han uses a stolen Imperial ship and old access code to sneak past the Empire's blockade. Vader allows them passage, knowing Luke is aboard. When they reach the moon's surface, the rebels are spotted by Imperial soldiers which they stop from reporting after a high-speed chase. Separated from the others, Leia is befriended by Wicket the Ewok. Luke, Han, Chewie and the droids fall into an Ewok trap while searching for Leia. They are captured and brought to the village where Leia is being housed. The Ewoks believe C-3PO is a god and begin to worship him. Luke tells Princess Leia they are siblings, but Leia claims to have already known that.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Following Yoda's advice, Luke surrenders to Vader in order to confront him. Vader tries to convince Luke to turn to the dark side. Luke refuses and the two meet with the Emperor, who reveals that Luke's friends are walking into a trap on the forest moon. When this revelation fails to anger Luke, the Emperor begins to mock actor Seth Green (who voices Chris). Luke defends Green saying that he's been in successful projects, only to have The Emperor saying the negative side of Green's roles. Luke becomes enraged and begins dueling with Vader.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Back on the forest moon, Han leads the rebels to the shield generator, however, the company is ambushed. The Ewoks help the rebels escape from the Imperial troops and destroy the shield generator, while Lando and Nien Nunb lead the attack on the Death Star.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Luke finally subdues Vader, but he refuses to execute him and join the dark side at the Emperor's request. The Emperor then incapacitates Luke with his powerful Force lightning. Because Luke asks Vader politely for help, Vader gathers his remaining strength and kills the distracted Emperor by throwing him into the reactor core. Vader and Luke manage to flee the Death Star before Lando and his crew blow it up. Unfortunately, when Vader asks Luke to help him remove his mask (to "look on you with my own eyes"), Luke accidentally twists and breaks Vader's neck. Everyone rendezvous back at the Ewok village to celebrate the rebels victory over the Empire. While the Ewoks kill the wounded Imperials, the spirits of Obi-Wan and Yoda appear to Luke, alongside the spirit of the redeemed Anakin Skywalker, who angrily accuses Luke of murdering him and starts swearing at him.


title: It's a Trap!

text: The Griffins' power returns just as Peter concludes the story, Meg then asks Peter "What about the prequel trilogy?" with Peter suggesting that "The Cleveland Show" might do the prequels. After that, the family starts arguing about whether Seth Green or Seth MacFarlane is a better artist.


title: It's a Trap!

text: It was announced in March 2009 the show had read through an early draft of the script under the working title, "Episode VI: The Great Muppet Caper". The second working title, "We Have a Bad Feeling About This", was a reference to the recurring catchphrase that is used in the "Star Wars" films. The settled-upon title is a reference to the line by Admiral Ackbar in the film, which became an Internet meme through YTMND.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Due to the declining number of unused "Family Guy" characters, the episode also features characters from "American Dad!" and "The Cleveland Show": Roger appears as Moff Jerjerrod, (with Vader/Stewie commenting "Are we already out of our own characters?") Klaus appears as Admiral Ackbar, Tim appears as Wicket the Ewok and Rallo appears as Nien Nunb. Stan was originally going to appear as Wedge Antilles, but his part got cut (he is still mentioned when Lando orders him to destroy the Power Station in the main reactor of the Death Star).


title: It's a Trap!

text: The episode featured voice cameos from Patrick Stewart and Michael Dorn reprising their roles of Captain Jean-Luc Picard and Lieutenant Worf from "", Adam West, Carrie Fisher and Rush Limbaugh as the Rancor (Limbaugh had previously made a cameo as himself in "Blue Harvest").


title: It's a Trap!

text: At the Sarlacc Pit, when the Rebels keep nodding at each other to fight back against Jabba's minions, an image of an impatient Ted Knight appears from a clip of "Caddyshack" ("Well, we're waiting!").


title: It's a Trap!

text: The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and David A. Goodman and directed by Peter Shin, in his first episode since the fourth season. A preview of the reading of the episode can be seen on the "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side" DVD extras.


title: It's a Trap!

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 60% based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10.


title: It's a Trap!

text: Both the Blu-ray and DVD versions, titled "Family Guy Presents: It's a Trap!", were released on region A and region 1, respectively, on December 21, 2010, Region 4, on December 22, 2010, and in Region 2 on December 27, 2010. It was broadcast on the Fox network May 22, 2011 as the 9th-season finale. It was also released in the trilogy collection, "Laugh It Up, Fuzzball".


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Seminole County (, ) is a county located in the central portion of the U.S. state of Florida. As of the 2020 census, the population was 470,856. Its county seat and largest city is Sanford. Seminole County is part of the Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: On July 21, 1821, two counties formed Florida: Escambia to the west and St. Johns to the east. In 1824, the area to the south of St. Johns County was designated Mosquito County, with its seat at Enterprise. The county's name was changed to Orange County in 1845 when Florida became a state, and over the next 70 years several other counties were created. Seminole County was one of the last to split.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Seminole County was created on April 25, 1913, out of the northern portion of Orange County by the Florida Legislature. It was named for the Seminole people who historically lived throughout the area. The name "Seminole" is thought to be derived from the Spanish word "cimarron," meaning "wild" or "runaway."


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of , of which is land and (10.4%) is water. It is Florida's fourth-smallest county by land area and third-smallest by total area.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Seminole County's location between Volusia County and Orange County has made it one of Florida's fastest-growing counties. The Greater Orlando Metropolitan District which includes Seminole, Osceola, and the surrounding counties of Lake and Orange counties, together with neighboring Volusia and Brevard counties create a viable, progressive and diverse setting for economic growth and residential development.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 470,856 people, 178,094 households, and 120,049 families residing in the county.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 365,196 people, 139,572 households, and 97,281 families residing in the county. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the population of the county has grown to 394,878 by 2003. Current 2012 estimates put the population at more than 430,838. The population density was . There were 147,079 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 82.4% White, 9.5% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 2.5% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.1% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. 11.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: There were 139,572 households, out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 11.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.3% were non-families. 22.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.07. The Department of Education states that in 2003, school enrollment was approximately 72,630. As of 2006, the Seminole County School District was the 52nd largest in the nation. As of 2020, the Seminole County School District was the 12th largest school district in Florida and 60th nationally with more than 67,000 students and 10,000 employees.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Population was distributed with 25.4% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 23.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the county was $49,326, and the median income for a family was $56,895. Males had a median income of $40,001 versus $28,217 for females. The per capita income for the county was $24,591. About 5.1% of families and 7.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.6% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over. As of March 2009, according to Workforce Central Florida, the unemployment rate for Seminole County is 9.2 percent.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Seminole County is part of the strongly Republican belt of central and southwest Florida that was the first portion of the state to move politically distance itself from the "Solid South": Until Joe Biden carried the county in 2020, the last Democratic Party candidate to win the county in a presidential election had been Harry Truman in 1948. The entire county is currently represented by Democratic congresswoman Stephanie Murphy. , Republicans slightly outnumbered Democrats, 117,134 to 114,654, in registered voters.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The government operates under a County Charter adopted in 1989 and amended in November, 1994. Policymaking and the legislative authority are vested in the Board of County Commissioners, a five-member board elected to four-year terms in partisan, countywide elections and from single member districts. The board adopts the county budget, levies property taxes and other fees, and hires the county manager and county attorney. In addition to the board, five constitutional officers are elected to partisan, four-year terms in accordance with the constitution of the State of Florida.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The constitutional officers, clerk of the circuit and county courts, sheriff, tax collector, property appraiser, and supervisor of elections, maintain separate accounting records and budgets. The board funds a portion or, in certain instances, all of the operating budgets of the county's constitutional officers.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The county provides a full range of services: the construction and maintenance of the county's infrastructure, public safety, recreation, health and human services, and development and protection of the physical and economic environment.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: In addition to the county government described above, there are other political entities which are controlled by the county, but have their own appointed boards; the Seminole County Expressway Authority, the Seminole County Port Authority, the Fred R. Wilson Memorial Law Library and the US 17-92 Community Redevelopment Agency.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: Republicans control all of Seminole County's partisan elected offices. In 2020, despite Joe Biden narrowly winning Seminole County in the presidential election, Republican candidates for county office won by wide margins over their Democratic opponents.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The Seminole Soil and Water Conservation District serves as an administrative role to conserve the environment within the county. Supervisor Amy Volpe resigned in April, 2021 and Sarah Hall was elected to replace her in a Meeting in June 2021.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The Seminole County Sheriff's Office is the law enforcement agency for unincorporated areas of Seminole County. the current sheriff is Dennis M. Lemma, who took office in 2017.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: The library system was founded in 1978 by the Seminole County Board of County Commissioners. It contains 500,000 volumes and has a circulation of 2.5 million books annually. There are five branches, located in the cities of Casselberry, Sanford, Lake Mary, Oviedo, and Longwood.


title: Seminole County, Florida

text: An online catalog is available including access to e-books and audio books. Library cards are restricted to county residents, property owners, students (enrolled in a county public school), or employed by the county government.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: Members of the 16th Lok Sabha were elected during the 2014 Indian general election. The elections were conducted in 9 phases from 7 April 2014 to 12 May 2014 by the Election Commission of India. The results of the election were declared on 16 May 2014.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: The Bharatiya Janata Party (of the NDA) achieved an absolute majority with 282 seats out of 543, 166 seats more than in the previous 15th Lok Sabha. Its PM candidate Narendra Modi took office on 26 May 2014 as the 14th prime minister of India. The first session was convened from 4 to 11 June 2014.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: There was no leader of the opposition in the 16th Lok Sabha as the Indian Parliament rules state that a party in the Lok Sabha must have at least 10% (55) of the total seats (545) to be considered the opposition party. The Indian National Congress (of the UPA) could only manage 44 seats, while the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party from Tamil Nadu came a close third with 37 seats. Mallikarjun Kharge was declared the leader of the Indian National Congress in the Lok Sabha.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: Five sitting members from Rajya Sabha, the Upper House of Indian Parliament, were elected to 16th Lok Sabha after the 2014 Indian general election.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: The "pro-tem" Speaker Kamal Nath was administered oath on 4 June 2014 & presided over the election of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Sumitra Mahajan was elected as its Speaker on 6 June 2014 and would remain in office until the day before the first sitting of the 17th Lok Sabha. M Thambidurai was elected as Deputy Speaker on 13 August 2014.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: About one-third of all winners had at least one pending criminal case against them, with some having serious criminal cases.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: Compared to the 15th Lok Sabha, there was an increase of members with criminal cases. In 2009, 158 (30%) of the 521 members analyzed had criminal cases, of which 77 (15%) had serious criminal cases.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: As of May 2014, out of the 542 members analysed, 443 (82%) are having assets of or more. In the 15th Lok Sabha, out of 521 members analysed, 300 (58%) members had assets of or more.


title: 16th Lok Sabha

text: During the tenure of the 16th Lok Sabha, 21% of bills were referred to Parliamentary committees for examination


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Pétrus is a restaurant in London, which serves modern French cuisine. It is located in Kinnerton Street, Belgravia and is part of Gordon Ramsay restaurants owned by celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay's Gordon Ramsay Restaurants Ltd. It has held one Michelin star since 2011, and 3 AA Rosettes.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: The current Pétrus restaurant is located in 1 Kinnerton Street, Belgravia, London, where it was opened on 29 March 2010 under head chef Sean Burbidge. He had worked in other Gordon Ramsay restaurants including Restaurant Gordon Ramsay and Gordon Ramsay au Trianon, but it is his first position as head chef. Currently head chef is Russell Bateman, who in 2014 won the prestigious National Chef of the Year competition.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: The interior of the restaurant has been designed by the Russell Sage Studio, who also worked on other Ramsay establishments, The Savoy Grill and the York and Albany. The claret red theme of previous incarnations of the restaurant has been maintained, and was coupled in the design with leather and polished metalwork. The layout includes a chef's table for six people which overlooks the kitchen. The wine list includes more than 2,000 bottles of wine, and includes 34 different vintages of the French wine Pétrus. They are located in a circular glass room located in the middle of the dining room.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: The menu at Pétrus is split into several fixed price menus, containing modern French cuisine. It has been described by Zoe Williams as being distinctly Gordon Ramsay in composition, despite the influences of head chef Sean Burbidge. The meals come with an amuse-bouche, a pre-starter course, and after dinner chocolates in addition to the items listed on the menus themselves. A number of pan fried fish dishes have been on the menu, including mackerel with tomato chutney and a niçoise salad, and a sea bream course served with brown shrimp, samphire and an oyster velouté sauce. Further seafood related dishes include a langoustine and watercress soup entrée which was praised by food critic Jay Rayner. Sauces are generally delivered to the table in small jugs and are poured tableside.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Elements of the dessert course are served on dry ice, such as small round white chocolate balls of ice cream, which has been taken from the menu at Restaurant Gordon Ramsay. Other desserts on the menu include a hollow sphere of chocolate, which a hot chocolate sauce is poured over to dissolve the sphere in order to unveil the ball of milk ice cream within, and a fennel crème brûlée served with Alphonso mango. The wine list starts from around £25, and moves up to a 1961 magnum of Pétrus at £39,000.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Pétrus was opened in March 1999 as a joint venture between chef Gordon Ramsay and his father-in-law Chris Hutcheson as Ramsay's second restaurant after Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea. It was opened at 33 St James's Street, London, on 22 March 1999 under head chef Marcus Wareing. The name came from the French wine Pétrus, which was Ramsay's and Wareing's favourite. Whilst located at St James's Street, it was nearby L'Oranger, which Wareing had run for A-Z Restaurants, which reopened shortly after Pétrus, but with Wareing's former sous chef as head chef.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Giorgio Locatelli allegedly caused criminal damage to the restaurant later in 1999 by spitting at the wallpaper, resulting in an estimated £1,300 worth of damage, however the case was dropped by the Crown Prosecution Service. In July 2001, the expenditure of a group of six investment bankers at Pétrus made national news in the UK. Together they spent more than £44,000 on wine, resulting in the restaurant giving them £400 worth of food gratis.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: In 2003, Gordon Ramsay Holdings took over location was used to be used by the restaurant Vong at The Berkeley hotel in Knightsbridge, London. Ramsay signalled his intention to move Wareing and Pétrus into the location after the arrangements between chef Jean-Georges Vongerichten and the Savoy Group were not renewed. This resulted in both restaurants at The Berkeley coming under Ramsay's control. The restaurant was one of those run by Ramsay that he imposed a smoking ban in from 2004 onwards.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: In May 2008, it was announced that the hotel intended to work directly with Wareing rather than through Gordon Ramsay Holdings, as the lease on Pétrus' location inside the Berkeley Hotel was due to lapse in September 2008. This deal resulted in a public war of words between Wareing and Ramsay, with Wareing opening his restaurant Marcus Wareing at the Berkeley in the space previously occupied by Pétrus, and Ramsay's holding company retaining the rights to the Pétrus name. Wareing described his new venture as being a renaming of Pétrus. Originally it was expected that the name would be transferred to another restaurant already held by the company. A spokesperson for the Michelin Guide stated that Pétrus' Michelin stars would stay with the property, expecting "that things will change very little" when it was reviewed for the 2009 guide. Before Pétrus closed at The Berkeley to be rebranded, all of the potential customers in the reservations book were contacted to say that their reservations had been cancelled and to offer them a place at another Ramsay restaurant.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Wareing later criticised Pétrus when it reopened at 1 Kinnerton Street, and said that while any restaurant could be named after a bottle of wine, the real Pétrus remained his restaurant despite the name change. The new location was nearby the former premises, but the menu was described as being distinctly "Gordon" rather than "Marcus". Jean-Philippe Susilovic, who was the Maître d'hôtel for five years at Pétrus in the Berkeley, moved over with the restaurant to the new location. Pétrus has a twenty-year lease at Kinnerton Street.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Following the sacking of Hutcheson by Ramsay from Gordon Ramsay Holdings, Hutcheson attempted to take control of Pétrus in its new location as he argued that he had listed himself as sole shareholder of the company "Pétrus (Kinnerton Street)" on the documentation filed with Companies House in April 2010. The issue was settled when Ramsay bought out Hutcheson's stake in Gordon Ramsay Holdings, and transferring the restaurant to Ramsay's new company, Kavalake Limited. In June 2014, Neil Snowball took over from Sean Burbridge as head chef at the restaurant.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Tracey Macleod ate at Pétrus for "The Independent" shortly after it opened in 1999. She thought that certain touches would impress the Michelin inspectors, and that the dishes were suitably elaborate. Jay Rayner visited the restaurant whilst it was at the Bekerley Hotel in 2003 for "The Observer". He thought that the menu was over complicated, and not all the elements of the dishes worked together. Gillian Glover of "The Scotsman" thought in 2005 that some of the food served was forgettable, but stand out elements included frog leg lollipops which came with her main course of baked seabass with garlic puree.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Zoe Williams reviewed the restaurant for "The Daily Telegraph" in 2010, after Burbidge became head chef. She found issues with some of the dishes, such as a mackerel which wasn't properly filleted, and some overcooked samphire. However she thought that the dessert was perfect, stating that "It was enough to make you wonder why anybody ever makes custard without fennel". Fay Maschler visited the new establishment in April 2010 for the "Evening Standard", who disagreed with the idea that it was a reopening and said that it instead should be considered to be a new Ramsay restaurant. She was impressed by the majority of the food, especially the desserts, however felt that the service was a little alien. Marina O'Loughlin for the "Metro" in June 2010, thought that the food was fine and although the restaurant seems to have been entirely designed with gathering Michelin stars, it seemed that everything on the menu had been done somewhere else but better. "Time Out"'s review of the restaurant rated it at four out of five stars, being impressed with the quality of the food and describing the wine selection as "crammed with class".


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: The restaurant won its first Michelin star under Wareing in 2000, and was awarded a second star in 2007. It became only the fifth London based restaurant to hold stars at that level. Following the split with Wareing, the restaurant at the new location gained a new single Michelin star in the 2011 list.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: Whilst under Wareing's lead, the restaurant was rated the best overall restaurant in London by restaurant guide "Harden's" in 2008, but was beaten by Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in the best food and service rankings in the £80+ bracket. However, in 2009, it was ranked once more the best overall in London, and in those categories as well.


title: Pétrus (restaurant)

text: It holds five AA Rosettes. However, in 2002 editor Simon Wright resigned as he believed that the managing director of The Automobile Association intervened to prevent Pétrus from receiving a fifth rosette at the recommendation of the AA's inspectors. Ramsay reacted by threatening to take legal action in order to ensure that none of his restaurants were featured in the 2003 edition of the AA's restaurant guide. This was followed by the resignation of inspector Sarah Peart over the same issue. The AA eventually relented and awarded Pétrus five rosettes. Wareing said of the issue at the time, "I'm delighted to get the fifth rosette, it's a great achievement. Every AA inspector believed we deserved five rosettes, it was only the guy at the top, Roger Wood, who didn't. As far as I know, he still has not eaten at Pétrus and I would not welcome him here now."


title: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent

text: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent is the debut studio album by Scottish singer-songwriter Lewis Capaldi. It was released on 17 May 2019 through Vertigo Records in Europe and Capitol Records in the United States, and distributed globally by Universal Music. It includes the top 10 single "Grace", the UK and US number one single "Someone You Loved" and the album's lead single "Hold Me While You Wait", among several songs previously included on Capaldi's 2018 EPs "Bloom" and "Breach". Capaldi went on a world tour in support of the record in May 2019, and finished the tour in October 2019. It peaked at number one in the UK and Ireland, becoming the fastest-selling album of the year and also outselling all of the top 10 combined in both countries. It was certified gold in the UK a week after its release. The album was the best selling album in the UK in 2019 and 2020, with "Someone You Loved" being the best selling single of 2019 in the UK.


title: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent

text: In the album announcement, Capaldi said: "Everyone always tells you about how amazing recording their first album was and how they'll always look back on the 'process' with fond memories. I will look back on it as an extremely stressful time that somehow also managed to be extremely boring." He went on to describe that while he liked "building up the songs", he did not enjoy re-recording guitar parts and the long mixing process. Capaldi also joked that he did not think that when he got to release his debut album that he "would give it a name as stupid I have, but here we are". MTV said Capaldi "might have just won Best Album Title of 2019".


title: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent

text: Ben Beaumont-Thomas of "The Guardian" said that "few artists have quite such a disparity between their music and their public persona" as Capaldi, who, in song, is "a man utterly battered by a breakup". He called Capaldi's honesty "appealing" and felt that there is "some solid songwriting here, and a nobility to the sheer honesty of the lyrics", describing the music as "full-force, ugly crying pop". Roisin O'Connor of "The Independent" called Capaldi's voice "a gravelly powerhouse that manages to evoke the 22-year-old's natural charisma even on the weepiest of ballads" and said the album "alternates between piano and guitar-based tracks, with production that retains raw moments" that, while "not the most adventurous album [...] is more about unveiling the rough materials Capaldi has to work with". Hayley Milross from "The Line of Best Fit" called the album "an assured and settled debut", saying that while Capaldi may not have "deliver[ed] an album that leans towards the extraordinary", it is a "collection of poignant love songs that are honest and sincere".


title: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent

text: Robin Murray of "Clash" questioned why Capaldi's music is "so boring" given his "hilarious" public persona. Murray judged that the album "isn't something anyone should hate. It's well produced, well played, and for the more part well written, if highly repetitive in its he said/she said subject matter", saying its "refusal to be disliked" is "perhaps its most dispiriting, irritating aspect". Writing for "NME", Jordan Bassett characterised the album as "emotional piano ballads" that "sit at stark contrast with his public persona", concluding that it is "somewhat baffling that such a charismatic star could make a record so lacking in personality, though his fans won't mind one bit".


title: Divinely Uninspired to a Hellish Extent

text: The album became the second fastest-selling album of the year in Ireland after three days of availability. The album started atop the Irish Albums Chart with 6,389 units (physical sales, downloads and streaming). It later became the fastest-selling album of the year, the decade and the fourth all-time in the country.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: The 2021 Africa Cup of Nations was an international football tournament that was held in Cameroon from 9 January to 6 February 2022. The 24 national teams involved in the tournament were allowed to register a squad of up to 28 players, including a minimum of three goalkeepers, to allow teams to deal with any COVID-19 cases. Only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: The position and date of birth listed for each player is per the official squad list published by CAF. The age listed for each player is on 9 January 2022, the first day of the tournament. The numbers of caps and goals listed for each player do not include any matches played after the start of tournament. The club listed is the club for which the player last played a competitive match prior to the tournament. The nationality for each club reflects the national association (not the league) to which the club is affiliated. A flag is included for coaches that are of a different nationality than their own national team.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 29-man provisional squad was announced on 24 December 2021. The final 28-man squad was named on 4 January 2022.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 40-man provisional squad was announced on 10 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was announced on 22 December 2021.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 26-man final squad was announced on 23 December 2021. On 3 January 2022, Delmiro and Elber Evora were added to the squad to reach the maximum of 28 players. On 7 January 2022, Djaniny withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Vagner Gonçalves.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 27-man final squad was announced on 22 December 2021. On 26 December 2021, Antoine Conte and Florentin Pogba withdrew due to injury and were replaced by Fodé Camara and Gaoussou Youssouf Siby.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 43-man provisional squad, including 13 standby players, was announced on 22 December 2021. A 23-man final squad was announced on 1 January 2022. Additionally to the squad named for the tournament, 5 players (Stain Davie, Paul Ndhlovu, Gerald Phiri Jr., Brighton Munthali, and Daniel Austin Chimbalanga) were named as reserves and will be available in case of eventualities.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 27-man final squad was announced on 25 December 2021. Alioune Badara Faty was later added to the squad to reach the maximum of 28 players.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 30-man provisional squad was announced on 21 December 2021. A 23-man final squad was announced on 29 December 2021. Panashe Mutimbanyoka, Bill Antonio and Temptation Chiwunga were also registered for the tournament but did not travel to Cameroon.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 26-man final squad was announced on 23 December 2021. Following the squad announcement, Alexis Souahy and Ibroihim Djoudja were added to the squad to reach the maximum of 28 players.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 30-man provisional squad was announced on 21 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was named on 3 January 2022.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 25-man final squad was announced on 23 December 2021. On 28 December 2021, Badr Benoun, Mohamed Chibi, and Soufiane Rahimi were added to the squad to reach the maximum of 28 players. On 30 December 2021, Anas Zniti withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Ahmed Reda Tagnaouti. On 10 January 2022, Badr Benoun withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Achraf Bencharki.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 40-man provisional squad was announced on 19 December 2021. A 25-man final squad was announced on 29 December 2021. On the next day, Ibrahim Adel, Marwan Hamdy and Mohamed Hamdy were added to the squad to reach the maximum of 28 players. On 7 January 2022, Mohamed Hamdy withdrew from the squad due to a knee injury and was replaced by Marwan Dawoud.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 28-man final squad was announced on 25 December 2021. On 31 December 2021, Emmanuel Dennis, Victor Osimhen, Leon Balogun, and Shehu Abdullahi withdrew from the squad and were replaced by Semi Ajayi, Tyronne Ebuehi, Peter Olayinka, and Henry Onyekuru. On 6 January 2022, Odion Ighalo withdrawn from the squad, thus reducing the squad to 27 players. Newly appointed coach José Peseiro joined the team as an observer, while interim coach Eguavoen led the team.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 34-man provisional squad was announced on 27 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was announced on 5 January 2022.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 28-man final squad was announced on 27 December 2021. On 4 January 2022, Aitor Embela withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Felipe Ovono.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 28-man final squad was announced on 23 December 2021. On 31 December 2021, Sylvain Gbohouo was temporarily banned by FIFA, due to being found guilty of taking the prohibited substance trimetazidine and could not participate. A few days later, N'Drin Ulrich Edan was called up to replace him.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 40-man provisional squad was announced on 21 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was announced on 31 December 2021. On 8 January 2022, Alhassan Koroma withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Augustus Kargbo.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 40-man provisional squad was announced on 11 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was announced on 21 December 2021.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 30-man provisional squad was announced on 23 December 2021. A 28-man final squad was announced on 31 December 2021.


title: 2021 Africa Cup of Nations squads

text: A 28-man final squad was announced on 30 December 2021. On 4 January 2022, it was announced that Youssef Msakni and Seifeddine Jaziri tested positive for COVID-19, but the Tunisian Football Federation were not allowed to replace them ahead of the tournament. On 5 January 2022, Firas Ben Larbi withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Issam Jebali.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: Vaginal rugae are structures of the vagina that are transverse ridges formed out of the supporting tissues and vaginal epithelium in females. Some conditions can cause the disappearance of vaginal rugae and are usually associated with childbirth and prolapse of pelvic structures. The rugae contribute to the resiliency and elasticity of the vagina and its ability to distend and return to its previous state. These structures not only allow expansions and an increase in surface area of the vaginal epithelium, they provide the space necessary for the vaginal microbiota. The shape and structure of the rugae are supported and maintained by the lamina propria of the vagina and the anterior and posterior rugae.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: The anterior and posterior columnae rugae are transverse vaginal support structures between which the transverse rugae exist. The cross section of the vagina normally forms a shape that resembles the letter 'H' due to these structures.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: Vaginal rugae disappear in those with an estrogen deficiency and those women who are older. The rugae can disappear with anterior vaginal wall prolapse which can occur when supports to the portion located between the vagina and bladder are damaged and the bladder bulges into the vaginal lumen. Vaginal self-examination includes visualizing the presence of vaginal rugae. Anatomists identified rugae of the vagina as early as 1824.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: The appearance and presence of vaginal rugae change over the life span of females and are associated with hormonal cycles, estrogens, childbirth, puberty and menopause. During gynecological examination of prepubescent girls, rugae can be visualized. The vaginal rugae change after menopause. In some older women the rugae are present but become flattened and difficult to see. In others, the rugae tend to disappear.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: Other structures can be present on the vaginal wall though most of the time these can be differentiated from rugae. Vaginal cysts can be small protrusions into the vagina that can be felt or palpated by a clinician. Vaginal inclusion cysts can appear as small bumps and can develop after childbirth. Other small structures or protrusions can be Gartner duct cysts, patches of endometrial tissue, and benign tumors. These cystic structures can obliterate the rugae and is a clue to their presence. The absence of vaginal rugae seen in the normal vagina of a healthy woman may be an indication of a prolapsed bladder (cystocele) or rectocele. An enterocele, or bulging of the bowel into the vagina can also cause vaginal rugae to disappear. The absence of vaginal rugae may also be an indicator of pelvic organ prolapse. Vaginal rugae disappear in those with an estrogen deficiency.


title: Vaginal rugae

text: Vaginal rugae can disappear during the second stage of labor. After a vaginal birth the rugae are not visible and the walls of the vagina are smooth. By the third week postpartum the vagina has become much smaller and the rugae begin to reform on the vaginal walls. Six weeks after birth, the rugae have returned to approximately the same size as they were before the birth. The number of rugae after childbirth decreases. In women who have not given birth, the rugae are more prominent than in those who have given birth multiple times.


title: C-sharp major

text: C-sharp major (or the key of C-sharp) is a major scale based on C, consisting of the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. It is enharmonically equivalent to D-flat major. Its key signature has seven sharps.


title: C-sharp major

text: Its relative minor is A-sharp minor (or enharmonically B-flat minor) and its parallel minor is C-sharp minor.


title: C-sharp major

text: A harp tuned to C-sharp major has all its pedals in the bottom position. Because all the strings are then pinched and shortened, this is the least resonant key for the instrument.


title: C-sharp major

text: Most composers prefer to use the enharmonic equivalent D-flat major since it only contains five flats as opposed to C-sharp major's seven sharps. However, Johann Sebastian Bach chose C-sharp major for Prelude and Fugue No. 3 in both books of "The Well-Tempered Clavier". In Hungarian Rhapsody No. 6, Franz Liszt takes the unusual step of changing the key from D-flat major to C-sharp major near the start of the piece, and then back again to B-flat minor. Maurice Ravel selected C-sharp major as the tonic key of "Ondine" from his piano suite "Gaspard de la nuit". Erich Wolfgang Korngold composed his Piano Concerto for the Left Hand, Op. 17, in C-sharp.


title: C-sharp major

text: The "Allegro de concierto" by Spanish composer Enrique Granados is written in C-sharp major. Canadian composer and pianist Frank Mills originally wrote and performed his instrumental hit "Music Box Dancer" in C-sharp major; however, most modern piano editions have the piece written in C major.


title: C-sharp major

text: Louis Vierne used C-sharp major for the "Dona nobis pacem" of the Agnus Dei of his "Messe solennelle" in C-sharp minor.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage () is a 1970 giallo film directed by Dario Argento, in his directorial debut. The film has been credited with popularizing giallo, an Italian genre of thriller developed in the 1960s. It is the first in what has been called the "Animal Trilogy", along with Argento's next two gialli, "The Cat o' Nine Tails" (1971) and "Four Flies on Grey Velvet" (1972) (though the three films are connected only by their titles).


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Sam Dalmas is an American writer vacationing in Rome with his English model girlfriend, Julia. Suffering from writer's block, Sam is on the verge of returning to America but witnesses the attack of a woman in an art gallery by a mysterious black-gloved assailant dressed in a raincoat.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Attempting to reach her, Sam is trapped between two mechanically-operated glass doors and can only watch as the villain makes his escape. The woman, Monica Ranieri (the wife of the gallery's owner Alberto Ranieri), survives the attack and the local police confiscate Sam's passport to stop him from leaving the country. The assailant is believed to be a serial killer who is killing young women across the city, and Sam is an important witness.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Sam is haunted by what he saw that night, feeling sure that some vital clue is evading him, and he decides to help Inspector Morosini in his investigation. He interviews the pimp of a murdered prostitute and visits a shop where one of the victims worked. There, Sam finds that the last thing she sold on the day of her death was a painting of a stark landscape featuring a man in a raincoat assaulting a young woman. He visits the artist but finds only another dead end. As he makes his way back to his apartment, a black-gloved figure attacks Julia, but Sam arrives home just in time to save her, and the assailant escapes.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Sam starts to receive threatening phone calls from the killer. The police manage to isolate an odd cricketing noise in the background, which is later revealed to be the call of a rare breed of bird from Siberia called "The Bird with Crystal Plumage" due to the translucent glint of its feathers. This clue proves crucial since the only one of its kind in Rome is kept in the Italian capital's zoo, allowing Sam and the police to identify the killer's abode. They once again find Monica Ranieri struggling with her husband Alberto, who is wielding a knife. After a short struggle, Alberto drops from six stories onto a concrete sidewalk below. As he dies, he confesses to the murders and tells them he loves his wife.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Finding that Julia and Monica have run off, Sam goes after them, eventually coming to a darkened building. He finds his friend Carlo murdered and Julia bound, gagged, and wounded. The assailant emerges and is revealed as Monica Ranieri. Sam suddenly realizes that he didn't miss anything during the first attack; Sam misinterpreted what he saw: the attack he witnessed in the gallery was not Monica being assaulted but Monica attacking her husband, who was wearing the raincoat. She flees, and he pursues Monica to her art gallery. There he is trapped, pinned to the floor by the release of a wall-sized sculpture of wire and metal. Unable to free himself, he is teased by the knife-wielding Monica as she prepares to kill him. As she raises her knife, the police (who were notified by Julia, who escaped) burst in and apprehend her. Sam is freed, and Monica is taken to a psychiatric hospital.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: It is revealed through an interview with a psychiatrist that Monica was the victim of a traumatic attack ten years before. Seeing the painting of the attack drove her mad, causing her to identify with the assailant and not the victim. Alberto likewise suffered from an induced psychosis, helping her cover up the murders and committing some himself. Sam and Julia are reunited and return to America.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Though Dario Argento is credited as the film's sole writer, the story closely follows the 1949 pulp novel "The Screaming Mimi" by American writer Fredric Brown. Argento was initially exposed to the book by director Bernardo Bertolucci, who was considering purchasing the film rights. Among the changes Argento made to Brown's story were a change of location from Chicago to Rome, making the killer the wife of an art dealer rather than an exotic dancer, and having the artwork that triggers her be a painting rather than a statuette. Brown's novel had previously been made into a Hollywood film, "Screaming Mimi" (1958), directed by Gerd Oswald.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: The story is thought to have been influenced by the early Mario Bava giallo "The Girl Who Knew Too Much" (1963), which also involves a witness to a murder later realizing that the person they took to be the victim was actually the perpetrator. The killer's outfit of a black raincoat, hat and gloves, which would go on to become a standard giallo trope, was introduced in Bava's "Blood and Black Lace" (1964).


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" was released in Berlin, Germany with a 94-minute running time at the Gloria-Palast on 24 June 1970. In Germany it was marketed as an adaptation of a Bryan Edgar Wallace story. It was released in the United Kingdom under the title "The Gallery Murders".


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Upon its release the film was a huge box office hit, grossing 1,650,000,000 Italian Lira. The film was also a success outside of Italy, gaining €1,366,884 admissions in Spain.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: The film was originally cut by 20 seconds for its US release and received a 'GP' rating, though it was later re-classified as 'PG'. The film was later released on DVD by VCI with the restored violence, but had problems with a sequence of shots referred to as "the panty removal scene". Later pressings fixed it. Blue Underground later obtained the rights and re-released the film completely uncut, adding an extra shot of violence previously unseen. The picture was completely restored and the sound was remixed into both 5.1 audio for both Italian and English tracks, but contained another soundtrack remixed into DTS-ES 6.1 Discrete in English.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Blue Underground released the film on Blu-ray Disc on 24 February 2009. Tech specs saw a BD-50 dual-layer presentation with newly remastered 1080p video and English audio tracks in DTS-HD Lossless Master Audio 7.1 Surround and Dolby TrueHD 7.1 Surround plus the original Italian audio track. It is now out-of-print. VCI announced on their Facebook page that they plan to release the film on Blu-ray Disc sometime soon and was released on September 12, 2013.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: Arrow released the film on Blu-ray in the UK on June 13, 2011, but drew some criticism due to the film being cropped to 2.00:1 (which is director of photography Vittorio Storaro's current Univisium aspect ratio). In June 2017, Arrow re-released the film on a limited edition Blu-ray/DVD combo pack in the US and the UK containing a remastered 4K transfer from the original camera negative made exclusively for the release.


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" was relatively well received by critics. "The New York Times" wrote, "[It] has the energy to support its elaborateness and the decency to display its devices with style. Something from each of its better models has stuck, and it is pleasant to rediscover old horrors in such handsome new décor. " A number of American critics compared the film (favourably or unfavourably) to the thrillers of Alfred Hitchcock, such as Roger Ebert, who gave the film three out of four stars, writing, "it's a pretty good [thriller]", but that "its scares are on a much more basic level than in, say, a thriller by Hitchcock."


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 40 reviews, and an average rating of 7.50/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Combining a deadly thriller plot with the stylized violence that would become his trademark, "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" marked an impressive horror debut for Dario Argento."


title: The Bird with the Crystal Plumage

text: "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" has been credited as a significant milestone in the popularization of the giallo genre. The genre is considered to date back at least as far as Mario Bava's 1963 film, "The Girl Who Knew Too Much", but "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" was the first giallo to achieve significant commercial and critical success. The film spawned a brief fad for gialli with similar verbose titles involving animals such as "Black Belly of the Tarantula" (1971), "The Iguana with the Tongue of Fire" (1971), and "Don't Torture a Duckling" (1972).


title: Sonny Shroyer

text: Otis Burt "Sonny" Shroyer Jr. (born August 28, 1935) is an American actor and singer who has appeared in various television and movie roles. He is known for his role as Deputy Sheriff Enos Strate in the television series "The Dukes of Hazzard". He also starred in the short-lived spin-off series "Enos" based around his "Dukes of Hazzard" character. Shroyer is married and has two sons, Chris and Mark.


title: Sonny Shroyer

text: Shroyer was born in the town of Valdosta, Georgia. He attended Florida State University on a football scholarship, but his career was cut short by an injury. He finished his degree at the University of Georgia.


title: Sonny Shroyer

text: He began a career as a professional model in 1961. His first screen role came in the 1972 film "Payday". Shroyer almost became typecast as a bad guy before landing the role of the naive Deputy Enos Strate in the hit pop culture series "The Dukes of Hazzard" in 1978 (first broadcast early 1979).


title: Sonny Shroyer

text: "The Dukes of Hazzard" role was Shroyer's most visible. His character was written out at the start of the third season to be given a spinoff series titled "Enos" in 1980. The new show was not a success and was canceled after eighteen episodes. Shroyer returned to "The Dukes of Hazzard" at the start of the fifth season in 1982 and remained with the series until it ended in 1985. Shroyer also released a children's album in 1982. The album was called "Back in Hazzard" and featured a cover of Roger Miller's classic, "You Can't Rollerskate In a Buffalo Herd". He also recorded a song "Children in Need" with fellow actor Randall Franks for Franks's 2001 CD "God's Children". He and Franks have made personal appearances together.


title: Sonny Shroyer

text: Shroyer remains active as a character actor. He portrayed University of Alabama coach Paul "Bear" Bryant in "Forrest Gump", Delbert Birdsong in "The Rainmaker", and Governor Jimmie Davis in "Ray". He is also a country and gospel singer.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Standard Italian is based on Tuscan, specifically on its Florentine dialect, and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the works by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Francesco Guicciardini. It would later become the official language of all the Italian states and of the Kingdom of Italy when it was formed.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: In "De vulgari eloquentia" ( 1300), Dante Alighieri distinguishes four main subdialects: "fiorentino" (Florence), "senese" (Siena), "lucchese" (Lucca) and "aretino" (Arezzo).


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The main subdivisions are between Northern Tuscan dialects, the Southern Tuscan dialects, and Corsican.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Corsican on the island of Corsica and the Corso-Sardinian transitional varieties spoken in northern Sardinia (Gallurese and Sassarese) are classified by scholars as a direct offshoot from medieval Tuscan, even though they now constitute a distinct linguistic group.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Excluding the inhabitants of Province of Massa and Carrara, who speak an Emilian dialect, and people in the area of Tuscan Romagna, speaking Romagnol, around 3,500,000 people speak the Tuscan dialect.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The Tuscan dialect as a whole has certain defining features, with subdialects that are distinguished by minor details.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The Tuscan gorgia affects the voiceless stop consonants and . They are often pronounced as fricatives in post-vocalic position when not blocked by the competing phenomenon of syntactic gemination:


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A phonetic phenomenon is the intervocalic weakening of the Italian "soft g", the voiced affricate ("g" as in judge") and "soft c", the voiceless affricate ("ch" as in church"), known as "attenuation", or, more commonly, as deaffrication.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Between vowels, the "voiced post-alveolar affricate" consonant is realized as "voiced post-alveolar fricative" ("z" of azure):


title: Tuscan dialect

text: This phenomenon is very evident in daily speech (common also in Umbria and elsewhere in Central Italy): the phrase "la gente", 'the people', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is .


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Similarly, the "voiceless post-alveolar affricate" is pronounced as a "voiceless post-alveolar fricative" between two vowels:


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The sequence "la cena", 'the dinner', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is . As a result of this weakening rule, there are a few minimal pairs distinguished only by length of the voiceless fricative (e.g. "lacerò" 'it/he/she ripped' vs. "lascerò" 'I will leave/let').


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A less common phonetic phenomenon is the realization of "voiceless s" (voiceless alveolar fricative ) as the voiceless alveolar affricate when preceded by , , or .


title: Tuscan dialect

text: For example, "il sole" (the sun), pronounced in standard Italian as , would be in theory pronounced by a Tuscan speaker . However, since assimilation of the final consonant of the article to the following consonant tends to occur in exactly such cases (see "Masculine definite articles" below) the actual pronunciation will be usually . Affrication of can more commonly be heard word-internally, as in "falso" (false) → . This is a common phenomenon in Central Italy, but it is not exclusive to that area; for example it also happens in Switzerland (Canton Ticino).


title: Tuscan dialect

text: There are two Tuscan historical outcomes of Latin "ŏ" in stressed open syllables. Passing first through a stage , the vowel then develops as a diphthong . This phenomenon never gained universal acceptance, however, so that while forms with the diphthong came to be accepted as standard Italian (e.g. "fuoco", "buono", "nuovo", "duomo"), the monophthong remains in popular speech ("foco", "bono", "novo", "domo").


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A characteristic of Tuscan dialect is the use of the accusative pronoun "te" in emphatic clauses of the type "You! What are you doing here?".


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A morphological phenomenon, cited also by Alessandro Manzoni in his masterpiece ""I promessi sposi"" (The Betrothed), is the doubling of the dative pronoun.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: For the use of a personal pronoun as "indirect object" ("to someone, to something"), also called "dative case", the standard Italian makes use of a construction "preposition + pronoun" a me (to me), or it makes use of a synthetic pronoun form, mi (to me). The Tuscan dialect makes use of both in the same sentence as a kind of intensification of the dative/indirect object:


title: Tuscan dialect

text: This usage is widespread throughout the central regions of Italy, not only in Tuscany, and is often considered redundant and erroneous by language purists. It is also a standard feature in Spanish: "a mí me gusta" ("I like it")


title: Tuscan dialect

text: In some dialects the double accusative pronoun "me mi vedi" (lit: "You see me me") can be heard, but it is considered an archaic form.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The singular and plural masculine definite articles can both be realized phonetically as in Florentine varieties of Tuscan, but are distinguished by their phonological effect on following consonants. The singular provokes lengthening of the following consonant: 'the dog', whereas the plural permits consonant weakening: 'the dogs'. As in Italian, masc. sing. "lo" occurs before consonants long by nature or not permitting in clusters is normal ("lo zio" 'the uncle', "lo studente" 'the student'), although forms such as "i zio" can be heard in rustic varieties.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A morpholosyntactic phenomenon found throughout Tuscany is the personal use of the particle identical to impersonal si (not to be confused with "passive si" or the "reflexive si"), as the first person plural. It is basically the same as the use of "on" in French.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: It's possible to use the construction si + Third person in singular, which can be preceded by the first plural person pronoun noi.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The phenomenon is found in all verb tenses, including compound tenses. In these tenses, the use of "si" requires a form of essere ("to be") as auxiliary verb. If the verb is one that otherwise selects auxiliary avere in compound constructions, the past participle does not agree with the subject in gender and number:


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Another morphological phenomenon in the Tuscan dialect is what might appear to be shortening of first singular verb forms in the present tense of fare ("to do", "to make") and andare ("to go").


title: Tuscan dialect

text: These forms have two origins. Natural phonological change alone can account for loss of and reduction of to in the case of > * > . A case such as Latin: "sapio" > Italian so (I know), however, admits no such phonological account: the expected outcome of would be *, with a normal lengthening of the consonant preceding yod.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: What seems to have taken place is a realignment of the paradigm in accordance with the statistically minor but highly frequent paradigms of "dare" (give) and "stare" (be, stay). Thus "so, sai, sa, sanno" (all singulars and 3rd personal plural of 'know') come to fit the template of "do, dai, dà, danno" ('give'), "sto, stai, sta, stanno" ('be, stay'), and "fo, fai, fa, fanno" ('make, do') follows the same pattern. The form vo, while quite possibly a natural phonological development, seems to have been reinforced by analogy in this case.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A phonological phenomenon that might appear to be a morphological one is the loss of the infinitival ending -re of verbs.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: Stress remains on the same vowel that is stressed in the full form, so that the infinitive can come to coincide with various conjugated singulars: "pèrde" 'to lose', "pèrde" 's/he loses'; "finì" 'to finish', "finì" 's/he finished'. This homophony seldom, if ever, causes confusion, as they usually appear in distinct syntactic contexts.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: While the infinitive without "-re" is universal in some subtypes such as Pisano-Livornese, in the vicinity of Florence alternations are regular, so that the full infinitive (e.g. "vedere" 'to see') appears when followed by a pause, and the clipped form ("vedé") is found when phrase internal. The consonant of enclitics is lengthened if preceded by stressed vowel ("vedéllo" 'to see it', "portàcci" 'to bring us'), but not when the preceding vowel of the infinitive is unstressed ("lèggelo" 'to read it', "pèrdeti" 'to lose you').


title: Tuscan dialect

text: A similar process is found in Catalan and its dialects. Final infinitive -r is not pronounced, so "anar" is realised as /ə'na/, as well as in Campidanese Sardinian.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The biggest differences among dialects is in the lexicon, which also distinguishes the different subdialects.


title: Tuscan dialect

text: The Tuscan lexicon is almost entirely shared with standard Italian, but many words may be perceived as obsolete or literary by non-Tuscans. There are a number of strictly regional words and expressions too.


title: X-inactivation

text: X-inactivation (also called Lyonization, after English geneticist Mary Lyon) is a process by which one of the copies of the X chromosome is inactivated in therian female mammals. The inactive X chromosome is silenced by being packaged into a transcriptionally inactive structure called heterochromatin. As nearly all female mammals have two X chromosomes, X-inactivation prevents them from having twice as many X chromosome gene products as males, who only possess a single copy of the X chromosome (see dosage compensation).


title: X-inactivation

text: The choice of which X chromosome will be inactivated in a particular embryonic cell is random in placental mammals such as humans, but once an X chromosome is inactivated it will remain inactive throughout the lifetime of the cell and its descendants in the organism (its cell line). The result is that the choice of inactivated X chromosome in all the cells of the organism is a random distribution, often with about half the cells having the paternal X chromosome inactivated and half with an inactivated maternal X chromosome; but commonly, X-inactivation is unevenly distributed across the cell lines within one organism (skewed X-inactivation).


title: X-inactivation

text: Unlike the random X-inactivation in placental mammals, inactivation in marsupials applies exclusively to the paternally-derived X chromosome.


title: X-inactivation

text: X-inactivation is part of the activation cycle of the X chromosome throughout the female life. The egg and the fertilized zygote initially use maternal transcripts, and the whole embryonic genome is silenced until zygotic genome activation. Thereafter, all mouse cells undergo an early, imprinted inactivation of the paternally-derived X chromosome in 4–8 cell stage embryos. The extraembryonic tissues (which give rise to the placenta and other tissues supporting the embryo) retain this early imprinted inactivation, and thus only the maternal X chromosome is active in these tissues.


title: X-inactivation

text: In the early blastocyst, this initial, imprinted X-inactivation is reversed in the cells of the inner cell mass (which give rise to the embryo), and in these cells both X chromosomes become active again. Each of these cells then independently and randomly inactivates one copy of the X chromosome. This inactivation event is irreversible during the lifetime of the individual, with the exception of the germline. In the female germline before meiotic entry, X-inactivation is reversed, so that after meiosis all haploid oocytes contain a single active X chromosome.


title: X-inactivation

text: The Xi marks the inactive, Xa the active X chromosome. X denotes the paternal, and X to denotes the maternal X chromosome. When the egg (carrying X), is fertilized by a sperm (carrying a Y or an X) a diploid zygote forms. From zygote, through adult stage, to the next generation of eggs, the X chromosome undergoes the following changes:


title: X-inactivation

text: The X activation cycle has been best studied in mice, but there are multiple studies in humans. As most of the evidence is coming from mice, the above scheme represents the events in mice. The completion of the meiosis is simplified here for clarity. Steps 1–4 can be studied in in vitro fertilized embryos, and in differentiating stem cells; X-reactivation happens in the developing embryo, and subsequent (6–7) steps inside the female body, therefore much harder to study.


title: X-inactivation

text: The timing of each process depends on the species, and in many cases the precise time is actively debated. [The whole part of the human timing of X-inactivation in this table is highly questionable and should be removed until properly substantiated by empirical data]


title: X-inactivation

text: The descendants of each cell which inactivated a particular X chromosome will also inactivate that same chromosome. This phenomenon, which can be observed in the coloration of tortoiseshell cats when females are heterozygous for the X-linked gene, should not be confused with mosaicism, which is a term that specifically refers to differences in the genotype of various cell populations in the same individual; X-inactivation, which is an epigenetic change that results in a different phenotype, is "not" a change at the genotypic level. For an individual cell or lineage the inactivation is therefore skewed or 'non-random', and this can give rise to mild symptoms in female 'carriers' of X-linked genetic disorders.


title: X-inactivation

text: Typical females possess two X chromosomes, and in any given cell one chromosome will be active (designated as Xa) and one will be inactive (Xi). However, studies of individuals with extra copies of the X chromosome show that in cells with more than two X chromosomes there is still only one Xa, and all the remaining X chromosomes are inactivated. This indicates that the default state of the X chromosome in females is inactivation, but one X chromosome is always selected to remain active.


title: X-inactivation

text: It is understood that X-chromosome inactivation is a random process, occurring at about the time of gastrulation in the epiblast (cells that will give rise to the embryo). The maternal and paternal X chromosomes have an equal probability of inactivation. This would suggest that women would be expected to suffer from X-linked disorders approximately 50% as often as men (because women have two X chromosomes, while men have only one); however, in actuality, the occurrence of these disorders in females is much lower than that. One explanation for this disparity is that 12–20% of genes on the inactivated X chromosome remain expressed, thus providing women with added protection against defective genes coded by the X-chromosome. Some suggest that this disparity must be evidence of preferential (non-random) inactivation. Preferential inactivation of the paternal X-chromosome occurs in both marsupials and in cell lineages that form the membranes surrounding the embryo, whereas in placental mammals either the maternally or the paternally derived X-chromosome may be inactivated in different cell lines.


title: X-inactivation

text: The time period for X-chromosome inactivation explains this disparity. Inactivation occurs in the epiblast during gastrulation, which gives rise to the embryo. Inactivation occurs on a cellular level, resulting in a mosaic expression, in which patches of cells have an inactive maternal X-chromosome, while other patches have an inactive paternal X-chromosome. For example, a female heterozygous for haemophilia (an X-linked disease) would have about half of her liver cells functioning properly, which is typically enough to ensure normal blood clotting. Chance could result in significantly more dysfunctional cells; however, such statistical extremes are unlikely. Genetic differences on the chromosome may also render one X-chromosome more likely to undergo inactivation. Also, if one X-chromosome has a mutation hindering its growth or rendering it non viable, cells which randomly inactivated that X will have a selective advantage over cells which randomly inactivated the normal allele. Thus, although inactivation is initially random, cells that inactivate a normal allele (leaving the mutated allele active) will eventually be overgrown and replaced by functionally normal cells in which nearly all have the same X-chromosome activated.


title: X-inactivation

text: It is hypothesized that there is an autosomally-encoded 'blocking factor' which binds to the X chromosome and prevents its inactivation. The model postulates that there is a limiting blocking factor, so once the available blocking factor molecule binds to one X chromosome the remaining X chromosome(s) are not protected from inactivation. This model is supported by the existence of a single Xa in cells with many X chromosomes and by the existence of two active X chromosomes in cell lines with twice the normal number of autosomes.


title: X-inactivation

text: Sequences at the X inactivation center (XIC), present on the X chromosome, control the silencing of the X chromosome. The hypothetical blocking factor is predicted to bind to sequences within the XIC.


title: X-inactivation

text: The effect of female X heterozygosity is apparent in some localized traits, such as the unique coat pattern of a calico cat. It can be more difficult, however, to fully understand the expression of un-localized traits in these females, such as the expression of disease.


title: X-inactivation

text: Since males only have one copy of the X chromosome, all expressed X-chromosomal genes (or alleles, in the case of multiple variant forms for a given gene in the population) are located on that copy of the chromosome. Females, however, will primarily express the genes or alleles located on the X-chromosomal copy that remains active. Considering the situation for one gene or multiple genes causing individual differences in a particular phenotype (i.e., causing variation observed in the population for that phenotype), in homozygous females it doesn't particularly matter which copy of the chromosome is inactivated, as the alleles on both copies are the same. However, in females that are heterozygous at the causal genes, the inactivation of one copy of the chromosome over the other can have a direct impact on their phenotypic value. Because of this phenomenon, there is an observed increase in phenotypic variation in females that are heterozygous at the involved gene or genes than in females that are homozygous at that gene or those genes. There are many different ways in which the phenotypic variation can play out. In many cases, heterozygous females may be asymptomatic or only present minor symptoms of a given disorder, such as with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy.


title: X-inactivation

text: The differentiation of phenotype in heterozygous females is furthered by the presence of X-inactivation skewing. Typically, each X-chromosome is silenced in half of the cells, but this process is skewed when preferential inactivation of a chromosome occurs. It is thought that skewing happens either by chance or by a physical characteristic of a chromosome that may cause it to be silenced more or less often, such as an unfavorable mutation.


title: X-inactivation

text: On average, each X chromosome is inactivated in half of the cells, however 5-20% of "apparently normal" women display X-inactivation skewing. In cases where skewing is present, a broad range of symptom expression can occur, resulting in expression varying from minor to severe depending on the skewing proportion. An extreme case of this was seen where monozygotic female twins had extreme variance in expression of Menkes disease (an X-linked disorder) resulting in the death of one twin while the other remained asymptomatic.


title: X-inactivation

text: It is thought that X-inactivation skewing could be caused by issues in the mechanism that causes inactivation, or by issues in the chromosome itself. However, the link between phenotype and skewing is still being questioned, and should be examined on a case-by-case basis. A study looking at both symptomatic and asymptomatic females who were heterozygous for Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies (DMD) found no apparent link between transcript expression and skewed X-Inactivation. The study suggests that both mechanisms are independently regulated, and there are other unknown factors at play.


title: X-inactivation

text: The X-inactivation center (or simply XIC) on the X chromosome is necessary and sufficient to cause X-inactivation. Chromosomal translocations which place the XIC on an autosome lead to inactivation of the autosome, and X chromosomes lacking the XIC are not inactivated.


title: X-inactivation

text: The XIC contains four non-translated RNA genes, Xist, Tsix, Jpx and Ftx, which are involved in X-inactivation. The XIC also contains binding sites for both known and unknown regulatory proteins.


title: X-inactivation

text: The X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) gene encodes a large non-coding RNA that is responsible for mediating the specific silencing of the X chromosome from which it is transcribed. The inactive X chromosome is coated by Xist RNA, whereas the Xa is not (See Figure to the right). X chromosomes that lack the Xist gene cannot be inactivated. Artificially placing and expressing the Xist gene on another chromosome leads to silencing of that chromosome.


title: X-inactivation

text: Prior to inactivation, both X chromosomes weakly express Xist RNA from the Xist gene. During the inactivation process, the future Xa ceases to express Xist, whereas the future Xi dramatically increases Xist RNA production. On the future Xi, the Xist RNA progressively coats the chromosome, spreading out from the XIC; the Xist RNA does not localize to the Xa. The silencing of genes along the Xi occurs soon after coating by Xist RNA.


title: X-inactivation

text: Like Xist, the Tsix gene encodes a large RNA which is not believed to encode a protein. The Tsix RNA is transcribed antisense to Xist, meaning that the Tsix gene overlaps the Xist gene and is transcribed on the opposite strand of DNA from the Xist gene. Tsix is a negative regulator of Xist; X chromosomes lacking Tsix expression (and thus having high levels of Xist transcription) are inactivated much more frequently than normal chromosomes.


title: X-inactivation

text: Like Xist, prior to inactivation, both X chromosomes weakly express Tsix RNA from the Tsix gene. Upon the onset of X-inactivation, the future Xi ceases to express Tsix RNA (and increases Xist expression), whereas Xa continues to express Tsix for several days.


title: X-inactivation

text: Rep A is a long non coding RNA that works with another long non coding RNA, Xist, for X inactivation. Rep A inhibits the function of Tsix, the antisense of Xist, in conjunction with eliminating expression of Xite. It promotes methylation of the Tsix region by attracting PRC2 and thus inactivating one of the X chromosomes.


title: X-inactivation

text: The inactive X chromosome does not express the majority of its genes, unlike the active X chromosome. This is due to the silencing of the Xi by repressive heterochromatin, which compacts the Xi DNA and prevents the expression of most genes.


title: X-inactivation

text: Compared to the Xa, the Xi has high levels of DNA methylation, low levels of histone acetylation, low levels of histone H3 lysine-4 methylation, and high levels of histone H3 lysine-9 methylation and H3 lysine-27 methylation mark which is placed by the PRC2 complex recruited by Xist, all of which are associated with gene silencing. PRC2 regulates chromatin compaction and chromatin remodeling in several processes including the DNA damage response. Additionally, a histone variant called macroH2A (H2AFY) is exclusively found on nucleosomes along the Xi.


title: X-inactivation

text: DNA packaged in heterochromatin, such as the Xi, is more condensed than DNA packaged in euchromatin, such as the Xa. The inactive X forms a discrete body within the nucleus called a Barr body. The Barr body is generally located on the periphery of the nucleus, is late replicating within the cell cycle, and, as it contains the Xi, contains heterochromatin modifications and the Xist RNA.