title: Oxford Union

text: In March 2009, the Union withdrew an invitation to euthanasia campaigner Philip Nitschke after Nitschke had already accepted the invitation. Nitschke received a second e-mail cancelling the invitation "in the interests of there being a 'fair debate'", and was told other speakers were unwilling to speak alongside him. The debate topic was the legalisation of assisted suicide, a field in which Nitschke is prominent. The reason given by Oxford Union President Corey Dixon was that two other speakers "disagree with his particular take on [assisted suicide]". According to Dixon, the speakers who successfully pressured the Union to withdraw Nitschke's invitation were a member of the public, whose brother had undergone assisted death, and British euthanasia campaigner Michael Irwin. However, Irwin denied that he had applied pressure to exclude Nitschke.


title: Oxford Union

text: The Oxford Union released a statement explaining the decision: "An administrative decision was made to ensure we had three speakers on each side of the debate, which was proving difficult due to Nitschke's attendance. It is always in the interests of the Oxford Union to ensure a balanced debate with as wide-ranging views as possible represented. There may have been miscommunication between the Oxford Union and Nitschke. We certainly hope that no offence has been caused. The Oxford Union is a neutral institution and holds no opinion on Nitschke's views."


title: Oxford Union

text: Nitschke commented, "This famous society has a long tradition of championing free speech. To suggest that my views on end-of-life issues are inappropriate simply because I believe that all rational elderly adults should have access to the best end-of-life information beggars belief." He also called the act "an almost unprecedented act of censorship". Nitschke gave a series of lectures across the UK at the time the debate was held.


title: Oxford Union

text: The Oxford Union has long associated itself with freedom of speech, most famously by debating and passing the motion "This House would under no circumstances fight for its King and country" in 1933. The debate polarized opinion across the country, with the "Daily Telegraph" running an article headlined "DISLOYALTY AT OXFORD: GESTURE TOWARDS THE REDS".


title: Oxford Union

text: Several prominent Union members (including Randolph Churchill) tried to expunge this motion and the result of the debate from the Union's minute book. This attempt was defeated in a meeting more attended than the original debate. Sir Edward Heath records in his memoirs that Randolph Churchill was then chased around Oxford by undergraduates who intended to debag him (i.e., humiliate him by removing his trousers), and was then fined by the police for being illegally parked.


title: Oxford Union

text: In May 1996 President Paul Kenward invited O. J. Simpson to address the union, his first public address since his October acquittal by a Los Angeles jury of murdering his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ron Goldman in 1994. Speaking for 90 minutes in front of 1,300 students, Simpson spoke of racism in the Los Angeles Police Department, and said he was sorry for hitting his wife, Nicole.


title: Oxford Union

text: Paul Kenward had given O. J. Simpson assurances there would be no broadcast media at the union debate. However, Chris Philp, (now Conservative MP and then a second-year student at University College and features editor of the student magazine "Cherwell"), was fined £50 for selling a written transcript of the debate and helping to sell an audio cassette to TV stations.


title: Oxford Union

text: In November 2007, President Luke Tryl sparked controversy by inviting Holocaust denier David Irving and British National Party leader Nick Griffin to speak at a Union forum on the topic of free speech. The Student Population at a Council meeting voted to oppose the invitations. Following this and protests by other student groups, a poll of the Union's members was taken and resulted in a two-to-one majority in favour of the invitations.


title: Oxford Union

text: On the evening of the planned debate several hundred protesters gathered outside the Union buildings, chanting anti-fascist slogans and later preventing guests and Union members from entering the premises. Around 20 protesters succeeded in breaching the poorly maintained security cordon and attempted to force their way through to the main chamber. Members of the waiting audience blocked access by pushing back against the chamber doors. After students were convinced to yield to the protesters by Union staff, a sit-in protest was staged in the debating chamber, preventing a full debate from occurring due to security concerns. Because of a lack of security personnel, a number of students from the audience eventually came to take on the responsibilities of controlling events, in one instance preventing a scuffle from breaking out between a protester and members of the audience, and eventually assisting police in herding protesters from the main hall. One student protester interviewed by BBC News reported that fellow protesters played 'jingles' on the piano and danced on the President's chair though the truth of the latter assertion was seriously questioned by eyewitnesses. Smaller debates were eventually held with Irving and Griffin in separate rooms, amid criticism that the police and Union officials had not foreseen the degree of unrest which the controversial invitations would arouse.


title: Oxford Union

text: The President of Oxford University Student Union, Martin McCluskey, strongly criticised the decision to proceed with the debate, saying that providing Irving and Griffin with a platform for their extreme views afforded them undue legitimacy. Following the event, some, including Oxford MP Evan Harris, criticised the No Platform Policy adopted by the Student Union.


title: Oxford Union

text: In February 2015, the Union invited Marine Le Pen, the leader of the Front National in France, to address the Union, in view of the popularity of the FN in the French polls at the time. This sparked considerable controversy, with allegations of Le Pen endorsing anti-Semitism and Islamophobia. The speech went ahead as planned, albeit delayed by the protesters blockading the Union's main entrance, and briefly breaking into the building. In all, over 400 people turned up to the demonstration. There was considerable controversy over OUSU's response, with allegations that OUSU had indirectly supported the protesters and not adequately condemned threats of violence against Union members who had attempted to attend the talk.


title: Oxford Union

text: In 2018, human rights activist Heather Marsh accused the Oxford Union of censorship and violating a contractual obligation when they failed to post video of a "Whistleblowing" panel in which she appeared to the official Oxford Union YouTube channel, allegedly at the request of a fellow panelist, former CIA operative David Shedd. Oxford Union president Gui Cavalcanti replied that its agreement with Marsh and other panelists gave them the right but not the obligation to publish video of any events, adding that "just this academic year, we’ve had multiple events not uploaded, ranging from J. J. Abrams to Sir Patrick Stewart." A transcript of the panel and its 22-minute audio are available online.


title: Oxford Union

text: In October 2019, before the annual 'No Confidence' debate, blind Ghanaian graduate student Ebenezer Azamati was violently removed from the hall for refusing to relinquish his seat, which had been reserved for a committee member. Azmati later had his membership revoked for two terms for 'violent misconduct'. Footage of the event was recorded by another member, and was subsequently uploaded to the internet. This led to protests from the University's AfriSoc society on Azmati's behalf, and soon gained national news media coverage. This was eventually followed by the resignation of standing committee members and other Union officials, and then by Union president Brendan McGrath on 19 November. Azmati was compensated an undisclosed amount.


title: Oxford Union

text: The Oxford Union's general conduct and management is governed by the Standing Committee. The voting members are:


title: Oxford Union

text: Day-to-day management of the Union is partly conducted by professional staff, principally the Bursar and the House Manager.


title: Oxford Union

text: Elections are held to fill the offices of President-elect, Librarian-elect, Treasurer-elect and Secretary, as well as 6 positions on the Standing Committee and 11 positions on the Secretary's Committee. In order to stand for election to the Secretary's Committee, members must make two speeches on different nights during the term they stand for election. For the other offices, candidates must have additionally made two such speeches in the previous term. Elections are always held on Friday of 7th Week, as defined by the University terms.


title: Oxford Union

text: The election for the Chair of the Consultative Committee is held at the meeting of the Consultative Committee on Monday of 8th Week of each term. Only members who have attended four of the last eight meetings of the Consultative Committee may either stand for election as Chair or vote.


title: Oxford Union

text: The number of elected positions on standing Committee was increased from 5 to 7 in Michael Li's term (Trinity 2017) and implemented in Chris Zabilowicz's term (Michaelmas 2017). However, the number of elected positions was decreased back to 5 officers at the end of James Price's term (Hilary term 2021). Reasons included the manageability of such a large committee and concerns of costs.


title: Oxford Union

text: Students running for election usually stand as part of a team, known as 'slates', enabling voters to support a designated candidate for each position and increase each candidates' vote count. This practice has come under criticism recently due to the dominance of a single slate and the resulting unopposed elections. In Michaelmas 2018, a motion was passed banning slates for two terms followed by a referendum on the practice.


title: Stereoscope

text: A stereoscope is a device for viewing a stereoscopic pair of separate images, depicting left-eye and right-eye views of the same scene, as a single three-dimensional image.


title: Stereoscope

text: A typical stereoscope provides each eye with a lens that makes the image seen through it appear larger and more distant and usually also shifts its apparent horizontal position, so that for a person with normal binocular depth perception the edges of the two images seemingly fuse into one "stereo window". In current practice, the images are prepared so that the scene appears to be beyond this virtual window, through which objects are sometimes allowed to protrude, but this was not always the custom. A divider or other view-limiting feature is usually provided to prevent each eye from being distracted by also seeing the image intended for the other eye.


title: Stereoscope

text: Most people can, with practice and some effort, view stereoscopic image pairs in 3D without the aid of a stereoscope, but the physiological depth cues resulting from the unnatural combination of eye convergence and focus required will be unlike those experienced when actually viewing the scene in reality, making an accurate simulation of the natural viewing experience impossible and tending to cause eye strain and fatigue.


title: Stereoscope

text: Although more recent devices such as Realist-format 3D slide viewers and the View-Master are also stereoscopes, the word is now most commonly associated with viewers designed for the standard-format stereo cards that enjoyed several waves of popularity from the 1850s to the 1930s as a home entertainment medium.


title: Stereoscope

text: Devices such as polarized, anaglyph and shutter glasses which are used to view two actually superimposed or intermingled images, rather than two physically separate images, are not categorized as stereoscopes.


title: Stereoscope

text: The earliest stereoscopes, "both with reflecting mirrors and with refracting prisms", were invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone and constructed for him by optician R. Murray in 1832. Herbert Mayo shortly described Wheatstone's discovery in his book "Outlines of Human Physiology" (1833) and claimed that Wheatstone was about to publish an essay about it. It was only one of many projects of Wheatstone's and he first presented his findings on 21 June 1838 to the Royal College of London. In this presentation he used a pair of mirrors at 45 degree angles to the user's eyes, each reflecting a picture located off to the side. It demonstrated the importance of binocular depth perception by showing that when two pictures simulating left-eye and right-eye views of the same object are presented so that each eye sees only the image designed for it, but apparently in the same location, the brain will fuse the two and accept them as a view of one solid three-dimensional object. Wheatstone's stereoscope was introduced in the year before the first practical photographic processes became available, so initially drawings were used. The mirror type of stereoscope has the advantage that the two pictures can be very large if desired.


title: Stereoscope

text: Contrary to a common assertion, David Brewster did not invent the stereoscope, as he himself was often at pains to make clear. A rival of Wheatstone, Brewster credited the invention of the device to a Mr. Elliot, a "Teacher of Mathematics" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, conceived of the idea as early as 1823 and, in 1839, constructed "a simple stereoscope without lenses or mirrors", consisting of a wooden box long, wide and high, which was used to view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to become widespread. Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use lenses for uniting the dissimilar pictures in 1849; and accordingly the "lenticular stereoscope" (lens-based) may fairly be said to be his invention. This allowed a reduction in size, creating hand-held devices, which became known as Brewster Stereoscopes, much admired by Queen Victoria when they were demonstrated at the Great Exhibition of 1851.


title: Stereoscope

text: Brewster was unable to find in Britain an instrument maker capable of working with his design, so he took it to France, where the stereoscope was improved by Jules Duboscq who made stereoscopes and stereoscopic daguerreotypes, and a famous picture of Queen Victoria that was displayed at The Great Exhibition. Almost overnight a 3D industry developed and 250,000 stereoscopes were produced and a great number of "stereoviews", "stereo cards", "stereo pairs" or "stereographs" were sold in a short time. Stereographers were sent throughout the world to capture views for the new medium and feed the demand for 3D images. Cards were printed with these views often with explanatory text when the cards were looked at through the double-lensed viewer, sometimes also called a "stereopticon", a common misnomer.


title: Stereoscope

text: In 1861 Oliver Wendell Holmes created and deliberately did not patent a handheld, streamlined, much more economical viewer than had been available before. The stereoscope, which dates from the 1850s, consisted of two prismatic lenses and a wooden stand to hold the stereo card. This type of stereoscope remained in production for a century and there are still companies making them in limited production currently.


title: Stereoscope

text: Multiple view stereoscopes allow viewing multiple stereoscopic images in sequence by turning a knob, crank or pushing down a lever. The first design was patented by Antoine Claudet in 1855, but the design of Alexander Beckers from 1857 formed the basis for many revolving stereoscopes that were manufactured from the 1860s. The images are placed in holders that are attached to a rotating belt. The belt can usually hold 50 paper card or glass stereoviews, but there are also large floor standing models for 100 or 200 views.


title: Stereoscope

text: A more advanced multiple view stereoscope is only intended for glass slides and was especially popular in France, as the printing of stereo images on glass was a French specialty and popular until the 1930s. Most devices were manufactured in France, but also in Germany by ICA and Ernemann. The glass slides are placed in a bakelite or wooden tray. Turning a crank (or pushing down a lever) will lift a slide from the tray and brings it into viewing position. Turning further will place the slide back in the tray and moves the tray over a rail to select the next slide. The most sophisticated and well known design was the Taxiphote by Jules Richard, patented in 1899.


title: Stereoscope

text: In the mid-20th century the View-Master stereoscope (patented 1939), with its rotating cardboard disks containing image pairs, was popular first for 'virtual tourism' and then as a toy. In 2010, Hasbro started producing a stereoscope designed to hold an iPhone or iPod Touch, called the My3D. In 2014, Google released the template for a papercraft stereoscope called Google Cardboard. Apps on the mobile phone substitute for stereo cards; these apps can also sense rotation and expand the stereoscope's capacity into that of a full-fledged virtual reality device. The underlying technology is otherwise unchanged from earlier stereoscopes.


title: Stereoscope

text: Several fine arts photographers and graphic artists have and continue to produce original artwork to be viewed using stereoscopes.


title: Stereoscope

text: A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope-like devices, allowing the use of larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view. The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. This recreates the way which in natural vision, each eye is seeing the object from a slightly different angle, since they are separated by several inches, which is what gives humans natural depth perception. Each picture is focused by a separate lens, and by showing each eye a photograph taken several inches apart from each other and focused on the same point, it recreates the natural effect of seeing things in three dimensions.


title: Stereoscope

text: A moving image extension of the stereoscope has a large vertically mounted drum containing a wheel upon which are mounted a series of stereographic cards which form a moving picture. The cards are restrained by a gate and when sufficient force is available to bend the card it slips past the gate and into view, obscuring the preceding picture. These coin-enabled devices were found in arcades in the late 19th and early 20th century and were operated by the viewer using a hand crank. These devices can still be seen and operated in some museums specializing in arcade equipment.


title: Stereoscope

text: A stereo transparency viewer is a type of stereoscope that offers similar advantages, e.g. the View-Master.


title: Stereoscope

text: Disadvantages of stereo cards, slides or any other hard copy or print are that the two images are likely to receive differing wear, scratches and other decay. This results in stereo artifacts when the images are viewed. These artifacts compete in the mind resulting in a distraction from the 3D effect, eye strain and headaches.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Stephanie Kurtzuba (born March 20, 1972) is an American film, television, and theater actress. She is best known for her roles in the films "The Wolf of Wall Street" (2013), "Annie" (2014), and "The Irishman" (2019), and on television in a recurring role on "The Good Wife".


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Kurtzuba was born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska, where she graduated from Omaha Central High School. Growing up, she performed in local theater productions, with her first role at the age of 10 as an orphan pickpocket in the musical "Oliver", and won the Miss Nebraska Pre-Teen pageant. She briefly attended the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, where she studied journalism, before being accepted to New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where she earned an acting degree.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: After graduating, she spent time performing in experimental off-off-Broadway productions, before going into commercial theater. Her first Broadway show was as part of a backup trio to Hugh Jackman in "The Boy From Oz" in 2003. As a member of the original Broadway casts of "Mary Poppins" in 2006 and "Billy Elliot the Musical" in 2008, she performed at the 2007 and 2009 Tony Awards. Her Off-Broadway credits include the 2018 revival of Stephen Adly Guirgis' Our Lady of 121st St., directed by Phylicia Rashad for Signature Theatre, The Joys of Sex, directed by Jeremy Dobrish for Variety Arts Theater, and , directed by Scott Schwartz at the Union Square Theatre.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Kurtzuba portrayed Mrs. Kovacevic, a social services clerk with a Russian accent, in the 2014 film adaptation of "Annie". Her performance was praised in the "Los Angeles Times" and "Variety". She is featured on the song "I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here" on the "Annie" soundtrack album. In "The Wolf of Wall Street", directed by Martin Scorsese, she played Kimmie Belzer, a single mom hired by Jordan Belfort (Leonardo DiCaprio) and the only female stockbroker at the company. In the Scorsese Netflix film "The Irishman", starring Al Pacino and Robert De Niro, she portrays Irene, the wife of De Niro's character. She also appeared in "Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close" and "Away We Go" opposite John Krasinski.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Kurtzuba had recurring roles as Olivia on "The Good Wife" on CBS, as cult member Sabrina on "The Leftovers" on HBO, and on the Paramount Network miniseries "Waco". She has also appeared on "" on NBC, "Elementary" on CBS, and "Bull" on CBS.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Kurtzuba married Joshua Coakley in 2005. They met when Kurtzuba was performing in a show at the Alley Theatre in Houston, and Coakley was working on the show in the props department. They live in New York City and have two sons.


title: Stephanie Kurtzuba

text: Kurtzuba co-owns West Lanes Bowling Center in Omaha with her father and two siblings. Her maternal grandparents built the bowling alley in 1955.


title: Ring circuit

text: In electricity supply design, a ring circuit is an electrical wiring technique in which sockets and the distribution point are connected in a ring. It is contrasted with the usual radial circuit, in which sockets and the distribution point are connected in a line with the distribution point at one end.


title: Ring circuit

text: Ring circuits are also known as "ring final circuits" and often incorrectly as "ring mains", a term used historically, or informally simply as "rings".


title: Ring circuit

text: It is used primarily in the United Kingdom, where it was developed, and to a lesser extent in Ireland and Hong Kong.


title: Ring circuit

text: This design enables the use of smaller-diameter wire than would be used in a radial circuit of equivalent total current capacity. The reduced diameter conductors in the flexible cords connecting an appliance to the plug intended for use with sockets on a ring circuit are individually protected by a fuse in the plug. Its advantages over radial circuits are therefore reduced quantity of copper used, and greater flexibility of appliances and equipment that can be connected.


title: Ring circuit

text: Ideally, the ring circuit acts like two radial circuits proceeding in opposite directions around the ring, the dividing point between them dependent on the distribution of load in the ring. If the load is evenly split across the two directions, the current in each direction is half of the total, allowing the use of wire with half the total current-carrying capacity. In practice, the load does not always split evenly, so thicker wire is used.


title: Ring circuit

text: The ring starts at the consumer unit (also known as "fuse box", distribution board, or "breaker box"), visits each socket in turn, and then returns to the consumer unit. The ring is fed from a fuse or circuit breaker in the consumer unit.


title: Ring circuit

text: Ring circuits are commonly used in British wiring with socket-outlets taking fused plugs to BS 1363. Because the breaker rating is much higher than that of any one socket outlet, the system can only be used with fused plugs or fused appliance outlets. They are generally wired with 2.5 mm cable and protected by a 30 A fuse, an older 30 A circuit breaker, or a European harmonised 32 A circuit breaker. Sometimes 4 mm cable is used if very long cable runs (to help reduce voltage drop) or derating factors such as very thick thermal insulation are involved. 1.5 mm mineral-insulated copper-clad cable (known as "pyro") may also be used (as mineral insulated cable can withstand heat more effectively than normal PVC) though more care must be taken with regard to voltage drop on longer runs. The protection devices for the fixed wiring need to be rated higher than would protect flexible appliance cords, so BS 1363 requires that all plugs and connection units incorporate fuses appropriate to the appliance cord.


title: Ring circuit

text: The ring circuit and the associated BS 1363 plug and socket system were developed in Britain during 1942–1947. They are commonly used in the United Kingdom and to a lesser extent in the Republic of Ireland. They are also found in the United Arab Emirates, Singapore, Hong Kong, Beijing, Indonesia and many places where the UK had a strong influence, including for example Cyprus and Uganda.


title: Ring circuit

text: Pre-World War II practice was to use various sizes of plugs and sockets to suit the current requirement of the appliance, and these were connected to suitably fused radial circuits; the ratings of those fuses were appropriate to protect both the fixed wiring and the flexible cord attached to the plug.


title: Ring circuit

text: The Electrical Installations Committee which was convened in 1942 as part of the Post War Building Studies programme determined, amongst other things, that the ring final circuit offered a more efficient and lower cost system which would safely support a greater number of sockets. The scheme was specified to use 13 A socket-outlets and fused plugs; several designs for the plugs and sockets were considered. The design chosen as the British Standard was the flat pin system now known as BS 1363. Other designs of 13 A fused plugs and socket-outlets, notably the and Dorman & Smith systems, which did not conform to the chosen standard, were used into the 1950s, but by the 1960s BS 1363 had become the single standard for new installations.


title: Ring circuit

text: The committee mandated the ring circuit both to increase consumer safety and to combat the anticipated post-war copper shortage. The committee estimated that using ring-circuit and single-pole fusing would reduce raw materials requirements by approximately 25% compared with pre-war regulations.


title: Ring circuit

text: The ring circuit is still the most common mains wiring configuration in the UK, although both 20 A and 30 A radial circuits are also permitted by the Wiring Regulations, with a recommendation based on the floor area served (20 A for area up to 25 m, 30 A for up to 100 m.).


title: Ring circuit

text: Rules for ring circuits provide that the cable rating must be no less than two thirds of the rating of the protective device. This means that the risk of sustained overloading of the cable can be considered minimal. In practice, however, it is extremely uncommon to encounter a ring with a protective device other than a 30 A fuse, 30 A breaker, or 32 A breaker, and a cable size other than those mentioned above. Because the BS 1363 plug contains a fuse not exceeding 13A, the load at any one point on the ring is limited.


title: Ring circuit

text: The IET Wiring Regulations (BS 7671) permit an unlimited number of 13A socket outlets (at any point unfused single or double, or any number fused) to be installed on a ring circuit, provided that the floor area served does not exceed 100 m. In practice, most small and medium houses have one ring circuit per storey, with larger premises having more.


title: Ring circuit

text: An installation designer may determine if additional circuits are required for areas of high demand. For example, it is common practice to put kitchens on their own ring circuit or sometimes a ring circuit shared with a utility room to avoid putting a heavy load at one point on the main downstairs ring circuit. Since any load on a ring is fed by the ring conductors on either side of it, it is desirable to avoid a concentrated load placed very near the consumer unit, since the shorter conductors will have less resistance and carry a disproportionate share of the load.


title: Ring circuit

text: Unfused spurs from a ring wired in the same cable as the ring are allowed to run one socket (single or double) or one fused connection unit (FCU). Before 1970 the use of two single sockets on one spur was allowed, but has since been disallowed because of their conversion to double sockets. Spurs may either start from a socket or be joined to the ring cable with a junction box or other approved method of joining cables. BS 1363 compliant triple and larger sockets are always fused at 13A and therefore can also be placed on a spur. Since 1970 it is permitted to have more spurs than sockets on the ring, but it is considered poor practice by many electricians to have too many unfused spurs in a new installation.


title: Ring circuit

text: Where loads other than BS 1363 sockets are connected to a ring circuit or it is desired to place more than one socket for low power equipment on a spur, a BS 1363 fused connection unit (FCU) is used. In the case of fixed appliances this will be a switched fused connection unit (SFCU) to provide a point of isolation for the appliance, but in other cases such as feeding multiple lighting points (putting lighting on a ring though is generally considered bad practice in new installation but is often done when adding lights to an existing property) or multiple sockets, an unswitched one is often preferable.


title: Ring circuit

text: Fixed appliances with a power rating of 3 kW or more (for example, water heaters and some electric cookers) or with a non-trivial power demand for long periods (for example, immersion heaters) may be connected to a ring circuit, but it is strongly recommended that instead they are connected to their own dedicated circuit. However, there are plenty of older installations with such loads on a ring circuit.


title: Ring circuit

text: Proponents of the ring circuit point out that, when correctly installed, there are also a number of advantages to be considered.


title: Ring circuit

text: For rooms that are square or circular, a ring circuit can deliver more power per unit of floor area for a given cable size than a simple radial circuit, and the source impedance and therefore voltage drop to the furthest point is lower. Alternatively, to deliver the same power to the same building with radial circuits would require more final circuits or a heavier cable.


title: Ring circuit

text: As all fittings on the ring are earthed from both sides, two independent faults are needed to create an 'off earth' fault.


title: Ring circuit

text: The continuity of each conductor right round all the points on the ring can be verified from any point, and if this needs to be done as part of live installation monitoring, it can be verified by current clamp injection with the system energised.


title: Ring circuit

text: The ring final circuit concept has been criticized in a number of ways compared to radials, and some of these concerns could explain the lack of widespread adoption outside the United Kingdom.


title: Ring circuit

text: Ring circuits may continue to operate without the user being aware of any problem if there are certain types of fault condition or installation errors. This gives both robustness against failure and a potential for danger.


title: Ring circuit

text: At least one author claims that testing ring circuits may take 5–6 times longer than testing radial circuits. The installation tests required for the safe operation of a ring circuit are more time-consuming than those for a radial circuit, and DIY installers or electricians qualified in other countries may not be familiar with them.


title: Ring circuit

text: Regulation 433-02-04 of BS 7671 requires that the installed load must be distributed around the ring such that no part of the cable exceeds its rated capacity. In some cases this requirement is difficult to guarantee, and may be largely ignored in practice, as loads are often co-located (e.g., washing machine, tumble dryer, dish washer all next to kitchen sink) at a point not necessarily near the centre of the ring. However, the fact that the cable rating is 67% that of the circuit breaker, not 50%, means that a ring has to be significantly out of balance to cause a problem.


title: Ring circuit

text: In a ring circuit, if any poor joint causes a high resistance on one branch of the ring, current will be unevenly distributed, possibly overloading the remaining conductor of the ring.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: The National Bank of Canada () is the sixth largest commercial bank in Canada. It is headquartered in Montreal, and has branches in most Canadian provinces and 2.4 million personal clients. National Bank is the largest bank in Quebec, and the second largest financial institution in the province, after Desjardins credit union. National Bank's Institution Number is 006 and its SWIFT code is BNDCCAMMINT.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In 1859, francophone businessmen in Ontario and Quebec were keen to establish a bank under their local control, and persuade the provincial legislature to pass the act that created the Banque Nationale on May 4, 1859. Some members of the anglophone bourgeoisie participated in the bank's share capital, but francophones retained exclusive control and held all seats on the board of directors with Ulric-Joseph Tessier, lawyer and Member of the Legislative Assembly serving as chairman of the bank.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: The bank suffered losses during the banking crisis sparked by the financial panic of 1873 and panic of 1884 but managed to survive and continued to operate. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Banque Nationale again came under financial stress; this time a merger was arranged with "Banque d’Hochelaga" assisted by the province's legislature to strengthen the bank. The merged bank was renamed "Banque Canadienne Nationale" (BCN) (English, "Canadian National Bank").


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In 1968, BCN, in conjunction with a number of other banks, launched Chargex, the first credit card to be issued by a Canadian bank.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: During the 1970s, Quebec-based rival Provincial Bank of Canada expanded rapidly through a number of acquisitions. It merged with the People's Bank in 1970, with the Toronto-based Unity Bank of Canada, and in 1979 it acquired Laurentide Financial Corporation of Vancouver. Provincial Bank and BCN continued to expand but continued to have a large part of their operations concentrated in Quebec. In November 1979, these two banks decided to merge under the new name "National Bank of Canada" in what was at the time one of the largest bank mergers.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: Through the 1980s the bank continued to grow and expand its businesses through a number of acquisitions, including the brokerage firm Lévesque Beaubien and a year later Geoffrion Leclerc, which became known as Lévesque Beaubien Geoffrion. In 1993, it sold its lease financing operations to GE Capital and acquired the assets of General Trust of Canada.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In 1994, it made a small step outside Canada when it opened two branches in the United States, one in Florida and one in California. As of 2020, its Natbank subsidiary has three branches, all in Florida. In 1995 the bank opened a representative office in Cuba to assist Canadian clients doing business in the country. In 1999 it concluded its purchase of First Marathon, a Toronto-based brokerage firm. First Marathon and the Bank's subsidiary Lévesque Beaubien Geoffrion Inc. merged their operations to form National Bank Financial (NBF), its investment banking subsidiary. In 2002 it acquired US-based investment bank Putnam Lovell and merged the operations with its NBF subsidiary which started operating through offices in New York, Toronto, and London.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In 2016, it acquired 90 percent of the shares of ABA Bank of Cambodia (formerly known as the Advanced Bank of Asia). In 2019, it acquired the remaining 10 percent that had been held by a former head of the Kazakhstan Stock Exchange, Damir Karassayev.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In October 2019, National Bank of Canada was criticized by privacy experts for requiring new online customers to provide their full login credentials for accounts with other financial institutions, including password. On its website, the bank tells clients to "Never tell anyone your password", yet during the process of creating an account, they say, "... you will need to provide... your login credentials with another eligible Canadian financial institution".


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In August 2021, National Bank brokerage became the second Canadian financial institution to offer free online direct brokerage after Wealthsimple introduced it first.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: On October 31, 2019, National Bank had a network of 422 branches and 939 automated teller machines in Canada. It also had a representative offices, subsidiaries and partnerships in other countries, through which it serves Canadian and non-Canadian clients. It owns ABA Bank in Cambodia.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: National Bank's business is concentrated in Quebec, and it is expanding in other provinces. For the year ending October 31, 2017, 59% of its total revenues were from Quebec, 30% from other provinces, and 11% from its international operations. Its total revenue for the year were allocated across business segments:


title: National Bank of Canada

text: In 2011, National Bank was placed third in Bloomberg's list of "The World’s Strongest Banks". in 2018, it placed 41st on Go back Finance's list of the 50 strongest banks.


title: National Bank of Canada

text: The management structure of the bank consists of an office of the President and a board of directors.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter, from Woodhouse Eaves, Leicestershire, has won six singles titles and four doubles titles on the ITF Women's Circuit. On 18 February 2019, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 82. On 31 December 2018, she peaked at No. 431 in the WTA doubles rankings.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter was ranked the No. 10 junior tennis player in the world in March 2014. She is based at the Lawn Tennis Association's National Tennis Centre in Roehampton and is coached by Jeremy Bates, Nigel Sears, and Mark Taylor.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter's mother played tennis at county level and represented Great Britain a few times. Boulter herself started playing tennis aged 5, and went on to represent Great Britain three years later, aged 8. She has said that when she was younger, beating her older brother was a motivating factor. "We used to practise together at this local court down the road from our house. It was the only thing I could eventually beat him in, so that felt great."


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter played the piano before her tennis career began to take precedence. She also has an interest in fashion and made an appearance in Vogue magazine in 2018. She is a supporter of Leicester City Football Club.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Following in the path of Anna Kournikova, Boulter showed promise in 2008 when she won the Lemon Bowl in Rome, aged 11. She went on in 2011, aged 14, to become a finalist in the Junior Orange Bowl Tennis Championships in Coral Gables, Florida. Past finalists have included Andy Murray and Caroline Wozniacki. She was awarded the Aegon Junior Player Award that month.


title: Katie Boulter

text: In January 2014, Boulter went on to have further doubles success and was a finalist at the Australian Open girls' doubles event with Ivana Jorović. In May 2014, in Sharm El Sheikh, Boulter won her first senior singles title over fellow Briton Eden Silva. She also won the doubles title at the same event partnering Nina Stojanović, to whom she had lost a previous final in singles. A month later, Boulter was given a wildcard for Wimbledon qualifying, losing in the first round to Italian Alberta Brianti in a three-set match which lasted two-and-a-half hours.


title: Katie Boulter

text: 2018 became her most successful tennis year. She won her first $25k singles title at the event in Óbidos, Portugal in April. In May, Boulter then won a further singles title at the $60k event in Fukuoka, Japan. Despite falling in the first round of qualifying for the French Open, Boulter carried her good form into the grass-court season, She received a wildcard for the Nottingham Open and reached her first WTA quarterfinal there. In July 2018, she received a wildcard to the $100k grass-court event in Southsea, England where she fell to Kirsten Flipkens in the final.


title: Katie Boulter

text: She then received a wildcard into the Wimbledon main draw, where she won her first-round match over Veronica Cepede Royg. She lost to Naomi Osaka in the second round, in straight sets.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter began the 2019 season in Hobart, Tasmania where she did not qualify, losing to Greet Minnen in three sets. Her next tournament was the Australian Open. She defeated Ekaterina Makarova, in three sets, with the first instance in the Australian Open of a third-set tiebreak, winning the tiebreak 10–6. However, her run ended in the second round with a straight-set defeat by Aryna Sabalenka.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Her next tournament was the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy during which she defeated Bernarda Pera, Katarina Zavatska and Ysaline Bonaventure in the qualifiers. She then lost to Ekaterina Alexandrova in three sets. At the Mexican Open, she defeated Conny Perrin, in straight sets, before retiring to fifth seed Sofia Kenin. At the Miami Open, entering as the sixth qualifying seed, she lost to Marie Bouzková in straight sets.


title: Katie Boulter

text: At Wimbledon, she beat qualifier Danielle Lao before she lost to Aryna Sabalenka in three sets, in the second round.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Having won an ITF tournament in February 2022, Boulter had to retire from the WTA event in Lyon in March due to a leg injury.


title: Katie Boulter

text: Boulter missed the clay-court season, but returned at the Nottingham Open in June where she came through qualifying to defeat Tatjana Maria in the first round before losing to Ajla Tomljanović. Granted a wildcard for the Birmingham Classic, she defeated Alison Riske (first top-40 win) and Caroline Garcia, before loing to Simona Halep.


title: Katie Boulter

text: At Eastbourne, she was also handed a wildcard and defeated fourth seed and world No. 7, Karolina Plíšková, for her first top-10 win. She lost her last 16 match against Petra Kvitová in three sets.


title: Katie Boulter

text: At Wimbledon, Boulter again upset Plíšková in three sets to advance to the third round of a major for the first time in her career. In round three, Boulter lost to Harmony Tan in straight sets.


title: Katie Boulter

text: "Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records.


title: Samy Naceri

text: Saïd Naceri (; born 2 July 1961), known as Samy Naceri (), is a French actor known for his work in the four "Taxi" films and "The Code" ("La Mentale").


title: Samy Naceri

text: Naceri was born to an Algerian Berber Kabyle father and a French mother in the 4th arrondissement of Paris and spent his childhood in the Parisian suburb of Fontenay-sous-Bois. His brother is Bibi Naceri, who co-wrote and co-starred in international hit film "District 13". He shared the award for "Best Actor" for his role in the film "Days of Glory" at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Samy Naceri

text: Stemming from a substance abuse charge in 2003, Naceri was sentenced to eight months' imprisonment with deferment, had his driving licence suspended for three years, and was penalized with a €5,000 fine for a road rage incident in which he smashed a car and assaulted one of its occupants.


title: Samy Naceri

text: In November 2005, after waiting for a late guest, Naceri attacked a 22-year-old man with an ashtray at a Paris restaurant. The actor was convicted for assault and spent two months in jail. He was released in February 2006. Then, in December 2006 he was imprisoned for racially abusing police officers. In January 2007 he was accused of attempted murder after stabbing a security guard in Aix-en-Provence. He was sentenced to nine months in prison (six months suspended) for violence and was also sentenced to one month in prison for assaulting two guards at a medical center where he was being treated for overdosing on drugs.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: An ovarian follicle is a roughly spheroid cellular aggregation set found in the ovaries. It secretes hormones that influence stages of the menstrual cycle. At the time of puberty, women have approximately 200,000 to 300,000 follicles, each with the potential to release an egg cell (ovum) at ovulation for fertilization. These eggs are developed once every menstrual cycle with around 450–500 being ovulated during a woman's reproductive lifetime.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Ovarian follicles are the basic units of female reproductive biology. Each of them contains a single oocyte (immature ovum or egg cell). These structures are periodically initiated to grow and develop, culminating in ovulation of usually a single competent oocyte in humans. They also consist of granulosa cells and theca of follicle.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Once a month, one of the ovaries releases a mature egg (ovum), known as an oocyte. The nucleus of such an oocyte is called a "germinal vesicle (see picture)."


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Cumulus oophorus is a cluster of cells (called cumulus cells) that surround the oocyte both in the ovarian follicle and after ovulation.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Granulosa cells or follicular cells are cells that surround the oocyte within the follicle; their numbers increase directly in response to heightened levels of circulating gonadotropins or decrease in response to testosterone. They also produce peptides involved in ovarian hormone synthesis regulation. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) induces granulosa cells to express luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors on their surfaces; when circulating LH binds to these receptors, proliferation stops.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: The granulosa cells, in turn, are enclosed in a thin layer of extracellular matrix – the follicular basement membrane or basal lamina ("fibro-vascular coat" in picture). Outside the basal lamina, the layers theca interna and theca externa are found.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Primordial follicles are indiscernible to the naked eye. However, these eventually develop into primary, secondary and tertiary vesicular follicles. Tertiary vesicular follicles (also called "mature vesicular follicles" or "ripe vesicular follicles") are sometimes called Graafian follicles (after Regnier de Graaf).


title: Ovarian follicle

text: In humans, oocytes are established in the ovary before birth and may lie dormant awaiting initiation for up to 50 years.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: In a larger perspective, the whole folliculogenesis from primordial to preovulatory follicle is located in the stage of meiosis I of ootidogenesis in oogenesis.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Embryonic development in males and females follows a common pathway before gametogenesis. Once gametogonia enter the gonadal ridge, however, they attempt to associate with these somatic cells. Development proceeds and the gametogonia turn into oogonia, which become fully surrounded by a layer of cells (pre-granulosa cells).


title: Ovarian follicle

text: The oogonia multiply by dividing mitotically; this proliferation ends when the oogonia enter meiosis. The amount of time that oogonia multiply by mitosis is not species specific. In the human fetus, cells undergoing mitosis are seen until the second and third trimester of pregnancy. After beginning the meiotic process, the oogonia (now called primary oocytes) can no longer replicate. Therefore, the total number of gametes is established at this time. Once the primary oocytes stop dividing the cells enter a prolonged 'resting phase'. This 'resting phase' or dictyate stage can last anywhere up to fifty years in the human.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: For several primary oocytes that complete meiosis I each month, only one or a few functional oocyte, the dominant follicles, completes maturation and undergoes ovulation. The other follicles that begin to mature will regress and become atretic follicles, eventually deteriorating.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: The primary oocyte turns into a secondary oocyte in mature ovarian follicles. Unlike the sperm, the egg is arrested in the secondary stage of meiosis until fertilization.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Upon fertilization by sperm, the secondary oocyte continues the second part of meiosis and becomes a zygote.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Ovarian function may be measured by gynecologic ultrasonography of follicular volume. Presently, ovarian follicle volumes can be measured rapidly and automatically from three-dimensionally reconstructed ultrasound images.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Rupture of the follicle can result in abdominal pain (mittelschmerz) and is to be considered in the differential diagnosis in women of childbearing age.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: Cryopreservation and culture tissue after cryopreservation. Cryopreservation of ovarian tissue is of interest to women who want to preserve their reproductive function beyond the natural limit, or whose reproductive potential is threatened by cancer therapy, for example in hematologic malignancies or breast cancer.


title: Ovarian follicle

text: For "in vitro" culture of follicles, there are various techniques to optimize the growth of follicles, including the use of defined media, growth factors and three-dimensional extracellular matrix support. Molecular methods and immunoassay can evaluate stage of maturation and guide adequate differentiation. Animal studies have generally shown correct imprinted DNA methylation establishment in oocytes resulting from follicle culture.


title: MAT-49

text: The MAT-49 is a submachine gun which was developed by French arms factory Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Tulle (MAT) for use by the French Army and was first produced in 1949.


title: MAT-49

text: In 1949, after evaluating several prototypes (including a collapsible design from Hotchkiss), the French MAT factory began production of the MAT-49 9 mm submachine gun. The MAT-49 used a machine stamping process which allowed the economical production of large numbers of submachine guns, then urgently required by the French Government for use by Army, French Foreign Legion as well as airborne and colonial forces to meet the need of a compact weapon.


title: MAT-49

text: Production continued at Tulle until the mid-1960s, then switched to the Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne plant (MAS), where the weapon was produced until 1973. In 1979, the French armed forces adopted the FAMAS 5.56 mm NATO assault rifle, and the MAT-49 was gradually phased out of service.


title: MAT-49

text: The MAT-49 saw widespread combat use during the First Indochina War and the Algerian War, as well as the 1956 Suez Crisis. The weapon found considerable favor with airborne and mechanized troops, who prized it for its simplicity, ruggedness, firepower and compactness.


title: MAT-49

text: After French forces left Indochina, the People's Army of Vietnam and Viet Minh converted many captured MAT-49s to the Soviet 7.62 mm Tokarev pistol cartridge, then available in large quantities from the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. These converted versions could be distinguished by a longer barrel and a higher rate of fire at 900 rpm.


title: MAT-49

text: North Vietnam covertly provided MAT-49s to anti-French occupation groups during the Algerian War after the French left Indochina.


title: MAT-49

text: The MAT-49 had a short, retractable wire stock, which when extended gave the weapon a length of , and the magazine well and magazine could be folded forward parallel to the barrel for parachute jump or with a 45° angle hence allowing a safe carry until the magazine well is brought back to vertical position before opening fire. Barrel length is , with the MAT-49/54 manufactured with extended barrels and non-retractable wooden stocks. As issued, the MAT-49 fires a 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, using a single-column 20-round magazine for desert use or 32-round similar to the Sten magazine.


title: MAT-49

text: The MAT-49 is blowback-operated and box magazine-fed, with a rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute on full auto. The MAT 49/54, a modified MAT-49s manufactured for police forces, had two triggers, allowing use of full-auto fire or single shots, but most were manufactured as full-auto only. Minus magazine, the MAT-49 weighs about , which is heavy for a submachine gun. The weapon incorporates a grip safety which is located on the backside of the pistol grip. The rear sights are flip-up and "L"-shaped, and marked for a range of . Production ceased before the introduction of the FAMAS assault rifle in 1979.


title: MAT-49

text: In the video game Team Fortress 2, one of the playable classes, Sniper, appears to use a submachine gun, heavily inspired by the MAT-49 but with oversized sights and no stock as one of his standard weapons.


title: Air suspension

text: Air suspension is a type of vehicle suspension powered by an electric or engine-driven air pump or compressor. This compressor pumps the air into a flexible bellows, usually made from textile-reinforced rubber. Unlike hydropneumatic suspension, which offers many similar features, air suspension does not use pressurized liquid, but pressurized air. The air pressure inflates the bellows, and raises the chassis from the axle.


title: Air suspension

text: Air suspension is used in place of conventional steel springs in heavy vehicle applications such as buses and trucks, and in some passenger cars. It is widely used on semi trailers and trains (primarily passenger trains).


title: Air suspension

text: The purpose of air suspension is to provide a smooth, constant ride quality, but in some cases is used for sports suspension. Modern electronically controlled systems in automobiles and light trucks almost always feature self-leveling along with raising and lowering functions. Although traditionally called air bags or air bellows, the correct term is air spring (although these terms are also used to describe just the rubber bellows element with its end plates).


title: Air suspension

text: On 7 January 1901 the British engineer Archibald Sharp patented a method for making a seal allowing pneumatic or hydraulic apparatus described as a "rolling mitten seal", and on 11 January 1901 he applied for a patent for the use of the device to provide air suspension on bicycles. Further developments using this 1901 seal followed. A company called Air Springs Ltd started producing the A.S.L. motorcycle in 1909. This was unusual in having pneumatic suspension at front and rear - rear suspension being unusual in any form of motorcycle at that time. The suspension units were similar to the normal girder forks with the spring replaced by a telescopic air unit which could be pressurised to suit the rider. Production of the motorcycles ceased in 1914.


title: Air suspension

text: On 22 January 1901 an American, William W. Humphreys, patented an idea - a 'Pneumatic Spring for Vehicles'. The design consisted of a left and right air spring longitudinally channeled nearly the length of the vehicle. The channels were concaved to receive two long pneumatic cushions. Each one was closed at one end and provided with an air valve at the other end.


title: Air suspension

text: From 1920, Frenchman George Messier provided aftermarket pneumatic suspension systems. His own 1922-1930 Messier automobiles featured a suspension "to hold the car aloft on four gas bubbles."


title: Air suspension

text: During World War II, the U.S. developed the air suspension for heavy aircraft in order to save weight with compact construction. Air systems were also used in heavy trucks and aircraft to attain self-levelling suspension. With adjustable air pressure, the axle height was independent of vehicle load.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1946, American William Bushnell Stout built a non-production prototype Stout Scarab that featured numerous innovations, including a four-wheel independent air suspension system.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1950, Air Lift Company patented a rubber air spring that is inserted into a car's factory coil spring. The air spring expanded into the spaces in the coil spring, keeping the factory spring from fully compressing, and the vehicle from sagging. The air springs were also commonly used on NASCAR race cars for many years.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1954, Frenchman Paul Magès developed a functioning air/oil hydropneumatic suspension, incorporating the advantages of earlier air suspension concepts, but with hydraulic fluid rather than air under pressure. Citroën replaced the conventional steel springs on the rear axle of their top-of-range model, the Traction Avant 15 Hydraulique. In 1955, the Citroën DS incorporated four wheel hydropneumatic suspension. This combined a very soft, comfortable suspension, with controlled movements, for sharp handling, together with a self-levelling suspension.


title: Air suspension

text: In the U.S., General Motors built on its World War II experience with air suspension for trucks and airplanes. It introduced air suspension as standard equipment on the new 1957 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. An "Air Dome" assembly at each wheel included sensors to compensate for uneven road surfaces and to automatically maintain the car's height. For 1958 and 1959, the system continued on the Eldorado Brougham, and was offered as an extra cost option on other Cadillacs.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1958, Buick introduced an optional "Air-Poised Suspension" with four cylinders of air (instead of conventional coil springs) for automatic leveling, as well as a "Bootstrap" control on the dashboard to raise the car for use on steep ramps or rutted country roads, as well as for facilitating tire changes or to clean the whitewall tires. For 1959, Buick offered an optional "Air Ride" system on all models that combined "soft-rate" steel coil springs in the front with air springs in the rear.


title: Air suspension

text: An optional air suspension system was available on the 1958 and 1959 Rambler Ambassadors, as well as on all American Motors "Cross Country" station wagon models. The "Air-Coil Ride" utilized an engine-driven compressor, reservoir, air bags within the coil springs, and a ride-height control, but the $99 optional system was not popular among buyers and American Motors (AMC) discontinued it for 1960.


title: Air suspension

text: Only Cadillac continued to offer air suspension through the 1960 model year, where it was standard equipment on the Eldorado Seville, Biarritz, and Brougham.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1962, the Mercedes-Benz W112 platform featured an air suspension on the 300SE models. The system used a Bosch main valve with two axle valves on the front and one on the rear. These controlled a cone-shaped air spring on each wheel axle. The system maintained a constant ride height utilizing an air reservoir that was filled by a single-cylinder air compressor powered by the engine. In 1964, the Mercedes-Benz 600 used larger air springs and the compressed air system also powered the brake servo.


title: Air suspension

text: Rolls-Royce incorporated self-levelling suspension on the 1965 Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow, a system built under license from Citroën.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1975, the Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9 incorporated a hydropneumatic suspension when the patents on the technology had expired. This design replaced the expensive, complex, and problematic compressed air system that was still used on the 600 models until 1984.


title: Air suspension

text: Air suspension was not included in standard production American-built cars between 1960 and 1983. In 1984, Ford Motor Company incorporated a new design as a feature on the Lincoln Continental Mark VII.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1986, Toyota Soarer introduced the first electronically controlled (TEMS), a semi-active full air suspension (spring constant, variable attenuation force).


title: Air suspension

text: Dunlop Systems Coventry UK were also pioneers of Electronically Controlled Air Suspension (ECAS) for off-road vehicles - the term ECAS was successfully trade marked. The system was first fitted to the 93MY Land Rover Range Rover.


title: Air suspension

text: In 1989, Arnott Air Suspension Products is founded, eventually expanding to a 300,000 square foot manufacturing plant in Merritt Island, Fl., including 65,000 sq. ft Research & Development center dedicated to Air Suspension, assisting in patents for BMW, Mercedes-Benz and more.


title: Air suspension

text: In 2002 the GMT 360 Trail Blazer SUV featured rear air assist air suspension with Dunlop air springs and an integrated Wabco control system.


title: Air suspension

text: In 2005 the GM H2 HUMMER featured an optional rear air suspension system with a dual compressor control system from Dunlop to support tire inflation for off-road applications.


title: Air suspension

text: Vehicles that have used air suspension include models from Maybach, Rolls-Royce, Lexus, Jeep, Ram, Cadillac (GM), Mercedes-Benz, Citroën, Porsche, Land Rover, SsangYong, Audi, Subaru, Volkswagen, Lincoln, Ford, and Tesla, among others. Some Citroën vehicles feature Hydractive suspension, a computer controlled version of their Hydropneumatic system, which features sport and comfort modes, lowers the height of the car at high speeds and continues to maintain ride height when the engine is not running.


title: Air suspension

text: The air suspension designs from Lincoln, Land Rover, SsangYong, Chrysler, Subaru, Audi, Volkswagen, Tesla, Porsche, and Lexus models feature height adjustable suspension suitable for making it easier to enter the vehicle, clear bumps, or clear rough terrain. The Lincoln Continental, Town Car, Navigator and Mark VIII also featured an air suspension system which offered a controlled but smooth ride. Jaguar and Porsche has taken this to the next level on their XJ and Panamera models, with a system that changes the spring rate and damping settings, among other changes, for their sport/track modes. The Mark VIII suspension settings were also linked to the memory seat system, meaning that the car would automatically adjust the suspension to individual drivers. The control system in the Mark VIII can lower the suspension by about 25 mm (1 inch) at speeds exceeding about 100 km/h (60 mph) for improved aerodynamic performance. One way automakers strive to improve gas mileage is by utilizing active suspension technology. Tesla Motors offers an included "Active Air Suspension" on the Model S and Model X to lower or raise the vehicle for aerodynamics and increased range.


title: Air suspension

text: In 2014 the new C217 S-Class Coupe introduced an update to Magic Body Control, called Active Curve Tilting. This new system allows the vehicle to lean up to 2.5 degrees into a turn, similar to a tilting train. The leaning is intended to counter the effect of centrifugal force on the occupants and is available only on rear-wheel drive models.


title: Air suspension

text: Over the last decade or so air suspension has become popular in the custom automobile culture: street rods, trucks, cars, and even motorcycles may have air springs. They are used in these applications to provide an adjustable suspension which allows vehicles to sit extremely low, yet be able rise to a level high enough to maneuver over obstacles and inconsistencies on paved surfaces. These systems generally employ small, electric or engine-driven air compressors which sometimes fill an on-board air receiver tank which stores compressed air for use in the future without delay. It is important that the tank is sized for the task and can be calculated using a specific formula involving the compressor output, standard atmospheric pressure and compressed pressure.


title: Air suspension

text: High-pressured industrial gas bottles (such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide tanks used to store shielding gases for welding) are sometimes used in more radical air suspension setups. Either of these reservoir systems may be fully adjustable, being able to adjust each wheel's air pressure individually. This allows the user to tilt the vehicle side-to-side, front-to-back, in some instances "hit a 3-wheel" (contort the vehicle so one wheel lifts up from the ground) or even "hop" the entire vehicle into the air. When a pressure reservoir is present, the flow of air or gas is commonly controlled with pneumatic solenoid valves. This allows the user to make adjustments by simply pressing a momentary-contact electric button or switch.


title: Air suspension

text: The installation and configuration of these systems varies for different makes and models but the underlying principle remains the same. The metal spring (coil or leaf) is removed, and an air bag, also referred to as an air spring, is inserted or fabricated to fit in the place of the factory spring. When air pressure is supplied to the air bag, the suspension can be adjusted either up or down (lifted or lowered).


title: Air suspension

text: For vehicles with leaf spring suspension such as pickup trucks, the leaf spring is sometimes eliminated and replaced with a multiple-bar linkage. These bars are typically in a trailing arm configuration and the air spring may be situated vertically between a link bar or the axle housing and a point on the vehicle's frame. In other cases, the air bag is situated on the opposite side of the axle from the main link bars on an additional cantilever member. If the main linkage bars are oriented parallel to the longitudinal (driving) axis of the car, the axle housing may be constrained laterally with either a Panhard rod or Watt's linkage. In some cases, two of the link bars may be combined into a triangular shape which effectively constrains the vehicles axle laterally.


title: Air suspension

text: Often, owners may desire to lower their vehicle to such an extent that they must cut away portions of the frame for more clearance. A reinforcement member commonly referred to as a C-notch is then bolted or welded to the vehicle frame in order to maintain structural integrity. Specifically on pickup trucks, this process is termed "notching" because a portion (notch) of the cargo bed may also be removed, along with the wheel wells, to provide maximum axle clearance. For some, it is desirable to have the vehicle so low that the frame rests on the ground when the air bags are fully deflated. Owners generally choose between having their cars 'tuck' their wheels into the arches when their air suspension is fully lowered or alternatively they can choose to go for 'fitment' which in partnership with stretched tyres sees the arch itself fit in between the tyre and rim.


title: Air suspension

text: Air suspension is also a common suspension upgrade for those who tow or haul heavy loads with their pick-up truck, SUV, van or car. Air springs, also called "air helper springs," are placed on existing suspension components on the rear or front of the vehicle in order to increase the load capacity. One of the advantages of using air suspension as a load support enhancement is the air springs can be deflated when not towing or hauling and therefore maintaining the factory ride quality.


title: Air suspension

text: Electronic Controlled Air Suspension (ECAS) is the name of the air suspension system installed on the Range Rover Classic in 1993 and later on the Range Rover P38A. It was developed in the early 1990s by the company now known as Dunlop Systems and Components Ltd in Coventry, UK.


title: Air suspension

text: ECAS provides variable-height suspension for on- and off-road applications. The five suspension heights typically offered by ECAS are (from lowest to highest in terms of height) "Loading," "Highway," "Standard," "Off-Road," and "Off-Road Extended." Height is controlled automatically based on speed and undercarriage sensors, but a manual ride height switch allows control over the suspension by the driver. The "Loading" and "Off-Road" heights are available only at speeds typically less than . The "Highway" setting is not available manually; it is set when the vehicle moves at over typically for over 30 seconds. Unlike a mechanical spring system (where deflection is proportional to load), height may be varied independently from the load by altering the pressure in the air springs.


title: Air suspension

text: The air springs were designed to provide a smooth ride, with the additional ability to raise the body of the vehicle for off-road clearance and lower it for higher-speeds road driving. Mechanical springs, for which deflection is proportional to load, cannot do this; with ECAS height is largely independent of load. The developers of ECAS also designed LoadSafe, a related system to ascertain load and change in load on an LCV type vehicle fitted with air springs.


title: Air suspension

text: The Multi-Chamber air suspension is a suspension capable of controlling the spring characteristics of the air suspension step by step.


title: Air suspension

text: Multi-Chamber air suspension applicated on the Genesis G90 consists of three chambers. Three chambers are used for a smooth ride, and one chamber is used for a dynamic driving feeling. A solenoid valve located between each chamber and a separate electronic control unit oversees the control process. In addition, the basic minimum ground height of 148mm is divided into four stages: high, normal, low, and ultra-low according to the driving mode, driving speed, and driving environment. depending on the driving mode, driving speed, and driving environment. And it informs the driver of the garage control through the infotainment screen. The speed bump control, the hump control, the slope control, and the high-speed driving control functions are activated under the air suspension control.


title: Air suspension

text: Air bag or air strut failure is usually caused by wet rust, due to old age, or moisture within the air system that damages it from the inside. Air ride suspension parts may fail because rubber dries out. Punctures to the air bag may be caused from debris on the road. With custom applications, improper installation may cause the air bags to rub against the vehicle's frame or other surrounding parts, damaging it. The over-extension of an air spring which is not sufficiently constrained by other suspension components, such as a shock absorber, may also lead to the premature failure of an air spring through the tearing of the flexible layers. Failure of an air spring may also result in complete immobilization of the vehicle, since the vehicle will rub against the ground or be too high to move. However, most modern automotive systems have overcome many of these problems.


title: Air suspension

text: Air line failure is a failure of the tubing which connects the air bags or struts to the rest of the air system, and is typically DOT-approved nylon air brake line. This usually occurs when the air lines, which must be routed to the air bags through the chassis of the vehicle, rub against a sharp edge of a chassis member or a moving suspension component, causing a hole to form. This mode of failure will typically take some time to occur after the initial installation of the system, as the integrity of a section of air line is compromised to the point of failure due to the rubbing and resultant abrasion of the material. An air line failure may also occur if a piece of road debris hits an air line and punctures or tears it, although this is unlikely to occur in normal road use. It does occur in harsh off-road conditions but it still not common if correctly installed.


title: Air suspension

text: Air fitting failure usually occurs when they are first fitted or very rarely in use. Cheap low quality components tend to be very unreliable. Air fittings are used to connect components such as bags, valves, and solenoids to the air line that transfers the air. They are screwed into the component and for the most part push-in or push-to-fit DOT line is then inserted into the fitting.


title: Air suspension

text: Compressor failure is primarily due to leaking air springs or air struts. The compressor will burn out trying to maintain the correct air pressure in a leaking air system. Compressor burnout may also be caused by moisture from within the air system coming into contact with its electronic parts. This is far more likely to occur with low specification compressors with insufficient duty cycle which are often purchased due to low cost. For redundancy in the system two compressors are often a better option.


title: Air suspension

text: In Dryer failure the dryer, which functions to remove moisture from the air system, eventually becomes saturated and unable to perform that function. This causes moisture to build up in the system and can result in damaged air springs and/or a burned out compressor.


title: Air suspension

text: The ECAS computer can, using pre-programmed criteria to detect a fault, disable the system into "Hard Fault Mode" which lowers the vehicle to the suspension bump-stops, leaving it usable with radically reduced performance until repaired.


title: Air suspension

text: Many enthusiasts use diagnostic devices such as laptop and hand computers running specially developed software to clear spurious faults and avoid the need for repair. Some manipulate the sensors to set the vehicle to a particular ride height at all times by adjusting the lever ratio on the height-sensing devices, or a supplementary ECU to "fool" the system.


title: Air suspension

text: Leaks in the system, often due to main seal wear caused by excessive duty cycle, can cause premature compressor failure.


title: Air suspension

text: The current market of buses have suspension system consisting of either mechanical or air suspension system. Compared to its counterpart, air suspension system has significant benefits. Vehicle height can be maintained at a particular value irrespective of its load by varying the pressure. Standard coaches also have a system called ferry lift. This allows the air suspension to be raised above the normal ride height level to aid loading and unloading the coach on and off ferries due to their steep ramps and risk of grounding out, but can also be used on rough ground or on steep crests. Although the ferry lift may be installed on some buses, the Kneel Down facility is more common on public transport buses. This helps reduce the step height for easy ingress of passengers. The Kneel Down facility is also used when using the built-in wheelchair ramps. Due to several advantages, air suspension has been extensively used in commercial vehicles since 1980.


title: Buick Envision

text: The Buick Envision is a compact crossover SUV manufactured by General Motors. It is exclusively manufactured in China by the SAIC-GM joint venture, supplying the domestic market and the North American market.


title: Buick Envision

text: The Buick Envision was first introduced in 2011 as a design concept. It was a small crossover with two large scissor doors opening upward. The concept was a plug-in hybrid with advanced technology such as a solar roof and head-up display. The "waterfall" grille was one of the few features which made it to the production version of the Envision.


title: Buick Envision

text: The Envision was first introduced in China in August 2014, also known by its Chinese name, “Ang Ke Wei” (昂科威). It went on sale in China on October 20th.


title: Buick Envision

text: The Envision debuted in the U.S. at the North American International Auto Show on January 11, 2016, sharing the segment with a second generation GMC Terrain and the Chevrolet Equinox. It went on sale in the United States in the summer of 2016, making it the first Chinese-built GM vehicle to be sold in America. It was initially offered with all-wheel drive, and subsequently with optional front-wheel drive for model year 2017.


title: Buick Envision

text: The North American version of the Envision features two powertrains: a 2.5L four-cylinder with and torque, and a turbo-charged 2.0L four-cylinder engine SAE certified at and torque. Both were initially paired with a third-generation six-speed transmission. For the 2016 model year, the Envision was only available in Premium I and Premium II trim levels, with the 2.0L turbo engine, seven active safety technologies, and OnStar/Intellilink connectivity. The trim levels expanded to five for the 2017 model year.


title: Buick Envision

text: In addition to the larger engines offered in North America, Chinese buyers also have the option of a turbocharged 1.5-liter unit.


title: Buick Envision

text: The 2019 Envision debuted in late 2017 in China, and in 2018 for the North American market. It features revised rear styling and tail lights, stop/start calibration, and new seating design. The transmission for the 2.0-litre turbo engine was upgraded to a 9-speed automatic.


title: Buick Envision

text: The 2020 Envision facelift debuted in early 2020 in China, and would be sold alongside the second generation models called the Envision S in China. It features revised front and rear end styling.


title: Buick Envision

text: In May 2020, GM introduced the second generation of the Envision in the United States. It is powered by a 2.0L turbocharged four-cylinder engine producing and torque, paired with a 9-speed automatic transmission. The 2021 Envision includes a suite of standard safety features, including blind spot monitor, lane departure warning, and forward collision alert. Four trim levels are offered: base, Preferred, Essence, and for the first time, Buick's premium Avenir trim.


title: Buick Envision

text: In China, the new Envision is sold alongside the first-generation Envision as the Envision S. The new Envision continues to be assembled in China at the SAIC-GM Dongyue Motors plant in Yantai alongside the previous generation model. The second generation Envision now shares the E2XX platform with the Cadillac XT4.


title: Buick Envision

text: Launched during the 2021 Shanghai Auto Show, the Buick Envision Plus is a stretched version of the Envision that serves as a three-row crossover SUV variant of the regular Buick Envision S in China. The wheelbase has been extended to , resulting in a length of .


title: Buick Envision

text: In 2017, the Envision was Buick's third bestselling model in the U.S. with sales of just over 41,000 units. Sales in the U.S. dropped 27% in 2018 but rebounded slightly in 2019. In 2020, Envision was the only Buick model in the U.S. to see a sales increase over 2019.


title: Buick Envision

text: On August 6, 2018, General Motors announced that it might withdraw the Envision from the United States and Canada markets due to the China-United States trade war, should a request to seek a waiver to continue to import the vehicle be denied. GM sought the waiver amid a trade disagreement between the United States and China over tariffs that could hurt the sales of the Envision. The automaker sees the potential exemption as "the only way" to continue offering the vehicle to U.S. consumers, according to GM President Dan Ammann. The exemption was denied on May 29, 2019, but GM has opted to pay the tariffs without raising the price on the vehicle for the time being. Buick is confident that ongoing talks between China and the United States could spare the Envision's future in North America.


title: Rah Digga

text: Rashia Tashan Fisher (born December 18, 1974), known professionally as Rah Digga, is an American rapper and actress. She is best known as a longtime member of the Flipmode Squad, a hip hop group led by Busta Rhymes. Her debut album, "Dirty Harriet" (2000), peaked in the top-20 of the "Billboard" 200, and she released her second album, "Classic", in 2010. She starred in the horror film "Thirteen Ghosts" (2001) as Maggie.


title: Rah Digga

text: Rah Digga was born in New Jersey. She studied electrical engineering at the New Jersey Institute of Technology. She learned how to rap by studying the raps of KRS-One, Rakim, and Kool G Rap of the Juice Crew.


title: Rah Digga

text: She worked with hip hop group Twice the Flavor before joining the Outsidaz, leading to a feature on the track "Cowboys" from the Fugees album "The Score". She was spotted by Q-Tip at the Lyricist Lounge which led to her meeting Busta Rhymes and joining his Flipmode Squad. She has appeared on several Busta Rhymes albums. Her debut solo, "Dirty Harriet", was released in 2000 and featured Busta Rhymes and Eve. She also worked with Bahamadia on the track "Be Ok" from "Lyricist Lounge, Vol. 1". At that time they were the two leading women of the Lyricist Lounge movement, which also served as the home base for artists such as Mos Def, Talib Kweli, Pharaohe Monch, Common Sense, Lord Have Mercy, Foxy Brown and Shabaam Sahdeeq. In 2001 she starred in the film "Thirteen Ghosts" and sang the title track "Mirror Mirror" on the soundtrack. Also in 2001, she performed with Deborah Cox, Monica, Tamia and Mýa at contributing an original rap verse to "Heal the World".


title: Rah Digga

text: Her second album "Everything Is a Story" was due to be released on Clive Davis's J Records in 2004, but was shelved. Many songs from the album had leaked to the internet in an unofficial 23-track album of unreleased material, and in 2010 Rah Digga released her own version of the album, featuring additional tracks. Rah Digga released a new album, "Classic", in 2010. Production was handled by Nottz, and a promo single was released entitled "This Ain't No Lil Kid Rap". Since then she has been releasing music independently through SoundCloud, Bandcamp and the iTunes Store. Digga currently co-hosts a podcast, "Yanadameen Godcast", with a fellow rapper Lord Jamar and comedian, Godfrey.


title: Rah Digga

text: Rah Digga first appeared in "Da Hip Hop Witch" (2000), playing a fictionalized version of herself. She was then cast in the film "Thirteen Ghosts" (2001) alongside Tony Shalhoub, F. Murray Abraham, Shannon Elizabeth and Matthew Lillard in her first real acting role. In the same year, she also appeared alongside Beyoncé and Joy Bryant in MTV's "" (2001). In 2003 and 2009, she was featured in the documentary films "Queens of Hip Hop" (with Salt-N-Pepa) and "Say My Name" (with Erykah Badu, Jean Grae, Miz Korona, Remy Ma, and MC Lyte, among others). Additionally, Digga has appeared as a guest star on "The Mo'Nique Show". Digga is a cast member of the film "Stars" (2022), Directed by Mars Roberge.


title: Rah Digga

text: Rah Digga has been called "one of rap's most prominent women MCs" by AllMusic and "one of hip hop's most skilled female MCs" in the book "How to Rap".


title: Rah Digga

text: She was in a relationship with fellow rapper Young Zee. The couple has a daughter named Sativa, born in 1997.


title: Kate Austen

text: Katherine Anne Austen is a fictional character on the ABC television series "Lost", played by Canadian actress Evangeline Lilly.


title: Kate Austen

text: Born in 1977 and raised in Iowa, Kate is the daughter of diner worker Diane (Beth Broderick), and Sam (Lindsey Ginter), a U.S. Army Ranger and Gulf War Veteran. At an early age Kate's parents divorced, and Diane married an abusive alcoholic named Wayne Janssen (James Horan). As an adult, Kate killed Wayne, which she confessed to her mother before disappearing. Wayne had always been abusive to her mother, but Kate decided to kill him upon learning that he was her biological father. Diane called the authorities; thereafter Kate is pursued and ultimately arrested by Edward Mars (Fredric Lehne).


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate fled to Miami under the alias "Monica", where she dated and soon married a police officer named Kevin Callis (Nathan Fillion). After a pregnancy scare and Kevin's purchase of two Oceanic tickets to Costa Rica for their honeymoon, Kate confessed her fugitive past and laced his drink with a sedative before disappearing. After months of traveling around the country under numerous aliases, Kate learned that Diane was dying of cancer, and decided to visit her. She reunited with her high-school sweetheart, Dr. Tom Brennan (Mackenzie Astin), who arranged a meeting between Kate and Diane. As Kate tried to apologize to her, Diane started screaming for help, prompting Kate to flee the hospital with Tom. A policeman opened fire on their getaway car, killing Tom and forcing Kate to flee the scene of the accident.


title: Kate Austen

text: Months later Kate staged a robbery in New Mexico with several criminals to infiltrate a bank's safe deposit box. Tom's toy airplane was being stored in box 815, the same number as the crashed flight number. She fled to Australia where, while sleeping in a barn, she was discovered by a farmer, Ray Mullens (Nick Tate). Posing as a Canadian hiker, Kate worked on the farm for three months. When the farmer caught her attempting to sneak away, he offered her a ride into town the next morning. During the journey however, Kate discovered that the farmer had found out her true identity and notified Edward Mars of her whereabouts. Kate grabbed the wheel and crashed the truck into a field but instead of running, she helped the unconscious farmer from his vehicle, giving Mars time to pursue and arrest her. Escorting her to the airport in handcuffs, Mars briefed local security officers on Kate's fugitive past and revealed his locked carry-on case containing four firearms (and a fifth in an ankle holster). As the plane was bombarded with escalating turbulence, Mars was knocked unconscious by luggage from the overhead compartment. Kate stole the keys to the handcuffs and attached an oxygen mask to Mars and for herself, as the plane splintered and crashed onto the island.


title: Kate Austen

text: Having survived the crash, Jack Shephard noticed Kate walking out of the jungle and asked her to stitch his wound, to which she agreed reluctantly. During their second day on the Island, Jack, Kate and Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) went to retrieve the cockpit's transceiver from the plane debris. They tried to rescue the injured pilot, but the Smoke Monster attacked them. When they returned, Kate, Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) and several other survivors hiked to higher ground of the Island to transmit a distress signal on the transceiver.


title: Kate Austen

text: Back at the camp, Kate visited the injured marshal where he attempted to strangle her. Kate told Jack that he should euthanize the dying man, but Jack questioned her true motives when he learned about her criminal record. She went on a mission to triangulate the distress signal, and helped an injured Michael Dawson back to the camp. Jack suggested that the survivors move to the caves that he had discovered, but Kate refused because she was afraid of "digging in" and settling down.


title: Kate Austen

text: When Kate discovered the marshal's case, she and Sawyer had several fights to possess it. Eventually, Kate asked Jack for his help; he retrieved the case and decided that he should open it with Kate. Inside the case was Tom's toy plane. Jack questioned her about the toy, and she admitted the plane belonged to the man that she loved and who was killed.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate, along with Jack, attempted to track down Claire and Charlie when they were kidnapped by Ethan. They were able to find and revive a hanging Charlie. Later, she helped to capture Ethan. Kate was forced to deliver Claire's baby by herself while Jack was trying to save Boone's life.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate tried to gain a place on Michael's raft by attempting to steal Sawyer's and Jin's places. She convinced Jin's wife, Sun, to poison his water to ensure that he would not be able to travel on the raft. In preparation for the trip, Kate stole a dead woman's passport to assume her identity. However, Michael accused Sawyer of Michael's poisoning, which led to Sawyer revealing her fugitive status to the other survivors.


title: Kate Austen

text: After Rousseau arrived on the beach to warn the camp of the Others' imminent arrival; she directed Kate, Jack, Locke, and Hurley to the Black Rock, where they attempted to carry dynamite to the hatch that was discovered in the jungle.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate and Locke descend into the hatch, Kate entering first. Once inside, she is locked up by Desmond. Kate arrives in a room with a computer, where she overpowers Desmond after Jack arrives. She accidentally damages the computer in the crossfire, causing Desmond to panic and flee. Kate is placed on a rotation to enter a certain set of numbers every 108 minutes into the computer, supposedly saving the world.


title: Kate Austen

text: While picking fruit Kate sees a black horse from her past. When she returns to the hatch she hallucinates that Wayne is channeled through unconscious injured Sawyer and Kate freaks out. Jack finds her alone in the jungle and tries to comfort her. Kate kisses Jack on impulse, then runs away once she realizes what she's done. She eventually returns to the Hatch to tend Sawyer. They venture outside and both witness the black horse lingering nearby. When Michael runs off in search of his son, Kate follows him, but is kidnapped. After Jack refuses Tom's demands to hand over the guns, Kate is brought out and held at gunpoint to force the men to give up their guns.


title: Kate Austen

text: When Claire's baby falls ill, Kate joins her on a trek into the jungle to seek Rousseau's help. The three head inland, where they discover the station. Later, Kate and Jack discover a mysterious and unnoticed food drop in the jungle. They return to the hatch, where hostage "Henry Gale" is exposed as an impostor. Later, Kate joins Jack on a trek back to where they encountered the Others. The two make camp and Kate apologizes for kissing him in the jungle. Jack tells her that he is not sorry that she kissed him and they are about to kiss again when an exhausted Michael stumbles out of the bushes. Michael invites her to follow him to the Others' camp when he recovers. The next day, Kate, Jack, Sawyer and Hurley join Michael Dawson as they head for the Others' camp. They are ambushed, gagged, tied up and taken to a pier.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate is placed in a cage opposite Sawyer to work for the Others, under the eye of Pickett. Sawyer discovers they are actually on another island, and tries to keep the information from Kate so as to give her hope. When Jack contacts her via Pickett's radio, informing her that she has a head-start to escape, she and Sawyer run towards the beach. They encounter Alex, who gives them her boat


title: Kate Austen

text: When arriving on the beach, she scolds Sayid and Locke for not bothering to rescue Jack. They head into the jungle and find Rousseau, who agrees to help them after learning of Alex's status. The four trek into the jungle, where they discover the station. There they confront the Other Mikhail and take him hostage. The four resume their hike, eventually arriving at the Others' barracks, and see Jack socializing with the Others. That evening, Kate approaches Jack, but the Others capture Sayid and her. When they are alone, Jack explains to Kate that he has made a deal with The Others. In exchange for saving Ben's life, Jack will be allowed to return home. He promises Kate that he will come back for her and the rest of their friends. But Locke blows up the Other's submarine before Jack can leave. The following day, Kate is gassed by the Others and wakes up in the jungle, handcuffed to Juliet. They eventually return to the beach with Jack and Sayid.


title: Kate Austen

text: Upon returning, Kate is still wary of Juliet, and becomes especially jealous of Juliet's developing relationship with Jack. Later, she learns of Naomi's arrival. Kate is then shown Jack and Juliet's plan to deal with the Others' imminent attack while the majority travels to the radio tower. En route, Sawyer tells Kate that he's turning back to help the survivors on the beach. Kate wants to go with him, but Sawyer won't let her, and Jack defends Sawyer's actions, knowing that Sawyer is trying to protect Kate. When Kate asks why he is sticking up for Sawyer because she knows Sawyer would never stick up for Jack, Jack replies that it's because he (Jack) loves her. They eventually encounter Ben and Alex in the jungle, at which point Ben is taken hostage.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate follows a trail of Naomi's blood until being attacked by Naomi, who suddenly dies. After a confrontation between Jack and Locke, Kate decides to stay with Jack, but questions Sawyer when he decides to go with Locke. Later, they come across Daniel Faraday, whom they believe has arrived to rescue them. After finding Miles, Kate and Jack find themselves at gunpoint until she takes them to Naomi's body.


title: Kate Austen

text: Later, they team up with Frank, who managed to arrive on the island with the helicopter. Upon learning of the location of the final team member, Charlotte Staples Lewis, Kate accompanies Sayid and Miles to the barracks. They are eventually captured by Locke. Kate decides to remain at the barracks, in an attempt to extract information from Miles. She arranges for him to speak to Ben, but is caught by Locke. She spends the night with Sawyer (although they did not have sex) and tells him that she is not pregnant. They argue over his exaggerated show of relief. Sawyer accuses her of bouncing back and forth between him and Jack. Kate slaps him on the face and then heads back to the beach. When Sawyer returns with Miles and Aaron, she also takes over as Aaron's primary caretaker when Sawyer reveals that Claire has gone missing. Later, Sayid and Kate follow Jack and Sawyer to avoid them being attacked by the boat's soldiers. They meet up with the remaining Others and join forces to defeat the boat's soldiers. They all board Lapidus' helicopter, but as they travel back to the freighter a fuel leak is discovered, and after all the excess weight is thrown out, Sawyer kisses Kate, then asks her to do a favor for him back home and jumps out.


title: Kate Austen

text: In "Eggtown", Kate goes on trial for her father's murder. Jack testifies on her behalf as a character witness. He lies under oath and tells the court that it was Kate that saved him and the other survivors. Under cross-examination, he is asked whether he loves the defendant and he replies "Not anymore." Kate looks crestfallen and demands that Jack's testimony cease. Kate's mother, the prosecution's star witness, tries to reconcile with Kate, and then decides not to testify. She is consequently released on ten years probation, provided that she does not leave California. Kate meets ups with Jack after she is released and he confesses to her that he lied on the stand (about no longer loving her) and Kate is delighted. She invites him to come home with her, but he hesitates because he is not ready to see Aaron (his nephew) again. In "Something Nice Back Home", Kate is seen living in an established relationship with Jack, who is also acting as a surrogate father for his nephew Aaron. Later, Jack asks Kate to marry him, which she happily accepts. Jack later confronts Kate about her "errands", which involved her meeting with Sawyer's daughter; Clementine and his ex-girlfriend Cassidy. Kate refuses to tell Jack any details about this, as she knows Sawyer would not want anybody else to know. Jack is angered by her secrecy and raises his voice, waking Aaron up. Kate rushes to comfort him then Jack leaves, paranoid, ending their relationship.


title: Kate Austen

text: In "Through the Looking Glass", Jack informs her of John Locke's funeral. Jack then tells her that they need to return to the island, but Kate grows furious and leaves.


title: Kate Austen

text: Kate is surprisingly confronted by Dan Norton, a lawyer who is asking for a blood sample from both her and Aaron to determine their biological relationship. Norton refuses to tell Kate who his client is, and Kate refuses to give him a blood sample. Kate visits Sun, who convinces her to go see Norton and try to get him to reveal who his client is. Kate leaves Aaron in Sun's care while visiting Norton's firm, but cannot get a name out of him. Kate and Jack follow Norton to his clients house, who turns out to be Claire's mother. Jack goes in to talk to her and then realizes that she isn't the client they were looking for. When approached by Ben later, Kate discovers that he was the one who was trying to get a blood sample from her.