title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: Turns out that the taxi driver Ravi had a twin brother who is a techie. He teams up with his friends and father who is none other than Subramani. Their objective is simple: bring out the facts on Ravi's case and restore his reputation. To do this they recreated the kidnapping of Janani with Pooja to create a media sensation that would bring out the facts. Vikram puts the facts in front of Asha and she orders Vikram to encounter kill everyone involved in the case as a cleanup activity.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: Vikram sympathizes with Subramani and his son and kills the minister's son and releases the footage of Asha ordering the cleanup. This makes Asha lose her job and be subjected to inquiry.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: In a final twist, it is revealed that Vikram is not himself but Janani's boyfriend. Though Janani is critically injured doctors predict she would recover fine, Asha fears that if Janani survives she would spill the beans on the truth about Ravi. So she kills Janani in the hospital. Her boyfriend under the name of Vikram has now taken his revenge against Asha and the minister's son.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: Asha tries to explain to the angry and disgusted Pooja, but the latter refuses to talk to her. Out of guilt, Asha goes into a room, closes the door, and shoots herself dead.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: In November 2020 the film shooting was started and due to Covid Second Wave, the shoot of the film was postponed and finally completed in June 2021.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: The title of the film and the first look poster of the film were unveiled by director Venkat Prabhu, M. Sasikumar in his Twitter account on 21 July 2021. In January 2022, the film's teaser was released by Udhayanidhi Stalin. The movie is announced to be released on 22 July 2022.


title: Dejavu (2022 film)

text: The film received mixed to positive reviews. A critic from "Behindwoods" wrote that "Dejavu is a watchable thriller with twists and turns". Logesh Balachandran of "The Times of India" rated the film 2.0 out of 5 stars and stated that "Arulnithi's effort to try something inventive is laudable, but Dejavu is certainly not a film you can experience more than once." Haricharan Pudipeddi of "Hindustan Times" after reviewing the film stated that "As far as a thriller goes, Dejavu manages to impress to a large extent and leaves hardly any room for complaints.". The film managed to run 4 weeks in theaters and was declared as Super Hit.


title: Schiff base

text: In organic chemistry, a Schiff base (named after Hugo Schiff) is a compound with the general structure ( = alkyl or aryl, but not hydrogen). They can be considered a sub-class of imines, being either secondary ketimines or secondary aldimines depending on their structure. The term is often synonymous with azomethine which refers specifically to secondary aldimines (i.e. where R' ≠ H).


title: Schiff base

text: A number of special naming systems exist for these compounds. For instance a Schiff base derived from an aniline, where is a phenyl or a substituted phenyl, can be called an "anil", while bis-compounds are often referred to as salen-type compounds.


title: Schiff base

text: The term Schiff base is normally applied to these compounds when they are being used as ligands to form coordination complexes with metal ions. Such complexes occur naturally, for instance in corrin, but the majority of Schiff bases are artificial and are used to form many important catalysts, such as Jacobsen's catalyst.


title: Schiff base

text: Schiff bases can be synthesized from an aliphatic or aromatic amine and a carbonyl compound by nucleophilic addition forming a hemiaminal, followed by a dehydration to generate an imine. In a typical reaction, 4,4'-oxydianiline reacts with "o"-vanillin:


title: Schiff base

text: Schiff bases have been investigated in relation to a wide range of contexts, including antimicrobial, antiviral and anticancer activity. They have also been considered for the inhibition of amyloid-β aggregation.


title: Schiff base

text: Schiff bases are common enzymatic intermediates where an amine, such as the terminal group of a lysine residue, reversibly reacts with an aldehyde or ketone of a cofactor or substrate. The common enzyme cofactor pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) forms a Schiff base with a lysine residue and is transaldiminated to the substrate(s). Similarly, the cofactor retinal forms a Schiff base in rhodopsins, including human rhodopsin (via Lysine 296), which is key in the photoreception mechanism.


title: Schiff base

text: Schiff bases are common ligands in coordination chemistry. The imine nitrogen is basic and exhibits pi-acceptor properties. The ligands are typically derived from alkyl diamines and aromatic aldehydes.


title: Schiff base

text: Chiral Schiff bases were one of the first ligands used for asymmetric catalysis. In 1968 Ryōji Noyori developed a copper-Schiff base complex for the metal-carbenoid cyclopropanation of styrene. For this work he was later awarded a share of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Schiff bases have also been incorporated into metal–organic frameworks (MOF).


title: Schiff base

text: Conjugated Schiff bases absorb strongly in the UV-visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This absorption is the basis of the anisidine value, which is a measure of oxidative spoilage for fats and oils.


Ernest Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (8 March 1724, in Saalfeld – 8 September 1800, in Coburg), was a Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.


title: Ernest Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld

text: He was the eldest son of Francis Josias, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Anna Sophie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.


text: Ernest Frederick succeeded his father in the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld when he died in 1764 and established his definitive residence shifted in Coburg. Because of the high indebtedness of the duchy he was compelled by Emperor Joseph II in 1773 to work with a "Debit commission"—an obligatory administration of debts assigned by the emperor—for over thirty years.


text: In Wolfenbüttel on 23 April 1749 Ernest Frederick married with Sophia Antonia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. They had seven children:


title: British European Airways

text: British European Airways (BEA), formally British European Airways Corporation, was a British airline which existed from 1946 until 1974.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA operated to Europe, North Africa and the Middle East from airports around the United Kingdom. The airline was also the largest UK domestic operator, serving major British cities, including London, Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, as well as areas of the British Isles such as the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. BEA also operated a network of internal German routes between West Berlin and West Germany as part of the Cold War agreements regulating air travel within Germany. The company slogan was "Number One in Europe."


title: British European Airways

text: Formed as the British European Airways division of British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) on 1 January 1946, BEA became a crown corporation in its own right on 1 August 1946.


title: British European Airways

text: Operations commenced from Croydon and Northolt airports, with DH89A Dragon Rapides and Douglas DC-3s.


title: British European Airways

text: Having established its main operating base at Northolt, BEA operated its first service from Heathrow in April 1950; by late 1954, all Northolt operations had moved to Heathrow, which remained the airline's main operating base until the merger with BOAC in 1974.


title: British European Airways

text: During 1952, BEA carried its millionth passenger, and by the early 1960s it had become the western world's fifth-biggest passenger-carrying airline and the biggest outside the United States.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1950, BEA operated the world's first turbine-powered commercial air service with Vickers' Viscount 630 prototype, from London to Paris. The airline entered the jet age in 1960 with de Havilland's DH106 Comet 4B. On 1 April 1964, it became the first to operate the DH121 Trident; on 10 June 1965, a BEA Trident 1C performed the world's first automatic landing during a scheduled commercial air service.


title: British European Airways

text: For most of its existence, BEA was headquartered at "BEAline House" in Ruislip, London Borough of Hillingdon.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA ceased to exist as a separate legal entity on 1 April 1974 when the merger with BOAC to form British Airways (BA) took effect. However the name was revived by British Airways from 1991 to 2008 when it changed the name of an existing subsidiary, "British Airways Tour Operations Limited" to "British European Airways Limited". "British Airways Tour Operations Limited" was itself founded in 1935 as an air travel company, named "Silver Wing Surface Arrangements Limited".


title: British European Airways

text: With the outbreak of war in September 1939 all commercial and private flying within the UK had been severely restricted by the government due to the possibility of civil flights encountering enemy aircraft. To offset this halting of civilian air traffic limited aerial services were instead carried out from 1940 onwards by the state-owned and operated British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) to a number of destinations, both European, and worldwide. On 1 January 1946, the Attlee government lifted wartime restrictions on civil flying in the United Kingdom. Within Europe, this resulted in BOAC resuming Imperial Airways' pre-war routes to continental Europe augmented by Royal Air Force Transport Command non-military flights from Croydon Airport, using Douglas Dakotas in RAF livery flown by crews in RAF uniforms, and UK domestic air services operated by the Associated Airways Joint Committee (AAJC), which had been formed of several pre-war charter companies on 27 June 1940.


title: British European Airways

text: BOAC formed a British European Airways division on 1 January 1946 in anticipation of that year's Civil Aviation Act. Following its formation, BOAC's new division began taking over Transport Command's operations from 4 March 1946. On that day, it inaugurated a weekly Dakota service from Northolt to Madrid and Gibraltar, followed by additional Dakota services to Stavanger and Oslo, Copenhagen, as well as Athens via Marseille and Rome. On each of these flights, half of the Dakota's 16 seats were reserved for UK government officials. Initially, crews continued to wear BOAC uniforms. Although some services still used Croydon for some time, the main operating base moved to RAF Northolt.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 August 1946, the Civil Aviation Act 1946 was given Royal Assent and passed into law. This established BEA as a crown corporation in its own right (British European Airways "Corporation") and transferred primary responsibility for scheduled air services from the UK to Europe (including the British Isles) to BEA. To fulfill its role as the new short- and medium-haul British flag carrier, BEA was organised into two divisions based at Northolt and Liverpool Speke respectively, with the former responsible for all scheduled services to the Continent and the latter for all scheduled services within the British Isles. The Civil Aviation Act 1946 furthermore provided for nationalisation of private, independent British scheduled airlines and gave BEA a legal monopoly as the sole short-haul scheduled British airline. Due to BEA's inability to take over the UK domestic flights of independent scheduled operators such as Railway Air Services, Allied Airways (Gandar Dower) and British Channel Islands Airways on 1 August, these independents continued to ply their scheduled routes under contract to BEA until they were absorbed into the corporation in 1947.


title: British European Airways

text: The first flight operated by the newly constituted British European Airways Corporation departed Northolt for Marseille, Rome and Athens on the day of its formation at 8:40 am. This was followed by further route launches to Amsterdam, Brussels and Lisbon.


title: British European Airways

text: Initially, BEA supplemented its ex-RAF Transport Command Dakotas with Dragon Rapides and Avro Nineteens.


title: British European Airways

text: Between August and October 1946, BEA took delivery of the first 11 of an eventual 83 Vickers Viking piston-engined airliners. These were BEA's first new aircraft, which it leased from the UK government. The first Viking revenue service departed Northolt for Copenhagen on 1 September 1946. Compared with the Dakota, the Viking took 35 minutes less to reach Copenhagen from London. Following their introduction on the London–Copenhagen route, Vikings began replacing Dakotas on BEA's services to Amsterdam, Oslo, Stockholm, Gibraltar and Prague.


title: British European Airways

text: In November 1946, BEA's first service to Northern Ireland departed Croydon for Belfast (Sydenham) via Liverpool, using an ex-Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 52/3m operated by independent airline Railway Air Services on the fledgling corporation's behalf. The following month, BEA's Belfast operations transferred to Nutts Corner while Dakotas replaced the "Jupiter" class Ju 52s from 1947.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 February 1947, the process of merging the wholly private, independent airlines operating in the UK under the AAJC umbrella into BEA began. Railway Air Services, Isle of Man Air Services, and Scottish Airways (which had been formed in 1937 by merging Northern & Scottish Airways and Highland Airways) were among the first independents merged into the new corporation.


title: British European Airways

text: 1947 was also the year BEA operated its first scheduled all-cargo flight from Northolt to Brussels with a DC-3 freighter. The same year, it inaugurated a scheduled service between Land's End Airport in southwest Cornwall, England, and St Mary's Airport on the largest island of the Isles of Scilly archipelago off the southwest coast of Cornwall, using "Islander" class Dragon Rapides.


title: British European Airways

text: Despite the previous year's nationalisation of several private airlines and their absorption into BEA, the government-owned carrier continued to contract its private sector counterparts to operate a limited number of regional feeder services on its behalf via "associate" agreements. These needed to be approved by the Air Transport Advisory Council (ATAC), the contemporary UK government department in charge of air transport economic regulation. Cambrian and Western Airways were the first two airlines to be given associate status by BEA in May 1948. These arrangements enabled the latter to contract the operation of a new feeder route between Cardiff and Weston-super-Mare to both of the former, which respectively used Dragon Rapides and Avro Ansons to provide a daily service. East Anglian Flying Services (EAFS) was another early BEA associate. The association agreement between BEA and EAFS resulted in the latter operating a Southend–Rochester feeder service on behalf of the former.


title: British European Airways

text: 1948 was also the year BEA's reservations department moved to new premises at Dorland Hall, Lower Regent Street in London's West End.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA made aviation history in 1950 with the world's first turbine-powered commercial air service from London to Paris, using the UK Ministry of Supply-owned Vickers Viscount 630 prototype G-AHRF. By that time, BEA's main operating base at Northolt was the busiest airport in the UK; however, the airline was losing money, which resulted in replacing former BOAC director, Gerard d'Erlanger, who was BEA's first chairman, with Lord Douglas of Kirtleside, as well as appointing Peter Masefield as its new managing director.


title: British European Airways

text: Following the provisional introduction of the Viscount 630 prototype on the London–Paris and London–Edinburgh routes, BEA ordered 20 Viscount 701s in August 1950 for delivery from 1953. Also in 1950, BEA informed Vickers of its requirement for an aircraft with 10% lower costs per seat-mile than the 800 series Viscount. This provided the impetus for Vickers to begin developing the four-engined Vanguard high-capacity turboprop in 1953.


title: British European Airways

text: Peter Masefield's arrival as managing director (MD) in 1950 marked the beginning of BEA's commercialisation. This entailed introduction of new cost control measures and innovative methods to boost revenue and passenger loads, including off-peak fares on late-evening flights and high-frequency services on the London–Paris route. BEA's new commercially aggressive approach soon resulted in monthly earnings of £1 million.


title: British European Airways

text: In early 1951, BEA introduced its first "Pionair" class Douglas DC-3, a Scottish Aviation DC-3 conversion featuring British instrumentation and an increased seating capacity of 32. In addition to having 38 DC-3s converted to Pionair passenger carriers, BEA had a further 10 DC-3s modified as "Leopard" class freighters. The same year, BEA introduced its first tourist class on Viking services. This entailed re-configuring a total of 49 aircraft in a 36-seat, single class layout. BEA referred to its re-configured, all-tourist class Vikings as "Admiral" class [aircraft].


title: British European Airways

text: In 1952, BEA carried its one-millionth passenger and introduced the first of 20 Airspeed Ambassadors. These cost £3 million and featured a 49-seat mixed-class layout. BEA's first commercial Ambassador service left London for Paris on 13 March 1952. Flights to Milan and Vienna began the following month. These aircraft introduced the airline's passengers to new standards of comfort and speed. Compared with BEA's older piston types, the Ambassador's flight time from London to Milan, for example, reduced by two hours. In June 1952 BEA re-launched the pre-war mid-day "Silverwing" service pioneered by Imperial Airways on the London–Paris route with 40-seat all-first class Ambassadors. The Ambassador was BEA's last major piston-engined type. It referred to the aircraft as "Elizabethan" class to commemorate the accession of Elizabeth II that year. Also in 1952, BEA made Jersey-based independent airline Jersey Airlines an associate to develop a network of routes within the Channel Islands and expand services between the islands and the UK mainland.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1953, BEA began receiving the first 16 Viscount 701 turboprops it had ordered in August 1950. The first of these "Discovery" class aircraft entered service with 47 mixed-class seats in April 1953, and the first production aircraft (G-AMAV) went on to win the transport class of the 1953 London to Christchurch, New Zealand, air race, with BEA MD Peter Masefield as team manager and co-pilot.


title: British European Airways

text: 1953 was also the year "Flightmaster", BEA's first mechanical reservations system, was installed. This enabled the simultaneous display of seat availability on 32,000 flights.


title: British European Airways

text: Between February and April 1954, BEA's expanding Viscount fleet replaced Elizabethans between London, Nice and Rome, and on regional routes from Manchester and Birmingham. By that time, BEA had shifted its main operating base to Heathrow, which became the London terminal for all international flights. Although it continued to use Northolt as a London terminal for domestic flights serving Manchester, Edinburgh, Renfrew (Glasgow), Aberdeen, Belfast and the Channel Islands which by that time were mainly operated by 36-seater "Admiral" class Vikings, these were wound down in favour of concentrating all of BEA's London flights at Heathrow. A Jersey-bound Pionair in October 1954 was BEA's final flight from Northolt.


title: British European Airways

text: The Viscount's commercial success had made it the leading short-haul aircraft in Europe in the mid-1950s. This led Lord Douglas to believe that turboprops would continue to be the mainstay of BEA's fleet into the 1960s.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 March 1955, BEA completed its first profitable financial year, recording an operating profit of £552,314 and a net profit of £63,039.


title: British European Airways

text: In July 1955, BEA became the launch customer for the Vanguard, Vickers' new high-capacity turboprop powered by four Rolls-Royce RB109 "Tyne" engines. The airline's launch order was for 20 aircraft, including six Vanguard V.951s and 14 heavier V.953s.


title: British European Airways

text: In mid-1955, BEA entered into a 10-year operating agreement with its associate Cambrian Airways. This resulted in the latter launching new services from Liverpool and Manchester to Jersey (via Bristol and Cardiff) on behalf of the former.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1955–56 financial year, BEA carried more than two million passengers for the first time at an all-time high average load factor of 69.4%. During that period, it recorded a profit of £603,614, mainly as a result of revenue growth accounted for by the Viscount fleet.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1956, BEA acquired a 25% minority shareholding in Jersey Airlines and the corporation's Southampton–Guernsey and Southampton–Alderney routes transferred to the independent.


title: British European Airways

text: 1956 was also the year BEA began using Viscounts for nightfreight operations to increase cargo capacity as well as the aircraft's utilisation. While BEA continued taking delivery of Viscount 701s, it placed its first order for 12 larger 66- to 68-seat Viscount 802/806s. These were delivered from February 1957. By 1958, BEA had 77 Viscounts in service.


title: British European Airways

text: On 7 February 1958, BEA acquired a 33⅓% minority shareholding in Welsh independent regional airline Cambrian Airways.


title: British European Airways

text: In March 1958, BEA ordered six de Havilland DH106 Comet 4B jet aircraft for delivery from 1960. This was BEA's answer to the impending introduction of the Sud-Est Caravelle, Air France's new short-/medium-range jet, on the French flag carrier's European, North African and Middle Eastern network, including the prime Heathrow – Le Bourget route from July 1959.


title: British European Airways

text: The arrival at Heathrow on 30 July 1958 of a BEA Elizabethan from Cologne marked the type's last service with the airline. Although its operating costs on short routes such as London–Paris were lower than the Viscount's, the piston type could not match the turboprop's passenger appeal. Unlike the Pionairs and Leopards, which continued serving regional feeder and freight routes, Elizabethans were deployed on trunk routes where passenger appeal was more important; this further hastened their demise in BEA service.


title: British European Airways

text: On 12 August 1959, BEA signed a £28 million contract for 24 de Havilland DH121 Trident Mark 1(C) "second-generation" jets plus 12 options, making it the launch customer for the world's first commercial T-tailed rear-engined trijet due to enter service in spring 1964. (This version of the Trident was smaller and lighter than de Havilland's original DH121 of 1956. At that time BEA's chairman, Anthony Milward, had insisted that a launch order from BEA depended on scaling down the original design, in the belief that the Vickers Vanguard high-capacity turboprops it had ordered the year before would remain competitive against jets on trunk routes as a result of lower operating and seat-mile costs. BEA's insistence on building the Trident smaller with less powerful engines and a lower fuel capacity than originally proposed was also a manifestation of the cautious attitude of the airline's senior management against a backdrop of a [temporary] reduction in its profit margin and slowdown in its growth rate. Meeting BEA's specifications for the Trident involved reducing the length of the aircraft's fuselage, its wingspan and weight and replacing the Rolls-Royce RB141/3 "Medway" engines with Rolls-Royce RB163 "Speys". Shrinking the original design also reduced seating capacity from 111–130 to 79–90, in mixed- and single-class configuration respectively.)


title: British European Airways

text: On 7 November 1959, BEA took delivery of its first Comet 4B (G-APMB), nearly two months ahead of the contracted delivery on 1 January 1960. This was followed by the official handover ceremony of the airline's first jet airliner on 16 November.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1959–60 financial year, BEA carried 3.29 million passengers and recorded a profit of £2.09 million.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 April 1960, BEA began commercial jet operations with its new Comet 4Bs. On that day, the airline commenced jet operations from Heathrow to Athens, Istanbul, Moscow, Munich, Rome and Warsaw with an initial, five-strong Comet fleet. By June, this fleet grew to seven (out of an eventual 18) aircraft, enabling the launch of additional jet services to Copenhagen, Oslo, Stockholm, Düsseldorf, Malta, Zürich and Frankfurt.


title: British European Airways

text: Also in 1960, BEA took delivery of its final two Viscount 701s bringing its total fleet strength of this sub-type to 50.


title: British European Airways

text: 1960 was furthermore the year the UK Parliament enacted the Civil Aviation (Licensing) Act (1960), which abolished the statutory monopoly BEA and BOAC had enjoyed on principal domestic and international scheduled routes since the beginning of the post-war era. In theory, this gave independent airlines equal opportunities to develop scheduled routes in their own right; however, in reality, the corporations would object to applications by independent airlines seeking to be licensed as competitors to the state airlines. Each application by an independent airline for a scheduled route licence was heard by the newly established Air Transport Licensing Board (ATLB), the new UK government body in charge of air transport economic regulation that succeeded ATAC. At these hearings, the independents needed to convince the ATLB that there were sufficient passengers to justify the proposed scheduled services, that these stood a reasonable chance of becoming profitable and that they opened up new markets rather than divert traffic from the corporations to overcome the latter's objections. Although the ATLB granted British Eagle and British United Airways (BUA), BEA's and BOAC's two biggest independent competitors during the 1960s, licences to operate rival international scheduled services on several trunk routes from London Heathrow and Gatwick respectively, these airlines were unable to use them without actual traffic rights. For example, lack of traffic rights prevented BUA from running direct London (Gatwick) – Paris (Le Bourget) scheduled flights although it held a licence for that route, which the ATLB had awarded it in late 1961. In that case, BUA's failure to obtain traffic rights was mainly the result of the French authorities' refusal to grant these without a corresponding reduction in BEA's share of London–Paris flights.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1960–61 financial year, BEA carried 3.99 million passengers at an average load factor of 65% and recorded a loss of £1.75 million.


title: British European Airways

text: By the early 1960s, BEA carried just under four million passengers per year, more than any other airline in Europe (excluding Aeroflot); worldwide (excluding Aeroflot and the Chinese CAAC Airlines), only the "Big Four" US airlines – American Airlines, United Airlines, Pan Am and TWA – carried more. By that time, BEA served most major European cities, with the network stretching as far east as Moscow, Kuwait and Doha as well as North Africa to the south, and it was furthermore a founder/minority shareholder of Alitalia, Aer Lingus, Cyprus Airways, Gibraltar Airways and Jersey Airlines.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1961, BEA placed an order for three Armstrong Whitworth Argosy all-cargo aircraft. These were the airline's first dedicated freighters; the first aircraft was delivered and entered service later the same year.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 March 1961, BEA began commercial Vanguard services following a delay to the aircraft's entry into service, as a result of major defects discovered in its Rolls-Royce Tyne engine's compressor during testing in early 1960. Following their delayed entry into service, BEA's Vanguards began flying to international destinations such as Malta and Barcelona and by 1962, took over approximately half of the flights previously operated by Viscounts on the airline's UK domestic trunk routes, where they operated in a 132-seat, single-class configuration. The Vanguards' introduction on BEA's Heathrow–Scotland trunk routes increased traffic by more than 20%.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 April 1961, BEA moved some flights to Paris (Le Bourget) and other European destinations from Heathrow to Gatwick in accordance with the wishes of the British government to develop the latter airport.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1962, BEA sold its 25% minority holding in Jersey Airlines. This was followed by the BUA group's takeover of Jersey Airlines in May of that year.


title: British European Airways

text: On 19 May 1962, Pionair G-ALTT operated the type's final service on BEA's Scottish internal network between Islay, Campbeltown and Glasgow (Renfrew).


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1962-63 annual report, BEA estimated that introduction of both the Comet 4B and Vanguard had cost it more than £6 million over a two-year period. The airline considered this "a heavy financial burden" in support of British aircraft manufacturers, which adversely impacted its ability to compete with overseas rivals whose choice of aircraft was not influenced by political considerations.


title: British European Airways

text: In November 1963, BEA's independent rival British Eagle became the first independent airline to compete with it on a main UK domestic trunk route, when the independent launched daily scheduled services between London Heathrow and Glasgow with 103-seater, two-class Bristol Britannias. This was followed by daily two-class Britannia services from Heathrow to Edinburgh and Belfast the next day. This was also the first time a scheduled airline had offered a separate first class cabin on a domestic route in the UK. As British Eagle was restricted to a single daily round-trip on each route, it sought to differentiate itself from BEA. While BEA served these routes with 132-seat Vanguards in an all-tourist configuration with minimal onboard catering, British Eagle provided full catering on all flights. British Eagle furthermore differentiated itself from its state-owned competitor by introducing assigned seating and "trickle loading". The former was a first for a UK scheduled domestic carrier while the airline claimed to have started the latter in the UK as well. BEA, whose frequencies were not restricted, responded to the challenge on its three most important domestic routes by scheduling additional flights that departed and arrived at the same time or within 10 minutes of its rival's scheduled departure and arrival times. This had the effect of "sandwiching" British Eagle's flights. BEA's response also included the introduction of trickle loading and subsequent introduction of full onboard catering as well as a separate first class cabin.


title: British European Airways

text: On 11 March 1964, a BEA Trident 1C operated the Trident's first commercial service, standing in for a Comet 4B that had been scheduled to fly 79 fare-paying passengers from Heathrow to Copenhagen. BEA's regular commercial Trident operations commenced on 1 April 1964. Initially, BEA operated its Tridents in a 79-seat, two-class configuration, comprising 15 first class and 64 tourist class seats.


title: British European Airways

text: In June 1964, BEA acquired a minority shareholding in Northeast England-based independent regional airline BKS Air Transport.


title: British European Airways

text: On 10 June 1965, BEA Trident 1C G-ARPR performed the world's first automatic touchdown at London Heathrow on a commercial flight with fare-paying passengers. Another BEA Trident performed the world's first fully automatic landing in fog by a civil aircraft in zero visibility at Heathrow in November 1966.


title: British European Airways

text: On 26 August 1965, BEA signed the contract for a follow-on Trident order. This covered 15 firm Trident 2Es plus 10 options for delivery from spring 1968. The 2E series was an aerodynamically improved version of the original 1C series incorporating the re-arranged interior of the "hot-and-high" 1E series that resulted in a greater seating capacity, as well as a higher gross weight, increased fuel capacity by providing an additional fuel tank in the fin and more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey engines to fly non-stop from London to Beirut with 90 passengers.


title: British European Airways

text: In the mid-1960s, BEA's European rivals began placing orders for new "second-generation" jet aircraft, such as the Boeing 727-200 and its smaller stablemate, the 737-200, as well as the Douglas DC-9-30/40. Compared with the Trident, these were more economical, in terms of range, revenue generation and seat-mile costs. Of particular concern to BEA in this context were Air France's plans to replace Caravelles with new 727-200s on most of its London–Paris flights. BEA also had a requirement for a jet to replace Vanguards on the Heathrow–Manchester route to regain traffic lost to British Rail as a result of the electrification of the London–Manchester line and Berlin-based Viscounts to restore the competitive balance with Pan Am's new 727s on the internal German services. Therefore, in February 1966, BEA began evaluating the 727-200, 737-200 and DC-9-40 for these requirements, favouring the former two seating up to 166 and 111 passengers in single-class configuration respectively. In June 1966, BEA requested UK government permission to place an order with Boeing for 18 727-200s and 23 737-200s. Following the UK government's refusal to grant BEA permission to order an all-American fleet of Boeing 727-200s and 737-200s, the Board of Trade (BOT) directed the airline to buy comparable British aircraft instead. This resulted in a BEA order for 18 firm BAC One-Eleven 500s plus six options in January 1967, for delivery from autumn 1968, to meet BEA's requirement to replace Vanguards/Viscounts on its Heathrow–Manchester and internal German routes.


title: British European Airways

text: In February 1967, BEA sought UK government approval to order up to 40 BAC Two-Elevens, a 200-seat, six-abreast development of the five-abreast BAC One-Eleven powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 high-bypass turbofan engines, for service entry in the early 1970s. The UK government's refusal to let BEA order American aircraft, as well as its subsequent decision to stop funding the development of BAC's Two-Eleven and a delay to the rival Rolls-Royce RB207-powered, 250-seat pan-European Airbus A300 widebody, also resulted in another Trident order from the airline for 26 firm 3B series aircraft plus 10 options in early 1968, for delivery from 1971.


title: British European Airways

text: As this necessitated the purchase of a greater number of aircraft with fewer seats and less range that needed to be inducted into the fleet over a shorter period of time due to later availability compared with the originally chosen American aircraft, BEA had made both its £32 million One-Eleven 500 order and £83 million Trident 3B order dependent on receiving a subsidy from the UK government to compensate it for having been directed against its commercial judgement to order British aircraft with a lower earning potential and later delivery dates. The UK government responded to BEA's plea by agreeing to transfer £25 million from the airline's existing borrowings to a special account on which no interest was payable, including the option to transfer this amount to its profit and loss account as required. This arrangement furthermore permitted a subsequent transfer to BEA of an additional £12.5 million in case this was required.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's first order for the BAC One-Eleven enabled BAC to proceed with the development of the 500 series, a more powerful, stretched version of the original One-Eleven 200 launched by BEA's independent rival British United Airways in 1961; its second repeat-order for Tridents launched the 3B series, a more powerful, aerodynamically enhanced, stretched version of the earlier Trident models already in service with/ordered by the airline. The 3B had an unusual (and noisy) feature, a small fourth engine (a Rolls-Royce RB162) in the base of the tailfin to increase power during takeoff. The One-Eleven 510EDs ordered by BEA had a range of and were configured for 97 passengers in a single class while the Trident 3Bs entered service with the airline either in a 152-seat, single-class or a 130-seat, two-class configuration. BEA's BAC One-Eleven 510EDs and Hawker Siddeley Trident 3Bs also featured common instrumentation to attain a high degree of commonality. This was achieved by having Smiths supply the avionics of both aircraft, which in the case of the One-Eleven replaced the Collins avionics found on all other 500 series.


title: British European Airways

text: The differences in flight deck layout between the 510ED and other 500 series were so significant that a separate aircraft type rating was required to fly the former. Another notable difference between the 510ED and all other 500 series was that the former's Rolls-Royce RB163-25 Mk 512-11 Spey engines lacked the latter's Mk 512-14DWs' demineralised water injection system, and that these engines were rated at the same thrust as the Speys powering BEA's Trident 2Es and 3Bs. To compensate for the 510ED's lower rated engines, no forward integral airstairs were fitted. The resulting weight saving permitted an increase in payload. It also offset (to some extent) the additional costs of customisation to attain commonality with the Trident 3B. Although unique in the context of the 500 series, the absence of forward airstairs was a characteristic BEA's 510EDs shared with BUA's 201ACs.


title: British European Airways

text: On 4 January 1966, BEA's biggest independent rival, BUA, simultaneously launched daily BAC One-Eleven jet services from Gatwick to Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, which indirectly competed with the corporation's London–Scotland and London – Northern Ireland trunk routes from Heathrow. This allowed BUA to steal a march on BEA by becoming the first scheduled all-jet operator on UK domestic trunk routes.


title: British European Airways

text: In March 1967, BEA established British Air Services as a new holding company for BKS Air Transport and Cambrian Airways, its two loss-making regional airline subsidiaries.


title: British European Airways

text: 1967 was also the year the Wilson government appointed a committee of inquiry under the chairmanship of Professor Sir Ronald Edwards, at the time the chairman of the Electricity Council and a professor at the London School of Economics, to deliberate the future prospects of Britain's air transport industry. The Edwards Committee published its report entitled "British Air Transport in the Seventies" on 2 May 1969. Its principal recommendations were


title: British European Airways

text: The report's publication led to the formation of BEA Airtours as BEA's wholly owned charter subsidiary later the same year while subsequent adoption of its recommendations by the Heath government resulted in the merger of BEA's independent rivals Caledonian Airways and BUA to form Caledonian//BUA, which assumed the role of the "Second Force" in November 1970. To enable the new "Second Force" to become viable and to redress the competitive imbalance between it and the corporations, the Heath government ordered a limited route transfer from the latter to the former. For BEA this entailed the loss of the Heathrow – Le Bourget route, which was transferred to its newly formed independent rival to accommodate the newcomer's Gatwick – Le Bourget service within the constraints of the Anglo-French bilateral air treaty.


title: British European Airways

text: On 15 February 1968, BEA took delivery of its first Trident 2E. This was followed by entry into service on the airline's routes from Heathrow to Milan, Madrid, Dublin and Stockholm on 1 June that year.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 April 1968, BEA's first scheduled service to Paris Orly Airport departed Heathrow; this resulted in splitting its Paris operations between Orly and Le Bourget.


title: British European Airways

text: Following its commercial debut on 1 September 1968 on BEA's internal German routes, the airline's new One-Eleven 500s began regular scheduled operations on 17 November 1968, respectively replacing Vanguards and Viscounts on the corporation's Heathrow–Manchester and Berlin routes.


title: British European Airways

text: By 1969, BEA carried 132,000 tonnes of freight each year. That year, it also opened a new cargo centre at Heathrow, which it jointly operated with BOAC. To cope with increasing amounts of air freight, it began replacing its nine Argosy freighters with the same number of Vickers V.953C Merchantmans, which were converted V.953 Vanguard passenger planes. Aviation Traders Engineering Limited (ATEL) of Southend converted the first two of these while BEA's inhouse engineering department converted the remainder using kits supplied by ATEL.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1969–70 financial year, BEA's revenue from ticket sales was £126 million resulting in a profit of £6.5 million, almost twice the previous year's and the biggest in the airline's history until that time.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1970–71 financial year, BEA carried 8.67 million passengers at an average load factor of just over 54%. During that period it employed just under 25,000 people, revenues totalled £133 million and the operating loss stood at £780,000.


title: British European Airways

text: On 18 February 1971, BEA received its first Trident 3B. Commercial operations began on 1 March of that year on the airline's Heathrow–Orly route.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 October 1971, BEA operated its last scheduled service from Heathrow to Le Bourget, marking the end of 25 years' continuous operations by the airline at the historic Paris airport. This move was necessitated by the Anglo-French bilateral air treaty to make room for British Caledonian's Gatwick – Le Bourget service, which began the following day. This in turn resulted in all of BEA's Heathrow–Paris flights exclusively using Orly from then on.


title: British European Airways

text: In early-December 1971, BEA bought both of Channel Airways' Trident 1Es for use by the airline's Channel Islands Airways division and Northeast Airlines on mainline routes from Birmingham and regional routes from Newcastle and Leeds/Bradford respectively. Together with the ongoing Trident 3B deliveries, this additional Trident purchase would bring the total number of Tridents in BEA's fleet to 67, making the type its most numerous jetliner.


title: British European Airways

text: 1971 was also the year BEA underwent a major reorganisation under its then chairman Henry Marking entailing the establishment of 10 divisions that were meant to act as profit centres. These were


title: British European Airways

text: BEA Mainline assumed responsibility for all of BEA's Heathrow operations other than those to and from Manchester, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool, Newcastle, Aberdeen, Inverness, the Isle of Man, Berlin (including both non-stop and one-stop services) and certain regional European destinations such as Bordeaux, Cork, Luxembourg and Rimini, as well as its Birmingham operations other than those to and from the Channel Islands.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA Cargo assumed responsibility for all of BEA's freight activities, including all pure freighter aircraft.


title: British European Airways

text: The Super One-Eleven division was headquartered in Manchester. It assumed responsibility for BEA's entire BAC One-Eleven 500 fleet and all of the airline's Manchester operations other than those to and from the Channel Islands, as well as all of its Berlin operations, with at least six aircraft based at Ringway and up to 12 at Tempelhof. From 1 April 1973, it also began replacing Viscounts and Tridents plying the Aberdeen–Heathrow route on behalf of BEA's Scottish Airways division with One-Eleven 500s, as the latter were more efficient and had greater passenger appeal.


title: British European Airways

text: The Scottish Airways division was headquartered in Glasgow and assumed responsibility for all of BEA's Scottish internal routes, as well as all of the airline's Glasgow–Belfast, Aberdeen–Heathrow and Inverness–Heathrow services. In addition to its Viscount mainline aircraft, Scottish Airways also operated a dedicated fleet of smaller regional feeder aircraft. These served remote communities in Scotland's Highlands and Islands region.


title: British European Airways

text: The Channel Islands Airways division assumed responsibility for all of BEA's services to and from the Channel Islands other than those to and from Heathrow, Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool and Newcastle. It also operated domestic and international routes from Birmingham, using a dedicated Trident 1E, as well as a mix of Scottish and Channel Islands Viscounts.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's wholly owned helicopter subsidiary assumed responsibility for its entire rotorcraft fleet and all of the airline's rotorcraft operations, including the scheduled service between Penzance and the Isles of Scilly.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's wholly owned charter subsidiary BEA Airtours assumed responsibility for all of its regular, non-IATA flying activities using fixed-wing aircraft – i.e., predominantly IT charter flights under contract to third-party tour operators.


title: British European Airways

text: The British Air Services division assumed responsibility for Cambrian Airways and Northeast Airlines, BEA's two majority-owned regional airline subsidiaries. This included all services operated by these airlines on behalf of their parent company, principally all of the corporation's domestic and international services from and to Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool, Newcastle and the Isle of Man, as well as selected international regional services from Heathrow such as Bordeaux, Cork, Luxembourg and Rimini.


title: British European Airways

text: Sovereign Group Hotels assumed responsibility for the management of all Sovereign hotels, BEA's associated hotel chain.


title: British European Airways

text: The first attempt at a merger of BEA and BOAC arose in 1953 out of inconclusive attempts between the two airlines to negotiate air rights through the British colony of Cyprus. The Chairman of BOAC, Miles Thomas, was in favour of the idea as a potential solution to a disagreement between the two airlines as to which should serve the increasingly important oil regions of the Middle East, and he had backing for his proposal from the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, Rab Butler. However, opposition from the Treasury blocked the idea, and an agreement was reached instead to allow BEA to serve Ankara in Turkey, and in return to leave all routes east and south of Cyprus to BOAC. Paradoxically, through its effective control of Cyprus Airways, BEA was able to continue to serve destinations ceded to BOAC, including Beirut and Cairo by using Cyprus Airways as its proxy.


title: British European Airways

text: However, it was only following the recommendations of the 1969 Edwards Report, that a new British Airways Board, combining BEA and BOAC, was constituted on 1 April 1972. This event coincided with the establishment of the CAA, the UK's new, unified regulator for the air transport industry.


title: British European Airways

text: One of the newly formed British Airways Board's first major decisions was to place a £60 million order for six Rolls-Royce RB211-powered Lockheed L-1011 TriStar series 1 widebodies on BEA's behalf, with an option on six more for either BEA or BOAC. BEA was to take delivery of its first widebodied aircraft during the fourth quarter of 1974.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 September 1972, BEA became the British European Airways Division of the newly formed British Airways Group.


title: British European Airways

text: In its 1973–74 financial year, BEA's last, the airline carried 8.74 million passengers and – excluding losses on its Scottish and Channel Islands operations – recorded its highest-ever profit of £6.7 million.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA ceased operations on 1 April 1974 when it merged with BOAC to form British Airways. A BEA Trident operated the airline's final flight from Dublin to Heathrow on 31 March 1974. Following the late-night arrival at Heathrow at 23:30 hrs of flight BE 943 ("Bealine 943"), BEA passed into history as of 00:00 hrs the following day.


title: British European Airways

text: However, even after the merger, a British Airways European Division, which incorporated the former BEA Mainline operation, the erstwhile Super One-Eleven and Cargo divisions, as well as British Airtours, continued to exist alongside a British Airways Overseas, a British Airways Regional and four other divisions until 1 April 1977 when these were replaced by a unified operating structure organised into a number of departments, including commercial operations, flight operations, engineering, planning, catering and personnel. These organisational changes were accompanied by the adoption of a single, two-letter, IATA airline identification code for the entire airline, i.e., BA, the old BOAC/Overseas Division code. Until then, each of the three main airline divisions had its own two-letter, IATA airline identification code, BA for Overseas, BE for European and BZ for Regional.


title: British European Airways

text: The Dragon Rapides BEA had inherited from Scottish Airways and other former independent airlines it had taken over in early-1947 initially operated the corporation's Scottish routes, including services to remote communities in the Highlands and Islands.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1952, BEA began replacing Dragon Rapides with Pionairs across its Scottish network; however, the pre-war de Havilland biplanes continued serving Barra as no other contemporary type in BEA's fleet could take off from and land on the island's beach airstrip. The Scottish Air Ambulance Service continued to contract BEA Dragon Rapides as well.


title: British European Airways

text: Following successful trials of de Havilland's Heron Series 1 demonstrator G-ALZL on BEA's Channel Islands routes during the second half of 1951, the airline placed an order for two 1B series aircraft to replace "Islander" class Rapides on its Glasgow–Barra route as it was well-suited to serving restricted airfields in difficult weather conditions. Both aircraft were delivered in February 1955, wearing BEA's contemporary bare metal finish livery incorporating a burgundy cheatline separated by two thin, white lines above the cabin windows. In BEA service the Herons were known as "Hebridean" class aircraft seating 14 passengers on regular commercial flights. The Heron operated its first air ambulance service on 4 March 1955 while BEA crews were still undergoing conversion training on the new type. This was followed by a naming ceremony for both aircraft held at Glasgow's Renfrew Airport on 18 March 1955, when each aircraft was named after a Scottish medical pioneer (G-ANXA, the second aircraft to be delivered on 23 February 1955, was named "John Hunter" while G-ANXB, the first aircraft to be delivered on 12 February 1955, was named "Sir James Young Simpson"). Scheduled operations commenced on 18 April 1955, following which one aircraft was exclusively used on scheduled services while the other was kept on stand-by for air ambulance duties. An expansion of BEA's scheduled activities within the Scottish mainland as well as between the mainland and the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands necessitated the acquisition of a third aircraft to provide adequate cover for the air ambulance service. This resulted in an order for a third Heron 1B, which was delivered on 13 April 1956. This aircraft (G-AOFY, "Sir Charles Bell") crashed on 28 September 1957 while on an air ambulance service to Port Ellen/Glenegedale Airport, Islay, Inner Hebrides, with the loss of the pilot, radio officer and duty nurse on board.


title: British European Airways

text: From 1962, BEA supplemented the Herons it used on its Scottish internal services with three new, 48-seater Handley Page Dart Herald 100 series turboprops. These had originally been ordered in 1959 through the Ministry of Supply, which leased them to the airline. BEA operated its first commercial Herald service on 16 April 1962 on the Northern Isles route from Glasgow to Sumburgh via Wick, Aberdeen and Kirkwall. However, BEA operated its Heralds, which wore the red, black and white livery, only for a few years because of high crew training, maintenance and spares costs.


title: British European Airways

text: 1962 was also the year BEA introduced Viscounts on its Scottish network. These took over the routes to Benbecula and Stornoway in the Outer Hebrides from 21 May, only two days after BEA's last-ever Pionair service from Islay via Campbeltown to Renfrew.


title: British European Airways

text: From October 1966, BEA operated only Viscounts and Herons on its Scottish network. It used the former on the busier, longer routes while it utilised the latter on short feeder routes to/from restricted airfields serving remote communities as well as on the air ambulance service.


title: British European Airways

text: To improve the financial prospects of its loss-making Scottish lifeline routes, BEA established Scottish Airways Division in 1971. Glasgow-headquartered Scottish Airways became financially accountable for BEA's Scottish internal routes. It also assumed financial responsibility for the airline's services from Glasgow to Belfast, as well as from Aberdeen and Inverness to Heathrow. While it was initially operationally responsible for its entire network as well as the Scottish Air Ambulance Service, operational responsibility for the Aberdeen–Heathrow route passed to BEA's Super One-Eleven division on 1 April 1973 when the latter's One-Eleven 500s began replacing Scottish Airways Viscounts and mainline division Tridents.


title: British European Airways

text: In November 1972, BEA ordered two Short Skyliner turboprops, a 19-seat deluxe all-passenger version of the Short Skyvan utility aircraft, to replace the ageing Herons. Following BEA's last scheduled Heron service from Barra via Tiree to Glasgow in March 1973 and successful route trials of the new Skyliners, which wore a modified BEA "Speedjack" livery incorporating dual "BEA"/"British airways" titles, the latter debuted on BEA's Scottish internal services from Glasgow to Barra and Campbeltown. BEA's Skyliners were intended to replace the airline's Herons as air ambulances as well; however, when Glasgow-based independent air taxi, charter and regional scheduled operator Loganair assumed responsibility for the Scottish Air Ambulance Service on 1 April 1973, the Skyliners had yet to enter service. This turn of events therefore marked the end of BEA's air ambulance services in Scotland after 25 years' continuous operation.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 March 1974, the British Airways Board placed an order for two British Aerospace 748 Series 2B turboprops for delivery to British Airways in 1975. These were intended to replace ageing Viscounts on the Scottish routes the new airline would inherit from BEA the following day, as well as for use on North Sea oil exploration flights.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA acquired a presence in the Channel Islands as a result of the takeover of Channel Islands Airways on 1 April 1947. Channel Islands Airways was the holding company and successor of pre-war independent scheduled airlines Jersey Airways and Guernsey Airways. It was also among the independents that were absorbed into BEA following their nationalisation which began earlier that year.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA commenced its services in the Channel Islands in 1947, using Dragon Rapides inherited from its independent predecessors.


title: British European Airways

text: Following the transfer of BEA's London–Jersey route from Croydon to Northolt on 21 April 1947, DC-3s began replacing Rapides on most services. By 2 November 1947, all of the corporation's London–Guernsey flights had moved from Croydon to Northolt as well.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1949, BEA expanded its fledgling Channel Islands operations by inaugurating London–Alderney and inter-island scheduled services linking Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney.


title: British European Airways

text: On 28 April 1950, BEA launched a summer service from Gatwick to Alderney, the airline's first scheduled route from Gatwick as well as its first scheduled service from there to the Channel Islands. Additional scheduled services from Birmingham and Manchester to the islands began the following month.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1951, BEA launched a Glasgow–Jersey summer service with DC-3s, the airline's first direct service between Scotland and the Channel Islands. During that year's second half, it also successfully trialled de Havilland's Heron 1 demonstrator on its Channel Islands network.


title: British European Airways

text: In April 1952, a new Exeter–Jersey route launched, which BEA contracted to its new independent associate Jersey Airlines. Two months later, a new paved runway opened at Jersey, which enabled the introduction of bigger, heavier aircraft types on BEA's (and other airlines') services to and from the island.


title: British European Airways

text: Following the departure of BEA's last flight from Northolt to Jersey in October 1954, the airline's London – Channel Islands flights served the British capital exclusively via Heathrow.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1955, BEA ordered two de Havilland Heron 2 series aircraft for use on its Channel Island feeder routes. These differed from the pair of 1B series Herons used on the airline's Scottish feeder network and air ambulance services in terms of their undercarriage; the series 2 had a retractable undercarriage while the series 1's was fixed. Following BEA's acquisition of a 25% minority stake in its regional associate Jersey Airlines and a subsequent transfer of routes from the corporation to the independent in 1956, the Heron 2s ordered by the former were delivered to the latter.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's withdrawal from Alderney, as well as from Southampton–Guernsey, Jersey–Dinard and Guernsey–Dinard, on 20 April 1956 coincided with the airline's last Rapide service in the Channel Islands. 1956 was also the year that saw Viscounts supplementing DC-3s/Pionairs on the corporation's Heathrow–Jersey route as well as a new summer service from Belfast to Jersey.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's acquisition of minority stakes in its independent associates Jersey Airlines and Cambrian Airways in 1956 and 1958 respectively resulted in the former's withdrawal from a number of mainly secondary routes serving the Channel islands, which were transferred to the latter.


title: British European Airways

text: The launch of a new BEA summer weekend service from Aberdeen via Edinburgh to Jersey in 1957 was followed by the transfer of most of the corporation's London–Jersey and London–Guernsey flights from Heathrow to Gatwick when the latter reopened as London's second airport on 9 June 1958, in line with contemporary UK government policy to develop the airport.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 August 1960, a new paved runway opened at Guernsey, which enabled the introduction of bigger, heavier aircraft types on BEA's (and other airlines') services to and from the island.


title: British European Airways

text: The withdrawal of Pionairs from BEA's Channel Islands services on 20 March 1961 resulted in the transfer of operations from Southampton to Bournemouth to enable the introduction of Viscounts, which were too heavy for the former's grass runways. On 21 March 1961, BEA launched year-round Viscount services from Bournemouth to Jersey and Guernsey. 1961 also saw BEA's first dedicated pure freight services from both London and Southampton to Jersey. These were operated with "Leopard" class DC-3 freighters. The same year, BEA furthermore terminated its association agreement with Jersey Airlines as both airlines had become competitors on the prime London–Jersey and London–Guernsey trunk routes as a result of the Civil Aviation (Licensing) Act that had been enacted the year before. This had abolished the corporations' statutory monopoly on principal domestic and international scheduled routes.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 March 1962, BEA disposed of its minority holding in Jersey Airlines. The following month, Argosies replaced Leopards on BEA's London–Jersey freight run.


title: British European Airways

text: In April 1963, most of the corporation's London – Channel Island flights transferred back to Heathrow as a result of the new competitive relationship between BEA and its former associate Jersey Airlines. The following month, BEA launched a London–Guernsey Argosy freighter service.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 June 1964, Vanguards made their debut on BEA's Heathrow–Jersey route. BEA subsequently introduced the type on selected services from Heathrow as well as Manchester.


title: British European Airways

text: Between November 1965 and February 1966, BEA Helicopters temporarily operated S-61Ns on behalf of its parent company on the Jersey–Guernsey inter-island service while Jersey's runway was being resurfaced during daytime.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 April 1966, BEA resumed Southampton–Jersey services following the replacement of Southampton's grass runways with a paved runway suitable for bigger, heavier aircraft types such as the Viscount and Vanguard.


title: British European Airways

text: Following a successful proving flight on 18 July 1967, BEA introduced Vanguards on selected flights serving Guernsey.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 March 1969, BEA withdrew its Jersey–Guernsey inter-island service, which was taken over by Alderney-based independent air taxi, charter and regional scheduled operator Aurigny Air Services.


title: British European Airways

text: To improve the financial prospects of its loss-making Channel Islands operations, BEA established Channel Islands Airways Division in 1971. BEA's Channel Islands Airways division assumed financial and operational responsibility for all of its routes serving the Channel Islands except those serving the islands from Heathrow, Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool and Newcastle.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA acquired a presence in the Isle of Man as a result of the takeover of Isle of Man Air Services in 1947. Operations in the island commenced the same year with Dragon Rapides inherited from its independent predecessors.


title: British European Airways

text: In July 1954, BEA operated a proving flight from the mainland to the island using a Vickers Viscount turboprop.


title: British European Airways

text: On 1 April 1963, Cambrian Airways took over BEA's remaining routes to and from the Isle of Man as well as all of the corporation's services between Liverpool and Belfast. This route transfer also resulted in Cambrian's acquisition of six ex-BEA Viscount 701s, its first turboprop aircraft, to serve the Welsh regional carrier's enlarged network.


title: British European Airways

text: Following the inauguration of scheduled services between Land's End in Cornwall and St Mary's in the Isles of Scilly in 1947, BEA continued serving this route with Dragon Rapides due to a lack of a suitable fixed-wing alternative until BEA Helicopters took it over on 2 May 1964. On that day, BEA's remaining three Rapides were replaced with its helicopter subsidiary's new Sikorsky S-61N rotorcraft on the Scillies route.


title: British European Airways

text: From 1946 until 1974, BEA operated a comprehensive network of high-frequency, short-haul scheduled services between West Germany and West Berlin. This had come about as a result of an agreement between the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union at the end of World War II, which prohibited Germany from having its own airlines and restricted the provision of commercial air services to and from Berlin to air transport providers headquartered in these four countries. Rising Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and the three Western powers resulted in unilateral Soviet withdrawal from attendance at the Four Power Allied Control Council in 1948, culminating in the division of Germany the following year. Soviet insistence on a very narrow interpretation of the post-war agreement on the Western powers' access rights to Berlin meant that until the end of the Cold War air transport in West Berlin continued to be confined to the carriers of the Allied Control Commission powers. Aircraft had to fly across hostile East German territory through three wide air corridors at a maximum altitude of .


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's first-ever internal German flight took to the air in September 1946 when one of its DC-3s departed Hamburg Fuhlsbüttel for RAF Gatow in Berlin.


title: British European Airways

text: During the 1948–49 Berlin Airlift, BEA co-ordinated the operations of the 25 British airlines that participated in the Airlift's "Operation Plainfare".


title: British European Airways

text: On 8 July 1951, BEA transferred its operations from Gatow to Tempelhof, thereby concentrating all West Berlin air services at Berlin's city centre airport.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's move to Tempelhof resulted in a significant increase in passenger numbers due to the removal of Allied restrictions on the carriage of local civilians on commercial airline services from/to West Berlin and Tempelhof's central location. This enabled the airline to expand its Berlin-based fleet to six Douglas DC-3s.


title: British European Airways

text: During the early-to-mid-1950s, BEA leased in aircraft that were bigger than its Tempelhof-based fleet of DC-3/Pionair, Viking and Elizabethan piston-engined airliners from other operators to boost capacity, following a steady increase in the airline's passenger loads. (BEA continued to augment its Berlin fleet with additional aircraft leased from other airlines on an "ad hoc" basis. This included an ex-Transair Vickers Viscount 700 belonging to its newly formed independent rival British United Airways, which was damaged beyond repair on 30 October 1961 in a non-fatal landing accident at Frankfurt Rhein-Main Airport at the end of a passenger flight that had originated at Tempelhof.)


title: British European Airways

text: In 1958, BEA began replacing its ageing piston airliners with Vickers Viscount 701 turboprop aircraft in a high-density, 63-seat single class seating arrangement. Up to 10 new Vickers Viscount 802s, which featured a more spacious, 66-seat single-class seating arrangement, soon replaced the older series 701 aircraft. The greater range and higher cruising speed of the 802 series enabled BEA to inaugurate a non-stop London Heathrow – Berlin Tempelhof service on 1 November 1965.


title: British European Airways

text: By 1964, BEA operated up to 20,000 flights each year from and to Berlin. These represented approximately half of the airline's total yearly flights to/from Germany and generated profits of £1 million per year.


title: British European Airways

text: 22 January 1966 marked the first appearance of a British trijet at Tempelhof when Hawker Siddeley flew in its HS 121 Trident 1E demonstrator aircraft for evaluation by BEA. A week later, on 29 January, BEA began evaluating the BAC One-Eleven's suitability for its Berlin operations, with the start of a series of test flights conducted on its behalf by BAC's 475 series demonstrator. This included a number of takeoffs and landings at Tempelhof to test the aircraft's short-field performance.


title: British European Airways

text: On 18 March 1966, BEA's main competitor on the internal German services (IGS) routes, Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), became the first airline to commence regular, year-round jet operations from Tempelhof with new 128-seat, single-class Boeing 727 100 series, one of the first jet aircraft with a short-field capability.


title: British European Airways

text: Pan Am's move put BEA at a considerable competitive disadvantage, especially on the busy Berlin–Frankfurt route where the former out-competed the latter with both modern jet planes as well as a higher flight frequency. BEA responded to Pan Am by increasing the Berlin-based fleet to 13 Viscounts by winter 1966/7 to offer higher frequencies. This also entailed re-configuring aircraft cabins in a lower-density seating arrangement, as a result of which the refurbished cabins featured only 53 Comet-type first-class seats in a four-abreast layout instead of 66 five-abreast economy seats. In addition, BEA sought to differentiate itself from its main competitor by providing a superior in-flight catering standard. (BEA's "Silver Star" service included complimentary hot meals on all flights whereas Pan Am only offered free on-board snacks. Sections of the local press dubbed the contrasting strategies of the two main protagonists plying the internal German routes from Berlin – estimated to be worth £15–20 million in annual revenues – the "Dinner oder Düsen?" ("Dinner or Jet?") battle.) Henceforth, the airline marketed these services as "Super Silver Star".


title: British European Airways

text: The introduction of Pan Am's 727s to the Berlin market represented a major step change because of the aircraft's ability to carry more passengers than any other contemporary aircraft type used by scheduled carriers in the short-haul Berlin market, and its ability to take off from and land on Tempelhof's short runways with a full commercial payload as only light fuel loads were required on the short internal German services. Compared with BEA, Pan Am's 727s carried 20% more passengers than the British carrier's Comet 4Bs and up to 2½ times as many passengers as the latter's Viscounts.


title: British European Airways

text: Within two years of Pan Am's introduction of jet equipment on the bulk of its internal German services from/to West Berlin, its market share rose from 58% to 68% while BEA's declined from 38% at the beginning of this period to 27% at its end. The lower seat density in BEA's re-configured Viscounts combined with higher flight frequencies, superior catering and increased promotion proved insufficient to counter the appeal of Pan Am's new jets, despite these being laid out in a comparatively tight, pitch seating configuration. On the other hand, BEA's reduced capacity in the domestic air travel market between West Berlin and West Germany enabled it to attain higher load factors than its competitors.


title: British European Airways

text: From August 1968, BEA supplemented its Tempelhof-based Viscount fleet with de Havilland Comet 4B series jetliners. Although these aircraft could operate from Tempelhof's short runways without payload restrictions, they were not suited to the airline's ultra short-haul operation from Berlin (average stage length: ) given the high fuel consumption of the Comet, especially when operating at the mandatory altitude inside the Allied air corridors. This measure was therefore only a stopgap until most of BEA's Berlin fleet was equipped with 97-seat, single-class BAC One-Eleven 500s. BEA's re-equipment of its Berlin fleet with new One-Eleven 500 jets was central to the airline's competitive strategy to regain ground lost to Pan Am's 727s. The new One-Eleven 500, which BEA called the "Super One-Eleven", operated its first scheduled service from Berlin on 1 September 1968. It began replacing the airline's Berlin-based Viscounts from 17 November 1968.


title: British European Airways

text: Air France, West Berlin's third scheduled carrier, which had suffered a continuous traffic decline ever since the transfer of Berlin operations to more distant Tegel at the beginning of 1960 due to Tempelhof's operational limitations that made it unsuitable for its Caravelles, was worst affected by the equipment changes at the latter airport during the mid- to late-1960s. To reverse growing losses on its Berlin routes resulting from load factors as low as 30%, Air France decided to withdraw from the internal German market entirely and instead enter into a joint venture with BEA. This arrangement entailed the latter taking over the former's two remaining German domestic routes to Frankfurt and Munich and operating these with its own aircraft and flightdeck crews from Tempelhof. It also entailed repainting the fins of the BEA One-Eleven 500s in a neutral, dark-blue scheme featuring "Super One-Eleven" titles instead of BEA's "Speedjack" motif. The Air France-BEA joint venture became operational in spring 1969 and terminated in autumn 1972.


title: British European Airways

text: By 1971, BEA carried 2 million passengers each year on its Berlin routes. 1971 was also the year the airline's last Berlin-based Viscount departed the city.


title: British European Airways

text: East Germany's relaxation of border controls affecting all surface transport modes between West Berlin and West Germany across its territory from 1972 onwards resulted in a decline of scheduled internal German air traffic from/to West Berlin. This was further compounded by the economic downturn in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. The resulting fare increases that were intended to recover higher operating costs caused by steeply rising jet fuel prices led to a further drop in demand. This in turn resulted in a major contraction of BEA's – and subsequently British Airways' – (as well as Pan Am's) internal German operations, necessitating a reduction in the Berlin-based fleet and workforce in an attempt to contain growing losses these once profitable routes generated by the mid-1970s.


title: British European Airways

text: The airline carried out trials with its Helicopter Experiment Unit, operating mail services in East Anglia during 1948 and a passenger service from Cardiff via Wrexham to Liverpool (Speke) Airport in 1950. In 1952, BEA established a base at Gatwick on the site of the airport's old Beehive terminal. On 1 January 1964, BEA formed BEA Helicopters as a separate helicopter subsidiary, which established its administrative headquarters and engineering base at Gatwick. Following retirement of BEA's Dragon Rapides, BEA Helicopters took over the scheduled service between Land's End and the Isles of Scilly on 2 May 1964. On 1 September of that year, the service transferred from Land's End St Just airfield to a new, purpose-built heliport at Penzance.


title: British European Airways

text: On 24 April 1969, BEA formed BEA Airtours as a wholly owned, non-IATA subsidiary to provide it with a low-cost platform to participate in the then rapidly growing IT holiday flights market, which until then had been the exclusive domain of the independent airlines. On 6 March 1970, BEA Airtours commenced operations from London Gatwick with a fleet of seven second-hand ex-BEA de Havilland Comet series 4B aircraft seating 109 passengers in a single-class high-density configuration.


title: British European Airways

text: Following establishment of British Air Services as BEA's new holding company for its two loss-making regional airline subsidiaries, BKS Air Transport and Cambrian Airways, in March 1970, the corporation acquired a two-thirds majority shareholding in British Air Services in the autumn of that year to ensure its regional partners' survival. While this arrangement transferred overall control of BKS and Cambrian to BEA, it left the former's identities and local managements in place. This effectively gave BEA the final say in all major policy matters and delegated the day-to-day running of the two smaller airlines to their respective managements. BEA subsequently increased its shareholding in British Air Services to 70%. BEA's amalgamation with BOAC to form British Airways on 1 April 1974 resulted in the dissolution of British Air Services and the merger of its constituent members with BEA's Scottish and Channel Islands divisions into a new British Airways Regional Division.


title: British European Airways

text: Cyprus Airways was established on 24 September 1947 as a joint venture between BEA, the British Colonial Government of Cyprus and private interests. Operations commenced on 18 April 1948 with three Douglas DC-3 aircraft. The aeroplanes, which carried 21 passengers each, flew on a route network centred on Nicosia Airport that included Rome, London (via Athens), Beirut, Athens, Cairo, Istanbul, and Haifa. During the next three years the airline purchased an additional three DC-3 aircraft and introduced services to Alexandria, Amman, Bahrain, Khartoum (via Haifa) and Lod.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1952, BEA took over the Cyprus Airways service to London with an Airspeed Ambassador, which featured a pressurized cabin that allowed nonstop routing avoiding a stopover in Athens. On 18 April 1953, BEA began using its newly delivered Vickers Viscount 701 on their scheduled service from London to Rome and Athens. The continuing sector from Athens to Nicosia was operated by BEA under charter to Cyprus Airways. This route from London to Nicosia was the world's first regular turboprop service.


title: British European Airways

text: In September 1957, with the political situation deteriorating in Cyprus, Cyprus Airways entered into a five-year agreement with BEA for the latter to operate services on its behalf. As a result, BEA took over the operation of all Cyprus Airways services from 26 January 1958.


title: British European Airways

text: Following independence for Cyprus in 1960, the government of newly independent island became the majority shareholder in Cyprus Airways, with a 53.2 percent holding, while BEA's stake was reduced to 22.7 percent. Private individuals held the rest. Thereafter, Cypriot nationals began to be hired and trained for the flight crews, which had previously been made up of British expatriates from BEA. Cyprus Airways still relied on BEA for aircraft and in 1961 BEA began introducing Comet 4B jets on all Cyprus Airways routes through a joint aircraft pool arrangement that included Greece's Olympic Airways. On 5 April 1960, BEA introduced de Havilland Comet 4B aircraft on the Nicosia, Athens, Rome, and London routes. With the introduction of the Comets, Cyprus Airways became the first airline in the Middle East to have jet airplanes. The Comets flew in the BEA livery, but had the Cyprus Airways logo and title above their doors. In 1965, Cyprus began leasing its own Viscounts from BEA for regional routes. The Comet and Viscount aircraft were replaced with five Trident jets, three of them acquired from BEA. The first Hawker Siddeley Trident jet was introduced in September 1969. Cyprus also leased a BAC 1-11. The faster planes allowed more European trade centres (Frankfurt, Manchester, Brussels, and Paris) to be added to the timetable.


title: British European Airways

text: British Airways finally divested itself of its former BEA stake in Cyprus Airways in 1981, selling its shares to the Government of Cyprus.


title: British European Airways

text: Dates below are for service with BEA and BEA Airtours, those still in service in 1974 subsequently passed to British Airways.


title: British European Airways

text: The early helicopters of all types were collectively known as the "King Arthur"-class. Dates are for service with BEA Helicopters, those still in service in 1974 subsequently passed to British Airways Helicopters.


title: British European Airways

text: BEA's early liveries in the late-1940s to early-1950s mainly consisted of a bare metal finish with upper case, black "British European Airways" titles above the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage, the aircraft registration in bold, black capital letters on each side of the rear fuselage as well as on the underside of each wing, and a contemporary BEA logo on each side of the forward fuselage featuring a stylised wing and "BEA" in capital letters on each side of the nose. Additionally, Vikings featured a name given to individual aircraft in black capital letters each side of the nose.


title: British European Airways

text: By the early-1950s, the bare metal finish on most BEA aircraft had evolved to incorporate a burgundy cheatline separated by two thin, white lines above the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage. This cheatline was in turn separated by upper case, burgundy "British European Airways" titles in the middle. The bottom, burgundy part of this cheatline extended below the flightdeck windows to converge on the nose, with the space in-between painted black (matte finish) to reduce glare for the pilots and shield sensitive navigational equipment housed in the nose from radiation. There was a contemporary BEA logo on each side of the forward fuselage featuring a stylised wing and "BEA" in capital letters on each side of the nose. In addition to the aircraft registration, there was also a coat of arms on each side of the rear fuselage and a small Union flag each side of the lower part of the tail. The letters "BEA" appeared in bold, upper case on the upper left and lower right wing while the aircraft registration appeared in bold, upper case on the upper right and lower left wing. Later adaptations of this livery used on DC-3s/Pionairs featured an unbroken cheatline with large, upper case "British European Airways" titles on a white upper fuselage and a larger Union flag, as well as the aircraft registration each side of a white tail and the aircraft's name prominently displayed in a white field on the left side of the nose and a coat of arms on its right side. When applied to BEA's Elizabethans, this lacked "British European Airways" titles due to the aircraft's high-wing configuration that left insufficient space on the upper fuselage.


title: British European Airways

text: From the late-1950s to the late-1960s, BEA's aircraft wore its red, black and white livery, which was uniformly applied to the entire fleet from September 1959. It consisted of a prominent BEA logo featuring the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white in a red square each side of a white tail as well as near the front and rear passenger doors on the left fuselage and near the service door[s] on its right side, where it interrupted an otherwise continuous, thick black cheatline across the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage. The cheatlines on each side of the fuselage converged on the nose, with the space in-between painted black (matte finish) as well to reduce glare for the pilots and shield sensitive navigational equipment housed in the nose from radiation. The upper part of the fuselage (above the thick black cheatline) was all-white while its lower part (below the thick black cheatline) was in natural metal finish or painted light-grey. The engines retained their natural metal finish as well while the wings were red, both on the upper and underside, with the BEA logo featuring the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white in a square appearing on each wing's upper side and the aircraft registration in bold, white capital letters on each wing's underside. This livery, which was also known as the "red square" livery because of its prominent display of the red-square BEA logo in multiple locations on the aircraft, featured the Union flag near the front passenger door on the silver/light-grey lower fuselage. It furthermore had the aircraft type on/near both front passenger/forward service doors in white letters on a black background (cheatline) and the aircraft registration in white capital letters on a black background each side of the tail (a thin, black horizontal strip at/near the top of the fin).


title: British European Airways

text: From the late-1960s, BEA's aircraft began to appear in the "Speedjack" livery. This was the airline's final livery. Like the previous red, black and white livery, it was uniformly applied to its entire fleet. It consisted of a dark-blue cheatline across the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage, extending in a straight line from the flightdeck windows to the tail cone/tail engine exhaust/auxiliary power unit exhaust. The upper part of the fuselage (above the dark-blue cheatline) was all-white while its lower part (below the dark-blue cheatline) was light-grey. Unlike the earlier [predominantly] bare metal/white tail, liveries worn by BEA aircraft, the new livery featured a dark-blue tail with a prominent display of part of the Union flag in the shape of an arrow that symbolised an aircraft (composed of a fuselage with swept wings) on each side. The arrow-shaped part of the Union flag symbolising an aircraft became known as the "Speedjack" motif. Tridents wearing this livery also displayed the type's name ("Trident" for Trident 1C/1E, "Trident Two" for Trident 2E and "Trident Three" for Trident 3B) in white letters each side of the dark-blue centre engine while One-Eleven 500s wearing it displayed the type's name ("Super one-eleven") in white letters on a dark-blue horizontal strip on each of their bare metal engines. This livery furthermore differed from its two immediate predecessors by only having the tip of the nose cone painted black (matte finish). All aircraft wearing this livery also featured the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white framed with a red border to emphasise the shape of the letters, which appeared above the dark-blue cheatline near the passenger/forward service doors each side of the white upper fuselage. In the case of regional feeder aircraft, the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name was followed by the respective operating division's name in lower case dark-blue letters (e.g. "scottish airways"). The only aspect of the previous livery that was retained for all mainline aircraft were the red wings (both upper and undersides), with the aircraft registration in bold, white capital letters on each wing's underside. Following the merger with BOAC, many former BEA aircraft retained their basic "Speedjack" livery with just the name changing from red-framed, white "BEA" to dark-blue "British airways" pending repainting in the red, white and blue 1970s and early-80s Negus & Negus livery of British Airways.


title: British European Airways

text: Following BEA's formation, its first Central London air terminal at which check-in facilities for passengers and baggage were available was located close to Victoria station. Before World War II, this facility had been used by Imperial Airways. When wartime restrictions on civil aviation in the UK were lifted, BEA began sharing it with BOAC. Once passengers had checked-in, they boarded one of the Commer Commando buses the airline provided to take them to Northolt. These 1½-deckers featured a raised seating area at the back, which increased the baggage space below.


title: British European Airways

text: On 31 May 1948, BEA moved its Central London check-in to Kensington Air Station, the first purpose-built facility for the exclusive use of BEA's passengers.


title: British European Airways

text: From 1952, BEA introduced new AEC Regal IV 1½-decker buses to carry its passengers from Central London to Northolt and Heathrow. London Transport operated these on BEA's behalf, in white/grey (later white/blue) livery.


title: British European Airways

text: In late 1953, BEA's Central London air terminal was moved again to a new site the Waterloo Air Terminal at next to Waterloo station on the south bank of the River Thames between the Houses of Parliament and the City of London. The Heathrow bus journey was now 20 minutes longer but an optional, more expensive, helicopter link was briefly operated from a South Bank helipad.


title: British European Airways

text: On 6 October 1957, BEA relocated its Central London air terminal once more to the West London Air Terminal in Cromwell Road in London's Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. This was a new, £5 million facility that was officially inaugurated upon completion in 1963.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1966, BEA introduced a fleet of double-decker London AEC Routemaster buses. These initially wore a blue and white livery, before being repainted in a white/grey livery, a white/blue livery incorporating BEA's "red square" logo and, finally, a white/red livery with Speedjack-style BEA lettering. The London Routemasters carried BEA's passengers from the West London Air Terminal to Heathrow and towed their baggage in large, two-wheeled trailers.


title: British European Airways

text: In 1974, British Airways withdrew the Central London check-in facilities it had inherited from BEA because of declining demand and closed the West London Air Terminal. This resulted in disposal of the dedicated fleet of Routemaster buses, some of which had already been repainted in the new red, white and blue Negus & Negus livery of British Airways.


title: British European Airways

text: Between June 2000 and July 2002, independent UK regional airline Jersey European Airways (JEA) revived the by then long-dormant "British European" name by adopting it as its new trading name to reflect JEA's UK-wide expansion and growing partnership with Air France. This also included the prefixing of all JEA flights with the former BEA two-letter, IATA airline identification code BE, which continued in use when JEA rebranded as "Flybe" on 18 July 2002.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: The Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American Revolutionary War that took place near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781. The combatants were a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves and a French fleet led by Rear Admiral François Joseph Paul, the Comte de Grasse. The battle was strategically decisive, in that it prevented the Royal Navy from reinforcing or evacuating the besieged forces of Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. The French were able to achieve control of the sea lanes against the British and provided the Franco-American army with siege artillery and French reinforcements. These proved decisive in the Siege of Yorktown, effectively securing independence for the Thirteen Colonies.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: Admiral de Grasse had the option to attack British forces in either New York or Virginia; he opted for Virginia, arriving at the Chesapeake at the end of August. Admiral Graves learned that de Grasse had sailed from the West Indies for North America and that French Admiral de Barras had also sailed from Newport, Rhode Island. He concluded that they were going to join forces at the Chesapeake. He sailed south from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, outside New York Harbor, with 19 ships of the line and arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake early on 5 September to see de Grasse's fleet already at anchor in the bay. De Grasse hastily prepared most of his fleet for battle—24 ships of the line—and sailed out to meet him. The two-hour engagement took place after hours of maneuvering. The lines of the two fleets did not completely meet; only the forward and center sections fully engaged. The battle was consequently fairly evenly matched, although the British suffered more casualties and ship damage, and it broke off when the sun set. The British tactics have been a subject of debate ever since.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: The two fleets sailed within view of each other for several days, but de Grasse preferred to lure the British away from the bay where de Barras was expected to arrive carrying vital siege equipment. He broke away from the British on 13 September and returned to the Chesapeake, where de Barras had since arrived. Graves returned to New York to organize a larger relief effort; this did not sail until 19 October, two days after Cornwallis surrendered.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: During the early months of 1781, both pro-British and rebel separatist forces began concentrating in Virginia, a state that had previously not had action other than naval raids. The British forces were led at first by the turncoat Benedict Arnold, and then by William Phillips before General Charles, Earl Cornwallis, arrived in late May with his southern army to take command.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: In June, Cornwallis marched to Williamsburg, where he received a confusing series of orders from General Sir Henry Clinton that culminated in a directive to establish a fortified deep-water port (which would allow resupply by sea). In response to these orders, Cornwallis moved to Yorktown in late July, where his army began building fortifications. The presence of these British troops, coupled with General Clinton's desire for a port there, made control of the Chesapeake Bay an essential naval objective for both sides.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: On 21 May, Generals George Washington and Rochambeau, respectively the commanders of the Continental Army and the Expédition Particulière, met at the Vernon House in Newport, Rhode Island to discuss potential operations against the British and Loyalists. They considered either an assault or siege on the principal British base at New York City, or operations against the British forces in Virginia. Since either of these options would require the assistance of the French fleet, then in the West Indies, a ship was dispatched to meet with French Lieutenant général de Grasse who was expected at Cap-Français (now known as Cap-Haïtien, Haiti), outlining the possibilities and requesting his assistance. Rochambeau, in a private note to de Grasse, indicated that his preference was for an operation against Virginia. The two generals then moved their forces to White Plains, New York, to study New York's defenses and await news from de Grasse.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: De Grasse arrived at Cap-Français on 15 August. He immediately dispatched his response to Rochambeau's note, which was that he would make for the Chesapeake. Taking on 3,200 troops, De Grasse sailed from Cap-Français with his entire fleet, 28 ships of the line. Sailing outside the normal shipping lanes to avoid notice, he arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay on August 30, and disembarked the troops to assist in the land blockade of Cornwallis. Two British frigates that were supposed to be on patrol outside the bay were trapped inside the bay by De Grasse's arrival; this prevented the British in New York from learning the full strength of de Grasse's fleet until it was too late.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: British Admiral George Brydges Rodney, who had been tracking De Grasse around the West Indies, was alerted to the latter's departure, but was uncertain of the French admiral's destination. Believing that de Grasse would return a portion of his fleet to Europe, Rodney detached Rear Admiral Sir Samuel Hood with 14 ships of the line and orders to find de Grasse's destination in North America. Rodney, who was ill, sailed for Europe with the rest of his fleet in order to recover, refit his fleet, and to avoid the Atlantic hurricane season.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: Sailing more directly than de Grasse, Hood's fleet arrived off the entrance to the Chesapeake on 25 August. Finding no French ships there, he then sailed for New York. Meanwhile, his colleague and commander of the New York fleet, Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, had spent several weeks trying to intercept a convoy organized by John Laurens to bring much-needed supplies and hard currency from France to Boston. When Hood arrived at New York, he found that Graves was in port (having failed to intercept the convoy), but had only five ships of the line that were ready for battle.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: De Grasse had notified his counterpart in Newport, Barras, of his intentions and his planned arrival date. Barras sailed from Newport on 27 August with 8 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 transports carrying French armaments and siege equipment. He deliberately sailed via a circuitous route in order to minimize the possibility of a battle with the British, should they sail from New York in pursuit. Washington and Rochambeau, in the meantime, had crossed the Hudson on 24 August, leaving some troops behind as a ruse to delay any potential move on the part of General Clinton to mobilize assistance for Cornwallis.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: News of Barras' departure led the British to realize that the Chesapeake was the probable target of the French fleets. By 31 August, Graves had moved his five ships of the line out of New York Harbor to meet with Hood's force. Taking command of the combined fleet, now 19 ships, Graves sailed south, and arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake on 5 September. His progress was slow; the poor condition of some of the West Indies ships (contrary to claims by Admiral Hood that his fleet was fit for a month of service) necessitated repairs en route. Graves was also concerned about some ships in his own fleet; "Europe" in particular had difficulty manoeuvring.


title: Battle of the Chesapeake

text: French and British patrol frigates each spotted the other's fleet around 9:30 am; both at first underestimated the size of the other fleet, leading each commander to believe the other fleet was the smaller fleet of Admiral de Barras. When the true size of the fleets became apparent, Graves assumed that de Grasse and Barras had already joined forces, and prepared for battle; he directed his line toward the bay's mouth, assisted by winds from the north-northeast.