title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: On 14 October 2021, Bölükbaşı tested Formula Two machinery for the first time at the Brno Circuit, driving a Dallara GP2/11 which was used in the GP2 Series from 2011 to 2016 and in the FIA Formula 2 Championship in 2017. He drove a Formula 2 car for the first time in an official session during the 2021 post-season test with Van Amersfoort Racing on 18 December 2021, finishing 22nd and last. On 12 January 2022, it was officially announced that he would compete in the 2022 Formula 2 Championship as a Charouz Racing System driver.


title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: For round 1 in Bahrain, Bölükbaşı qualified 20th in his first Formula 2 qualifying session. During the sprint race, he gained two positions at the start. He later overtook two more cars and finished in 14th, also ahead of Marcus Armstrong and Theo Pourchaire, both of whom retired from the race. In the feature race, Bölükbaşı gained one position at the start and was in 19th place. He pit early on lap 9 and set the fastest lap multiple times. He was running as high as 12th at one point with the undercut, but he was passed by drivers on fresher tyres. Following a late-race crash, Bölükbaşı made a pitstop under the safety car, and two other drivers having issues in the pitlane helped him to get back up into 12th. On the restart however, Bölükbaşı spun and ended the race in 15th position. During the practice session of round 2 in Jeddah, Bölükbaşı crashed into the barrier. He was hospitalized for routine checks, which resulted in him missing qualifying. It was later determined that he had suffered from a concussion, and was declared unfit to race. Charouz withdrew him from the event. During the first day of the in-season Formula 2 test in Circuit de Barcelona, Bölükbaşı crashed into a concrete wall. He missed the rest of testing and flew back to Turkey, where it was revealed that he had a broken rib. He was replaced by David Beckmann for the next round in Imola.


title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: Bölükbaşı returned to racing in the Barcelona round. He qualified in 21st place. In the sprint race, Bölükbaşı gained five positions on the first lap and got up into 16th, but dropped down to 18th place as the race went on. In the feature race, Bölükbaşı again had a good first lap and gained seven positions. Following contact between Jehan Daruvala and Ayumu Iwasa, he got up into 12th. He came into the pits after the safety car for a tyre change but had a slow pitstop, finishing the race in 20th place. In the Monaco round, Bölükbaşı qualified 21st originally, but started the sprint race in 18th. He gained 6 positions in the first lap. He had a small contact with Richard Verschoor later in the race, but managed to finish in 12th. He was due to start in 20th in the feature race, but Roy Nissany and Liam Lawson stalling on the grid on the formation lap promoted him to 18th. He gained two more positions in lap 1. He was later overtaken by Verschoor, which dropped him to 17th. After some drivers pitted, Bölükbaşı got into 10th. He pitted under the safety car caused by Amaury Cordeel and came out in 15th. Following several retirements after the safety car, Bölükbaşı finished the race 11th.


title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: During the Baku round, Bölükbaşı qualified in 21st place. In the sprint race, he got into 19th place by lap 10. Following crashes and safety cars, he was running in 12th at the race restart with one lap to go. Ralph Boschung and Calan Williams made contact at the back, and Bölükbaşı wasn't able to avoid the car of Williams, leading him to retire, but was still classified as 18th as he completed over 90% of the race distance. In the feature race, Bölükbaşı got into 15th place after lap 1. On lap 12, while running in 16th place, he was tapped by Roy Nissany, and collided with the barriers, causing both drivers to retire. Nissany was penalized for causing the collision and received a three place grid penalty for the following event. Bölükbaşı received a 5000 euro fine after his father had a "heated verbal exchange" and attempted a physical altercation with Nissany and his trainer after he called Bölükbaşı an "idiot" after the collision over the team radio. In the Silverstone round, Bölükbaşı qualified 20th. The sprint race was run in wet conditions. He got into 19th place by the end of lap 1, which is also where he finished the race. In the feature race, Bölükbaşı ran in 14th place during the safety car. He made an early pitstop, but had difficulties with getting the tyres to work and finished 18th.


title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: In the Spielberg round, Bölükbaşı qualified 13th. In the sprint race, he started to have problems with his brakes after lap 2. He pitted later, and came out 5 laps behind the leaders, where he finished the race. In the feature race, he made contact with Liam Lawson, causing him to break his front wing and pit early. He didn't rejoin the track, and didn't finish the race. At the Le Castellet round, he qualified 22nd and last. Bölükbaşı started on the soft tyre, and climbed into 13th place on lap 1. He ran in that position until lap 18, when he made a mistake at the final corner and lost two positions. He finished the race 15th. In the feature race, he gained one position at the start. In the closing stages, he came into the pits and retired. At Budapest, Bölükbaşı qualified 16th. He lost a place at the start of the sprint race. On lap 15, he pitted for the soft tyre, and crossed the line in 17th place. A post-race penalty for Richard Verschoor promoted him back to 16th. In the feature race, he got into 13th place in lap 1, and later overtook Liam Lawson and Logan Sargeant as well. He finished the race in 13th place.


title: Cem Bölükbaşı

text: Bölükbaşı's contract was terminated by mutual consent ahead of the Spa-Francorchamps round, and he was replaced with Tatiana Calderón. On his sudden F2 departure, Bölükbaşı stated that financial issues forced him to part ways with Charouz.


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: Marion Graves Anthon Fish (nickname, "Mamie"; June 8, 1853 – May 25, 1915), often referred to by contemporaries as Mrs. Stuyvesant Fish, was an American socialite and self-styled "fun-maker" of the Gilded Age. She and her husband, Stuyvesant Fish, maintained stately homes in New York City and Newport, Rhode Island.


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: Marion ("Mamie") Graves Anthon, as she was called, was born in Grimes Hill, Staten Island, and was the daughter of Sarah Attwood Meert and the esteemed Gen. William Henry Anthon (1827–1875), a successful lawyer and Staten Island assemblyman. Her paternal grandfather was the jurist John Anthon (1784–1863). Mamie was of Dutch, English, French and German ancestry. She grew up on Irving Place in Manhattan and received only a rudimentary education and, by her own admission, could barely read and write.


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: Fish ruled as one of the so-called Triumvirate of American Gilded Age society, known as the "Four Hundred", along with Alva Vanderbilt Belmont and Tessie Oelrichs. She became a notable leader of high society (in New York City at her townhouse at 25 East 78th Street, at her stately home "Glenclyffe" in Philipstown, New York, and at her mansion "Crossways" in Newport, RI) by virtue of her quick wit and sharp tongue. Grandees attending her dinner parties would be greeted with the occasional insult, "Make yourself perfectly at home, and believe me, there is no one who wishes you there more heartily than I do." One man was greeted with "Oh, how do you do! I had quite forgotten I asked you!"


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: In collusion with her antics, Harry Lehr often served as a co-planner of outrageous parties. A widely repeated story says that one was given in honor of "Prince Del Drago of Corsica", who turned out to be a well-dressed monkey introduced by Joseph Leiter. Given too much champagne, the monkey proceeded to climb the chandelier and throw light bulbs at the guests. But Lehr "denied that he had ever given such a dinner", although in 1905, it was said to have taken place the year before. At another of her parties, dancers holding peanuts would feed an elephant she rented as they danced by it.


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: Fish's cattiness respected no rank, for when Theodore Roosevelt's wife sought to keep a frugal household, Fish was quoted as condescendingly saying of Mrs. Roosevelt "It is said [she] dresses on three hundred dollars a year, and she looks it."


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: On June 1, 1876, she married Stuyvesant Fish (1851–1923), the director of the National Park Bank of New York City and president of the Illinois Central Railroad. He was the son of Hamilton Fish (1808–1893). Together, they had four children, three of whom lived to adulthood:


title: Marion Graves Anthon Fish

text: She died on May 25, 1915, and is buried near "Glenclyffe" at the Church of St. Philip-in-the-Highlands. Her Newport "summer cottage", "Crossways", is now a condominium.


title: Ā

text: Ā, lowercase ā, is a grapheme, a Latin A with a macron, used in several orthographies. Ā is used to denote a long A. Examples are the Baltic languages (e.g. Aten, Latvian), Polynesian languages, some romanizations of Japanese, Persian, Pashto, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (which represents a long A sound) and Arabic, and some Latin texts (especially for learners). In Romanised Mandarin Chinese (pinyin) it is used to represent A spoken with a level high tone (first tone). It is used in some orthography-based transcriptions of English to represent the diphthong (see ).


title: Ā

text: In the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, Ā represents the open back unrounded vowel "आ", not to be confused with the similar Devanagari character for the mid central vowel, अ.


title: Ā

text: In the languages other than Sanskrit, Ā is sorted with other A's and is not considered a separate letter. The macron is only considered when sorting words that are otherwise identical. For example, in Māori, "tāu" (meaning "your") comes after "tau" (meaning "year"), but before "taumata" ("hill").


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: The SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator is a measure of the prestige of scholarly journals that accounts for both the number of citations received by a journal and the prestige of the journals where the citations come from.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: Citations are an indicator of popularity of scientific works and can be perceived as endorsement; prestige can be understood as a combination of the number of endorsements and the prestige of the works publishing them. Adopting this view, the "SJR indicator" assigns different values to citations depending on the perceived prestige of the journals where they come from.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: However, studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank", contrary to widespread expectations.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: The calculation of the "SJR indicator" is similar to the "Eigenfactor score", with the former being based on the Scopus database and the latter on the Web of Science database, and there are other differences.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: A journal's SJR indicator is a numeric value representing the average number of weighted citations received during a selected year per document published in that journal during the previous three years, as indexed by Scopus. Higher SJR indicator values are meant to indicate greater journal prestige.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: The SJR indicator is a variant of the eigenvector centrality measure used in network theory. Such measures establish the importance of a node in a network based on the principle that connections to high-scoring nodes contribute more to the score of the node. The SJR indicator has been developed to be used in extremely large and heterogeneous journal citation networks. It is a size-independent indicator and its values order journals by their "average prestige per article" and can be used for journal comparisons in science evaluation processes. The SJR indicator is a free journal metric inspired by, and using an algorithm similar to, PageRank.


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: The SJR indicator computation is carried out using an iterative algorithm that distributes prestige values among the journals until a steady-state solution is reached. The SJR algorithm begins by setting an identical amount of prestige to each journal, then using an iterative procedure, this prestige is redistributed in a process where journals transfer their achieved prestige to each other through citations. The process ends up when the difference between journal prestige values in consecutive iterations do not reach a minimum threshold value any more. The process is developed in two phases, (a) the computation of "Prestige SJR" ("PSJR") for each journal: a size-dependent measure that reflects the whole journal prestige, and (b) the normalization of this measure to achieve a size-independent measure of prestige, the "SJR indicator".


title: SCImago Journal Rank

text: In addition to the network-based SJR indicator, the SJR also provides a more direct alternative to the impact factor (IF), in the form of average citations per document in a 2-year period, abbreviated as "Cites per Doc. (2y)".


title: Henry Luce

text: Henry Robinson Luce (April 3, 1898 – February 28, 1967) was an American magazine magnate who founded "Time", "Life", "Fortune", and "Sports Illustrated" magazine. He has been called "the most influential private citizen in the America of his day".


title: Henry Luce

text: Born in Shandong, China, to Presbyterian parents, Luce moved to the US at the age of 15 and later attended Yale College. He launched and closely supervised a stable of magazines that transformed journalism and the reading habits of millions of Americans. "Time" summarized and interpreted the week's news; "Life" was a picture magazine of politics, culture, and society that dominated American visual perceptions in the era before television; "Fortune" reported on national and international business; and "Sports Illustrated" explored the world of sports. Counting his radio projects and newsreels, Luce created the first multimedia corporation. He envisaged that the United States would achieve world hegemony, and in 1941 he declared the 20th century would be the "American Century".


title: Henry Luce

text: Luce was born in Tengchow (now Penglai), Shandong, China, on April 3, 1898, the son of Elizabeth Root Luce and Henry Winters Luce, who was a Presbyterian missionary.


title: Henry Luce

text: At 15, he was sent to the US to attend the Hotchkiss School in Connecticut, where he tried hard to overcome his stuttering. As a scholarship student he was isolated from the upper-class boys. He was subsidized by an elderly Chicago heiress, Nancy Fowler McCormick, who favored sons of missionaries. Applying himself to study, Luce quickly became the top student. He was especially strong in languages—he studied Greek, Latin, French and German—and already knew Chinese. He edited the "Hotchkiss Literary Monthly". There, he first met Briton Hadden; they became best friends.


title: Henry Luce

text: Hotchkiss was a feeder prep school for Yale. After a summer working on a Springfield newspaper, Luce matriculated in New Haven in fall 1916. He was the top freshman academically, but grades did not confer as much prestige as a staff role on the "Yale Daily News". Only four freshmen were chosen by the "News"; they included Luce and Hadden. When the U.S. entered the World War in 1917, a third of the students joined the army; the rest including Luce, joined ROTC and attended class in uniform. Luce also joined Alpha Delta, a minor fraternity. His grades remained top-level, and every spare hour was devoted to newspaper work. Luce and Hadden were the two outstanding journalists; when the vote came in January 1918 for chairmanship of the "News" Hadden beat Luce by one vote. Luce instead became managing editor and the two worked closely together and started planning their future. Meanwhile, the Army assigned them as ROTC leaders to train new recruits. The war ended before either was commissioned. They returned to campus in January 1919 as juniors. In May they were both tapped for the highly prestigious secret society Skull and Bones. He tried but failed to get a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford, but he was admitted and paid his way. He spent the year travelling Europe, observing the postwar scene closely. He returned to the United States to take a newspaper job in Chicago as a junior reporter.


title: Henry Luce

text: Nightly discussions of the concept of a news magazine led Luce and Hadden, both age 23, to quit their jobs in 1922. Later that same year, they partnered with Robert Livingston Johnson and another Yale classmate to form Time Inc.


title: Henry Luce

text: Luce, supported by Editor-in-Chief T. S. Matthews, appointed Whittaker Chambers as acting Foreign News editor in 1944, despite the feuds that Chambers had with reporters in the field.


title: Henry Luce

text: Luce, who remained editor-in-chief of all his publications until 1964, maintained a position as an influential member of the Republican Party. An instrumental figure behind the so-called "China Lobby", he played a large role in steering American foreign policy and popular sentiment in favor of Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek and his wife, Soong Mei-ling, in their war against the Japanese. (The Chiangs appeared in the cover of "Time" eleven times between 1927 and 1955.)


title: Henry Luce

text: Luce penned a famous editorial in "Life" magazine in 1941, called "The American Century", which defined the role of U.S. foreign policy for the remainder of the 20th century (and perhaps beyond).


title: Henry Luce

text: He died in Phoenix, Arizona in 1967. At his death, he was said to be worth $100 million in Time Inc. stock. Most of his fortune went to the Henry Luce Foundation, where his son Henry III served as chairman and chief executive for many years.


title: Henry Luce

text: Luce met his first wife, Lila Hotz, while he was studying at Yale in 1919. They married in 1923 and had two children, Peter Paul and Henry Luce III, before divorcing in 1935.


title: Henry Luce

text: He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 32¢ Great Americans series (1980–2000) postage stamp. Luce was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame.


title: Biliary colic

text: Biliary colic, also known as symptomatic cholelithiasis, a gallbladder attack or gallstone attack, is when a colic (sudden pain) occurs due to a gallstone temporarily blocking the cystic duct. Typically, the pain is in the right upper part of the abdomen, and can be severe. Pain usually lasts from 15 minutes to a few hours. Often, it occurs after eating a heavy meal, or during the night. Repeated attacks are common.


title: Biliary colic

text: Gallstone formation occurs from the precipitation of crystals that aggregate to form stones. The most common form is cholesterol gallstones. Other forms include calcium, bilirubin, pigment, and mixed gallstones. Other conditions that produce similar symptoms include appendicitis, stomach ulcers, pancreatitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease.


title: Biliary colic

text: Treatment for gallbladder attacks is typically surgery to remove the gallbladder. This can be either done through small incisions or through a single larger incision. Open surgery through a larger incision is associated with more complications than surgery through small incisions. Surgery is typically done under general anesthesia. In those who are unable to have surgery, medication to try to dissolve the stones or shock wave lithotripsy may be tried. it is not clear whether surgery is indicated for everyone with biliary colic.


title: Biliary colic

text: In the developed world, 10 to 15% of adults have gallstones. Of those with gallstones, biliary colic occurs in 1 to 4% each year. Nearly 30% of people have further problems related to gallstones in the year following an attack. About 15% of people with biliary colic eventually develop inflammation of the gallbladder if not treated. Other complications include inflammation of the pancreas.


title: Biliary colic

text: Pain is the most common presenting symptom. It is usually described as sharp, crampy, dull or severe right upper quadrant pain, which may radiate to the right shoulder, or less commonly, behind the breastbone. Nausea and vomiting can be associated with biliary colic. Individuals may also present with pain that is induced following a fatty meal and the symptom of indigestion. The pain often lasts longer than 30 minutes, up to a few hours.


title: Biliary colic

text: Patients usually have normal vital signs with biliary colic, whereas patients with cholecystitis are usually febrile and more ill appearing. Lab studies that should be ordered include a complete blood count, liver function tests and lipase. In biliary colic, lab findings are usually within normal limits. Alanine aminotransferase and aspartate transaminase are usually suggestive of liver disease whereas elevation of bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase suggests common bile duct obstruction. Pancreatitis should be considered if the lipase value is elevated; gallstone disease is the major cause of pancreatitis.


title: Biliary colic

text: The presence of gallstones can lead to inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis) or the biliary tree (cholangitis) or acute inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis). Rarely, a gallstone can become impacted in the ileocecal valve that joins the caecum and the ileum, causing gallstone ileus (mechanical ileus).


title: Biliary colic

text: Complications from delayed surgery include pancreatitis, empyema, and perforation of the gallbladder, cholecystitis, cholangitis, and obstructive jaundice.


title: Biliary colic

text: Biliary pain in the absence of gallstones, known as postcholecystectomy syndrome, may severely affect the patient's quality of life, even in the absence of disease progression.


title: Biliary colic

text: Biliary pain is most frequently caused by obstruction of the common bile duct or the cystic duct by a gallstone. However, the presence of gallstones is a frequent incidental finding and does not always necessitate treatment, in the absence of identifiable disease. Furthermore, biliary pain may be associated with functional disorders of the biliary tract, so-called acalculous biliary pain (pain without stones), and can even be found in patients post-cholecystectomy (removal of the gallbladder), possibly as a consequence of dysfunction of the biliary tree and the sphincter of Oddi. Acute episodes of biliary pain may be induced or exacerbated by certain foods, most commonly those high in fat.


title: Biliary colic

text: Cholesterol gallstone formation risk factors include age, female sex, family history, race, pregnancy, parity, obesity, hormonal birth control, diabetes mellitus, cirrhosis, prolonged fasting, rapid weight loss, total parenteral nutrition, ileal disease and impaired gallbladder emptying.


title: Biliary colic

text: Patients that have gallstones and biliary colic are at increased risk for complications, including cholecystitis. Complications from gallstone disease is 0.3% per year and therefore prophylactic cholecystectomy are rarely indicated unless part of a special population that includes porcelain gallbladder, individuals eligible for organ transplant, diabetics and those with sickle cell anemia.


title: Biliary colic

text: Diagnosis is guided by the person's presenting symptoms and laboratory findings. The gold standard imaging modality for the presence of gallstones is ultrasound of the right upper quadrant. There are many reasons for this choice, including no exposure to radiation, low cost, and availability in city, urban, and rural hospitals. Gallstones are detected with a specificity and sensitivity of greater than 95% with ultrasound. Further signs on ultrasound may suggest cholecystitis or choledocholithiasis. Computed Tomography (CT) is not indicated when investigating for gallbladder disease as 60% of stones are "not" radiopaque. CT should only be utilized if other intra-abdominal pathology exists or the diagnosis is uncertain. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) should be used only if lab tests suggest the existence of a gallstone in the bile duct. ERCP is then both diagnostic and therapeutic.


title: Biliary colic

text: Initial management includes the relief of symptoms and correcting electrolyte and fluid imbalance that may occur with vomiting. Antiemetics, such as dimenhydrinate, are used to treat the nausea. Pain may be treated with anti-inflammatories, NSAIDs such as ketorolac or diclofenac. Opioids, such as morphine, less commonly may be used. NSAIDs are more or less equivalent to opioids. Hyoscine butylbromide, an antispasmodic, is also indicated in biliary colic.


title: Biliary colic

text: In biliary colic, the risk of infection is minimal and therefore antibiotics are not required. Presence of infection indicates cholecystitis.


title: Biliary colic

text: It is unclear whether those experiencing a gallstone attack should receive surgical treatment or not. The scientific basis to assess whether surgery outperformed other treatment was insufficient and better studies were needed as of a SBU report in 2017. Treatment of biliary colic is dictated by the underlying cause. The presence of gallstones, usually visualized by ultrasound, generally necessitates a surgical treatment (removal of the gall bladder, typically via laparoscopy). Removal of the gallbladder with surgery, known as a cholecystectomy, is the definitive surgical treatment for biliary colic.


title: Biliary colic

text: A 2013 Cochrane review found tentative evidence to suggest that early gallbladder removal may be better than delayed removal. Early laparoscopic cholecystectomy happens within 72 hours of diagnosis. In a Cochrane review that evaluated receiving early versus delayed surgery, they found that 23% of those who waited on average 4 months ended up in hospital for complications, compared to none with early intervention with surgery. Early intervention has other advantages including a reduced number of visits to the emergency department, fewer conversions to open surgery, less operating time required, and reduced time in hospital postoperatively. The Swedish agency SBU estimated in 2017 that increasing acute phase surgeries could free multiple in-hospital days per patient and would additionally spare pain and suffering in wait of receiving an operation. The report found that those with acute inflammation of the gallbladder can be surgically treated in the acute phase, within a few days of symptom debut, without increasing the risk for complications (compared to when the surgery is done later in an asymptomatic stage).


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: F.I.R. is an Indian cop-based television sitcom that aired from 31 July 2006 to 23 January 2015, on SAB TV. The show was produced by Edit 2 Productions. It was nominated for the "Best Sitcom" category at the Indian Telly Awards in 2009.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: F.I.R. is an acronym for First information report that the Indian police prepares for each case to be investigated.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: F.I.R. is a situational comedy serial centered on a Haryanvi female police officer named Chandramukhi Chautala and her three subordinates, Head Constable Gopinath Gandothra, Constable Mulayam Singh Gulgule and Constable Billu, who later joined the Chowki. The show depicted their lives as they try to solve every case which comes to their police station Imaan Chowki, Ravanpur.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: New cases come to the police station in every episode. An individual or a group come with a complaint or a problem. Chandramukhi Chautala and her constables solve their case successfully.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: The show also had some love angles of Chandramukhi Chautala with the Chief Inspectors (with one at a time) of Imaan Chowki. First was Hanuman Prasad Pandey which was one-sided from Chandramukhi, second was Raj Aaryan which was one-sided from Raj, and third was Bajrang Pandey, both he and Chandramukhi love each other but Bajrang fears to admit his love.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: Gopi dreams of Chandramukhi's departure from the police station after 20 years and her daughter Jwalamukhi Chautala is assigned as the new inspector which revealed that Chandramukhi and Bajrang Pandey got married which lasted for about 70 episodes.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: However, after the new normals, few more Chandramukhi's love angles with Chief Inspectors were resumed as before, first with Bhola Pandit and then her old love Bajrang Pandey were shown.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: Characters from the show Gopinath Gandotra and Mulayam Singh Gulgule guest starred in another SAB TV sitcom Chidiya Ghar in 2012.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: The show took a 20-year leap on 16 March 2013 when Kavita Kaushik who played the lead role of Chandramukhi Chautala, departed from the show and Chitrashi Rawat was introduced as Jwalamukhi Chautala, Chandramukhi's daughter, who reveals that Chandramukhi married Bajrang Pandey. This 20-year-leap story wasn't much praised so the changes of 20-year leap were reverted on 8 July 2013 and the incidents which occurred in the 20-year leap were converted into constable Gopi's dream and the show then continued along with Chandramukhi Chautala's return.


title: F.I.R. (TV series)

text: In 2014 a live audience format was introduced for few episodes where the actors would perform on stage in front of live audience.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The John Jay College of Criminal Justice (John Jay) is a public college focused on criminal justice and located in New York City. It is a senior college of the City University of New York (CUNY). John Jay was founded as the only liberal arts college with a criminal justice and forensic focus in the United States.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 1964, a committee convened by the Board of Higher Education recommended the establishment of an independent, degree-granting school of police science. The College of Police Science (COPS) of the City University of New York was subsequently founded and admitted its first class in September 1965. Within a year, the school was renamed John Jay College of Criminal Justice to reflect broader education objectives. The school's namesake, John Jay (1745–1829), was the first chief justice of the United States Supreme Court and a Founding Father of the United States. Jay was a native of New York City and served as governor of New York State.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Classes were originally held at the Police Academy on East 20th Street. Leonard E. Reisman served as college president from 1964 to 1970, succeeded by Donald Riddle, president from 1970 to 1975.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In the spring of 1970, after President Nixon announced that the Cambodian Campaign would be extended, the college held two "heated" teach-ins about the conflict. Many other college campuses were home to student strikes across the nation. On May 7, 1970, the faculty voted 52–39 in favor of closing the college in protest of President Nixon's handling of the Vietnam War and the killing of students by National Guardsmen at Kent State University and Jackson State College. But the closing of John Jay College would ultimately be up to its students, the faculty decided. At an impassioned student meeting, the final vote was 865–791 in favor of keeping the college open.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In the summer of 1970, Professor Abe Blumberg made some criticisms of the FBI and the Director J. Edgar Hoover in a graduate course on the sociology of law. One of his students, an FBI agent named Jack Shaw, examined the agency's role in American society in his master's thesis, granting that some of Blumberg's criticisms may have been valid. His paper found its way to Hoover's hands, who ordered that Shaw resign and told President Riddle that as long as Blumberg (a tenured professor) remained on the faculty, no FBI agents would attend John Jay. Riddle defended Blumberg, citing academic freedom. After Hoover's death in 1972, FBI agents began to enroll again at the college. The FBI later paid former agent Shaw $13,000 in back pay.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: CUNY's open admissions Program came into effect in the fall of 1970. Adopting the Open Admissions policy meant that the university would now provide a place for any high school graduate who desired to attend. Across CUNY, student enrollment ballooned. At John Jay, undergraduates numbered 2,600 in 1969; 4,400 in 1970; 6,700 in 1972; and 8,600 in 1973. The size of the faculty grew by over 200% between 1970 and 1972. Moreover, the policy brought many more "civilian" (non-law enforcement) students to the college. The school's massive and sudden growth had a profound effect. More of the college's budget went toward remedial programs to help transition underprepared freshmen. In addition, the college broadened its curriculum, expanding into liberal arts. Majors including English, Math, American Studies, and Chemistry were introduced during this period in the early 1970s. The SEEK program developed during this time as well, supporting students from underprivileged backgrounds who showed academic promise.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: President Riddle resigned to become chancellor of the University of Illinois at Chicago. From 1975 to 1977, Gerald W. Lynch served as acting president, and in 1977, he was sworn in as college president, a position he would hold until 2004.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: As the school grew, its space constraints were felt, despite having acquired the Miles Shoe Building on West 59th Street (North Hall) in 1969. In 1973, John Jay rented the former 20th Century Fox building (South Hall) a few blocks from North Hall.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 1976, City University Board of Trustees threatened to shut down the college during a time of fiscal crisis for CUNY and New York City as a whole. Throughout the campaign to "save John Jay," the faculty and administration united to advocate the sentiment voiced by President Lynch in a memo: "John Jay can contribute to the city as a unique resource to help solve the problems of crime, public productivity, manpower needs, and budget management." After weeks of turmoil, the college decided to trim its budget to remain independent rather than merge with Baruch College. On April 5, the Board of Higher Education voted to preserve John Jay. Though the budget cuts were still painful, the college community's efforts were successful.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 1980, at President Lynch's urging, the college established its first doctorate program, offering a PhD in Criminal Justice on the heels of several Master's programs. In the next two decades of Lynch's presidency, enrollment and the faculty grew, the school's external activities expanded, and its curriculum continued to evolve. John Jay continued to pursue an approach to education more attuned to the liberal arts. The college supported more curricular cultural diversity, establishing an Ethnic Studies track and strengthening its Women's Studies program. Between 1985 and 1988, as faculty pursued more research opportunities, the amount of grant money given to John Jay faculty increased by over 500%.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Again, the college felt the constraints of space, and in 1986 acquired Haaren Hall (formerly DeWitt Clinton High School) across the intersection from North Hall. After renovation, Haaren Hall was opened to students in 1988. The new hall included a spacious two-level library, christened Lloyd Sealy Library in 1991 for Lloyd Sealy,


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 1995, CUNY suffered another fiscal crisis when Governor George Pataki announced a $162 million cut in state financing for the university. The CUNY board of trustees declared a state of financial emergency. By June, in response to the threat of budget cuts, CUNY had adopted a stricter admissions policy for its senior colleges: students deemed unprepared for college would not be admitted, a departure from the 1970 Open Admissions program, in order to save money spent on remedial programs. The proposed $162 million in cuts was reduced to $102 million, which CUNY absorbed by increasing tuition by $750 and offering a retirement incentive plan for faculty. (In May 1996, a State Supreme Court justice ruled that CUNY misused their emergency financial authority to lay off professors, close departments, and cut remedial aid.)


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: On September 11, 2001, John Jay lost 67 alumni and students, many of them firefighters, in the World Trade Center attacks. The school resumed class on September 13, providing additional counseling for students, many of whom saw their studies and career aspirations in a new light. In September 2011, John Jay dedicated a memorial to the fallen members of its community who died on 9/11. The memorial, a large steel fragment from the World Trade Center ruins, was officially unveiled in September 2013.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 1998, the New York State Legislature had approved a five-year capital budget of $352 million for the college to improve its facilities. The college continued to expand its campus as enrollment grew. The "New Building," a 13-story tower connected to Haaren Hall's west side, opened in 2011, dramatically increasing the college's square footage and adding green space to the campus.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay joined the Macaulay Honors College, an advising program for top students, in September 2012. In December 2012, the college received its largest-ever donation: $5 million from adjunct professor and alumnus Dr. Andrew Shiva.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: President Lynch retired in 2004, having headed the longest senior-level administration in City University of New York history. He was succeeded by Jeremy Travis, who was previously a senior fellow at the Justice Policy Center and had directed the National Institute of Justice. Travis retired in 2017. Karol Mason, former Assistant Attorney General, assumed the office of college president in August 2017.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay College of Criminal Justice is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. The school is primarily known for its criminal justice studies, forensic psychology, and forensic science programs, supported by a liberal arts curriculum. The student-faculty ratio is 16:1, and the average freshman retention rate is 78%. The college offers a variety of in-person, online, and hybrid courses. There are a total of 1,100 faculty employed by the school, over one-third of which are full-time faculty members.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: "Forbes", in its 2016 rankings of America's Top Colleges, ranked John Jay as the #497 best college in the country; "Forbes" also ranked John Jay #175 in the Best College in the Northeast category and #169 in the Best Public Colleges category respectively.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 2016, "Washington Monthly" ranked John Jay #72 in its Master's Universities Ranking, which rated universities on their contribution to the public good in three broad categories: social mobility (recruiting and graduating low-income students), research (producing cutting-edge scholarship and PhDs), and service (encouraging students to give something back to their country).


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: As of 2016, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked John Jay's Criminology graduate program #10 nationally and its Public Affairs graduate program #56 in the country (in the top 20%). The same publication also ranked John Jay College of Criminal Justice #108 in the Regional Universities North Category, as well as the 34th-top public school in the same region. In an alternative ranking of the top public universities in New York for 2016, Niche ranked John Jay #9. Niche's rankings were based on "key statistics and student reviews" and "the top ranked public colleges are elite academic institutions that provide a good value for in-state students and offer an exceptional college experience" according to Niche's assessment.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay College of Criminal Justice was ranked as the 61st-top college in the United States by Payscale and CollegeNet's Social Mobility Index in 2015, which ranked colleges and universities on their ability to improve both economic opportunity and social stability in our country.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The Conference on College Composition and Communication awarded a certificate of excellence to the John Jay College Writing Program in 2012–2013 for "imaginatively address[ing] the needs and opportunities of its students, instructors, institution, and locale" and offering "exemplary ongoing professional development" for faculty.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay College of Criminal Justice had a 37% admission rate in its most recent undergraduate admissions cycle.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay College is a member of the selective Macaulay Honors College program, which awards academically gifted students with a full four-year tuition scholarship, specialized academic advisers, and an Opportunities Fund of $7,500, to be used toward academically enriching experiences. Students accepted into the program are deemed University Scholars and collaborate with other honors students across CUNY campuses. The Macaulay program at John Jay is currently directed by scientist and author Nathan H. Lents.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: John Jay awards bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, as well as certificates. The college discontinued issuing associate degrees in 2010.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: In 2014 John Jay College launched two completely online master's degrees and one online professional certificate. The online portion of the college currently offers a master's degree in Security Management, Master's degree in Public Management, Certificate in Terrorism Studies, and a non-credit Certificate in Homeland Security. John Jay College Online plans to launch more degrees and certificates in the future.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Although 95% of students enrolled are in-state residents, the college offers a diverse and inclusive environment. Over 75% of the student body identify as a minority (39% Hispanic, 28% White, 21% Black, 12% Asian), while over 130 nationalities are represented among those enrolled at the college. The college's diversity is highlighted even further by the fact that 47% of the student body are first-generation Americans, about half speak a language other than English at home, and 33% are foreign-born.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: There are 52 student organizations that are active on campus, many of which are housed in "Club Row", a series of hallways where the student clubs are given space.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The Student Council disburses funds for organizations deemed "Essential Service," such as the Yearbook committee.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Bloodhounds are a member of the City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC). The following sports are sponsored:


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The college consists of six buildings. It is located in Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan close to Central Park, Columbus Circle, Carnegie Hall and Lincoln Center.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The college's newest building, a 13-story, facility, opened in 2011 and occupies a full city block in midtown.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Known around campus as the "New Building" it has been recognized as an "overlooked architectural masterpiece" by The Real Deal, a leading New York City real estate news publication, which recently listed the building among the “ten best buildings to see in America” and one of “coolest works of architecture in the country.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Haaren Hall, also known as the 'Tenth Avenue building or, simply, the T building, is the main campus building of John Jay. Located at 899 tenth Avenue, it houses the majority of the administrative departments and classrooms. Originally designed by Charles B.J. Snyder to house De Witt Clinton High School, the building was erected in 1903. In 1988, Haaren Hall was acquired by John Jay and now contains the Lloyd Sealy Library, the Gerald W. Lynch Theater, a gymnasium, and a swimming pool.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: North Hall, also known as the N building, is located at 445 West 59th Street, diagonally across the intersection from Haaren Hall. Prior to the acquisition in 1973, the building was a shoe factory.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: Westport Building, also referred as the W building, is a 24-story residential/commercial skyscraper located at 500 West 56th Street. Constructed in 2003 by The Related Companies, the first two floors of Westport Building are occupied by John Jay. It was also the location of the John Jay branch of Barnes & Noble College Booksellers, until the summer of 2014, in which the bookstore was closed as the campus switched to a digital service.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The BMW Building is a commercial skyscraper on 555 West 57th Street, opened in 1992. Located adjacent to the New Building, the sixth floor of the BMW Building houses the Academic Centers and Training Rooms of John Jay.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: The 54th Street Annex is a 10-story building, built in 1930 and located at 619 West 54th Street. It is the southernmost structure of the campus. Some of John Jay's administrative offices are located there.


title: John Jay College of Criminal Justice

text: (Also known as "The Tower" and denoted "NB".) The New Building is located at 11th Avenue between West 58th and 59th Streets. The modernistic , 13-story structure was designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, and structurally engineered by Leslie E. Robertson Associates. The New Building was opened on November 2, 2011, at a cost of $600 million. The tower is directly connected to the western side of Haaren Hall and includes classrooms, conference rooms, a black box theater, a mock court, a 9/11 memorial, and an exterior roof quad called the "Jay Walk."


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporins, also called water channels, are channel proteins from a larger family of major intrinsic proteins that form pores in the membrane of biological cells, mainly facilitating transport of water between cells. The cell membranes of a variety of different bacteria, fungi, animal and plant cells contain aquaporins through which water can flow more rapidly into and out of the cell than by diffusing through the phospholipid bilayer. Aquaporins have six membrane-spanning alpha helical domains with both carboxylic and amino terminals on the cytoplasmic side. Two hydrophobic loops contain conserved asparagine-proline-alanine ("NPA motif") which form a barrel surrounding a central pore-like region that contains additional protein density. Because aquaporins are usually always open and are prevalent in just about every cell type, this leads to a misconception that water readily passes through the cell membrane down its concentration gradient. Water can pass through the cell membrane through simple diffusion because it is a small molecule, and through osmosis, in cases where the concentration of water outside of the cell is greater than that of the inside. However, because water is a polar molecule this process of simple diffusion is relatively slow, and in tissues with high water permeability the majority of water passes through aquaporin.


title: Aquaporin

text: The 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded jointly to Peter Agre for the discovery of aquaporins and Roderick MacKinnon for his work on the structure and mechanism of potassium channels.


title: Aquaporin

text: Genetic defects involving aquaporin genes have been associated with several human diseases including nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and neuromyelitis optica.


title: Aquaporin

text: The mechanism of facilitated water transport and the probable existence of water pores has attracted researchers since 1957. In most cells, water moves in and out by osmosis through the lipid component of cell membranes. Due to the relatively high water permeability of some epithelial cells, it was long suspected that some additional mechanism for water transport across membranes must exist. Solomon and his co-workers performed pioneering work on water permeability across the cell membrane in the late 1950s. In the mid-1960s an alternative hypothesis (the "partition–diffusion model") sought to establish that the water molecules partitioned between the water phase and the lipid phase and then diffused through the membrane, crossing it until the next interphase where they left the lipid and returned to an aqueous phase. Studies by Parisi, Edelman, Carvounis et al. accented not only the importance of the presence of water channels but also the possibility to regulate their permeability properties. In 1990, Verkman's experiments demonstrated functional expression of water channels, indicating that water channels are effectively proteins.


title: Aquaporin

text: It was not until 1992 that the first aquaporin, 'aquaporin-1' (originally known as CHIP 28), was reported by Peter Agre, of Johns Hopkins University. In 1999, together with other research teams, Agre reported the first high-resolution images of the three-dimensional structure of an aquaporin, namely, aquaporin-1. Further studies using supercomputer simulations identified the pathway of water as it moved through the channel and demonstrated how a pore can allow water to pass without the passage of small solutes. The pioneering research and subsequent discovery of water channels by Agre and his colleagues won Agre the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2003. Agre said he discovered aquaporins "by serendipity." He had been studying the Rh blood group antigens and had isolated the Rh molecule, but a second molecule, 28 kilodaltons in size (and therefore called 28K) kept appearing. At first they thought it was a Rh molecule fragment, or a contaminant, but it turned out to be a new kind of molecule with unknown function. It was present in structures such as kidney tubules and red blood cells, and related to proteins of diverse origins, such as in fruit fly brain, bacteria, the lens of the eye, and plant tissue.


title: Aquaporin

text: However the first report of protein-mediated water transport through membranes was by Gheorghe Benga and others in 1986, prior to Agre's first publication on the topic. This led to a controversy that Benga's work had not been adequately recognized either by Agre or by the Nobel Prize Committee.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporins are "the plumbing system for cells". Water moves through cells in an organized way, most rapidly in tissues that have aquaporin water channels. For many years, scientists assumed that water leaked through the cell membrane, and some water does. However, this did not explain how water could move so quickly through some cells.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporins selectively conduct water molecules in and out of the cell, while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. Also known as water channels, aquaporins are integral membrane pore proteins. Some of them, known as aquaglyceroporins, also transport other small uncharged dissolved molecules including ammonia, CO, glycerol, and urea. For example, the aquaporin 3 channel has a pore width of 8–10 Ångströms and allows the passage of hydrophilic molecules ranging between 150 and 200 Da. However, the water pores completely block ions including protons, essential to conserve the membrane's electrochemical potential difference.


title: Aquaporin

text: Water molecules traverse through the pore of the channel in single file. The presence of water channels increases membrane permeability to water. These are also essential for the water transport system in plants and tolerance to drought and salt stresses.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporin proteins are composed of a bundle of six transmembrane α-helices. They are embedded in the cell membrane. The amino and carboxyl ends face the inside of the cell. The amino and carboxyl halves resemble each other, apparently repeating a pattern of nucleotides. Some researchers believe that this was created by the doubling of a formerly half-sized gene. Between the helices are five regions (A – E) that loop into or out of the cell membrane, two of them hydrophobic (B, E), with an asparagine–proline–alanine ("NPA motif") pattern. They create a distinctive hourglass shape, making the water channel narrow in the middle and wider at each end.


title: Aquaporin

text: Another and even narrower place in the channel is the "ar/R selectivity filter", a cluster of amino acids enabling the aquaporin to selectively let through or block the passage of different molecules.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporins form four-part clusters (tetramers) in the cell membrane, with each of the four monomers acting as a water channel. Different aquaporins have different sized water channels, the smallest types allowing nothing but water through.


title: Aquaporin

text: X-ray profiles show that aquaporins have two conical entrances. This hourglass shape could be the result of a natural selection process toward optimal permeability. It has been shown that conical entrances with suitable opening angle can indeed provide a large increase of the hydrodynamic channel permeability.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporin channels appear in simulations to allow only water to pass, as the molecules effectively queue up in single file. Guided by the aquaporin's local electric field, the oxygen in each water molecule faces forwards as it enters, turning around half way along and leaving with the oxygen facing backwards. Why this rotation occurs is not entirely clear yet. Some researchers identified an electrostatic field generated by the two aquaporin half-helices HB and HE as the reason. Others suggested that hydrogen bonds between asparagine amino acids in the two NPA regions and the oxygen in the water cause the rotation. It is still unclear whether the rotation of water molecules has any biological significance. Early studies speculated that the "bipolar" orientation of water molecules blocks the flow of protons via the Grotthuss mechanism. More recent studies question this interpretation and emphasize an electrostatic barrier as the reason for proton blockage. In the latter view, the rotation of water molecules is only a side-effect of the electrostatic barrier. At present (2008), the origin of the electrostatic field is a matter of debate. While some studies mainly considered the electric field generated by the protein's half-helices HB and HE, others emphasized desolvation effects as the proton enters the narrow aquaporin pore.


title: Aquaporin

text: The aromatic/arginine or "ar/R" selectivity filter is a cluster of amino acids that help bind to water molecules and exclude other molecules that may try to enter the pore. It is the mechanism by which the aquaporin is able to selectively bind water molecules (hence allowing them through) and prevent other molecules from entering. The ar/R filter is made of two amino acid groups from helices B (HB) and E (HE) and two groups from loop E (LE1, LE2), from the two sides of the NPA motif. Its usual position is 8 Å on the outer side of the NPA motif; it is typically the tightest part of the channel. Its narrowness weakens the hydrogen bonds between water molecules, enabling the arginines, which carry a positive charge, to interact with the water molecules and to filter out undesirable protons.


title: Aquaporin

text: There are thirteen known types of aquaporins in mammals, and six of these are located in the kidney, but the existence of many more is suspected. The most studied aquaporins are compared in the following table:


title: Aquaporin

text: In plants water is taken up from the soil through the roots, where it passes from the cortex into the vascular tissues. There are three routes for water to flow in these tissues, known as the apoplastic, symplastic and transcellular pathways. Specifically, aquaporins are found in the vacuolar membrane, in addition to the plasma membrane of plants; the transcellular pathway involves transport of water across the plasma and vacuolar membranes. When plant roots are exposed to mercuric chloride, which is known to inhibit aquaporins, the flow of water is greatly reduced while the flow of ions is not, supporting the view that there exists a mechanism for water transport independent of the transport of ions: aquaporins.


title: Aquaporin

text: In addition to the maintenance of normal cytosolic osmolarity, aquaporins can play a major role in extension growth by allowing an influx of water into expanding cells - a process necessary to sustain plant development.


title: Aquaporin

text: Plant aquaporins are also important for mineral nutrition and ion detoxification which are both essential for the homeostasis of boron, silicon, arsenic and bicarbonate.


title: Aquaporin

text: These five subfamilies have later been divided into smaller evolutionary subgroups based on their DNA sequence. PIPs cluster into two subgroups, PIP1 and PIP2, whilst TIPs cluster into 5 subgroups, TIP1, TIP2, TIP3, TIP4 and TIP5. Each subgroup is again split up into isoforms e.g. PIP1;1, PIP1;2. As isoforms nomenclature are historically based on functional parameters rather than evolutive ones, several novel propositions on plant aquaporines have been arisen with the study of the evolutionary relationships between the different aquaporins. Within the various selection of aquaporin isoforms in plants, there are also unique patterns of cell- and tissue-specific expression.


title: Aquaporin

text: When plant aquaporins are silenced, the hydraulic conductance and photosynthesis of the leaf decrease.


title: Aquaporin

text: When gating of plant aquaporins occurs, it stops the flow of water through the pore of the protein. This may happen for a number of reasons, for example when the plant contains low amounts of cellular water due to drought. The gating of an aquaporin is carried out by an interaction between a gating mechanism and the aquaporin, which causes a 3D change in the protein so that it blocks the pore and, thus, disallows the flow of water through the pore. In plants, there are at least two forms of aquaporin gating: gating by the dephosphorylation of certain serine residues, in response to drought, and the protonation of specific histidine residues, in response to flooding. The phosphorylation of an aquaporin is involved in the opening and closing of petals in response to temperature.


title: Aquaporin

text: Aquaporins also been discovered in the fungi- "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (yeast), "Dictyostelium", "Candida" and "Ustilago" and the protozoans- "Trypanosoma" and "Plasmodium".


title: Aquaporin

text: A small number of people have been identified with severe or total deficiency in aquaporin-1. They are, in general, healthy, but exhibit a defect in the ability to concentrate solutes in the urine and to conserve water when deprived of drinking water. Mice with targeted deletions in aquaporin-1 also exhibit a deficiency in water conservation due to an inability to concentrate solutes in the kidney medulla by countercurrent multiplication.


title: Aquaporin

text: In addition to its role in genetically determined nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, aquaporins also play a key role in acquired forms of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (disorders that cause increased urine production). Aquaporin 2 is regulated by vasopressin which, when bound to the cell-surface receptor, activates the cAMP signaling pathway. This results in aquaporin-2 containing vesicles to increase water uptake and return to circulation. Mutation of the aquaporin 2 vasopressin receptor is a cause of acquired diabetes insipidus. In rats, acquired nephrogenic diabetes insipidus can be caused impaired regulation of aquaporin-2 due to administration of lithium salts, low potassium concentrations in the blood (hypokalemia) and high calcium concentrations in the blood (hypercalcemia).


title: Aquaporin

text: Autoimmune reactions against aquaporin 4 in humans produce Devic's disease. If aquaporin could be manipulated, that could potentially solve medical problems such as fluid retention in heart disease and brain edema after stroke.


title: Aquaporin

text: Additional indication suggested aquaporin 4 is involved in human disease when it is disturbed. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration today approved Soliris (eculizumab) injection for intravenous use for the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) in adult patients who are anti-aquaporin-4 (AQP4) antibody positive. NMOSD is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system that mainly affects the optic nerves and spinal cord.


title: Nippur

text: Nippur (Sumerian: "Nibru", often logographically recorded as , EN.LÍL, "Enlil City;" Akkadian: "Nibbur") was an ancient Sumerian city. It was the special seat of the worship of the Sumerian god Enlil, the "Lord Wind", ruler of the cosmos, subject to An alone. Nippur was located in modern Nuffar in Afak, Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate, Iraq (roughly 200 km south of Baghdad). Occupation at the site extended back to the Uruk period, the Ubaid period, and the Jemdet Nasr period.


title: Nippur

text: Nippur never enjoyed political hegemony in its own right, but its control was crucial, as it was considered capable of conferring the overall "kingship" on monarchs from other city-states. It was distinctively a sacred city, important from the possession of the famous Ekur temple of Enlil. Ninurta also had his main cult center, the E-shumesha temple, in the city-state.


title: Nippur

text: His influence over Nippur has also been detected archaeologically. The "Chronicle" lists successive early Sumerian rulers who kept up intermittent ceremonies at the temple: Aga of Kish, son of Enmebaragesi; Mesannepada of Ur; his son Meskiang-nunna; Gilgamesh of Uruk; his son Ur-Nungal; Nanni of Ur and his son Meskiang-nanna. It also indicates that the practice was revived in the Ur III period by Ur-Nammu of Ur, and continued until Ibbi-Sin appointed Enmegalana high priest in Uruk (c. 1950 BC).


title: Nippur

text: Inscriptions of Lugal-Zage-Si and Lugal-kigub-nidudu, kings of Uruk and Ur respectively, and of other early rulers, on door-sockets and stone vases, show the veneration in which the ancient shrine was then held, and the importance attached to its possession, as giving a certain stamp of legitimacy. On their votive offerings, some of these rulers designate themselves as "ensis", or governors.


title: Nippur

text: Late in the 3rd millennium BC, Nippur was conquered and occupied by the rulers of Akkad, or Agade, and numerous votive objects of Sargon, Rimush, and Naram-Sin testify to the veneration in which they also held this sanctuary. Naram-Sin rebuilt both the Ekur temple and the city walls, and in the accumulation of debris now marking the ancient site, his remains are found about halfway from the top to the bottom. One of the few instances of Nippur being recorded as having its own ruler comes from a tablet depicting a revolt of several Mesopotamian cities against Naram-Sin, including Nippur under "Amar-enlila". The tablet goes on to relate that Naram-Sin defeated these rebel cities in nine battles, and brought them back under his control. The Weidner tablet (ABC 19) suggests that the Akkadian Empire fell as divine retribution, because of Sargon's initiating the transfer of "holy city" status from Nippur to Babylon.


title: Nippur

text: This Akkadian occupation was succeeded by occupation during the third dynasty of Ur, and the constructions of Ur-Nammu, the great builder of temples, are superimposed immediately upon those of Naram-Sin. Ur-Nammu gave the temple its final characteristic form. Partly razing the constructions of his predecessors, he erected a terrace of bricks, some 12 m high, covering a space of about 32,000 m. Near the northwestern edge, towards the western corner, he built a ziggurat of three stages of dry brick, faced with kiln-fired bricks laid in bitumen. On the summit stood, as at Ur and Eridu, a small chamber, the special shrine or abode of the god. Access to the stages of the ziggurat, from the court beneath, was by an inclined plane on the south-east side. To the north-east of the ziggurat stood, apparently, the House of Bel, and in the courts below the ziggurat stood various other buildings, shrines, treasure chambers, and the like. The whole structure was oriented with the corners toward the cardinal points of the compass.


title: Nippur

text: Ur-Nammu also rebuilt the walls of the city on the line of Naram-Sin's walls. The restoration of the general features of the temple of this, and the immediately succeeding periods, has been greatly facilitated by the discovery of a sketch map on a fragment of a clay tablet. This sketch map represents a quarter of the city to the east of the Shatt-en-Nil canal. This quarter was enclosed within its own walls, a city within a city, forming an irregular square, with sides roughly 820 m long, separated from the other quarters, and from the country to the north and east, by canals on all sides, with broad quays along the walls. A smaller canal divided this quarter of the city itself into two parts. In the south-eastern part, in the middle of its southeast side, stood the temple, while in the northwest part, along the Shatt-en-Nil, two great storehouses are indicated. The temple proper, according to this plan, consisted of an outer and inner court, each covering approximately , surrounded by double walls, with a ziggurat on the north-western edge of the latter.


title: Nippur

text: The temple continued to be built upon or rebuilt by kings of various succeeding dynasties, as shown by bricks and votive objects bearing the inscriptions of the kings of various dynasties of Ur and Isin. It seems to have suffered severely in some manner at or about the time the Elamites invaded, as shown by broken fragments of statuary, votive vases, and the like, from that period. At the same time it seems to have won recognition from the Elamite conquerors, so that Rim-Sin I, the Elamite king of Larsa, styles himself "shepherd of the land of Nippur". With the establishment of the Babylonian empire, under Hammurabi, early in the 2nd millennium BC, the religious, as well as the political center of influence, was transferred to Babylon, Marduk became lord of the pantheon, many of Enlil's attributes were transferred to him, and Ekur, Enlil's temple, was to some extent neglected.


title: Nippur

text: Under the succeeding Kassite dynasty, shortly after the middle of the 2nd millennium, Ekur was restored once more to its former splendor, several monarchs of that dynasty built upon and adorned it, and thousands of inscriptions, dating from the time of those rulers, have been discovered in its archives. A new temple within Ekur, the Ekurigibarra, was built by Kurigalzu I (c. 1375 BC). After the middle of the 12th century BC follows another long period of comparative neglect due to the river Euphrates changing its course, but with the waters return and the conquest of Babylonia by the Assyrian king Sargon II, at the close of the 8th century BC, we meet again with building inscriptions, and under Ashurbanipal, about the middle of the 7th century BC, we find Ekur restored with a splendour greater than ever before, the ziggurat of that period being 58 by 39 m. After the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Ekur appears to have gradually fallen into decay, until finally, in the Seleucid period, the ancient temple was turned into a fortress (, "Nippoúr"). Huge walls were erected at the edges of the ancient terrace, the courts of the temple were filled with houses and streets, and the ziggurat itself was curiously built over in a cruciform shape, and converted into an acropolis for the fortress. This fortress was occupied and further built upon until the close of the Parthian period, about 250 AD; but under the succeeding rule of the Sassanids it in its turn fell into decay, and the ancient sanctuary became, to a considerable extent, a mere place of sepulture, only a small village of mud huts huddled about the ancient ziggurat continuing to be inhabited.


title: Nippur

text: Nippur remained inhabited in Islamic times, and is mentioned by early Muslim geographers under the name of Niffar. It lay on the Nahr an-Nars canal, believed to have been built by Narses. By the late 800s, though, geographers no longer mentioned it, which indicates that the city had gone into decline by that time. This was part of a broader decline in settlements throughout Iraq, especially in the south, as decaying infrastructure and political violence resulted in large areas being completely abandoned. However, Nippur remained the seat of an Assyrian Church of the East Christian bishopric until the late 900s, when the bishopric was transferred to the city of Nil, further northwest. Nippur itself may have remained occupied even later, since ceramics found among the ruins display underglaze sgraffiato drawings, which were not used much prior to the end of the 10th century. By the time of Yaqut al-Hamawi in the early 1200s, Nippur had been definitively abandoned, although Yaqut still recognized its ruins as the site of a famous place.


title: Nippur

text: Nippur was situated on both sides of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, one of the earliest courses of the Euphrates, between the present bed of that river and the Tigris, almost 160 km southeast of Baghdad. It is represented by the great complex of ruin mounds known to the Arabs as "Nuffar", written by the earlier explorers "Niffer", divided into two main parts by the dry bed of the old Shatt-en-Nil (Arakhat). The highest point of these ruins, a conical hill rising about 30 m above the level of the surrounding plain, northeast of the canal bed, is called by the Arabs "Bint el-Amiror" "prince's daughter".


title: Nippur

text: Nippur was first excavated, briefly, by Sir Austen Henry Layard in 1851. Full-scale digging was begun by an expedition from the University of Pennsylvania. The work involved four seasons of excavation between 1889 and 1900 and was led by John Punnett Peters, John Henry Haynes, and Hermann Volrath Hilprecht. Thousands of tablets were found at a smaller mound dubbed "tablet hill", about 7.5 meters in average height and 52 square meters in area, southeast of the temple mound. A true arch, one of the worlds earliest examples, was also found. In the Parthian layer a box containing fragments of votive axes made of glass from the Kassite period were found. Several late Kassite rulers are represented including Kurigalzu II.


title: Nippur

text: Nippur was excavated for 19 seasons between 1948 and 1990 by a team from the Oriental Institute of Chicago, joined at times by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the American Schools of Oriental Research. A temple of Inanna, begun in the Early Dynastic period was completely excavated. Subsequent superimposed new iterations of the temple extended all the way up to Parthian times. Finds included a tablet dated to the 4th year of the Kassite king Shagarakti-Shuriash, one dated to the 44th year of Ur III king Shulgi, and an Indus Valley stamp seal. In 1977 they briefly excavated at the nearby site of Umm al-Hafriyat which was in the process of being heavily looted.


title: Nippur

text: Preliminary efforts to restart work at Nippur began in 2018 under McGuire Gibson. Excavation work at Nippur began in April 2019 under Abbas Alizadeh. Initial focus at Nippur was on a major Parthian period building and a small Late Sassnian house. Permission has also been granted to dig at Dlehim and Drehem. Excavation began in November 2022 for the 21st season which lasted two months. Work began at nearby Drehem but ceased after authorities decided that a police station must first be established there to prevent looting. Work then returned to the Parthian building.


title: Nippur

text: Extensive excavation details have been recorded for the Ziggurat of Ur-Gur. Overall, the ziggurat site is 25 metres in height, has a rectangular base of 39 metres by 58 metres, consisting three stages of dry brick, and faced with kiln-fired bricks laid in bitumen. The northern corner of the ziggurat points to 12 degrees east of the magnetic north. Construction structure and materials are homogeneous, of small unbaked bricks, land in different ways: first layer of bricks is on the edge sides with the flat sides out, second layer on the edge sides with the ends out, third layer on the flat sides with the edges out.


title: Nippur

text: The ziggurat contains a water conduit system. From the upper surface of the ziggurat, there is a conduit for water drainage in the middle of three façades. Built by baked bricks 1 metre in breadth and 3 metres in depth, around the conduit base is a plaster of bitumen, sloping outward with gutters to carry off water.


title: Nippur

text: Pavements extend from the ziggurat in a cruciform shape with square-like large bricks, in which pieces of pottery are used to fasten the clay together. They extend 2.4 metres below the ziggurat foundation and 12 metres away, connected to the lowest stage of the ziggurat, which protects the ziggurat foundation from rain.


title: Nippur

text: The Temple of Enlil situated northeast of the ziggurat was excavated. Topography of the Temple of Enlil was yielded. By stratigraphic excavation, the chronological sequence of the temple could be constructed. The temple dated to Ur III period was constructed by Urnammu, restored and rebuilt by kings ruled Nippur for centuries.


title: Nippur

text: As the Temple of Enlil was rebuilt after Ur III, the architectural information provided was based on remains from the Ur III period. The rectangular temple measured about 45×21 m with one entrance on the northeast wall and one entrance on the southwest wall. Floors were paved with baked-brick square bricks with size of 37 cm. 2 substructures built beneath the paved floor with 1.3 m elevation. Walls that the thickness varied from 3.35 to 3.95 m were constructed with straw-tempered unbaked bricks and mud mortar. There was no indication for windows walls above floor level were not preserved but windows were required for additional lighting in the Temple of Enlil. The possible height of the walls was 13.2 m as it was three times of the substructure which is 4.40 m. Although no remains of the roof left, purlins and reeds were covered first and then rammed earth mixed with straw was layered.


title: Nippur

text: From the floor plan of the Temple of Enlil in Ur III period, 2 cellae each connected with 2 minor chambers with wider doorways (2.40 m, 1.45 m for normal doorway) and 2 subsidiary chambers were presented. The burning evidence in the cella (room 13) and the minor chambers (room 16,17) adjacent to the other cella (room 18), the inscription of the Temple of Enlil around Ur III period; both indicated the purpose of the Temple of Enlil was to feed gods on the adjacent ziggurat, as ‘kitchen temple’, so food preparation could be taken place. Other than that, the Temple of Enlil shown no place of a dais for enthroned deities. Thus, the Temple of Enlil was not for worshiping. Yet, religious ritual related to divine repast perhaps libation, could serve as the purpose of Temple of Enlil during Ur III period.


title: Nippur

text: Almost directly opposite the temple, a large palace was excavated, apparently of the Seleucid period, and in this neighborhood and further southward on these mounds large numbers of inscribed tablets of various periods, including temple archives of the Kassite and commercial archives of the Persian period, were excavated. The latter, the "books and papers" of the house of Murashu, commercial agents of the government, throw light on the condition of the city and the administration of the country in the Persian period, the 5th century BCE. The former gives us a very good idea of the administration of an ancient temple. The whole city of Nippur appears to have been at that time merely an appendage of the temple. The temple itself was a great landowner, possessed of both farms and pasture land. Its tenants were obliged to render careful accounts of their administration of the property entrusted to their care, which was preserved in the archives of the temple. We have also from these archives lists of goods contained in the temple treasuries and salary lists of temple officials, on tablet forms specially prepared and marked off for periods of a year or less.


title: Nippur

text: The Persian conquest of Mesopotamia in 539 BC resulted in improved irrigation, and thus immigration increased, drawing Lydians, Phrygians, Carians, Cilicians, Egyptians, Jews (many of whom were deported to Babylonia), Persians, Medes, Sacae, etc. to the area. In Nippur, the house of Murashu's surviving documents are reflective of this diverse populace as one-third of contracts depict non-Babylonian names, and they evidently intermingled peaceably. Enduring for at least three successive generations, the house of Murashu capitalized on the enterprise of renting substantial plots of farmland having been awarded to occupying Persian governors, nobility, soldiery, probably at discounted rates, whose owners were most likely satisfied with a moderate return. The business would then subdivide these into smaller plots for cultivation by indigenous farmers and recent foreign settlers for a lucrative fee. The house of Murashu leased land, subdivided it, then subleased or rented out the smaller parcels, thereby simply acting as an intermediary. It thereby profited both from the collected rents and percentage of amassed credit reflective of that year's future crop harvests after supplying needed farming implements, means of irrigation, and paying taxes. In 423/422 BC, the house of Murashu took in "about 20,000 kg or 20,000 shekels of silver". "The activities of the house of Murashu had a ruinous effect upon the economy of the country and thus led to the bankruptcy of the landowners. Although the house of Murashu loaned money to the landowners initially, after a few decades it began more and more to take the landowners' place, and the land began to concentrate in its hands."


title: Nippur

text: On the upper surface of these mounds was found a considerable Jewish town, dating from about the beginning of the Arabic period onward to the 10th century AD, in the houses of which were large numbers of Aramaic incantation bowls. Jewish names, appearing in the Persian documents discovered at Nippur, show, however, that Jewish settlement at that city dates in fact from a much earlier period.


title: Nippur

text: Site TA is a 20 m × 40 m area located in Tablet Hill in Nippur. It is built in between 1948–1952 and was partially abandoned due to economic crisis in 1739 B.C. and fully vacated in 1720 B.C. It served as a small community with residential buildings and some minor public infrastructures at that time. TA is full of small size, irregular buildings which create a community as a whole. Houses found in TA is generally one-storey which is a common feature at that period of time. Only three of the houses have a stair to the upper level but it is not considered a two-storey but rooftop level.


title: Nippur

text: There are total of 1.591 tablets found in site TA. Regarding the texts type found in tablets are divided into two main categories, private documents and educational material, TA is viewed as a residential area. Most of the houses in TA are residential housing while only one of the houses (House F) are viewed as scribal school, this conclusion is made due to the significant amount of 1,407 tablets are found in House F. Moreover, organic materials were found in some of the houses, therefore, there might be animal husbandry. Moreover, due to the contents of tablets, it is believed that TA is owned by small private owner.


title: Nippur

text: Inanna temple is a historical hallmark of Mesopotamia. Though the temple was a religious element in the dynasty of Ur, there were a lot of political and social issues associated with the temple. The excavations that led to the discovery of the remains of the temple of Nippur were conducted by Donald McCown in 1951. During the excavation, the team inadvertently experienced difficulty progressing with their work. The excavators reached a surface that appeared like a baked brick pavement. Notably, this incident drew a lot of interest in the team, and with further progress, they reached what seemed to be a room. Further into their excavation, they discovered a room with inscriptions, suggesting that the building was a temple built by Sulgi, the second king of the third dynasty of Ur. However, the architectural plan of the temple is further demonstrated by the layers of the building.   During the excavation, it was noted that the building had twenty-three-level layers. The excavators revealed that each of the twenty-three layers serves a different purpose. For instance, levels VIII-VII were associated with sculptures and idols used in the temple's religious activities. On the temple's exterior, the excavators found that it was characterised by niches that supported the religious activities at the temple. The niches had special tablets inscipted with literature regarding the teachings at the temple. The Inanna temple had significant political influence in the Ur dynasty. It was built, supported by Sulgi and many subsequent kings, using it as a pedestal to manage the leadership of the dynasty. The temple had specific administrative units that were answerable to the reigning king of the dynasty. This could be attributed to the fact that the leading goddess of the temple, Inanna, was associated with power. Kings believed that the Inanna goddess has the power to influence political issues, which explained the temple's importance and long-lasting popularity throughout the dynasties.


title: Nippur

text: Drehem or ancient Puzrish-Dagan, sometimes called a suburb of Nippur, is the best-known city of the so-called redistribution centers of the Ur III period. It is located some 10 kilometers south of Nippur. Witnessed by thousands of cuneiform tablets, livestock (cattle, sheep, and goats) of the state was centralized at Drehem and redistributed to the temples, its officials and the royal palaces of Sumer. The temples of nearby Nippur were the main destinations of the livestock. The city was founded by Shulgi, king of Ur. Some of its cuneiform archives are at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.


title: Nippur

text: The site of Tell Waresh 2 lies 12 kilometers northeast of Nippur (UTM 38 S 532261.73 m E, 3561401.12 m N) and was subject to a rescue excavation in 1990 led by Muhammad Yahya Radhi on behalf of the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage. It was one of a number of rescue excavation in response to the digging of the Main Drain Canal project. The site showed outlines of buildings and many artifacts on the surface. Remains were of the Isin-Larsa period and included clay sealings, cylinder seals, and a number of cuneiform tablets, mainly legal documents. The most prominent of the latter were 29 tablets found in a clay jar which contained year names of four rulers of Larsa, Abi-Sare, Sumu-el, Nur-Adad, and Sin-Iddinam (1785 BC to 1778 BC). The same team revisted the site in 2019 as part of larger survey in the area, obtaining georeferenced data. A final report is now in progress.


title: Percentile rank

text: In statistics, the percentile rank (PR) of a given score is the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are less than that score. Its mathematical formula is


title: Percentile rank

text: where "CF"—the cumulative frequency—is the count of all scores less than or equal to the score of interest, "F" is the frequency for the score of interest, and "N" is the number of scores in the distribution. Alternatively, if "CF" is the count of all scores less than the score of interest, then


title: Percentile rank

text: The figure illustrates the percentile rank computation and shows how the 0.5 × "F" term in the formula ensures that the percentile rank reflects a percentage of scores less than the specified score. For example, for the 10 scores shown in the figure, 60% of them are below a score of 4 (five less than 4 and half of the two equal to 4) and 95% are below 7 (nine less than 7 and half of the one equal to 7). Occasionally the percentile rank of a score is mistakenly defined as the percentage of scores lower than or equal to it, but that would require a different computation, one with the 0.5 × "F" term deleted. Typically percentile ranks are only computed for scores in the distribution but, as the figure illustrates, percentile ranks can also be computed for scores whose frequency is zero. For example, 90% of the scores are less than 6 (nine less than 6, none equal 6).


title: Percentile rank

text: In educational measurement, a range of percentile ranks, often appearing on a score report, shows the range within which the test taker's "true" percentile rank probably occurs. The "true" value refers to the rank the test taker would obtain if there were no random errors involved in the testing process.


title: Percentile rank

text: Percentile ranks are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized tests. For the test theory, the percentile rank of a raw score is interpreted as the percentage of examinees in the norm group who scored below the score of interest.


title: Percentile rank

text: Percentile ranks are not on an equal-interval scale; that is, the difference between any two scores is not the same as between any other two scores whose difference in percentile ranks is the same. For example, is not the same distance as because of the bell-curve shape of the distribution. Some percentile ranks are closer to some than others. Percentile rank 30 is closer on the bell curve to 40 than it is to 20. If the distribution is normally distributed, the percentile rank can be inferred from the standard score.


title: Negative income tax

text: In economics, a negative income tax (NIT) is a system which reverses the direction in which tax is paid for incomes below a certain level; in other words, earners above that level pay money to the state while earners below it receive money, as shown by the blue arrows in the diagram. NIT was proposed by Juliet Rhys-Williams while working on the Beveridge Report in the early 1940s and popularized by Milton Friedman in the 1960s as a system in which the state makes payments to the poor when their income falls below a threshold, while taxing them on income above that threshold. Together with Friedman, supporters of NIT also included James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, and even then-President Richard Nixon, who suggested implementation of modified NIT in his Family Assistance Plan. After the increase in popularity of NIT, an experiment sponsored by the US government was conducted between 1968 and 1982 on effects of NIT on labour supply, income, and substitution effects.


title: Negative income tax

text: The view that the state should supplement the income of the poor has a long history (see UBI§History). Such payments are seen as benefits if they are limited to those who lack other income, or are conditional on specific needs (such as number of children), but are seen as negative taxes if they continue to be received as a supplement by workers who have income from other sources. The withdrawal of benefits when the recipient ceases to satisfy a firm eligibility criterion is often seen as giving rise to the welfare trap.


title: Negative income tax

text: The level of support provided to the poor by a negative tax is thought of as parametrically adjustable according to the opposing claims of economic efficiency and distributional justice. Friedman's NIT lacks this adjustability owing to the constraint that other benefits would be largely discontinued; hence a wage subsidy is more representative of generic negative income tax than is Friedman's specific Negative Income Tax.


title: Negative income tax

text: In 1975 the United States implemented a negative income tax for the working poor through the earned income tax credit. A 1995 survey found that 78% of American economists supported (with or without provisos) the incorporation of a negative income tax into the welfare system.


title: Negative income tax

text: Theoretical discussion of negative taxation began with Vilfredo Pareto, who first made a formal distinction between allocative efficiency (i.e. the market's ability to give people what they want subject to their incomes) and distributive justice (i.e. the question of whether these incomes are fair in the first place). He sought to show that market economies allocated resources optimally within the income distributions they give rise to, but accepted that there was nothing optimal about these distributions themselves. He concluded that if society wished to maximise wellbeing, it should let market forces govern production and exchange and then correct the result by 'a second distribution... performed in conformity with the workings of free competition'. His argument was that a direct transfer obtained a given redistributive effect with the least possible reduction of economic efficiency, and was preferable to government interference in the market (as happens in modern economies through the minimum wage) which damages efficiency by introducing distortions.


title: Negative income tax

text: Abram Bergson and Paul Samuelson (drawing on earlier work by Oscar Lange) gave a more formal statement to Pareto's claims. They showed that the optimum of efficiency associated with market competition fell short of maximum wellbeing as reflected by a social welfare function only through distributional effects, and that a true optimum could be obtained if the state were to transfer income through 'lump sum taxes or bounties', where 'bounties' are negative taxes and 'lump sum' is Samuelson's term for a hypothetical redistribution with no distortionary consequences.


title: Negative income tax

text: It follows from the Bergson/Samuelson analysis that any proposed measure (including the proposal to leave things as they are) can be assessed according to the balance it achieves between three factors: (i) the improvement in overall wellbeing from a more equitable distribution; (ii) the loss in economic efficiency due to the distortions introduced; and (iii) the administrative costs. The first of these cannot easily be equated to a sum of money; the last is unlikely to be a dominant factor. Hence redistribution should be pursued up to the point at which any further (non-monetary) benefits from a more equal distribution would be offset by the resulting monetary loss of economic efficiency.


title: Negative income tax

text: The Bergson/Samuelson theory was developed in a broadly utilitarian framework. A fourth factor could be added in the form of a moral claim derived from present ownership or legitimate earning. Considerable weight was placed on this during the Enlightenment but Hume and the Utilitarians rejected it. It is seldom mentioned nowadays but cannot be dismissed "a priori" as a relevant consideration.


title: Negative income tax

text: The theoretical study of the trade-off between equity and efficiency was initiated by James Mirrlees in 1971. Eytan Sheshinski summarised:


title: Negative income tax

text: In various examples calculated by Mirrlees, the optimal income-tax schedule appears to be approximately linear with a negative tax at low incomes.


title: Negative income tax

text: "Negative Income Tax" became prominent in the United States as a result of advocacy by Milton and Rose Friedman, who first put forward a concrete proposal in 1962 in a brief section of their book "Capitalism and Freedom". Their system is equivalent in its operation to most forms of Universal basic income (UBI) (qv., particularly the section Fundamental Principles for the equivalence).


title: Negative income tax

text: In the aforementioned work, Friedman provides five benefits of the negative income tax. Firstly, Friedman argues that it provides cash which the individual sees as the best possible way of support. Secondly, it targets poverty directly through income rather than through general old-age benefits or farm programs. Thirdly, negative income tax could in his opinion replace all supporting programs present at that time and provide one universal program. Fourthly, in theory the cost of negative income tax can be lower than the cost of existing programs mainly due to lower administrative costs. Lastly, the program should not distort the market in the way minimum wage laws or tariffs do.


title: Negative income tax

text: Friedman envisioned the NIT followingly in an interview in 1968: Considering family A of four with income $4000 and Family B of four with income $2000. If the break-even income would be $3000, after filing the tax report, family A would pay the tax on $1000 while family B would be entitled to receive, assuming the 50% NIT rate, $500. Meaning half of the difference between what they earn and the break-even income. Therefore, a family with $0 income would be entitled to receive $1500 in subsidy. Friedman argued NIT would not destroy the incentive to work, as compared to guaranteed income programmes (GIP) with 100% effective marginal tax rate, i.e. with the GIP workers lose $1 of subsidy for each $1 increase in wage.


title: Negative income tax

text: has been greeted with considerable (though far from unanimous) enthusiasm on the left and with considerable (though again far from unanimous) hostility on the right. Yet, in my opinion, the negative income tax is more compatible with the philosophy and aims of the proponents of limited government and maximum individual freedom than with the philosophy and aims of the proponents of the welfare state and greater government control of the economy.Friedman also elaborated and provided two reasons for the hostility from the right. Firstly, he mentions that the right is frightened due to the introduction of a guaranteed minimum income the poor would have a disincentive to improve their well-being. Secondly, the right is not certain about the political outcomes of the NIT, as there exist threats that there will be an upward pressure on the break-even incomes among politicians.


title: Negative income tax

text: The Friedmans together promoted the idea to a wider audience in 1980 in their book and television series Free to Choose. It has often been discussed (and endorsed) by economists but never fully implemented. Advantages claimed for it include:


title: Negative income tax

text: The alleviation of poverty was mentioned in Capitalism and Freedom where Friedman argued that in 1961 the US government spent around 33 billion on welfare payments e.g. old age assistance, social security benefit payments, public housing, etc. excluding mainly veterans´ benefits and other allowances. Friedman recalculated the spending between 57 million consumers in 1961 and came to the conclusion that it would have financed 6000 dollars per consumer to the poorest 10% or 3000 dollars to the poorest 20%. Friedman also found out that a program raising incomes of the poorest 20% to the lowest income of the rest would cost the US government less that half of the amount spent in 1961.


title: Negative income tax

text: The Friedmans' writings were influential for a period with the American political right, and in 1969 President Richard Nixon proposed a Family Assistance Program which had points in common with UBI. Milton Friedman originally supported Nixon's proposal but eventually testified against it on account of its perverse labor incentive effects. Friedman was mainly opposed to the idea that Nixon's program would be combined with existing programs at that time, rather than replacing the existing programs as Friedman originally proposed.


title: Negative income tax

text: Meanwhile, support for negative income tax was increasing among the political left. Paul Samuelson argued in "Newsweek" that it was an idea whose time had come, and more than 1,200 academic economists signed a petition in support of it. Friedman withheld his signature, possibly on the grounds that the petition didn't explicitly describe the new measure as a replacement rather than a supplement to existing programs.


title: Negative income tax

text: As civic disorder diminished in the US, support for negative income tax waned among the American right. Instead the doctrine came to be particularly associated with the political left, generally under the name "basic income" or derivatives. It received further impetus in Europe with the founding of the Basic Income Earth Network (BIEN) in 1986. Asked in 2000 how he viewed a basic income "compared to the alternative of a negative income tax", Friedman replied that the measures were not alternatives and that basic income was "simply another way to introduce a negative income tax", giving a numerical example of their equivalence.


title: Negative income tax

text: The experiments on NIT have been conducted in the US between years 1968 and 1982 and the expenditures were 225 million recalculated for the 1984 value. The first results have been that the husbands reduced labour supply by about the equivalent of two weeks of full-time employment. On the other hand, Wives and single female heads reduced it by three weeks and the youth reduced the labour supply by four weeks.