title: Politics of Finland

text: The parliament has, since equal and common suffrage was introduced in 1906, been dominated by secular Conservatives, the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union), and Social Democrats. Nevertheless, none of these has held a single-party majority, with the notable exception of 1916 elections where Social Democrats gained 103 of the 200 seats. After 1944, Communists were a factor to consider for a few decades, and the Finnish People's Democratic League, formed by Communists and others to the left of Social Democrats, was the largest party after 1958 elections. Support for Communists decreased sharply in the early 1980s, while later in the same decade environmentalists formed the Green League, which is now one of the largest parties. The Swedish People's Party represents the Finland-Swedes, especially in language politics. The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multi-member districts, but there are some visible long-term trends.


title: Politics of Finland

text: There is no constitutional court; matters concerning constitutional rights or constitutional law are processed by the Constitutional Committee of the Parliament ("perustuslakivaliokunta"). Additionally, the Constitutional Committee has the sole power to refer a case to the High Court of Impeachment ("valtakunnanoikeus") and to authorize police investigations for this purpose.


title: Politics of Finland

text: In addition to the parliament, the Cabinet and President may produce regulations ("asetus") through a rulemaking process. These give more specific instructions on how to apply statutes, which often explicitly delegate regulation of specific details to the government. Regulations must be based on existing law, and they can clarify and specify, but not contradict the statute. Furthermore, the rights of an individual must always be based on a statute, not a regulation. Often the statute and the regulation come in similarly named pairs. For example, the law on primary education lists the subjects to be taught, and the regulation specifies the required number of teaching hours. Most of regulations are given by the Cabinet, but the President may give regulations concerning national security. Before 2000, the President had the right to enact regulations on matters not governed by parliamentary law, but this power was removed, and existing regulations were converted into regular statutes by the Parliament.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of political parties and since about 1980 the trend has been that the same coalition rules for the whole period between elections.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland elects on national level a head of state—the president—and a legislature. The president is elected for a six-year term by the people. The Parliament has 200 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies. Finland has a multi-party system, with multiple strong parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments.


title: Politics of Finland

text: In addition to the presidential and parliamentary elections, there are European Parliament elections every five years, and local municipal elections (held simultaneously in every municipality) every four years.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland has a civil law system, which is based on Swedish law, with the judiciary exercising limited powers. Proceedings are inquisitorial, where judges preside, conduct finding of fact, adjudication and giving of sanctions such as sentences; no juries are used. In e.g. criminal and family-related proceedings in local courts, the panel of judges may include both lay judges and professional judges, while all appeals courts and administrative courts consist only of professional judges. Precedent is not binding, with the exception of Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court decisions.


title: Politics of Finland

text: The judicial system of Finland is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities. Finnish law is codified and its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the Supreme Court. The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court. The administrative process has more popularity as it is cheaper and has lower financial risk to the person making claims. In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members of the Government, the Chancellor of Justice and the Ombudsman of Parliament.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Although there is no writ of habeas corpus or bail, the maximum period of pre-trial detention has been reduced to four days. For further detention, a court must order the imprisonment. One does not have the right for one phonecall: the police officer leading the investigation may inform relatives or similar if the investigation permits. However, a lawyer can be invited. Search warrants are not strictly needed, and are usually issued by a police officer. Wiretapping does need a court order.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland has a civil law (Roman law) system with an inquisitorial procedure. In accordance with the separation of powers, the "trias politica" principle, courts of law are independent of other administration. They base their decisions solely on the law in force. Criminal cases, civil cases and petitionary matters are dealt in 27 district courts, and then, if the decision is not satisfactory to the involved parties, can be applied in six Courts of Appeal. The Supreme Court of Finland serves as the court of last instance. Appeals against decisions by authorities are considered in six regional administrative courts, with the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland as the court of last instance. The President appoints all professional judges for life. Municipal councils appoint lay judges to district courts.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland is divided into 313 democratically independent municipalities, which are grouped into 70 sub-regions.


title: Politics of Finland

text: A municipality in Finland can choose to call itself either a "city" or "municipality". A municipality is governed by a municipal council (or a city council) elected by proportional representation once every four years. Democratic decision-making takes place on either the municipal or national level with few exceptions.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Until 2009, the state organization was divided into six provinces. However, the provinces were abolished altogether in 2010. Today, state local presence on mainland Finland is provided by 6 regional state administrative agencies ("aluehallintovirasto", "avi"), and 15 Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment ("elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus", "ely-keskus"). Regional state administrative agencies have mostly law enforcement, rescue and judicial duties: police, fire and rescue, emergency readiness, basic services, environmental permits and enforcement and occupational health and safety protection. The Centres implement labor and industrial policy, provide employment and immigration services, and promote culture; maintain highways, other transport networks and infrastructure; and protect, monitor and manage the environment, land use and water resources.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Åland is located near the 60th parallel between Sweden and Finland. It enjoys local autonomy by virtue of an international convention of 1921, implemented most recently by the Act on Åland Self-Government of 1951. The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking. Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Åland's citizens.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland is divided between six Regional State Administrative Agencies, which are responsible for basic public services and legal permits, such as rescue services and environmental permits. The 15 Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (ELY Centres) are responsible for the regional implementation and development tasks of the central government.


title: Politics of Finland

text: The basic units for organising government and public services in Finland are the municipalities. As of 2017, there are 311 municipalities, which incorporate the entire country.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Indirect public administration supplements and supports the authorities in managing the tasks of the welfare society. It comprises organisations which are not authorities, but which carry out public tasks or execute public powers. Examples of this are issuing hunting licences or carrying out motor vehicle inspection.


title: Politics of Finland

text: After the second world war, Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine was the foreign policy doctrine which aimed at Finland's survival as an independent sovereign, democratic, and capitalist country in the immediate proximity of the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland freed itself from the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947. The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (and the restrictions included therein) was annulled but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor of the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill as well as reallocating Soviet debts.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland deepened her participation in the European integration by joining the European Union with Sweden and Austria in 1995. It could be perhaps said that the country's policy of neutrality has been moderated to "military non-alignment" with an emphasis on maintaining a competent independent defence. Peacekeeping under the auspices of the United Nations is the only real extra-national military responsibility which Finland undertakes.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland is highly dependent on foreign trade and actively participates in international cooperation. Finland is a member of the European Union, United Nations and World Bank Group and in many of their member organizations.


title: Politics of Finland

text: Finland-Russia relations have been under pressure with annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, which Finland considers illegal. Together with the rest of the European Union, Finland enforces sanctions against Russia that followed. Still, economic relations have not entirely deteriorated: 11.2% of imports to Finland are from Russia, and 5.7% of exports from Finland are to Russia, and cooperation between Finnish and Russian authorities continues.


title: Northern blot

text: The northern blot, or RNA blot, is a technique used in molecular biology research to study gene expression by detection of RNA (or isolated mRNA) in a sample.


title: Northern blot

text: With northern blotting it is possible to observe cellular control over structure and function by determining the particular gene expression rates during differentiation and morphogenesis, as well as in abnormal or diseased conditions. Northern blotting involves the use of electrophoresis to separate RNA samples by size, and detection with a hybridization probe complementary to part of or the entire target sequence. Strictly speaking, the term 'northern blot' refers specifically to the capillary transfer of RNA from the electrophoresis gel to the blotting membrane. However, the entire process is commonly referred to as northern blotting. The northern blot technique was developed in 1977 by James Alwine, David Kemp, and George Stark at Stanford University. Northern blotting takes its name from its similarity to the first blotting technique, the Southern blot, named for biologist Edwin Southern. The major difference is that RNA, rather than DNA, is analyzed in the northern blot.


title: Northern blot

text: A general blotting procedure starts with extraction of total RNA from a homogenized tissue sample or from cells. Eukaryotic mRNA can then be isolated through the use of oligo (dT) cellulose chromatography to isolate only those RNAs with a poly(A) tail. RNA samples are then separated by gel electrophoresis. Since the gels are fragile and the probes are unable to enter the matrix, the RNA samples, now separated by size, are transferred to a nylon membrane through a capillary or vacuum blotting system. A nylon membrane with a positive charge is the most effective for use in northern blotting since the negatively charged nucleic acids have a high affinity for them. The transfer buffer used for the blotting usually contains formamide because it lowers the annealing temperature of the probe-RNA interaction, thus eliminating the need for high temperatures, which could cause RNA degradation. Once the RNA has been transferred to the membrane, it is immobilized through covalent linkage to the membrane by UV light or heat. After a probe has been labeled, it is hybridized to the RNA on the membrane. Experimental conditions that can affect the efficiency and specificity of hybridization include ionic strength, viscosity, duplex length, mismatched base pairs, and base composition. The membrane is washed to ensure that the probe has bound specifically and to prevent background signals from arising. The hybrid signals are then detected by X-ray film and can be quantified by densitometry. To create controls for comparison in a northern blot, samples not displaying the gene product of interest can be used after determination by microarrays or RT-PCR.


title: Northern blot

text: The RNA samples are most commonly separated on agarose gels containing formaldehyde as a denaturing agent for the RNA to limit secondary structure. The gels can be stained with ethidium bromide (EtBr) and viewed under UV light to observe the quality and quantity of RNA before blotting. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with urea can also be used in RNA separation but it is most commonly used for fragmented RNA or microRNAs. An RNA ladder is often run alongside the samples on an electrophoresis gel to observe the size of fragments obtained but in total RNA samples the ribosomal subunits can act as size markers. Since the large ribosomal subunit is 28S (approximately 5kb) and the small ribosomal subunit is 18S (approximately 2kb) two prominent bands appear on the gel, the larger at close to twice the intensity of the smaller.


title: Northern blot

text: Probes for northern blotting are composed of nucleic acids with a complementary sequence to all or part of the RNA of interest, they can be DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides with a minimum of 25 complementary bases to the target sequence. RNA probes (riboprobes) that are transcribed in vitro are able to withstand more rigorous washing steps preventing some of the background noise. Commonly cDNA is created with labelled primers for the RNA sequence of interest to act as the probe in the northern blot. The probes must be labelled either with radioactive isotopes (P) or with chemiluminescence in which alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase (HRP) break down chemiluminescent substrates producing a detectable emission of light. The chemiluminescent labelling can occur in two ways: either the probe is attached to the enzyme, or the probe is labelled with a ligand (e.g. biotin) for which the ligand (e.g., avidin or streptavidin) is attached to the enzyme (e.g. HRP). X-ray film can detect both the radioactive and chemiluminescent signals and many researchers prefer the chemiluminescent signals because they are faster, more sensitive, and reduce the health hazards that go along with radioactive labels. The same membrane can be probed up to five times without a significant loss of the target RNA.


title: Northern blot

text: Northern blotting allows one to observe a particular gene's expression pattern between tissues, organs, developmental stages, environmental stress levels, pathogen infection, and over the course of treatment. The technique has been used to show overexpression of oncogenes and downregulation of tumor-suppressor genes in cancerous cells when compared to 'normal' tissue, as well as the gene expression in the rejection of transplanted organs. If an upregulated gene is observed by an abundance of mRNA on the northern blot the sample can then be sequenced to determine if the gene is known to researchers or if it is a novel finding. The expression patterns obtained under given conditions can provide insight into the function of that gene. Since the RNA is first separated by size, if only one probe type is used variance in the level of each band on the membrane can provide insight into the size of the product, suggesting alternative splice products of the same gene or repetitive sequence motifs. The variance in size of a gene product can also indicate deletions or errors in transcript processing. By altering the probe target used along the known sequence it is possible to determine which region of the RNA is missing.


title: Northern blot

text: Analysis of gene expression can be done by several different methods including RT-PCR, RNase protection assays, microarrays, RNA-Seq, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), as well as northern blotting. Microarrays are quite commonly used and are usually consistent with data obtained from northern blots; however, at times northern blotting is able to detect small changes in gene expression that microarrays cannot. The advantage that microarrays have over northern blots is that thousands of genes can be visualized at a time, while northern blotting is usually looking at one or a small number of genes.


title: Northern blot

text: A problem in northern blotting is often sample degradation by RNases (both endogenous to the sample and through environmental contamination), which can be avoided by proper sterilization of glassware and the use of RNase inhibitors such as DEPC (diethylpyrocarbonate). The chemicals used in most northern blots can be a risk to the researcher, since formaldehyde, radioactive material, ethidium bromide, DEPC, and UV light are all harmful under certain exposures. Compared to RT-PCR, northern blotting has a low sensitivity, but it also has a high specificity, which is important to reduce false positive results.


title: Northern blot

text: The advantages of using northern blotting include the detection of RNA size, the observation of alternate splice products, the use of probes with partial homology, the quality and quantity of RNA can be measured on the gel prior to blotting, and the membranes can be stored and reprobed for years after blotting.


title: Northern blot

text: For northern blotting for the detection of acetylcholinesterase mRNA the nonradioactive technique was compared to a radioactive technique and found as sensitive as the radioactive one, but requires no protection against radiation and is less time-consuming.


title: Northern blot

text: Researchers occasionally use a variant of the procedure known as the reverse northern blot. In this procedure, the substrate nucleic acid (that is affixed to the membrane) is a collection of isolated DNA fragments, and the probe is RNA extracted from a tissue and radioactively labelled.


title: Northern blot

text: The use of DNA microarrays that have come into widespread use in the late 1990s and early 2000s is more akin to the reverse procedure, in that they involve the use of isolated DNA fragments affixed to a substrate, and hybridization with a probe made from cellular RNA. Thus the reverse procedure, though originally uncommon, enabled northern analysis to evolve into gene expression profiling, in which many (possibly all) of the genes in an organism may have their expression monitored.


title: Infidel

text: An infidel (literally "unfaithful") is a person accused of disbelief in the central tenets of one's own religion, such as members of another religion, or the irreligious.


title: Infidel

text: Infidel is an ecclesiastical term in Christianity around which the Church developed a body of theology that deals with the concept of infidelity, which makes a clear differentiation between those who were baptized and followed the teachings of the Church versus those who are outside the faith. The term "infidel" was used by Christians to describe those perceived as the enemies of Christianity.


title: Infidel

text: After the ancient world, the concept of otherness, an exclusionary notion of the outside by societies with more or less coherent cultural boundaries, became associated with the development of the monotheistic and prophetic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (cf. pagan).


title: Infidel

text: In modern literature, the term infidel includes in its scope atheists, polytheists, animists, heathens, and pagans.


title: Infidel

text: A willingness to identify other religious people as infidels corresponds to preference for orthodoxy over pluralism.


title: Infidel

text: The origins of the word infidel date to the late 15th century, deriving from the French "infidèle" or Latin "īnfidēlis", from "in-" "not" + "fidēlis" "faithful" (from "fidēs" "faith", related to "fīdere" 'to trust'). The word originally denoted a person of a religion other than one's own, especially a Christian to a Muslim, a Muslim to a Christian, or a gentile to a Jew. Later meanings in the 15th century include "unbelieving", "a non-Christian" and "one who does not believe in religion" (1527).


title: Infidel

text: Christians historically used the term infidel to refer to people who actively opposed Christianity. This term became well-established in English by sometime in the early sixteenth century, when Jews or Mohammedans (Muslims; formerly called saracens), were described contemptuously as active opponents to Christianity. In Catholic dogma, an infidel is one who does not believe in the doctrine at all and is thus distinct from a heretic, who has fallen away from true doctrine, i.e. by denying the divinity of Jesus. Similarly, the ecclesiastical term was also used by the Methodist Church, in reference to those "without faith".


title: Infidel

text: Today, the usage of the term infidel has declined; the current preference is for the terms "non-Christians" and "non-believers" (persons without religious affiliations or beliefs), reflecting the commitment of mainstream Christian denominations to engage in dialog with persons of other faiths. Nevertheless, some apologists have argued in favor of the term, stating that it does not come from a disrespectful perspective, but is similar to using the term "orthodox" for devout believers.


title: Infidel

text: Moreover, some translations of the Bible, including the King James Version, which is still in vogue today, employ the word "infidel", while others have supplanted the term with "nonbeliever". The term is found in two places:


title: Infidel

text: In "Quod super his", Innocent IV asked the question, "[I]s it licit to invade a land that infidels possess or which belongs to them?" and held that while Infidels had a right to "dominium" (right to rule themselves and choose their own governments), the pope, as the Vicar of Christ, "de jure" possessed the care of their souls and had the right to politically intervene in their affairs if their ruler violated or allowed his subjects to violate a Christian and Euro-centric normative conception of Natural law, such as sexual perversion or idolatry. He also held that he had an obligation to send missionaries to infidel lands, and that if they were prevented from entering or preaching, then the pope was justified in dispatching Christian forces accompanied with missionaries to invade those lands, as Innocent stated simply: "If the infidels do not obey, they ought to be compelled by the secular arm and war may be declared upon them by the pope, and nobody else." This was however not a reciprocal right and non-Christian missionaries such as those of Muslims could not be allowed to preach in Europe "because they are in error and we are on a righteous path."


title: Infidel

text: A long line of Papal hierocratic canonists, most notably those who adhered to Alanus Anglicus's influential arguments of the Crusading-era, denied Infidel dominium, and asserted Rome's universal jurisdictional authority over the earth, as well as the right to authorize pagan conquests solely on the basis of non-belief because of their rejection of the Christian God. In the extreme, the hierocractic canonical discourse of the mid-twelfth century, such as that espoused by Bernard of Clairvaux, the mystic leader of the Cisertcians, legitimized German colonial expansion and practice of forceful Christianisation in the Slavic territories as a holy war against the Wends, arguing that infidels should be killed wherever they posed a menace to Christians. When Frederick the II unilaterally arrogated papal authority, he took on the mantle to "destroy convert, and subjugate all barbarian nations," a power in papal doctrine reserved for the pope. Hostiensis, a student of Innocent, in accord with Alanus, also asserted "... by law infidels should be subject to the faithful." John Wyclif, regarded as the forefather of English Reformation, also held that valid "dominium" rested on a state of grace.


title: Infidel

text: The Teutonic Knights were one of the by-products of this papal hierocratic and German discourse. After the Crusades in the Levant, they moved to crusading activities in the infidel Baltics. Their crusades against the Lithuanians and Poles, however, precipitated the Lithuanian Controversy, and the Council of Constance, following the condemnation of Wyclif, found Hostiensis's views no longer acceptable and ruled against the knights. Future Church doctrine was then firmly aligned with Innocents IV's position.


title: Infidel

text: The later development of counterarguments on the validity of Papal authority, the rights of infidels, and the primacy of natural law led to various treatises such as those by Hugo Grotius, John Locke, Immanuel Kant and Thomas Hobbes.


title: Infidel

text: During the Age of Discovery, papal bulls such as "Romanus Pontifex" and, more importantly, "inter caetera" (1493), implicitly removed "dominium" from infidels and granted them to the Spanish Empire and Portugal with the charter of guaranteeing the safety of missionaries. Subsequent rejections of the bull by Protestant powers rejected the Pope's authority to exclude other Christian princes. As independent authorities, they drew up charters for their own colonial missions based on the temporal right for care of infidel souls in language echoing the "inter caetera". The charters and papal bulls would form the legal basis of future negotiations and consideration of claims as title deeds in the emerging law of nations during the period of European colonization.


title: Infidel

text: The rights bestowed by "Romanus Pontifex" and "inter caetera" have never fallen from use, serving as the basis for legal arguments over the centuries. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1823 case "Johnson v. M'Intosh "that as a result of European discovery and assumption of ultimate dominion, Native Americans had only a right to occupancy of native lands, not the right of title. In the 1831 case "Cherokee Nation v. Georgia", famously described Native American tribes as "domestic dependent nations." In "Worcester v. Georgia", the court ruled that the Native Tribes were sovereign entities to the extent that the U.S. federal government, and not individual states, had authority over their affairs.


title: Infidel

text: Native American groups including the Taíno and Onondaga have called on the Vatican to revoke the bulls of 1452, 1453, and 1493.


title: Infidel

text: According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the Catholic Church views marriage as forbidden and null when conducted between the faithful (Christians) and infidels, unless a dispensation has been granted. This is because marriage is a sacrament of the Catholic Church, which infidels are deemed incapable of receiving.


title: Infidel

text: Some philosophers such as Thomas Paine, David Hume, George Holyoake, Charles Bradlaugh, Voltaire and Rousseau earned the label of infidel or freethinkers, both personally and for their respective traditions of thought because of their attacks on religion and opposition to the Church. They established and participated in a distinctly labeled, infidel movement or tradition of thought, that sought to reform their societies which were steeped in Christian thought, practice, laws and culture. The Infidel tradition was distinct from parallel anti-Christian, sceptic or deist movements, in that it was anti-theistic and also synonymous with atheism. These traditions also sought to set up various independent model communities, as well as societies, whose traditions then gave rise to various other socio-political movements such as secularism in 1851, as well as developing close philosophical ties to some contemporary political movements such as socialism and the French Revolution.


title: Infidel

text: Towards the early twentieth century, these movements sought to move away from the tag "infidel" because of its associated negative connotation in Christian thought, and there is attributed to George Holyoake the coining of the term 'secularism' in an attempt to bridge the gap with other theist and Christian liberal reform movements.


title: Infidel

text: In 1793, Immanuel Kant's "Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason", reflected the Enlightenment periods' philosophical development, one which differentiated between the moral and rational and substituted rational/irrational for the original true believer/infidel distinction.


title: Infidel

text: Laws passed by the Catholic Church governed not just the laws between Christians and infidels in matters of religious affairs, but also civil affairs. They were prohibited from participating or aiding in infidel religious rites, such as circumcisions or wearing images of non-Christian religious significance.


title: Infidel

text: In the Early Middle Ages, based on the idea of the superiority of Christians to infidels, regulations came into place such as those forbidding Jews from possessing Christian slaves; the laws of the decretals further forbade Christians from entering the service of Jews, for Christian women to act as their nurses or midwives; forbidding Christians from employing Jewish physicians when ill; restricting Jews to definite quarters of the towns into which they were admitted and to wear a dress by which they might be recognized.


title: Infidel

text: Later during the Victorian era, testimony of either self-declared, or those accused of being Infidels or Atheists, was not accepted in a court of law because it was felt that they had no moral imperative to not lie under oath because they did not believe in God, or Heaven and Hell.


title: Infidel

text: These rules have now given way to modern legislation and Catholics, in civil life, are no longer governed by ecclesiastical law.


title: Infidel

text: One Arabic language analogue to "infidel", referring to non-Muslims, is "kafir" (sometimes "kaafir", "kufr" or "kuffar"; gâvur in Turkish,) from the root K-F-R, which connotes covering or concealing. The term KFR may also refer to disbelieve in something, ungrateful for something provided or denunciation of a certain matter or life style. Another term, sometimes used synonymously, is "mushrik", "polytheist" or "conspirer", which more immediately connotes the worship of gods other than Allah.


title: Infidel

text: In the Quran, the term "kafir" is first applied to the unbelieving Meccans, and their attempts to refute and revile Muhammad. Later, Muslims are ordered to keep apart from them and defend themselves from their attacks.


title: Infidel

text: In the Quran the term "people of the book" ("Ahl al-Kitāb") refers to Jews, Christians, and Sabians. In this way, Islam considers Jews and Christians as followers of scriptures sent by God previously. The term people of the book was later expanded to include adherents of Zoroastrianism and Hinduism by Islamic rulers in Persia and India.


title: Infidel

text: In some verses of the Quran, particularly those recited after the Hijra in AD 622, the concept of "kafir" was expanded upon, with Jews and Christians included. The expanded term "kafir" refers to anyone who disbelieves in the religion of Islam, the one that mocks the religion of Islam, who does not regard the kafiroon as kaffirs, whoever believes one's teaching is more reliable and trustworthy than Muhammad's teachings, whoever hates something of Muhammad, whoever practices witchcraft, and whoever supports the kaffirs against the Muslims (in terms of war, harming, etc.). Jews were condemned as kafirs for their disbelief in God's "ayah" (signs or verses). Christians were condemned as kafirs for their belief in the Trinity, which the Qur'an declared as major kufr (disbelief) (kufr akbar), which puts one outside of the pale of Islam (Surah al-Maa’idah – 5:116 for example).


title: Infidel

text: Some "hadiths" prohibit declaring a Muslim to be a kafir, but the term was nonetheless fairly frequent in the internal religious polemics of the age. For example, some texts of the Sunni sect of Islam include other sects of Islam such as Shia as infidel. Certain sects of Islam, such as Wahhabism, include as kafir those Muslims who undertake Sufi shrine pilgrimage and follow Shia teachings about Imams. Similarly, in Africa and South Asia, certain sects of Islam such as Hausas, Ahmadi, Akhbaris have been repeatedly declared as Kufir or infidels by other sects of Muslims.


title: Infidel

text: The class of "kafir" also includes the category of "murtadd", variously translated as apostate or renegades, for whom classical jurisprudence prescribes death if they refuse to return to Islam. On the subject of ritual impurity of unbelievers, one finds a range of opinions, "from the strictest to the most tolerant", in classical jurisprudence.


title: Infidel

text: Historically, the attitude toward unbelievers in Islam was determined more by socio-political conditions than by religious doctrine. A tolerance toward unbelievers prevailed even to the time of the Crusades, particularly with respect to the People of the Book. However, animosity was nourished by repeated wars with unbelievers, and warfare between Safavid Persia and Ottoman Turkey brought about application of the term "kafir" even to Persians in Turkish fatwas.


title: Infidel

text: In Sufism the term underwent a special development, as in a well-known verse of Abu Sa'id: "So long as belief and unbelief are not perfectly equal, no man can be a true Muslim", which has prompted various explanations.


title: Infidel

text: Judaism has a notion of pagan gentiles who are called "<nowiki>'</nowiki>acum", an acronym of Ovdei Cohavim u-Mazzaloth or, literally, "star-and-constellation worshippers".


title: Hackintosh

text: A Hackintosh (a portmanteau of "Hack" and "Macintosh") is a computer that runs Apple's Macintosh operating system macOS (formerly named "Mac OS X" or "OS X") on computer hardware not authorized for the purpose by Apple. This can also include running Macintosh software on hardware it is not originally authorized for. ""Hackintoshing"" began as a result of Apple's 2005 transition to Intel processors, away from PowerPC. Since 2005, Mac computers use the same x86-64 computer architecture as many other desktop PCs, laptops, and servers, meaning that in principle, the code making up macOS systems and software can be run on alternative platforms with minimal compatibility issues. Benefits cited for "Hackintoshing" can include cost (older, cheaper or commodity hardware), ease of repair and piecemeal upgrade, and freedom to use customized choices of components that are not available (or not available together) in the branded Apple products. macOS can also be run on several non-Apple virtualization platforms, although such systems are not usually described as Hackintoshes. Hackintosh laptops are sometimes referred to as ""Hackbooks"".


title: Hackintosh

text: Apple's software license for macOS only permits the software's use on computers that are "Apple-branded." However, because modern Macintosh computers use Intel-based hardware, there are few limitations keeping the software from running on other types of Intel-based PCs. Notably, companies such as Psystar have attempted to release products using macOS on non-Apple machines, though many Hackintosh systems are designed solely by macOS enthusiasts of various hacking forums and communities. While commercial circumvention of the methods Apple uses to prevent macOS from being installed on non-Apple hardware is restricted in the United States under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), specific changes to the law regarding the concept of jailbreaking have placed circumvention methods like these into a legal grey area.


title: Hackintosh

text: In 2020, Apple began to move to ARM64-based Apple silicon processors. The company has said it will eventually stop supporting the Intel64 architecture.


title: Hackintosh

text: On June 6, 2005, Apple announced its plans to transition to Intel x86 processors at their Worldwide Developers Conference and made available a prototype Intel-based Mac to selected developers at a cost of $999 (). Efforts immediately began to attempt to run Mac OS X on non-Apple hardware, but developers quickly found themselves with an error message saying that the PC hardware configurations were not supported.


title: Hackintosh

text: On January 10, 2006, Apple released 10.4.4 with the first generation of Intel-based Macs, the iMac and the MacBook Pro. These machines used Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) platform firmware instead of the older style BIOS found on most x86 motherboards at the time. On February 14, 2006, an initial "hack" of v10.4.4 was released on the Internet by a programmer with the pseudonym "crg92". Within hours Apple released the 10.4.5 update, which was then hacked by the same author within two weeks. On April 3, 2006, Apple released their 10.4.6 update and again patches were released within two weeks that allowed users to install most of this update on non-Apple computers, although this did not include the updated kernel in 10.4.6. In June 2006, an updated MacBook Pro was released for the 10.4.7 update for non-Apple computers using the 10.4.4 kernel.


title: Hackintosh

text: Up to the release of the 10.4.8 update, all OSx86 patches used the 10.4.4 kernel with the rest of the operating system at version 10.4.8. However, the newer frameworks relied on the newer kernels and this led to users of 10.4.8 encountering many problems. Apple also started making more use of SSE3 instructions on their hardware making it even more difficult for users with CPUs supporting only SSE2 (such as older Pentium 4s) to get a fully compatible system running. To solve this problem, hackers from the community released kernels where those instructions were emulated with SSE2 equivalents, although this produced a performance penalty.


title: Hackintosh

text: Throughout the years, many "distros" were released for download over the Internet. These distros were copies of the Mac OS X installer disc modified to include additional components necessary to make the OS run on the non-Apple hardware. A prominent member of the community, JaS, released many distros of Mac OS X Tiger containing patched kernels. Some other popular distros are iATKOS, Kalyway, iPC and iDeneb. Distros have fallen out of favour as the OSx86 community grew, as new bootloaders were developed that made it possible to use actual copies of the OS X Installer.


title: Hackintosh

text: As early as v10.5 build 9A466 the community has maintained a version of Leopard that can run on non-Apple hardware. A hacker by the handle of BrazilMac created one of the earliest patching processes that made it convenient for users to install onto 3rd party hardware by using a legally obtained, retail version of Apple . This simplification made the BrazilMac patch and its later revisions quickly the most popular choice for many distros. Five of the most popular builds go by the name JaS, Kalyway, iATKOS, iPC and iDeneb – although more recently these builds are on the way out as the Boot-132 method (described below) gains popularity. However, all of these compilations rely on the work of kernel hackers made by Lorem (build 9A466), SynthetiX (builds 9A499, 9A527 and 9A559), ToH (builds 9A581, 9B13 and 9B18) and more recently a group calling themselves StageXNU (now called Voodoo) (Darwin 9.4.0). Their contributions trickled down into the various Mac OSx86 installers, readily available on the Internet. They continue to be refined and updated builds released, not just to maintain compatibility with Apple releases but an ever-increasing number of third-party components. The OSx86 community has been quick to make the necessary modifications to enable Apple's latest releases to run on non-Apple hardware. Within hours of Leopard's release, an AMD/Intel SSE2/3 Kernel Patcher was created that removed the HPET requirement from an original untouched mach_kernel file, a core component of the Mac OS.


title: Hackintosh

text: When "Snow Leopard" was released, Russian hacker netkas created a version of Chameleon that can boot Mac OS X v10.6. The main problem was that many people were forced to modify DSDT or use kexts due to some specific issues. As soon as possible modbin and dmitrik released test versions of kernel that allow to boot Snow Leopard on AMD machines. Stable XNU kernels for v10.6 were released by Qoopz and Pcj. There are some popular builds based on Retail by the name Universal (Intel only), Hazard, and iAtkos. Since v10.6.2 Nawcom, Qoopz, and Andy Vandijck have been working on Legacy kernel for unsupported CPUs.


title: Hackintosh

text: When Apple released the Developer Preview 1, a Russian Hackintosh developer usr-sse2 was the first who created a method to install Lion. The method consists of deploying Mac OS X v10.7 image on a flash drive, and booting from it via XPC UEFI Bootloader (See DUET below). After some changes were made to the Chameleon source code, it became possible to boot Lion with an updated version of Chameleon. After a while Dmitrik also known as Bronzovka had luck with creating a kernel that supported AMD systems; after a few months (10.7.3 V2 With AMD Support) and iAtkos L2 (10.7.2 Only Intel) were released.


title: Hackintosh

text: Shortly after the release of Developer Preview 1, some unknown developers managed to install this version of OS X to their PC by using a modified version of the Chameleon Bootloader. This version was released via the main project starting at version r1997 to the general public. Due to the problems sourced during the Lion era, other ways of installing and required patches were never made public, which leaves the scene in an unknown state towards Mountain Lion.


title: Hackintosh

text: Since the retail release of Mountain Lion several users have reported successful setups using installers purchased from the Mac App Store, along with updated versions of Chameleon and other tools including distros.


title: Hackintosh

text: Niresh's Distro (10.8 Intel only) was first released and then was updated to 10.8.2 (With AMD and Intel) and 10.8.5 (With UEFI Support, AMD and Intel Support) versions; iAtkos ML2 was released after Niresh's Release.


title: Hackintosh

text: Multiple new kernels for Hackintosh 10.9 are in the works, although there still are minor issues with most of them. Most of these kernels aim to allow users to run Mavericks on AMD and older Intel CPUs, which lack certain instruction sets of the latest Intel CPUs. Significant efforts have been made to emulate instruction sets like SSSE3, which are not present on AMD K10-based CPUs, and older Intel CPUs, like the Intel Core Duo.


title: Hackintosh

text: AMD's latest CPUs, from the 'Bulldozer' architecture onwards, contain almost all the latest instruction sets, and hence, some kernels with full SSE4 support have also been released. After two months, Niresh's Distro was released for Mavericks, which supports AMD CPUs and latest Intel CPUs. It also has a custom kernel that allows Intel Atom processors to boot into Mavericks. Niresh's was the only free distro that was released for Mavericks, since the iAtkos Team decided to release their Mavericks distro for specific hardware on donation basis.


title: Hackintosh

text: After the initial release of OS X Yosemite 10.10 BETA, various developers took on the role of updating their bootloaders for the system. Members of OSx86 forum InsanelyMac set to update the EFI Bootloader Chameleon for this new OS release. Some time later, Niresh (an independent OSx86 developer) released a standalone tool known as Yosemite Zone, which would automatically install the new OS and other various features on a non-Apple device with minimal input. This method consisted of torrenting an OS X 10.10 DMG onto a USB flash drive with MacPwn Vanilla Installation. Unibeast was updated to support Yosemite, and a distribution of Yosemite Zone was released with AMD processor support.


title: Hackintosh

text: A vanilla installation of Yosemite is possible via Insanelymac's Pandora Box Beta 2.0 and UniBeast. This type installation uses as few kexts (drivers) as possible in addition to using an unaltered version of the OS X installation app, and is preferred over distributions.


title: Hackintosh

text: Both Clover and Chameleon were updated to be compatible with El Capitan. Unibeast and MacPwn were updated to support El Capitan as well, since El Capitan, Unibeast (and Multibeast) use the Clover bootloader instead of Chimera (a Chameleon-based bootloader).


title: Hackintosh

text: Clover and Chameleon were updated to be compatible with Sierra. UniBeast, Pandora Box and MacPwn were updated to support it and a distribution of Sierra Zone (10.12.3) was released with AMD processor support.


title: Hackintosh

text: Clover, MacPwn, OpenCore and UniBeast were updated to support it. A distro of High Sierra Zone by Hackintosh Zone (10.13) was released with AMD Processor support including Ryzen CPUs.


title: Hackintosh

text: Clover was updated to support Mojave with revision 4514. UniBeast also received Mojave support for Intel-based machines. A distro of Hackintosh Mojave by Hackintosh Zone (10.14) was released. Apple has also discontinued support for NVIDIA Web Drivers from the first release of macOS Mojave, to current.


title: Hackintosh

text: Clover r4945 was the first version of Clover to support macOS Catalina, beginning with the first developer beta of macOS Catalina 10.15. UniBeast was updated for macOS Catalina support, but there has not yet been a MultiBeast release for Catalina. For the first public stable release of macOS 10.15, AMD patches were also released, allowing the booting of macOS Catalina on AMD CPU systems. A new bootloader began to emerge during this time, called OpenCore，OpenCore is not Clover's successor, it belongs to Vit9696's modified boot for the old version of OpenCore, and it belongs to the same status as Clover. and a necessity for AMD users beyond macOS 10.15.2.


title: Hackintosh

text: macOS Big Sur works on Intel processors. But in 2020, Apple began to move to ARM64-based Apple silicon processors, and will eventually stop supporting the Intel64 architecture. This may mean the end of Hackintosh computers in their current form.


title: Hackintosh

text: Some new features of macOS Monterey, such as a 3D globe of Earth in Maps and text-to-speech in additional languages, work only on Apple silicon processors. Rene Ritchie has speculated that the features require Apple's Neural Engine. Apple has provided no official explanation.


title: Hackintosh

text: It is very important to note that in this version, Apple officially drops support for 7th-generation Intel processors. Users who are using this generation processor will need to change their Hackintosh Models or they may meet problems. About new features, Apple improves the simplicity and connectivity of this system, including the change of page of system settings (which is now like iPadOS), Continuity Camera, new mail functions, new apps (Weather and Clock), Metal 3, and Stage Manager.


title: Hackintosh

text: Apple does not authorize the use of macOS on any x86 PC other than those which it has manufactured. After announcing its switch to Intel's chips, the company used technical means (although not the Trusted Platform Module, or TPM, as has been widely misreported), to tie macOS to the systems it distributed to developers. The method they used involved checking for an SMC chip using DSMOS (Don't Steal MacOS.kext).


title: Hackintosh

text: The macOS EULA forbids installations of macOS on a "non-Apple-branded computer". On July 3, 2008, Apple filed a lawsuit against Psystar Corporation for violating this restriction, among other claims. Apple claimed Psystar "violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) by dodging copy-protection technologies Apple uses to protect ." Apple employs technological protection measures that effectively control access to Apple's copyrighted works. Specifically, Apple charged Psystar with acquiring or creating code that "avoids, bypasses, removes, descrambles, decrypts, deactivates or impairs a technological protection measure without Apple's authority for the purpose of gaining unauthorized access to Apple's copyrighted works." The legal brief revealed that Apple considers the methods that it uses to prevent macOS from being installed on non-Apple hardware to be protected by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA).


title: Hackintosh

text: On November 13, 2009, the court granted Apple's motion for summary judgment and found Apple's copyrights were violated as well as the DMCA when Psystar installed Apple's operating system on non-Apple computers. A hearing on remedies was set for December 14.


title: Hackintosh

text: On January 14, 2009, the Gadget Lab site of "Wired Magazine" posted a video tutorial for installing on an MSI Wind netbook, but removed it following a complaint from Apple. Textual instructions remain, but include an EULA violation disclaimer.


title: Hackintosh

text: On May 15, 2012, the case Apple vs. Psystar Corporation ended. The court ruled that Psystar had "violated Apple's exclusive reproduction right, distribution right, and right to create derivative works," putting an end to the case.


title: Hackintosh

text: When copies of Mac OS X Tiger started running on non-Apple hardware, it was found that some processors were unable to run the OS. Rosetta, a binary translator that made it possible to run PowerPC programs on Intel processors, (and later the kernel itself) required the support of the SSE3 instruction set. To circumvent this, programmers in the community released patched kernels, which included support for emulating SSE3 instructions using SSE2 equivalents. In October 2005, Apple released update 10.4.3 to developers that required NX bit microprocessor support; however, patches were released to circumvent this as well. Patched kernels were also later released that supported AMD processors.


title: Hackintosh

text: When Mac OS X Leopard released on October 26, 2007, patches were created to remove the HPET requirement from the kernel. Efforts were also made to emulate the SSSE3 instruction set for processors that did not support it. The kernel used by OS X Mavericks made use of SSSE3 instructions, requiring those patches.


title: Hackintosh

text: Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) is a specification that defines a software interface between an operating system and platform firmware. Since emulating the EFI does not generally require copying or modifying macOS, it is considered by some hackers to be the legal way of installing macOS on non-Apple computers (despite being untested in courts).


title: Hackintosh

text: The work started with EFI emulation in the form of David Elliot (dfe)'s modified version of Boot-132 called "Darwin/x86", which has a "FakeEFI" system that emulates EFI. In early November 2007, a group of hackers (fronted by a Russian hacker known as Netkas), using Elliot's code, developed a method of emulating an EFI environment using a specially modified Darwin bootloader. In practical terms, this meant that regular PCs meeting a set of hardware requirements could now be "seen" as real Macintosh computers by the OS, allowing the use of unmodified, "stock" Apple kernels (as long as the CPU supports it) and thus giving more transparent and reliable operation. Several methods for real world deployment of this innovative solution have arisen around the Internet. An explanation of this achievement along with a usage guide was provided by the website DigitMemo.com.


title: Hackintosh

text: True EFI emulation was a highly sought after asset for the OSx86 community. Previous efforts based upon Apple's open source Darwin Project and Hackintosh gurus allowed users to use macOS on normal PCs, with patched kernels/kernel modules that simply bypassed EFI. Using the EFI patch, a Hackintosh could boot off "vanilla" (unmodified) macOS kernels and use vanilla kernel extensions. This not only allowed the system to be compatible with future system updates, but also offered increased stability. This method also circumvents one aspect of Apple's End User License Agreement, which states that the modification of non-Open Source components of the OS is forbidden.


title: Hackintosh

text: In mid-2008, a new commercial product, EFi-X, was released that claims to allow full, simple booting off official Leopard install disks, and a subsequent install, without any patching required, but this is possibly a repackaging of Boot-132 technology in a USB-attached device. Rebel EFI is another commercial product that also seems to use Open Source software.


title: Hackintosh

text: It was thought that Windows 7's support of EFI would result in PC motherboards replacing BIOS with EFI. MSI announced the Efinity mainboard in early 2008. As of 2011, EFI-based computers have entered the market, however none can natively boot Mac OS X due to the lack of a HFS+ driver in the EFI implementation.


title: Hackintosh

text: Boot-132 is a bootloader provided by Apple for loading the XNU kernel. In mid-2008, a new modified BOOT-132 came on to the scene. This method allows users to conduct the Leopard-based OSx86 installation using a stock, retail-purchased copy of Leopard and eradicates the necessity of a hacked installation like JaS or Kalyway (mentioned previously). The Boot-132 bootloader essentially preloads an environment on the system from which Leopard can boot and operate. The bootloader stores the necessary files (kext files) in a .img collection or simply a folder. The luxury of this new installation method includes the ability to boot and install from a retail Leopard DVD and update straight from Apple without breaking the DMCA. The only possible problem here is that it breaks the macOS EULA.


title: Hackintosh

text: The bootloader behaves like the Linux kernel: one can use an mboot-compatible (a patched syslinux was used for the hack) bootloader that tells boot-dfe about the .img file (the ramdisk or initrd, as it's known by Linux users), and boot-dfe will then use the kexts (or mkext) from it. This new boot-dfe has been tested with the retail Leopard DVD, and it can boot, install, run Leopard without having to build a modified DVD.


title: Hackintosh

text: Since the early developer builds of Mac OS X v10.6, members of the OSx86 community had been booting the new operating system using yet another bootloader called PC EFI provided by Russian hacker Netkas or the bootloader of the Voodoo team's Chameleon. Chameleon is based on David Elliot's Boot-132. The bootloader supports ACPI, SMBIOS, graphics, ethernet, and some other injections. It allows to boot up macOS on non-Macintosh hardware. Chameleon supports a lot of AMD as well as Nvidia graphics cards. There are a lot of forks of it by different developers; the latest version upstream is 2.2 from 2014.


title: Hackintosh

text: Clover is a GUI bootloader for multiple operating systems that supports either UEFI or the legacy BIOS mode. To support booting EFI code, one of the two methods are conventionally taken: either Elliot's FakeEFI was used, or an actual open-source EFI system based on Intel's TianoCore called DUET (Developer's UEFI Emulation) was flashed into the motherboard. However, modern, non-Apple EFI firmware as well as Duet cannot directly load macOS due to various incompatibilities, mainly around the HFS+ file system but also due to the quirks of individual vendors. One more step was needed to load macOS systems: an EFI application to rectify these problems and bridge the gap.


title: Hackintosh

text: Beginning in March 2011, Slice discussed his idea with other community members, resulting in the development of a bootloader that can do both: emulate an EFI firmware of one's choice or use a Real UEFI firmware to boot Mac OS X. It contains EFI applications and drivers for correctly reading an HFS+ disk and patching EFI tables to prepare the system for starting macOS. As of 2020, it is actively maintained.


title: Hackintosh

text: Ozmosis is a UEFI DXE bootloader for Z77MX-QUO-AOS, developed by QUO Computer Inc. that is defunct in late 2010s.


title: Hackintosh

text: It offers to run macOS through motherboard’s UEFI rom, and no need additional drive space for bootloader.


title: Hackintosh

text: OpenCore, started in 2019, is another bootloader developed to run macOS on UEFI or BIOS systems as well as old Mac devices that are no longer supported. Compared to Clover, it is said to provide overall better patching and emulation as well as a faster boot time. The project has also taken over the development of some patches, meaning future versions may only work with OpenCore.


title: Hackintosh

text: In March 2007, the OSx86 community made some significant progress with the development of a Live DVD. The Live DVD allows booting to a working system with Mac OS X v10.4.8.


title: Hackintosh

text: On January 2, 2009, InsanelyMac's Live DVD team published a new method by which a Mac OS X v10.5.x Live DVD could be produced, allowing users to boot a fully working macOS desktop from a DVD or USB flash drive. The method was more reliable than previous methods because it manipulated Apple's existing Netboot and Imageboot functionalities and behaved as if the system were running off a network disk. It was easier to produce; requiring only a single script to be added to an existing installation. Distributions of the live DVD have been made since its inception. Since then, it is notable that this method has been shown to work on normal Apple Mac hardware.


title: Hackintosh

text: It is possible to run macOS as a virtual machine inside other operating systems installed on standard PC hardware by using virtualization software such as Oracle's VirtualBox (though this is not officially supported by Oracle). It is also possible to install macOS on Windows and Linux versions of VMware software through the use of patches, even though the company states that running macOS is supported for VMware running on only Apple computers in compliance with Apple's licensing policies.


title: Hackintosh

text: macOS on a virtual machine is typically very slow due to the operating system's heavy use of hardware video acceleration, which macOS does not support when using the virtual video devices typically used by virtual machine software. A work around is to attach a physical GPU to a virtual machine, however this requires a macOS supported GPU in the system that is not in use by the host operating system.


title: Exterior derivative

text: On a differentiable manifold, the exterior derivative extends the concept of the differential of a function to differential forms of higher degree. The exterior derivative was first described in its current form by Élie Cartan in 1899. The resulting calculus, known as exterior calculus, allows for a natural, metric-independent generalization of Stokes' theorem, Gauss's theorem, and Green's theorem from vector calculus.


title: Exterior derivative

text: If a differential -form is thought of as measuring the flux through an infinitesimal -parallelotope at each point of the manifold, then its exterior derivative can be thought of as measuring the net flux through the boundary of a -parallelotope at each point.


title: Exterior derivative

text: The exterior derivative of a differential form of degree (also differential -form, or just -form for brevity here) is a differential form of degree .


title: Exterior derivative

text: If is a smooth function (a -form), then the exterior derivative of is the differential of . That is, is the unique -form such that for every smooth vector field , , where is the directional derivative of in the direction of .


title: Exterior derivative

text: The exterior product of differential forms (denoted with the same symbol ) is defined as their pointwise exterior product.


title: Exterior derivative

text: The exterior derivative is defined to be the unique -linear mapping from -forms to -forms that has the following properties:


title: Exterior derivative

text: The second defining property holds in more generality: for any -form ; more succinctly, . The third defining property implies as a special case that if is a function and a is -form, then because a function is a <nowiki>-form, and scalar multiplication and the exterior product are equivalent when one of the arguments is a scalar.</nowiki>


title: Exterior derivative

text: Alternatively, one can work entirely in a local coordinate system . The coordinate differentials form a basis of the space of one-forms, each associated with a coordinate. Given a multi-index with for (and denoting with an abuse of notation ), the exterior derivative of a (simple) -form


title: Exterior derivative

text: (using the Einstein summation convention). The definition of the exterior derivative is extended linearly to a general -form


title: Exterior derivative

text: where each of the components of the multi-index run over all the values in . Note that whenever equals one of the components of the multi-index then (see "Exterior product").


title: Exterior derivative

text: The definition of the exterior derivative in local coordinates follows from the preceding definition in terms of axioms. Indeed, with the -form as defined above,


title: Exterior derivative

text: "Caution": There are two conventions regarding the meaning of formula_7. Most current authors have the convention that


title: Exterior derivative

text: Alternatively, an explicit formula can be given for the exterior derivative of a -form , when paired with arbitrary smooth vector fields :


title: Exterior derivative

text: Note: With the conventions of e.g., Kobayashi–Nomizu and Helgason the formula differs by a factor of :


title: Exterior derivative

text: The last formula, where summation starts at , follows easily from the properties of the exterior product. Namely, .


title: Exterior derivative

text: Example 2. Let be a -form defined over . By applying the above formula to each term (consider and ) we have the following sum,


title: Exterior derivative

text: If is a compact smooth orientable -dimensional manifold with boundary, and is an -form on , then the generalized form of Stokes' theorem states that:


title: Exterior derivative

text: Intuitively, if one thinks of as being divided into infinitesimal regions, and one adds the flux through the boundaries of all the regions, the interior boundaries all cancel out, leaving the total flux through the boundary of .


title: Exterior derivative

text: A -form is called "closed" if ; closed forms are the kernel of . is called "exact" if for some -form ; exact forms are the image of . Because , every exact form is closed. The Poincaré lemma states that in a contractible region, the converse is true.


title: Exterior derivative

text: Because the exterior derivative has the property that , it can be used as the differential (coboundary) to define de Rham cohomology on a manifold. The -th de Rham cohomology (group) is the vector space of closed -forms modulo the exact -forms; as noted in the previous section, the Poincaré lemma states that these vector spaces are trivial for a contractible region, for . For smooth manifolds, integration of forms gives a natural homomorphism from the de Rham cohomology to the singular cohomology over . The theorem of de Rham shows that this map is actually an isomorphism, a far-reaching generalization of the Poincaré lemma. As suggested by the generalized Stokes' theorem, the exterior derivative is the "dual" of the boundary map on singular simplices.


title: Exterior derivative

text: The exterior derivative is natural in the technical sense: if is a smooth map and is the contravariant smooth functor that assigns to each manifold the space of -forms on the manifold, then the following diagram commutes


title: Exterior derivative

text: so , where denotes the pullback of . This follows from that , by definition, is , being the pushforward of . Thus is a natural transformation from to .


title: Exterior derivative

text: Most vector calculus operators are special cases of, or have close relationships to, the notion of exterior differentiation.


title: Exterior derivative

text: A smooth function on a real differentiable manifold is a -form. The exterior derivative of this -form is the -form .


title: Exterior derivative

text: When an inner product is defined, the gradient of a function is defined as the unique vector in such that its inner product with any element of is the directional derivative of along the vector, that is such that


title: Exterior derivative

text: The -form is a section of the cotangent bundle, that gives a local linear approximation to in the cotangent space at each point.


title: Exterior derivative

text: (For instance, when , i.e. in three-dimensional space, the -form is locally the scalar triple product with .) The integral of over a hypersurface is the flux of over that hypersurface.


title: Exterior derivative

text: Locally, is the dot product with . The integral of along a path is the work done against along that path.


title: Exterior derivative

text: The standard vector calculus operators can be generalized for any pseudo-Riemannian manifold, and written in coordinate-free notation as follows:


title: Exterior derivative

text: where is the Hodge star operator, and are the musical isomorphisms, is a scalar field and is a vector field.


title: Exterior derivative

text: Note that the expression for requires to act on , which is a form of degree . A natural generalization of to -forms of arbitrary degree allows this expression to make sense for any .


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: A nurse anesthetist is an advanced practice nurse who administers anesthesia for surgery or other medical procedures. They are involved in the administration of anesthesia in a majority of countries, with varying levels of autonomy.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: A survey published in 1996 reported that there were 107 countries where nurses administer anesthesia in some form, and a further nine countries where nurses act as assistants in the administration of anesthesia. Depending on the country or locality, their role may be limited to intraoperative care during anesthesia itself or may also extend before and after (for preanesthetic assessment and immediate postoperative management). In some countries and localities, nurse anesthetists provide anesthesia to patients independently; in others they do so under the supervision of anesthesiologists.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: The International Federation of Nurse Anesthetists was established in 1989 as a forum for developing standards of education, practice, and a code of ethics.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: In the United States, nurse anesthetists have the protected title of Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist (CRNA); they account for approximately half of the anesthesia providers in the United States and are the main providers of anesthesia in rural America.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: Nurses have been providing anesthesia care to patients since the American Civil War. Nurse anesthetists are considered an essential role to the health care workforce. They provide pain management and emergency services to the air way management, which was very important to patients in the Civil War.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: The National Association of Nurse Anesthetists professional association was established by Agatha Hodgkins in 1931. Depending on the local system of healthcare, they participate only during the operation itself or may also be involved before and after (for preanesthetic assessment and immediate postoperative management). It was renamed the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists in 1939. The group established educational institutions for nurse anesthetists in 1952 and established the CRNA certification in 1957. AANA continuing education was established in 1977. As of 2011, some 92% of CRNAs in the U.S. were represented by the AANA.


title: Nurse anesthetist

text: Scope of practice rules vary between healthcare facility and state. Before 2001, Medicare required that physicians supervise CRNAs in the administration of anesthesia. In 2001, Medicare's rules changed, allowing individual states to decide whether CRNAs may administer anesthesia without physician supervision. In the absence of a state requirement that anesthesiologists supervise CRNAs, individual healthcare facilities decide. CRNA organizations have lobbied in many states for the ability to practice without anesthesiologist supervision; these efforts are opposed by physician groups. In 2011, sixteen states granted CRNAs autonomy, allowing them to practice without anesthesiologist oversight. In 2017, there were 27 states in which CRNAs could independently practice (that is, "without a written collaborative agreement, supervision or conditions for practice"). In 2020, there was no physician supervision requirement for nurse anesthetists in ambulatory surgical facilities in 31 states In states that have opted out of supervision, the Joint Commission and CMS recognize CRNAs as licensed independent practitioners. In states requiring supervision, CRNAs have liability separate from supervising practitioners and are able to administer anesthesia independently of anesthesiologists.


title: Search Committee

text: "Search Committee" is the two-part finale of the seventh season of the American television comedy series "The Office". It comprises the 151st and 152nd episodes of the series overall and the 25th and 26th episodes of the seventh season. It originally aired on NBC on May 19, 2011 in the United States. In the episode, Deangelo's replacement is sought out through a search committee process led by Jim (John Krasinski). Meanwhile, Angela (Angela Kinsey) becomes engaged to her state senator boyfriend, Robert (Jack Coleman), while the rest of the office believes he is gay.


title: Search Committee

text: The episode was written by show runner and executive producer Paul Lieberstein and was directed by Jeffrey Blitz. The episode featured several guest appearances including one from "The Office" co-creator Ricky Gervais, his second appearance on the series. The episode also marks the first appearances of Robert California and Nellie Bertram, the former of whom was a series regular in the eighth season while the latter had a recurring appearance in the eighth season and was a series regular in the ninth and final season.


title: Search Committee

text: "Search Committee" received mixed reviews from critics with multiple critics commenting on the multiple guest stars. According to Nielsen Media Research, "Search Committee" was viewed by an estimated 7.29 million viewers and earned a 3.9 rating/10% share in the 18–49 demographic, marking a rise in the ratings from the previous episode and the previous season finale.


title: Search Committee

text: With Deangelo Vickers still in a coma, Dunder Mifflin–Sabre Scranton is left with Creed Bratton (Creed Bratton) as interim regional manager, who does many poor managerial activities, such as having numerous meetings without actually calling anyone, repeatedly misnaming employees, and creating meaningless acronyms. Jo Bennett (Kathy Bates) puts Jim Halpert (John Krasinski), Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) and Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods) into a committee to interview candidates for the manager position, including Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson), Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling), and a number of outsiders, including a personal friend of hers, Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate), who suggests various strange methods for running an office, including a "zen garden" theme and removal of all official titles for Dunder Mifflin Scranton.


title: Search Committee

text: Several applicants exhibit odd behavior: one (Will Arnett) refuses to explains his three-step plan, another (Warren Buffett) is concerned about gas price and long distance phone calls, another (Jim Carrey) is adamant on having a vacation to the Finger Lakes, and one named Robert California (James Spader) talks in confusing riddles that both baffle and impress the committee. David Brent (Ricky Gervais) also applies, making an appearance via webcam. To stop Creed from calling major clients and telling them the office is about to go out of business, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) distracts him with activities such as having him try to find the differences between two copies of the same picture, and poses as various clients when Creed has Jordan Garfield (Cody Horn) contact them.


title: Search Committee

text: Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson), still upset over being demoted by Jo, stops taking care of himself and openly looks through want ads in the office. His attitude changes when Robert disparages the position and the office to a sketchy, uncommitted interviewee (Ray Romano). Dwight becomes incensed that the position might go to someone who does not take it seriously. He demands to be interviewed, and while Jim balks, after Dwight's persistent efforts to acquire an interview (particularly by disguising himself as a French burn victim named Jacques Souvenier), Jo instructs Jim to grant him one, as she likes "a little bit of crazy." Jim had earlier firmly shot down Dwight's extensive bribe list for Jim's support, and quickly ends his formal interview.


title: Search Committee

text: Darryl thinks his popularity with the staff will make him a shoo-in, so he is caught off-guard when he actually must do an interview and submit a resume. Darryl writes up an extensive four-page resume, which Jo derides, though Jim encourages Darryl by saying that the interview and resume are mere formalities for him. When Andy interviews for the manager position, Gabe attempts to sabotage him by asking random trivia questions, which Andy successfully answers, and Gabe ends up screaming at him. Gabe is also dismissive of Kelly during her interview, saying she is not a "serious candidate". Kelly exacts revenge by telling Jo about Gabe's relationship with Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) and his harassing behavior after their breakup. In response, Jo, unhappy with Gabe's deep involvement with the Scranton employees, sends him back to Sabre's Florida headquarters, and installs Kelly in Gabe's position on the search committee. Kelly then says she has accepted Dwight's bribery and looks forward to the benefits of his return to the manager's chair, as Toby haltingly says they could give Dwight another trial run and Jim looks on in horror.


title: Search Committee

text: After Phyllis tells Jim that Kelly and Dwight have "pre-fired" her, Jim tells Dwight he is not and will not be the manager, and the office begins arguing about who will be selected. The discussion gets out of control, with Ryan (B. J. Novak) preferring a homeless man, Andy declaring he wants the job, Meredith Palmer (Kate Flannery) wanting a "smart, professional, decisive, well-hung man in his forties," Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) and Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey) speaking solely for attention, and Darryl's daughter Jada asking out loud if Jim is the guy making her father manager. Jim cuts the discussion short and brings the committee back to the conference room to make up their minds.


title: Search Committee

text: Phyllis Vance (Phyllis Smith) and Erin await the results of a DNA test to see if Erin is the daughter previously given up by Phyllis in high school. The results are negative, but Phyllis holds off on telling Erin after Andy rejects Erin's proposal to start dating again, and continues to show maternal affection toward her.


title: Search Committee

text: Angela becomes engaged to her state senator boyfriend, Robert. Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez), who strongly believes that Robert is gay, shares his feelings with Pam. Most of the office thinks so as well. They eventually decide not to tell Angela for a wide range of reasons—not everyone is sure Robert is gay, Oscar is looking forward to the elegant wedding, and Pam does not think it is anyone's right to blurt out that information. Angela is rude about her nuptial plans, first sing-songing to an indifferent Stanley that they might not have room to invite him to the wedding, and then asking Pam if she can borrow the plans for the dream wedding Pam never got to have, before mocking the ceremony where Pam and Jim got married at Niagara Falls. Pam is tempted to spill the beans about Robert's sexuality, but smiles sweetly and wishes Angela "a very happy wedding".


title: Search Committee

text: "Search Committee" was written by showrunner and executive producer Paul Lieberstein, who also plays Toby Flenderson on the show, his 14th writing credit of the series. The episode was directed by Jeffrey Blitz, the ninth episode he has directed for the series. The episode features special guest appearances from Ricky Gervais (as his character David Brent from the original British version of "The Office"), Catherine Tate, Will Arnett, Ray Romano, James Spader, Jim Carrey, Cody Horn and Warren Buffett. Gervais previously appeared in the episode "The Seminar", and co-wrote the episodes "Pilot" and "The Convict"; he also serves as an executive producer for the series. In addition to appearing in "Search Committee", Gervais contributed to the episode script. Initially the guest stars were planned to be a secret, before all were revealed to the media. Lieberstein described the moments with the guest stars in the episode as "more than a montage. It's a number of scenes. We fit it in. We stuff it in".


title: Search Committee

text: The episode script was initially 75 pages long, 10 pages too long to stay within the episode's time slot; this led to several cuts, a common problem for episodes of the series according to writer, B. J. Novak. The script received several laughs from the cast and producers specifically for lines read by Creed Bratton and Kathy Bates. "Search Committee" was one of the first episodes not to feature former "Office" lead actor Steve Carell; the feeling during filming was "weird" according to Lieberstein. Carell's departure made it possible for more scenes with secondary characters, and also allowed for the "very long group scene", described as "observational and conversational" by Novak. The episode features a storyline hinted in "Goodbye, Michael" in which it is hinted that Phyllis is Erin's birth mother. The rumor was started during an interview with executive producer Greg Daniels with "Entertainment Weekly" in which he stated "A tiny mystery story – which I'm not sure anyone’s going to catch and will come out a few episodes from now – is being set up here".


title: Search Committee

text: The episode also marks the third and final appearance of Cody Horn as Jordan Garfield, Deangelo's executive assistant, and the first of three new roles since Carell's departure. The role was originally said to be recurring at first with a chance of her becoming a series regular in the eighth season. She eventually did not return for the eighth season. Immediately after "Search Committee" first aired, NBC posted Andy, Dwight and Darryl's resume on their official website and allowed fans to vote for who they believed should be the manager. Spader would later join the cast as CEO of Sabre in the eighth season while Tate is currently set to return in the second half of the eighth season as romantic interest for Robert California. In the eighth-season premiere, "The List", Andy was revealed to be the new manager. Arnett was considered a high possibility to appear on the series, but could not due to his commitment to the NBC comedy series "Up All Night". This also marks the eighth and final appearance of Kathy Bates as Jo Bennett. The opening episode of the eighth season would refer to Jo stepping down from her position as Sabre CEO and hiring Robert California to replace her.


title: Search Committee

text: Darryl calls Microsoft and asks whether they still have Clippy, an unpopular feature from Microsoft Office. Phyllis mentions that many babies were born in 1982 due to the release of the 1981 comedy film "Porky's". Ryan insults Pam, saying that she would prefer Rachael Ray or the hosts of "The View" as the new manager. At one point in the episode, Angela says "It's a little flashy. I mean, what am I, Naomi Judd?", a reference to the country music singer.


title: Search Committee

text: In its original American broadcast on May 19, 2011, "Search Committee" was viewed by an estimated 7.29 million viewers and received a 3.9 rating/10% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 3.9% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 10% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a rise in the ratings from the previous episode, "Dwight K. Schrute, (Acting) Manager", and a rise from the sixth season finale, "Whistleblower". The episode became the highest rated scripted program on Thursday and ranked first in its timeslot, beating the season finales for "Grey's Anatomy", "Bones" and "The Mentalist". "Search Committee" was the seventh most-watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18–49.


title: Search Committee

text: The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics. Myles McNutt from review website The A.V. Club gave the episode a B−, saying that it was "a funny episode that managed to be only fitfully satisfying." IGN reviewer Cindy White commented that "it's more apparent than ever that 'Goodbye, Michael' should have ended the season, if not the series," and that "the show is just spinning its wheels now". Despite this, she praised the scenes featuring Creed Bratton and James Spader, believing Bratton's performance consisted of "the funniest scenes of the episode", and that Spader "was given the meatiest part, gamely channeling his dominating boss role from "Secretary"". White ultimately gave the episode a 6.5/10, calling it "Okay". TV Squad writer Joel Keller criticized the episode for not featuring a true plot, writing that "this felt like a series of sketches in search of a plot." "The Office" co-creator Ricky Gervais also commented on the outlandishness, particularly Warren Buffett's appearance, saying "If you're going to jump a shark, jump a big one." He also compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais's other series, "Extras". The shark quote was repeated multiple times on other media outlets; Gervais eventually commented that "I fucking didn't [diss "The Office"], that's for sure."


title: Search Committee

text: Alan Sepinwall of HitFix referred to the episode as a "bumpy, awkward, great big mess of a finale" and a "very poorly-executed sweeps stunt". He also wrote that the guest stars "did not fit comfortably into the world of the show". "Entertainment Weekly" writer Hillary Busis called the episode a "major cop out" and criticized the writers for having a whole year to figure out how to end the season, but instead waiting to announce the new manager in the fall. She ultimately concluded that "I don't love some of the choices the show has made recently" and that "the show has just been spinning its wheels for the past several weeks". Many critics expressed relief that Erin and Phyllis were not mother and daughter. "Search Committee" was voted the fourth lowest-rated episode out of 24 from the seventh season, according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally; the episode was rated 6.93 out of 10. In another poll, "Search Committee" was voted the thirteenth-highest rated episode out of 24 from the seventh season, according to a "Survivor" poll by OfficeTally. Jim Carrey later received a nomination for "Favorite TV Guest Star" at the 38th People's Choice Awards.


title: Denniz Pop

text: Dag Krister Volle (26 April 1963 – 30 August 1998), better known as Denniz Pop (stylized "Denniz PoP"), was a Swedish DJ, music producer, and songwriter. He co-founded the recording studio Cheiron Studios in Stockholm in 1992.


title: Denniz Pop

text: Volle was born on 26 April 1963 to the Norwegian immigrants Jarl Gregar Volle and Anna Volle (née Innstøy). He began as a DJ in the 1980s, and started producing remixed records and later original releases, producing Dr. Alban's single "Hello Afrika" in 1990. With Tom Talomaa, he founded the Cheiron Studios on Kungsholmen in Stockholm in 1992, and the next year recruited Max Martin (Martin Sandberg) to the studio. In the following years, he produced and wrote songs for several successful Swedish and foreign artists, including 3T, Ace of Base, Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, N'Sync, E-Type, Dr Alban, Robyn, and 5ive.


title: Denniz Pop

text: In an interview, Volle said that he took the name "Denniz" from a comic book and then added "pop" to it.


title: Denniz Pop

text: In August 1998, Volle died of stomach cancer at the age of 35. The video to the Backstreet Boys' "Show Me the Meaning of Being Lonely" and Jessica Folker's song "A Little Bit" were dedicated to him. E-Type's album "Last Man Standing" commemorates Dag with a dirge, the final track "PoP Preludium". Britney Spears dedicated her award for Best Song at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards to him.


title: Denniz Pop

text: The Denniz Pop Awards were created in 2013 by former members of Cheiron Studios to help distinguish Scandinavian songwriters, producers, and artists. Notable winners include Swedish House Mafia and Avicii. Cheiron became the start of a Swedish wave of successful producers and songwriters, with Max Martin as the biggest star. Other prominent producers who were part of Cheiron include Rami Yacoub, Kristian Lundin, Per Magnusson, Jörgen Elofsson, and Andreas Carlsson.


title: Pizzicato

text: Pizzicato (, ; translated as "pinched", and sometimes roughly as "plucked") is a playing technique that involves plucking the strings of a string instrument. The exact technique varies somewhat depending on the type of instrument :


title: Pizzicato

text: When a string is struck or plucked, as with pizzicato, sound waves are generated that do not belong to a harmonic series as when a string is bowed. This complex timbre is called inharmonicity. The inharmonicity of a string depends on its physical characteristics, such as tension, composition, diameter and length. The inharmonicity disappears when strings are bowed because the bow's stick-slip action is periodic, so it drives all of the resonances of the string at exactly harmonic ratios, even if it has to drive them slightly off their natural frequency.


title: Pizzicato

text: The first recognised use of pizzicato in classical music is found in Tobias Hume's "Captain Humes Poeticall Musicke" (1607), wherein he instructs the viola da gamba player to use pizzicato ("). Another early use is found in Claudio Monteverdi's "Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda" (around 1638), in which the players are instructed to use two fingers of their right hand to pluck the strings. Later, in 1756, Leopold Mozart in his "Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule" instructs the player to use the index finger of the right hand. This has remained the most usual way to execute a pizzicato, though sometimes the middle finger is used. The bow is held in the hand at the same time unless there is enough time to put it down and pick it up again between bowed passages.


title: Pizzicato

text: In jazz and bluegrass, and the few popular music styles which use double bass (such as French modern chanson, American psychobilly and rockabilly), pizzicato is the usual way to play the double bass. This is unusual for a violin-family instrument, because regardless whether violin-family instruments are being used in jazz (e.g., jazz violin), popular, traditional (e.g., Bluegrass fiddle) or Classical music, they are usually played with the bow for most of a performance. In classical double bass playing, pizzicato is often performed with the bow held in the hand; as such, the string is usually only plucked with a single finger. In contrast, in jazz, bluegrass, and other non-Classical styles, the player is not usually holding a bow and is therefore free to use two or three fingers to pluck the string.


title: Pizzicato

text: In classical music, however, string instruments are most usually played with the bow, and composers give specific indications to play pizzicato where required. Pieces in classical music that are played entirely pizzicato include:


title: Pizzicato

text: Antonio Vivaldi, in the "Ah Ch'Infelice Sempre" section of his cantata "Cessate, omai cessate", combined both pizzicato and bowed instruments to create a unique sound. He also included pizzicato in the second movement of "Winter" from "The Four Seasons".


title: Pizzicato

text: In music notation, a composer will normally indicate the performer should use pizzicato with the abbreviation "pizz." A return to bowing is indicated by the Italian term "arco". A left hand pizzicato is usually indicated by writing a small cross above the note, and a Bartók pizzicato is often indicated by a circle with a small vertical line through the top of it above the note in question or by writing "Bartók pizz" at the start of the relevant passage.


title: Pizzicato

text: In classical music, arco playing is the default assumption; as such, if a music notation part starts and no indication is given as to whether the notes are arco or pizz, the player assumes that the notes are bowed.


title: Pizzicato

text: If a string player has to play pizzicato for a long period of time, the performer may put down the bow. Violinists and violists may also hold the instrument in the "banjo position" (resting horizontally on the lap), and pluck the strings with the thumb of the right hand. This technique is rarely used, and usually only in movements which are pizzicato throughout. A technique similar to this, where the strings are actually strummed like a guitar, is called for in the 4th movement of Rimsky-Korsakov's "Capriccio Espagnol" (Scena e canto gitano), where the violins, violas, and cellos are instructed to play pizzicato "quasi guitara", the music here consists of three- and four-note chords, which are fingered and strummed much like the instrument being imitated.


title: Pizzicato

text: Another colorful pizzicato technique used in the same Rimsky-Korsakov piece mentioned above is two-handed pizzicato, indicated by the markings "m.s." and "m.d." (for "mano sinistra", left hand, and "mano destra", right hand); here, the open E string is plucked alternately in rapid succession by the left and right hands.


title: Pizzicato

text: One can also use the left hand fingers for pizzicato, either when they are not in use or as they are leaving their previous position. This allows pizzicati in places where there would not normally be time to bring the right hand from or to the bowing position. Use of left-hand pizzicato is relatively uncommon and is most often found in the violin solo repertoire; two famous examples of left-hand pizzicato are Paganini's 24th Caprice and Sarasate's Zigeunerweisen. Left hand pizzicato can also be used while bowed notes are being held, an effect appearing primarily in repertoire of the late 19th century and beyond. Examples of this technique can be found in the works of Wieniawski, Berg ("Violin Concerto"), Stravinsky ("Three Pieces for String Quartet") and many others.


title: Pizzicato

text: Maurice Delage calls for slurred pizzicati in the cello part of his "Quatre poèmes hindous" for soprano and chamber orchestra. This is achieved by playing one note, and then stopping a new note on the same string without plucking the string again. This technique (known as "hammering-on" to guitarists) is rarely used on bowed instruments.


title: Pizzicato

text: A further variation is a particularly strong pizzicato where the string is plucked vertically by snapping and rebounds off the fingerboard of the instrument. This is known as "snap pizzicato" or "Bartók pizzicato", after one of the first composers to use it extensively (e.g. in the 4th movement of his Fourth String Quartet, 1928). Gustav Mahler famously employs this kind of pizzicato in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, in which he provides the cellos and double basses with the footnote 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood' (bar 401).


title: Pizzicato

text: On the double bass, this style of snap pizzicato, or "slapping", was used in jazz since the 1920s and later used in rockabilly. Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and allowed the bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies.


title: Pizzicato

text: Bartók also made use of pizzicato glissandi, executed by plucking a note and then sliding the stopping finger up or down the string. This technique can be heard in his "Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta".


title: Arvanites

text: Arvanites (; Arvanitika: , or , ; Greek: , ) are a bilingual population group in Greece of Albanian origin. They traditionally speak Arvanitika, an Albanian language variety, along with Greek. Their ancestors were first recorded as settlers who came to what is today southern Greece in the late 13th and early 14th century. They were the dominant population element in parts of the Peloponnese, Attica and Boeotia until the 19th century. They call themselves Arvanites (in Greek) and Arbëror (in their language). Arvanites today self-identify as Greeks as a result of a process of cultural assimilation, and do not consider themselves Albanian.<ref name="Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977">Trudgill/Tzavaras (1977).</ref> Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century.


title: Arvanites

text: The name Arvanites and its equivalents are today used both in Greek (, singular form , feminine ) and in Arvanitika itself ( or ). In Standard Albanian () all three names are used. The name "Arvanites" and its variants are based upon the root "arb/alb" of the old ethnonym that was at one time used by all Albanians to refer to themselves. It refers to a geographical term, first attested in Polybius in the form of a place-name (), and then again in Byzantine authors of the 11th and 12th centuries in the form () or (), referring to a place in what is today Albania. The name "Arvanites" ("Arbanitai") originally referred to the inhabitants of that region, and then to all Albanian-speakers. The alternative name "Albanians" may ultimately be etymologically related, but is of less clear origin (see Albania (toponym)). It was probably conflated with that of the "Arbanitai" at some stage due to phonological similarity. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi", with a range of variants, were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising names "Illyrians". In the 19th and early 20th century, "Alvani" (Albanians) was used predominantly in formal registers and "Arvanites" (Αρβανίτες) in the more popular speech in Greek, but both were used indiscriminately for both Muslim and Christian Albanophones inside and outside Greece. In Albania itself, the self-designation "Arvanites" had been exchanged for the new name "Shqiptarë" since the 15th century, an innovation that was not shared by the Albanophone migrant communities in the south of Greece. In the course of the 20th century, it became customary to use only "Αλβανοί" for the people of Albania, and only "Αρβανίτες" for the Greek-Arvanites, thus stressing the national separation between the two groups.