title: Racism in Australia

text: The Australian colonies had passed restrictive legislation as early as the 1860s, directed specifically at Chinese immigrants. Objections to the Chinese originally arose because of their large numbers, their religious beliefs, the widespread perception that they worked harder, longer and far more cheaply than European Australians and the view that they habitually engaged in gambling and smoking opium. It was also felt they would lower living standards, threaten democracy and that their numbers could expand into a "yellow tide". Later, a popular cry was raised against increasing numbers of Japanese (following Japan's victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War), South Asians and Kanakas (South Pacific islanders). Popular support for White Australia, always strong, was bolstered at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 when the Australian delegation led the fight to defeat a Japanese-sponsored racial-equality amendment to the League of Nations Covenant. The Japanese amendment was closely tied to their claim on German New Guinea and so was very largely refuted on security grounds.


title: Racism in Australia

text: The Buckland riot was an anti-Chinese race riot that occurred on 4 July 1857, in the goldfields of the Buckland Valley, Victoria, Australia, near present-day Porepunkah. At the time approximately 2000 Chinese and 700 European migrants were living in the Buckland area.


title: Racism in Australia

text: The Lambing Flat Riots (1860–1861) were a series of violent anti-Chinese demonstrations that took place in the Burrangong region, in New South Wales, Australia. They occurred on the goldfields at Spring Creek, Stoney Creek, Back Creek, Wombat, Blackguard Gully, Tipperary Gully, and Lambing Flat. Anti-Chinese sentiment was widespread during the Victorian gold rush. This resentment manifested on 4 July 1857 when around 100 European rioters attacked Chinese settlements. The rioters had just left a public meeting at the Buckland Hotel where the riot ringleaders decided they would attempt to expel all the Chinese in the Buckland Valley. Contemporaneous newspaper reports claim that the riot was "led by Americans 'inflamed by liquor'".


title: Racism in Australia

text: During the riot Chinese miners were beaten and robbed then driven across the Buckland River. At least three Chinese miners died reportedly of ill-health and entire encampments and a recently constructed Joss house were destroyed.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Police arrested thirteen European accused rioters, however the empaneled juries acquitted all of major offences "amid the cheers of bystanders". The verdicts of the juries were later criticized in the press.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Events in the Australian goldfields in the 1850s led to hostility toward Chinese miners on the part of many Europeans, which was to affect many aspects of European-Chinese relations in Australia for the next century. Some of the sources of conflict between European and Chinese miners arose from the nature of the industry they were engaged in. Most gold mining in the early years was alluvial mining, where the gold was in small particles mixed with dirt, gravel and clay close to the surface of the ground, or buried in the beds of old watercourses or "leads". Extracting the gold took no great skill, but it was hard work, and generally speaking, the more work, the more gold the miner won. Europeans tended to work alone or in small groups, concentrating on rich patches of ground, and frequently abandoning a reasonably rich claim to take up another one rumoured to be richer. Very few miners became wealthy; the reality of the diggings was that relatively few miners found even enough gold to earn them a living.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Historically, Taiwanese Australians have had a significant presence in Tatura and Rushworth, two neighbouring countryside towns respectively located in the regions of Greater Shepparton and Campaspe (Victoria), in the fertile Goulburn Valley. During World War II, ethnic-Japanese (from Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) and ethnic-Taiwanese (from the Netherlands East Indies) were interned nearby to these towns as a result of anti-espionage/collaboration policies enforced by the Australian government (and WWII Allies in the Asia-Pacific region). Roughly 600 Taiwanese civilians (entire families, including mothers, children and the elderly) were held at "Internment Camp No. 4", located in Rushworth but nominally labeled as being part of the "Tatura Internment Group", between January 1942 and March 1946. Most of the Japanese and Taiwanese civilians were innocent and had been arrested for racist reasons "(see the related article "Internment of Japanese Americans", an article detailing similar internment in America)". Several Japanese and Taiwanese people were born in the internment camp and received British (Australian) birth certificates from a nearby hospital. Several Japanese people who were born in the internment camp were named "Tatura" in honour of their families' wartime internment at Tatura. During wartime internment, many working age adults in the internment camp operated small businesses (including a sewing factory) and local schools within the internment camp. Regarding languages, schools mainly taught English, Japanese, Mandarin and Taiwanese languages (Hokkien, Hakka, Formosan). Filipinos are purported to have also been held at the camp, alongside Koreans, Manchus (possibly from Manchukuo), New Caledonians, New Hebrideans, people from the South Seas Mandate, people from Western New Guinea (and presumably also Papua New Guinea) and Aboriginal Australians (who were mixed-Japanese).


title: Racism in Australia

text: After the war, internees were resettled in their country of ethnic origin, rather than their country of nationality or residence, with the exception of Japanese Australians, who were generally allowed to remain in Australia. Non-Australian Japanese, who originated from Southeast Asia and the Pacific, were repatriated to Occupied Japan. On the other hand, Taiwanese, most of whom originated from the Netherlands East Indies, were repatriated to Occupied Taiwan. The repatriation of Taiwanese during March 1946 caused public outcry in Australia due to the allegedly poor living conditions aboard the repatriating ship "Yoizuki", in what became known as the "Yoizuki Hellship scandal". Post-WWII, the Australian government was eager to expel any Japanese internees who did not possess Australian citizenship, and this included the majority of Taiwanese internees as well. However, the Republic of China (ROC) was an ally of Australia, and since the ROC had occupied Taiwan during October 1945, many among the Australian public believed that the Taiwanese internees should be deemed citizens of the ROC, and, therefore, friends of Australia, not to be expelled from the country, or at least not in such allegedly appalling conditions. This debate concerning the citizenship of Taiwanese internees—whether they were Chinese or Japanese—further inflamed public outrage at their allegedly appalling treatment by the Australian government. Additionally, it was technically true that several "camp babies"—internees who had been born on Australian soil whilst their parents were interned—possessed Australian birth certificates, which made them legally British subjects. However, many of these camp babies were also deported from the country alongside their non-citizen parents. There was also a minor controversy regarding the destination of repatriation, with some of the less Japan-friendly Taiwanese fearing that they would be repatriated to Japan, though this was resolved when they learnt that they were being repatriated to Taiwan instead.


title: Racism in Australia

text: On January 5, 1993, a plaque was erected at the site of the internment camp at Tatura (Rushworth) to commemorate the memory of wartime internment. Forty-six Japanese and Taiwanese ex-internees, as well as a former (Australian) camp guard, are listed on the plaque.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Australia is a popular and longstanding destination for international students. End of year data for 2009 found that of the 631,935 international students enrolled in Australia, drawn from more than 217 different countries, some 120,913 were from India, making them the second largest group. That same year, protests were conducted in Melbourne by Indian students and widescale media coverage in India alleged that a series of robberies and assaults against Indian students should be ascribed to racism in Australia. According to a report tabled by the Overseas Indian Affairs Ministry, in all some 23 incidents were found to have involved "racial overtones" such as "anti Indian remarks". In response, the Australian Institute of Criminology in consultation with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Department of Immigration and Citizenship sought to quantify the extent to which Indians were the subject of crime in Australia and found overall that international students as recorded victims of crime in Australia, were either "less likely" or "as likely" to be victims of physical assault and other theft, but that there was a "substantial over-representation of Indian students in retail/commercial robberies". The report found however that the proficiency of Indians in the English language and their consequent higher engagement in employment in the services sector ("including service stations, convenience stores, taxi drivers and other employment that typically involves working late night shifts alone and come with an increased risk of crime, either at the workplace or while travelling to and from work") was a more likely explanation for the crime rate differential than was any "racial motivation".


title: Racism in Australia

text: On 30 May 2009, Indian students protested against what they claimed were racist attacks, blocking streets in central Melbourne. Thousands of students gathered outside the Royal Melbourne Hospital where one of the victims was admitted. The protest, however, was called off early on the next day morning after the protesters accused police of "ramrodding" them to break up their sit-in. On 4 June 2009, China expressed concern over the matter – Chinese are the largest foreign student population in Australia with approximately 130,000 students. In light of this event, the Australian Government started a Helpline for Indian students to report such incidents. Australian High Commissioner to India John McCarthy said that there may have been an element of racism involved in some of the assaults reported upon Indians, but that they were mainly criminal in nature. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, termed these attacks "disturbing" and called for Australia to investigate the matters further. In the aftermath of these attacks, other investigations alleged racist elements in the Victorian police force.


title: Racism in Australia

text: However, in 2011, the Australian Institute of Criminology released a study entitled "Crimes Against International Students:2005–2009". This found that over the period 2005–2009, international students were statistically less likely to be assaulted than the average person in Australia. Indian students experienced an average assault rate in some jurisdictions, but overall they experienced lower assault rates than the Australian average. They did, however, experience higher rates of robbery, overall. The study could not sample incidents of crime that were not reported. Additionally, multiple surveys of international students over the period of 2009–10 found a majority of Indian students felt safe.


title: Racism in Australia

text: The Cronulla riots of 2005 were a series of racially motivated mob confrontations which originated in and around Cronulla, a beachfront suburb of Sydney, New South Wales. Soon after the riot, ethnically motivated violent incidents occurred in several other Sydney suburbs.


title: Racism in Australia

text: On Sunday, 11 December 2005, approximately 5,000 people gathered to protest against alleged incidents of assaults and intimidatory behaviour by groups of Middle Eastern-looking youths from the suburbs of South Western Sydney. The crowd initially assembled without incident, but violence broke out after a large segment of the mostly white crowd chased a man of Middle Eastern appearance into a hotel and two other youths of Middle Eastern appearance were assaulted on a train.


title: Racism in Australia

text: The following nights saw several retaliatory violent assaults in the communities near Cronulla and Maroubra, with large gatherings around south western Sydney, and an unprecedented police lock-down of Sydney beaches and surrounding areas, between Wollongong and Newcastle.


title: Racism in Australia

text: SBS / Al Jazeera (for Al Jazeera) explores these events in 2013 (2015) four-part documentary series ""Once Upon a Time in Punchbowl"", specifically in last two episodes, ""Episode three, 2000–2005"" and ""Episode four, 2005-present"".


title: Racism in Australia

text: In 2012, shock jock Alan Jones lost an appeal against charges that he deliberately incited the riots on his 2GB radio show.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Commentators such as writer Christos Tsiolkas have accused the Australian Government of racism in its approach to asylum seekers in Australia. Both major parties have supported a ban on asylum seekers who arrive by boat. For many years Australia operated the Pacific Solution, which included the relocation of asylum seekers arriving by boat in offshore detention centres on Manus and Nauru. Social justice advocates and international organisations such as Amnesty International have condemned Australia's policies, with one describing them as "an appeal to fear and racism".


title: Racism in Australia

text: From 2013 to 2017 over 673 incidents of anti-Semitic behaviour were reported, with an increase of such incidents in recent years. Incidents include spitting, such as a woman in her 60s who was spat on after being called "Jewish scum".


title: Racism in Australia

text: The 21st century has seen the creation of several groups with racist manifestos in Australia, from street gangs (Australian Defence League) through loosely grouped protest groups (Reclaim Australia) to far-right political parties (Fraser Anning's Conservative National Party). The ideology of the Antipodean Resistance, a neo-Nazi clan headquartered in Melbourne, is based on homophobia, anti-Semitism, white supremacism and Australian nationalism. Some groups, such as the True Blue Crew, are committed to violence. The Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) monitors this and other groups for signs of far-right terrorism.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Senator Pauline Hanson, in her 1998 maiden speech to Parliament called for the abolition of multiculturalism and said that "reverse racism" was being applied to "mainstream Australians" who were not entitled to the same welfare and government funding as minority groups. She has said that Australia was in danger of being "swamped by Asians", and that these immigrants "have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate". She was widely accused of racism. In 2006, she achieved notoriety by asserting that Africans bring disease into Australia. In June 2021, following media reports that the proposed national curriculum was "preoccupied with the oppression, discrimination and struggles of Indigenous Australians", the Australian Senate approved a motion tabled by right-wing senator Pauline Hanson calling on the federal government to reject CRT, despite it not being included in the curriculum.


title: Racism in Australia

text: Western Sydney, a suburban region with a long history of migrant settlement, became one of the first regions in Australia to enact public planning to counter cultural racism.


title: Racism in Australia

text: In 2020, the Victorian Government set up an Anti-Racism Taskforce, designed to advise and consider issues such as unconscious bias, privilege, and how race intersects with other forms of discrimination, as well as how racism manifests through employment and in access to services.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. Queens' is one of the oldest colleges of the university, founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou. The college spans the River Cam, colloquially referred to as the "light side" and the "dark side", with the Mathematical Bridge connecting the two.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college has various distinguished or interesting alumni including Desiderius Erasmus, who studied at the college during his trips to England between 1506 and 1515. Other notable alumni include author T. H. White, Israeli politician Abba Eban, founding father of Ghana William Ofori Atta, newsreader and journalist Emily Maitlis, actor Stephen Fry, Governor of the Bank of England Andrew Bailey, and the British members of Parliament Stephen Kinnock and Liz Kendall.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The current president of the college is the economist Mohamed A. El-Erian. Past presidents include Saint John Fisher.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' College was founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou and refounded in 1465 by the rival queen Elizabeth Woodville. This dual foundation is reflected in its orthography: "Queens<nowiki>'</nowiki>", not "Queen's", although the full name is "The Queen's College of St Margaret and St Bernard, commonly called Queens' College, in the University of Cambridge".


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In 1446 Andrew Dokett obtained a charter from Henry VI to found St Bernard's College, on a site now part of St Catharine's College. A year later the charter was revoked and Dokett obtained a new charter from the king to found St Bernard's College on the present site of Old Court and Cloister Court. In 1448 Queen Margaret received from her husband, King Henry VI, the lands of St Bernard's College to build a new college to be called "Queen's College of St Margaret and St Bernard". On 15 April 1448, Sir John Wenlock, chamberlain to Queen Margaret, laid the foundation stone at the south-east corner of the chapel.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: By 1460 the library, chapel, gatehouse and President's Lodge were completed and the chapel licensed for service. In 1477 and 1484 Richard III made large endowments to the college and his wife, Anne Neville, became the third queen to be patroness of the college, making endowments on her own behalf, which were all taken away by Henry VII after he overthrew Richard. Between that time and the early 1600s, many improvements were made and new buildings constructed, including the Walnut Tree Building, which was completed in 1618. Since then the college has refurbished most of its old buildings and steadily expanded.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In the early seventeenth century Queens' had become a very fashionable college for the gentry and aristocracy, especially for those with more Puritan leanings.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: During the English civil war the college sent all its silver to help the King. As a result, the president and the fellows were ejected from their posts. In 1660 the president was restored.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In 1777, a fire in the Walnut Tree Building destroyed the upper floors, which were rebuilt 1778–82. In February 1795 the college was badly flooded, reportedly waist-deep in the cloisters.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In 1823, the spelling of the college's name officially changed from Queen's to Queens'. The earliest known record of the college boat club dates from 1831. In 1862, the St Bernard Society, the debating club of the college was founded. In 1884, the first football match was played by the college team and the St Margaret Society was founded.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In 1980, the college for the first time allowed females to matriculate as members, with the first female members of the college graduating in 1983.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The arms are the paternal arms of the first foundress queen, Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Rene, Duke of Anjou, with a difference of a "bordure verte" for the college. The six-quarters of these arms represent the six lordships (either actual or titular) which he claimed. These arms are of interest because the third quarter (Jerusalem) uses "or" (gold) on "argent" (silver), a combination which breaks the rule of tincture of "no metal on metal" in heraldry. The cross potent is a visual pun on the letters H and I, the first two letters of "Hierusalem".


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: These are not the official arms of the College, but, rather, a badge. The silver boar's head was the badge of Richard III. The earliest evidence of the college using a boar's head as a symbol is from 1544. The gold cross stands for St Margaret, and the gold crozier for St Bernard, the two patron saints of Queens' College. There is also a suggestion that the saltire arrangement of these (like the St Andrew's Cross) is an allusion to Andrew Dokett, the first president of Queens'. Today, this badge is widely used by college clubs, and also appears in connection with food or dining.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' College has some of the most recognisable buildings in Cambridge. It combines medieval architecture and modern architecture in extensive gardens. It is one of two colleges in Cambridge the buildings of which straddle the River Cam (the other being St John's). The two halves are joined across the river by the famous Mathematical Bridge. Queens' College is located to the south of the centre of the city. It is the second southernmost of the colleges on the banks of the River Cam, primarily on the east bank. (The others—in distance order—are King's, Clare, Trinity Hall, Trinity, St John's, and Magdalene to the north and Darwin to the south).


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The President's Lodge of Queens' is the oldest building on the river at Cambridge (ca. 1460). The President's Lodge is part of Cloister Court: the Cloister walks were erected in the 1490s to connect the Old Court of 1448/9 with the riverside buildings of the 1460s, thus forming the court now known as Cloister Court. Essex Building, in the corner of the court, was erected 1756–60, named after its builder, James Essex the Younger (1722–1784), a local craftsman who had earlier erected the Mathematical bridge.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Old Court was built between 1448 and 1451. Stylistic features suggest that this was designed by and built under the direction of the master mason Reginald Ely, who was also at the same time erecting the original Old Court of King's College (now part of the University Old Schools opposite Clare College), and the start of King's College Chapel. Whereas King's was built using very expensive stone, Queens' Old Court was made using cheaper clunch with a red brick skin. Queens' was finished within two years, whereas King's Old Court was never finished, and the chapel took nearly a century to build.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The War Memorial Library is the present student library. The War Memorial Library was formerly the original chapel, part of Old Court. It was named in honour of Queens' College alumni and members who died in service in the Second World War. Before the 1940s, the student library was the present Old Library.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The Old Library was built in 1448, part of Old Court, and situated between the President's Lodge and the original chapel. It is one of the earliest purpose-built libraries in Cambridge. It houses a collection of nearly 20,000 manuscripts and printed books. It is especially notable because nearly all printed books remain in their original bindings, because Queens' has never been wealthy enough to afford re-binding all the books in a uniform manner, as was the fashion in the 18th century. It is also notable because it contains the earliest English celestial globes, owned once by Queens' fellow of mathematics Sir Thomas Smith (1513–1577), and because its medieval lecterns were refashioned into bookshelves, still present today.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Walnut Tree Court was erected 1616–18. Walnut Tree Building on the east side of the court dates from around 1617 and was the work of the architects Gilbert Wragge and Henry Mason at a cost of £886.9s. Only the ground floor of the original construction remains after a fire in 1777, so it was rebuilt from the first floor upwards between 1778–1782, and battlements were added to it in 1823. This court was formerly the site of a Cambridge Whitefriars (Carmelite) friary founded in 1292, but is now the location of the College Chapel and various fellows' and students’ rooms. The walnut tree in the court stands on the line of a former wall of the friary, and was a replacement of an older one in the same position after which the court was named.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college chapel in Walnut Tree Court was designed by George Frederick Bodley, built by Rattee and Kett and consecrated in 1891. It follows the traditional college chapel form of an aisle-less nave with rows of pews on either side, following the plan of monasteries, reflecting the origins of many colleges as a place for training priests for the ministry. The triptych of paintings on the altarpiece panel may originally have been part of a set of five paintings, are late-15th-century Flemish, and are attributed to the 'master of the View of St Gudule'. They depict, from left to right, the Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, the Resurrection of Jesus, and Christ's Appearance to the Disciples.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The College experienced a growth in student numbers during the 19th century, bringing with it the need for additional student accommodation. The President's second garden was taken as the site for new student accommodation called Friars' Building, designed by W. M. Fawcett and built in 1886. The building, named after the Cambridge Whitefriars, now accommodates 52 students and fellows.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Friars' Building is flanked to the East by the Dokett Building. Dokett Building was designed by Cecil Greenwood Hare and built in 1912 from thin red Daneshill brick with Corsham stone dressings and mullioned windows. It stands on the former site of almshouses which were maintained by benefaction from a former President of the college Andrew Dokett. The almshouses were demolished in 1911 to make way for the new building. On demolition of the almshouses, a fund was made available for payment of pensions – always to eight women — in accordance with the will of Dokett. In 2014, Dokett Building underwent major restorations, with the majority of the bricks in the building being replaced and the rooms being reconfigured. In 2019, railings were restored to the Queens' Lane elevation of Dokett Building. These railings were based on the original design of the railings outside Dokett Building in 1912, but at a lowered height to preserve sightlines from groundfloor windows. This building is largely occupied by second and third years, along with some fellows.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The Erasmus Building completes what is now called Friar's Court on the West. It was designed by Sir Basil Spence and erected in 1959, and is notable for being the first college building on the Backs to be designed in the Modernist tradition. The modern design of the building generated some controversy and the project encountered strong resistance at the time. It was officially opened by H.M. The Queen Mother in June 1961. The lawn in front includes a crown bowling green laid out in the 16th century.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Cripps Court, incorporating Lyon Court (named after the late Queen Mother), was designed by Sir Philip Powell of Powell & Moya and built in stages between 1972 and 1988. In style it houses a bar and gymnasium with squash courts, 171 student bedrooms, three fellows' flats, a solarium, dining hall and kitchens, various function rooms, a large multipurpose auditorium (The Fitzpatrick Hall) and three combination rooms (Junior for undergraduate students, Middle for postgraduates, and Senior for fellows). It was the benefaction of the Cripps Foundation and the largest building erected by the college. A fourth floor was added in 2007, providing student accommodation and fellows' offices.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Named after St John Fisher, this was erected in 1936 and designed by G. C. Drinkwater. It continued the Queens' tradition of red brick. The window frames are of teak, and all internal woodwork is oak. It was the first student accommodation in Queens' to lie west of the river and was the first building in Queens' to have bathrooms and toilets on the staircase landings close to the student rooms. These were so obvious that it prompted the comment that the building "seemed to have been designed by a sanitary engineer".


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The Mathematical Bridge (officially named "the Wooden Bridge") crosses the River Cam and connects the older half of the college (affectionately referred to by students as the "dark side") with the newer western half (the "light side", officially known as "The Island"). It is part of one of the most photographed views in Cambridge; the typical photo being taken from the nearby Silver Street bridge.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Popular fable is that the bridge was designed and built by Sir Isaac Newton without the use of nuts or bolts, and at some point in the past students or fellows attempted to take the bridge apart and put it back together. The myth continues that the over-ambitious engineers were unable to match Newton's feat of engineering, and had to resort to fastening the bridge by nuts and bolts. This is why nuts and bolts can be seen in the bridge today. This story is false: the bridge was built of oak in 1749 by James Essex the Younger (1722–1784) to the design of the master carpenter William Etheridge (1709–1776), 22 years after Newton died.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: It was later repaired in 1866 due to decay and had to be completely rebuilt in 1905. The rebuild was to the same design except made from teak, and the stepped walkway was made sloped for increased wheelchair access. A handrail was added on one side to facilitate the Queen Mother crossing the bridge on her visits to the college. The boltheads are more visible in the post-1905 bridge which may have given rise to this failed reassembly myth.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' College accepts students from all academic disciplines. As in other Cambridge colleges, all candidates go through an interview process. Undergraduate applicants of some courses are required to take an admission test in advance. For example, from 2022 applicants in economics are expected to have taken the Test of Mathematics for University Admission before they can be admitted.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: As in all other Cambridge colleges, undergraduate education is based on the tutorial system. Most undergraduate supervisions are carried out in the college, though for some specialist subjects undergraduates may be sent to tutors in other colleges. The faculty and academic supervisors associated with the colleges play a very important part in the academic success of students. The college maintains strong ties with Cambridge Judge Business School and has a growing graduate community, including a lively mix of doctoral, medical and PGCE students. The College also maintains an extensive library, which supplements the university libraries.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: In 2016 Queens' ranked sixth in the Tompkins Table, which ranks the 29 undergraduate Cambridge colleges according to the academic performance of their undergraduates. Its highest position was second and its average position has been fifth. In 2015, 28.8% of Queens' undergraduates achieved Firsts. Whereas, in 2019, the Firsts achievement raised to 32.58%.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The buildings of Queens' College include the chapel, the hall, two libraries, a bar, and common rooms for fellows, graduates and undergraduates. There are also extensive gardens, lawns, a sportsground and boat house. The college also owns its own punts which may be borrowed by students, fellows and staff.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: College accommodation is provided for all undergraduate and many graduate students, with the majority of undergraduate accommodation being on the main college site, and all other students usually live in the college residence located in Newnham village, a fifteen-minute walk from the central site. The college also owns several houses and flats in Cambridge, which are usually occupied by doctoral students and married couples. Members of the college can choose to dine either in the hall, where three-course meals are served and members must wear academic gowns, or in the buttery, where food can be purchased from a cafeteria-style buffet.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Despite being an ancient college, Queens' is known for being among the more open and relaxed Cambridge colleges. The college provides facilities to support most sports and arts. Queens' has active student societies, known as the Junior Combination Room and the Middle Combination Room, which represent the students and organise various activities for undergraduate and graduate students respectively. There are a variety of clubs ranging from wine tasting and amateur dramatics to the Queens' College Boat Club.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' has a strong reputation for music and drama, with the Fitzpatrick Hall providing theatre and concert space for students and societies from across the university.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college has a rich sporting history, enjoying much success in most of the major sports on offer in Cambridge. It has sports grounds, a boat-house, squash courts and gym.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college rowing club, Queens' College Boat Club, is one of the oldest in the university with the earliest known record of the college boat club dates from 1831. The club's boathouse was built in 1986 and is shared with Magdalene College Boat Club. Like other Cambridge boat clubs it takes part in a number of annual rowing races on the River Cam, Lent Bumps and May Bumps. Each year QCBC also hosts the Queens' Ergs competition in the Michaelmas Term, an 8x500m indoor rowing relay race open to novices only. It usually attracts over 1000 rowers, and is the second largest indoor rowing event in the UK.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' College Rugby Football Club (QCRFC), plays Rugby Union against other Cambridge colleges in both league and knock-out competitions. The rugby club has produced several notable alumni including Irish international star Mike Gibson, former England captain John Spencer, Barry Holmes, Charles Nicholl and Jamie Roberts.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college football club, QCAFC, part of the Cambridge University Association Football League (CUAFL), won the Cuppers knockout cup competition in 2010–11 and the CUAFL Premier League title in 2015–16.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' is also traditionally strong in cricket, with QCCC playing their home games on the cricket ground in the Barton Road playing fields.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college hosts a large, lavish May Ball every two years. In recent years, due to popularity, tickets have been available only to Queens' members and their guests. Highlights include an extravagant fireworks display and a variety of musical acts; Florence and the Machine, Bombay Bicycle Club, Kaiser Chiefs, Alex Clare, JP Cooper, and Klaxons have played at the event. 2013 marked the centenary of Queens' May Ball, the event was white tie and the entertainment included Simon Amstell and Bastille.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college grace is customarily said before and after dinner in the hall. The reading of grace before dinner () is usually the duty of a scholar of the college; grace after dinner () is said by the President or the senior fellow dining. The grace is said shortly after the fellows enter the hall, signalled by the sounding of a gong. The "Ante Prandium" is read after the fellows have entered, the "Post Prandium" after they have finished dining. However, the last grace is almost never used. A simpler English after-dinner grace is now said:


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: "For these and all his mercies, for the queens our foundresses and for our other benefactors, God's holy name be blessed and praised. God preserve our Queen and Church."


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college maintains a friendly rivalry with St Catharine's College after the construction of the main court of St Catharine's College on Cambridge's former High Street relegated one side of Queens' College into a back alley.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: Queens' was one of only three Cambridge colleges (the others being Selwyn and St John's) to issue its own stamps. From 1883 the college issued its own stamps to be sold to members of the college so that they could pre-pay the cost of a college messenger delivering their mail. This was instead of placing charges for deliveries on to members' accounts, to be paid at the end of each term.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The practice was stopped in 1886 by the British Post Office as it was decided that it was in contravention of the Post Office monopoly.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: When the college patroness, Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother died, she gave the college the right to fly her personal standard in her memory on the first day of Michaelmas term each year.


title: Queens' College, Cambridge

text: The college enjoyed royal patronage in its early years. Then, after a 425-year break, Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon became the college patron to mark the 550th anniversary of the college's foundation. A portrait of the late Queen Mother by June Mendoza hangs in the Senior Combination Room and the most recent court to be built in college, Lyon Court, is named after her.


title: American woodcock

text: The American woodcock ("Scolopax minor"), sometimes colloquially referred to as the timberdoodle, the bogsucker, the hokumpoke, and the Labrador twister, is a small shorebird species found primarily in the eastern half of North America. Woodcocks spend most of their time on the ground in brushy, young-forest habitats, where the birds' brown, black, and gray plumage provides excellent camouflage.


title: American woodcock

text: The American woodcock is the only species of woodcock inhabiting North America. Although classified with the sandpipers and shorebirds in the family Scolopacidae, the American woodcock lives mainly in upland settings. Its many folk names include timberdoodle, bogsucker, night partridge, brush snipe, hokumpoke, and becasse.


title: American woodcock

text: The population of the American woodcock has fallen by an average of slightly more than 1% annually since the 1960s. Most authorities attribute this decline to a loss of habitat caused by forest maturation and urban development. Because of the male woodcock's unique, beautiful courtship flights, the bird is welcomed as a harbinger of spring in northern areas. It is also a popular game bird, with about 540,000 killed annually by some 133,000 hunters in the U.S.


title: American woodcock

text: In 2008, wildlife biologists and conservationists released an American woodcock conservation plan presenting figures for the acreage of early successional habitat that must be created and maintained in the U.S. and Canada to stabilize the woodcock population at current levels, and to return it to 1970s densities.


title: American woodcock

text: The short-billed dowitcher was formally described in 1789 by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's "Systema Naturae". He placed it in the genus "Scolopax" and coined the binomial name "Scolopax minor". Gmelin based his description on the "little woodcock" that had been described in 1785 both by English ornithologist John Latham and Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant. Pennant mentioned that the bird appears in New York at the end of April or the beginning of May. The species is considered to be monotypic; no subspecies are recognised.


title: American woodcock

text: The American woodcock has a plump body, short legs, a large, rounded head, and a long, straight prehensile bill. Adults are long and weigh . Females are considerably larger than males. The bill is long. Wingspans range from .


title: American woodcock

text: The plumage is a cryptic mix of different shades of browns, grays, and black. The chest and sides vary from yellowish-white to rich tans. The nape of the head is black, with three or four crossbars of deep buff or rufous. The feet and toes, which are small and weak, are brownish gray to reddish brown. Woodcocks have large eyes located high in their heads, and their visual field is probably the largest of any bird, 360° in the horizontal plane and 180° in the vertical plane.


title: American woodcock

text: The woodcock uses its long, prehensile bill to probe in the soil for food, mainly invertebrates and especially earthworms. A unique bone-and-muscle arrangement lets the bird open and close the tip of its upper bill, or mandible, while it is sunk in the ground. Both the underside of the upper mandible and the long tongue are rough-surfaced for grasping slippery prey.


title: American woodcock

text: Woodcocks inhabit forested and mixed forest-agricultural-urban areas east of the 98th meridian. Woodcock have been sighted as far north as York Factory, Manitoba, and east to Labrador and Newfoundland. In winter, they migrate as far south as the Gulf Coast of the United States and Mexico.


title: American woodcock

text: The primary breeding range extends from Atlantic Canada (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick) west to southeastern Manitoba, and south to northern Virginia, western North Carolina, Kentucky, northern Tennessee, northern Illinois, Missouri, and eastern Kansas. A limited number breed as far south as Florida and Texas. The species may be expanding its distribution northward and westward.


title: American woodcock

text: After migrating south in autumn, most woodcocks spend the winter in the Gulf Coast and southeastern Atlantic Coast states. Some may remain as far north as southern Maryland, eastern Virginia, and southern New Jersey. The core of the wintering range centers on Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. Based on the Christmas Bird Count results, winter concentrations are highest in the northern half of Alabama.


title: American woodcock

text: American woodcocks live in wet thickets, moist woods, and brushy swamps. Ideal habitats feature early successional habitat and abandoned farmland mixed with forest. In late summer, some woodcocks roost on the ground at night in large openings among sparse, patchy vegetation.


title: American woodcock

text: Woodcocks migrate at night. They fly at low altitudes, individually or in small, loose flocks. Flight speeds of migrating birds have been clocked at 16 to 28 mi/h (26 to 45 km/h). However, the slowest flight speed ever recorded for a bird, 5 mi/h (8 km/h), was recorded for this species. Woodcocks are thought to orient visually using major physiographic features such as coastlines and broad river valleys. Both the autumn and spring migrations are leisurely compared with the swift, direct migrations of many passerine birds.


title: American woodcock

text: In the north, woodcocks begin to shift southward before ice and snow seal off their ground-based food supply. Cold fronts may prompt heavy southerly flights in autumn. Most woodcocks start to migrate in October, with the major push from mid-October to early November. Most individuals arrive on the wintering range by mid-December. The birds head north again in February. Most have returned to the northern breeding range by mid-March to mid-April.


title: American woodcock

text: Migrating birds' arrival at and departure from the breeding range is highly irregular. In Ohio, for example, the earliest birds are seen in February, but the bulk of the population does not arrive until March and April. Birds start to leave for winter by September, but some remain until mid-November.


title: American woodcock

text: Woodcocks eat mainly invertebrates, particularly earthworms (Oligochaeta). They do most of their feeding in places where the soil is moist. They forage by probing in soft soil in thickets, where they usually remain well-hidden. Other items in their diet include insect larvae, snails, centipedes, millipedes, spiders, snipe flies, beetles, and ants. A small amount of plant food is eaten, mainly seeds. Woodcocks are crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dusk.


title: American woodcock

text: In spring, males occupy individual singing grounds, openings near brushy cover from which they call and perform display flights at dawn and dusk, and if the light levels are high enough, on moonlit nights. The male's ground call is a short, buzzy "peent". After sounding a series of ground calls, the male takes off and flies from into the air. He descends, zigzagging and banking while singing a liquid, chirping song. This high spiralling flight produces a melodious twittering sound as air rushes through the male's outer primary wing feathers.


title: American woodcock

text: Males may continue with their courtship flights for as many as four months running, sometimes continuing even after females have already hatched their broods and left the nest. Females, known as hens, are attracted to the males' displays. A hen will fly in and land on the ground near a singing male. The male courts the female by walking stiff-legged and with his wings stretched vertically, and by bobbing and bowing. A male may mate with several females. The male woodcock plays no role in selecting a nest site, incubating eggs, or rearing young. In the primary northern breeding range, the woodcock may be the earliest ground-nesting species to breed.


title: American woodcock

text: The hen makes a shallow, rudimentary nest on the ground in the leaf and twig litter, in brushy or young-forest cover usually within of a singing ground. Most hens lay four eggs, sometimes one to three. Incubation takes 20 to 22 days. The down-covered young are precocial and leave the nest within a few hours of hatching. The female broods her young and feeds them. When threatened, the fledglings usually take cover and remain motionless, attempting to escape detection by relying on their cryptic coloration. Some observers suggest that frightened young may cling to the body of their mother, that will then take wing and carry the young to safety. Woodcock fledglings begin probing for worms on their own a few days after hatching. They develop quickly and can make short flights after two weeks, can fly fairly well at three weeks, and are independent after about five weeks.


title: American woodcock

text: How many woodcock were present in eastern North America before European settlement is unknown. Colonial agriculture, with its patchwork of family farms and open-range livestock grazing, probably supported healthy woodcock populations.


title: American woodcock

text: The woodcock population remained high during the early and mid-20th century, after many family farms were abandoned as people moved to urban areas, and crop fields and pastures grew up in brush. In recent decades, those formerly brushy acres have become middle-aged and older forest, where woodcock rarely venture, or they have been covered with buildings and other human developments. Because its population has been declining, the American woodcock is considered a "species of greatest conservation need" in many states, triggering research and habitat-creation efforts in an attempt to boost woodcock populations.


title: American woodcock

text: Population trends have been measured through springtime breeding bird surveys, and in the northern breeding range, springtime singing-ground surveys. Data suggest that the woodcock population has fallen rangewide by an average of 1.1% yearly over the last four decades.


title: American woodcock

text: The American woodcock is not considered globally threatened by the IUCN. It is more tolerant of deforestation than other woodcocks and snipes; as long as some sheltered woodland remains for breeding, it can thrive even in regions that are mainly used for agriculture. The estimated population is 5 million, so it is the most common sandpiper in North America.


title: American woodcock

text: The American Woodcock Conservation Plan presents regional action plans linked to bird conservation regions, fundamental biological units recognized by the U.S. North American Bird Conservation Initiative. The Wildlife Management Institute oversees regional habitat initiatives intended to boost the American woodcock's population by protecting, renewing, and creating habitat throughout the species' range.


title: American woodcock

text: Creating young-forest habitat for American woodcocks helps more than 50 other species of wildlife that need early successional habitat during part or all of their lifecycles. These include relatively common animals such as white-tailed deer, snowshoe hare, moose, bobcat, wild turkey, and ruffed grouse, and animals whose populations have also declined in recent decades, such as the golden-winged warbler, whip-poor-will, willow flycatcher, indigo bunting, and New England cottontail.


title: American woodcock

text: Leslie Glasgow, the assistant secretary of the Interior for Fish, Wildlife, Parks, and Marine Resources from 1969 to 1970, wrote a dissertation through Texas A&M University on the woodcock, with research based on his observations through the Louisiana State University (LSU) Agricultural Experiment Station. He was an LSU professor from 1948 to 1980 and an authority on wildlife in the wetlands.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Damnation Alley is a 1977 post-apocalyptic film directed by Jack Smight, loosely based on the 1969 novel of the same name by Roger Zelazny. The original music score was composed by Jerry Goldsmith, and the cinematography was by Harry Stradling Jr.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: First Lieutenant Jake Tanner (Jan-Michael Vincent) shares ICBM silo duty at a US Air Force missile base in the Californian desert with Major Eugene "Sam" Denton (George Peppard), who is requesting not to work with him. On their way to duty, Denton talks to Sergeant Tom Keegan (Paul Winfield), an aspiring artist. When the US detects incoming nuclear missiles from the Soviet Union, Tanner and Denton launch part of the retaliatory strike. Although it manages to intercept around 40% of the Soviet missiles, the United States is hit hard.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Two years later, the Earth has been tilted off its axis by the nuclear detonations of World War III; radiation has mutated giant scorpions, the planet is wracked by massive storms, and the sky is in a perpetual aurora borealis-like state. Tanner has resigned his commission and has been scouting Barstow, California, while Keegan, who has also left the Air Force, has been painting as an artist in one of the base's out-buildings. Mutated giant scorpions menace the area. Later an airman falls asleep in a bunk and drops a lit cigarette onto a pile of "Playboy" magazines, which causes the entire base to catch fire and explode when an undetected, strong emission of gas fumes from the base's nearby storage tanks makes contact with the flames of the burning magazines. The explosions kill most of its inhabitants including the base commander, General Landers (Murray Hamilton). Keegan and Tanner are unscathed, as are Denton and Lieutenant Tom Perry (Kip Niven), who were outside, on their way to the bunker.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Denton has been considering going to Albany, New York, to find the source of the lone radio transmission that has been aired weekly since the war. He and the remaining others set out in two Air Force Landmasters—giant, 12-wheeled armored personnel carriers fitted with rocket launchers, flame throwers and cannons, capable of climbing 60-degree inclines, and operating in water. They must cross Damnation Alley, considered "the path of least resistance" between intense radiation areas.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Along their journey, one of the Landmasters becomes disabled in a storm (which also kills Perry), and they encounter mutated "killer cockroaches" in the ruins of Salt Lake City that trap and eat Keegan alive. Denton and Tanner also pick up two survivors: a woman in Las Vegas, Janice (Dominique Sanda), and a teenage boy, Billy (Jackie Earle Haley), discovered in an abandoned house in the High Plains. They fight a band of gun-toting mountain men they encounter in the ruins of a gas station in the Midwest. Denton uses the Landmaster's rocket launchers to destroy the gas station and the madmen's buildings.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: As they continue their journey, the Landmaster develops a problem with its drivetrain near Detroit. Denton comments that it was "designed to use spare truck parts", semi-trucks in particular. In Detroit they enter a large wrecking yard in search of the needed parts. A large, hemisphere-wide storm comes upon the group and they take shelter in their vehicle just as a megatsunami washes them away. After the storm passes, they are adrift in a large body of water and it appears that the Earth has returned to its normal axis as the sky is clear.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Using the Landmaster's amphibious capability, they reach land. As they are making repairs, they hear a radio broadcast of music and an attempt to reach survivors. After Denton makes radio contact, Tanner and Billy set out on Tanner's dirt bike to locate the source of the broadcast. In the final scene, they reach a surprisingly intact suburb of Albany, New York, where they are greeted by its inhabitants.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Roger Zelazny's original story of "Damnation Alley" was changed considerably in the final script. Zelazny was quite pleased with the first script by Lukas Heller and expected it to be the shooting script. However, the studio had Alan Sharp write a different version that left out many of the elements of Zelazny's book. Zelazny did not realize this until he saw the film in the theater. He disliked the film, but assertions that he requested to have his name removed from the credits are completely unfounded, since he did not know there was a problem until after the film had been released.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Budgeted at US $7.2 million, "Damnation Alley" was helmed by veteran director Jack Smight, who had scored two consecutive box office hits in the previous two years ("Airport 1975" and "Midway"). Filming began on June 21, 1976, east of the town of Borrego Springs, California, where a missile base set was constructed, as well as locations in Meteor Crater, Arizona, Valley of Fire State Park in Nevada, Salt Lake City, Utah, and the Mojave Desert in California. The lake scenes were filmed at Flathead Lake in Kalispell, Montana. Filming wrapped on August 13, 1976.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Production was rife with problems — the devastated landscapes and giant mutated insects proved to be nearly impossible to create, despite the large budget. For example, a sequence involving giant scorpions attacking a motorcycle was first attempted using full-scale scorpion props, but they did not work and the resulting footage was unacceptable. The solution was to use actual scorpions composited onto live action footage using the blue screen process in post-production. Another action sequence with giant cockroaches used a combination of live Madagascar hissing cockroaches and large numbers of rubber bugs which looked unconvincing onscreen, as the strings pulling mats covered in fake insects were plainly visible. To complicate matters, according to director Jack Smight in his memoir, studio chief Alan Ladd, Jr. redirected about a quarter of "Damnation Alley"'s production budget as completion funds for George Lucas' lower-budgeted film, "Star Wars". Smight was not made aware of the budget reduction on "Damnation Alley" until he neared its completion, which further compromised most of the remaining special effects work, for which there was now very little money left.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: The original director's cut of the film delivered to the studio by Jack Smight in late-1976 ran 2 hours and 15 minutes. Even though the special effects work was not completed at that time, the studio made minor changes to the cut, and awaited the completion of the special effects work prior to releasing it. While the effects were underway, the completion funds were diverted to "Star Wars", which was having budget and production issues, which eliminated several important effects scenes which had not yet been created, including the Minuteman III missile launch sequences, the base explosion, and importantly, the storm and tsunami in the last act. Because these scenes were cut, Fox relied on stock footage from other films (and public domain footage of missile launches and nuclear explosions) for those particular shots.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Because of this, and the last-minute decision to add "radioactive skies" in special effects, "Damnation Alley" was in post-production well past the intended release date of December, 1976 due to the difficult process of superimposing optical effects on the sky in about 300 shots (which were not part of the original concept, and consequently, were not planned for during filming, resulting in poor execution of the effect). This pushed the release date from December, 1976 to March, 1977, and then again to June, 1977. It was during this delay that 20th Century Fox released their "other" science fiction film for 1977, "Star Wars". The studio had planned to release only two science fiction films that year, with "Damnation Alley" intended to be the blockbuster.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: "Star Wars" became a hit of epic proportions, and forced Fox to further delay and re-address a struggling "Damnation Alley", which was still languishing in post-production special effects work. In a panic, the release date was delayed to December, 1977, but moved up to October when the studio realized it would go up against the release of an expected hit, Steven Spielberg's "Close Encounters of the Third Kind". With the additional delay, Fox re-edited the entire film. Smight was already involved with another project during this time, so Fox took over the re-edit. The decision was made to cut down the length of the film to the bare-minimum running time of 90 minutes for a theatrical release, and large sections of the film were edited out by the studio. These cuts amounted to 44 minutes of footage, and included a major subplot of a love triangle between Tanner, Denton, and Janice. Many scenes early in the film at the missile base were excised as well - sequences which showed the breakdown of military order. Murray Hamilton was featured prominently in several scenes which were cut, as the now-despondent and alcoholic General in charge of the base (which rendered his character literally "mute" in the final film, with no lines of dialogue). Critically, a physical confrontation between Tanner and Denton after the death of Keegan by "killer cockroaches" was removed (in this scene, Tanner blames Denton for not saving his friend from death). In spite of these major edits, Fox focused more content on the "Landmaster" vehicle, and the special effects, in direct response to "Star Wars". The film underwent several name changes during this period, from the original "Damnation Alley" to "Salvation Road," and then to "Survival Run" up until shortly before the release, when it was again renamed "Damnation Alley". The film was finally released in the United States on October 21, 1977 to fleeting success when it opened, but poor critical reviews and word of mouth tanked it at the box office.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Perhaps the most notable aspect of the film was the Landmaster vehicle, which features a hinged center section, and a unique rotating 12-wheel assembly. The "Landmaster" was custom-built for the film at a cost of $350,000 in 1976 by automotive customizer Dean Jeffries ($1.4 million in 2010 dollars).


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: The Landmaster was sold to a private owner in 2005 and was restored to its original condition as featured in the film. The Landmaster was then on the show car circuit for several years. In 2007 it was featured at the "San Francisco Rod & Custom Show" at the Cow Palace in San Francisco, California as part of a special exhibit with other notable movie and TV cars.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: A few big-city premiere engagements of "Damnation Alley" were presented in Sound 360, a high-impact surround-sound process.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: Jerry Goldsmith's score made good use of the wide stereo separation afforded by Sound 360, particularly in the opening theme, with fanfares emanating from each side of the theater in turn.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: In what was a departure from typical motion picture studio practice at the time, "Damnation Alley" opened in September, 1977 in Japan, one month prior to its release in the United States and more than a year after it was filmed. It grossed $1,250,956 in its first 9 days from 64 theaters. After its US release, it quickly left the theaters because it did not make enough to stay in the chain theaters, duplexes or triplexes. Dismissal of the film was noted, overshadowed by prior apocalypse-themed films like "Day the World Ended" and "On the Beach". In some theaters during 1977, the film was paired with another film, Ralph Bakshi's fantasy "Wizards", which was financially successful.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: In the UK, "Damnation Alley" was released in January 1979 as a double bill with "Thunder and Lightning", another 20th Century Fox film from 1977.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: The network TV premiere on NBC television on Sunday, June 12, 1983 featured alternate and additional scenes re-inserted (notably, footage of Murray Hamilton and George Peppard, where Denton asks for permission to leave the missile base, as well as additional scenes with Dominique Sanda and Peppard, where Denton tells Janice about his wife who died in the nuclear war). The network premiere was a ratings success, finishing second in the Nielsen Ratings for the week.


title: Damnation Alley (film)

text: "Damnation Alley" was released on VHS, Betamax, and Video 2000 formats in the United Kingdom in 1983, and on VHS and Betamax in the United States in 1985. Shout! Factory released the film (on DVD and Blu-ray) on July 12, 2011 in the United States. This release features a new anamorphic widescreen transfer, and audio commentary with producer Paul Maslansky, as well as extras including featurettes detailing the challenges in making the film, and a detailed examination of the now-famous Landmaster vehicle with designer and builder Dean Jeffries. The original "Sound 360" audio mix is not featured on the DVD and Blu-ray, as the original elements were too damaged to salvage. The film was also released on DVD in the United Kingdom in 2011.


title: Cold chain

text: A cold chain is a low temperature-controlled supply chain network. An unbroken cold chain is an uninterrupted series of refrigerated production, storage and distribution activities, along with associated equipment and logistics, which maintain quality via a desired low-temperature range. It is used to preserve and to extend and ensure the shelf life of products, such as fresh agricultural produce, seafood, frozen food, photographic film, chemicals, and pharmaceutical products. Such products, during transport and end-use when in transient storage, are sometimes called cool cargo. Unlike other goods or merchandise, cold chain goods are perishable and always en-route towards end use or destination, even when held temporarily in cold stores and hence commonly referred to as "cargo" during its entire logistics cycle. Adequate cold storage, in particular, can be crucial to prevent quantitative and qualitative food losses.


title: Cold chain

text: Mobile refrigeration with ice from the ice trade began with reefer ships and refrigerator cars (iceboxes on wheels) in the mid-19th century. The term "cold chain" was first used in 1908. The first effective cold store in the UK opened in 1882 at St Katharine Docks. It could hold 59,000 carcasses, and by 1911 cold storage capacity in London had reached 2.84 million carcasses. By 1930 about a thousand refrigerated meat containers were in use which could be switched from road to railway.


title: Cold chain

text: Mobile mechanical refrigeration was invented by Frederick McKinley Jones, who co-founded Thermo King with entrepreneur Joseph A. "Joe" Numero. In 1938 Numero sold his Cinema Supplies Inc. movie sound equipment business to RCA to form the new entity, U.S. Thermo Control Company (later the Thermo King Corporation), in partnership with Jones, his engineer. Jones designed a portable air-cooling unit for trucks carrying perishable food, for which they obtained a patent on 12 July 1940, subsequent to a challenge to invent a refrigerated truck over a 1937 golf game by associates of Numero's, Werner Transportation Co. president Harry Werner, and United States Air Conditioning Co. president Al Fineberg,


title: Cold chain

text: This technology has been frequently in use since the 1950s, when it was most often used for preserving animal-based cells or tissue. As medical breakthroughs, such as in cancer treatment, have taken place, the demand for cold chain systems has grown. The COVID-19 pandemic and its associated vaccinations, have caused vastly increased need.


title: Cold chain

text: Cold chains are common in the food and pharmaceutical industries and also in some chemical shipments. One common temperature range for a cold chain in pharmaceutical industries is , but the specific temperature (and time at temperature) tolerances depend on the actual product being shipped.


title: Cold chain

text: Unique to fresh produce cargoes, the cold chain requires to additionally maintain product specific environment parameters which include air quality levels (carbon dioxide, oxygen, humidity and others).


title: Cold chain

text: The cold chain is used in the supply of vaccines to distant clinics in hot climates served by poorly developed transport networks. Vaccines can lose their efficacy if cold chain management fails. Disruption of a cold chain due to war may produce consequences similar to the smallpox outbreaks in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War, during which the distributed vaccines were inert due to lack of temperature control in transport.


title: Cold chain

text: For vaccines, there are different types of cold chains. There is an ultralow, or deep freeze, cold chain for vaccines that require -70 degrees C, such as the Ebola and Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccines, and some animal vaccines, such as those for chickens. Next the frozen chain requires -20 degrees C. Varicella and zoster vaccinations require this level. Then the refrigerated chain, which requires temperatures between two and eight degrees C. Most flu vaccinations only require refrigeration.


title: Cold chain

text: In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccines being developed may need ultracold storage and transportation temperatures as cold as , requiring what has been referred to as a "colder chain" infrastructure. This creates some issues of distribution for the Pfizer vaccine. It is estimated that only 25 to 30 countries in the world have the infrastructure for the required ultracold cold chain.


title: Cold chain

text: The cold chain distribution process is an extension of the good manufacturing practice (GMP) environment that all drugs and biological products are required to follow, and are enforced by the various health regulatory bodies. As such, the distribution process must be validated to ensure that there is no negative impact to the safety, efficacy or quality of the drug substance. The GMP environment requires that all processes that might impact the safety, efficacy or quality of the drug substance must be validated, including storage and distribution of the drug substance.


title: Cold chain

text: A cold chain can be managed by a quality management system. Temperature data loggers and RFID tags help monitor the temperature history of the truck, reefer container, warehouse, etc. and the temperature history of the product being shipped. They also can help determine the remaining shelf life. Also, temperature sensors may need to be National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable depending on the body monitoring the cold chain.


title: LAR-160

text: The LAR-160 is a light artillery rocket (hence "LAR") with a 160mm calibre, a minimum range of 12 km and a maximum range of 45 km, from a multiple rocket launcher. Each standard launcher holds two 13 rocket Launch Pod Containers (LPC's) for truck or trailer mounting, 18 rocket LPC's for medium armored vehicle's (AMX-13, TAM) and 26 rocket LPC's for mounting on a MBT chassis. A light version is also manufactured which can be carried by helicopters and towed behind vehicles such as a HMMWV.


title: LAR-160

text: The LAR-160 was designed in the late 1970s by Israel Military Industries, it was adopted by the Israeli Defense Forces in 1983.


title: LAR-160

text: The LAR-160s rocket has undergone continuous development and has resulted in the Mk. I, Mk. II and Mk.IV rockets.


title: LAR-160

text: The Mk. I rocket is 3.4 m long and has a diameter of 160 mm fueled by solid propellant. The Mk. I is 100 kg and has a 40 kg HE-COFRAM (High Explosive-Controlled Fragmentation) warhead which is activated by an impact fuze or proximity fuze. The Mk. 1 was first used by the Venezuelan Army on an AMX-13 hull.


title: LAR-160

text: The Mk. II rocket weighs 110 kg and has a 46 kg warhead which is either HE-COFRAM or a cluster warhead containing 104 CL-3022-S4 AP/AM submunitions. A remotely set electronic fuze opens the canister at the appropriate height to give area coverage of about 31,400 m2.


title: LAR-160

text: All 26 rockets can be fired in under 60 seconds and re-loaded in under five minutes from a conventional truck with a 15 t/m crane.


title: LAR-160

text: The LAR-160 incorporates a modern command, control, communications and intelligence system called ACCS, which has a total interface capability to all common artillery elements including meteorological unit, forward observers as well as mapping, GPS and other items.


title: LAR-160

text: Elevation and traverse of the launchers are performed by an electrohydraulic system, which is backed up by a manual system. When the system is fitted on a wheeled chassis, two hydraulically operated stabilisers are lowered to the ground to provide a more stable firing platform.


title: LAR-160

text: The system was used extensively by the Georgian Army against Russian and South Ossetian Forces in the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, systems showed to be extremely effective against Ossetian static targets and large Russian convoys, LAR systems were credited with destroying many Russian trucks and disabling armored vehicles.


title: LAR-160

text: Romania uses a domestic version of the LAR-160, called LAROM and Argentina uses a domestic version as well called .


title: LAR-160

text: The HALO Trust reported that Azerbaijan employed the LAR-160 to drop M095 rocket-dispensed cluster bombs around Armenian-populated settlements in the NKR during the 2016 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes.


title: LAR-160

text: The Human Rights Watch verified Azerbaijani multiple usage of the LAR-160 to drop M095 rocket-dispensed cluster bombs against populated settlements in Nagorno-Karabakh in October 2020.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: Standing on a Beach (titled Staring at the Sea in CD format in some countries) is a singles compilation album released by English rock band The Cure in May 1986, marking a decade since the band's founding in 1976. The album's titles are both taken from the opening lyrics of the Cure's debut single, "Killing an Arab".


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The "New Voice - New Mix" of "Boys Don't Cry" (released as a single little over a fortnight before "Standing on a Beach") was not included on the album; thus the album's singles span only from 1978 to 1985.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The version of "A Forest" here is neither the album version (which was also on the 12" single), nor is it the 7" single edit (which removes a few bars between verses and fades out part way through the guitar solo ending).


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The album was critically acclaimed. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it "one of the finest albums of the '80s".


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The album was released in six formats: vinyl record, compact disc, audio cassette, laser disc (US and Japan only), CD Video (China only) and VHD (Japan only).


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The vinyl edition is a collection of all 13 of The Cure's commercially released singles up to that point in chronological order. "" was dropped though, possibly because it was only released in France.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The CD edition features the same tracks as the vinyl edition, but also includes an extra track from four of the band's albums. The four songs, although not released as singles, all had music videos made for them.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The cassette edition features the same tracks as the vinyl edition, but also contains all of the band's B-sides that had not, to that point, received a long-play release. This excludes "10:15 Saturday Night" from the "Killing an Arab" single, which was released on the "Three Imaginary Boys" album, "Plastic Passion" from the "Boys Don't Cry" single, which was released on the "Boys Don't Cry" album, and the five B-sides from the "Let's Go to Bed", "The Walk" and "The Love Cats" singles, which were released on the "Japanese Whispers" compilation album. However, the B-side "Mr. Pink Eyes" from the 12" version of "The Lovecats" was omitted from "Japanese Whispers", and so was included on this release.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: These releases were accompanied by a VHS and laserdisc release, a music video collection titled "Staring at the Sea: The Images" with the same setlist as the CD version of the album.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: All the B-sides on the cassette edition were also later released on the first disc of the "" compilation in 2004.


title: Standing on a Beach

text: Also missing is the special "Lament" "Flexipop" single from 1982, as this was not a proper single, and "I'm a Cult Hero" from 1979, probably because it was released under a different band name (Cult Hero).


title: Standing on a Beach

text: The man featured on the album cover was not a member of the Cure; he was chosen because his appearance fit the desired aesthetic of the album. His name is John Button, and was at the time a retired fisherman. He also appeared in the music video for "Killing an Arab". According to the band's 2005 biography by Jeff Apter, when asked why he agreed to lend his face to the band's media, Button's answer was, "If I can help these youngsters break through, after all, why not?" He also reportedly said that he would buy a record player and listen to one of the band's songs "out of curiosity, just to see".


title: Standing on a Beach

text: Presented here is a comparison showing in what format each of the 29 songs on the album can be found, with the position number of that song on that particular format.


title: Raj Kaushal

text: Raj Kaushal (15 August 1970 – 30 June 2021) was an Indian director, producer who was active during the 1990s and mid 2000s. He was married to actress and TV presenter Mandira Bedi. He died on 30 June 2021 due to a heart attack.


title: Foreign national

text: A foreign national is any person (including an organization) who is not a national of a specific country. For example, in the United States and in its territories, a foreign national is something or someone who is neither a citizen nor a national of the United States. The same applies in Canada.


title: Foreign national

text: The law of Canada divides people into three major groups: citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals. Under Section 2 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection of Canada (IRPA), "foreign national means a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person."


title: Foreign national

text: The term "foreign national" is not defined in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), which instead uses the term alien to cover many classes of people who do not qualify as nationals of the United States (Americans).


title: Foreign national

text: The term "foreign national" is used in US election laws to describe a person who is prohibited from contributing to federal campaigns. For that purpose, "the term 'foreign national' means... an individual who is not a citizen of the United States or a national of the United States (as defined in section 1101(a)(22) of title 8) and who is not lawfully admitted for permanent residence, as defined by section 1101(a)(20) of title 8."


title: Mufti (dress)

text: Mufti is plain or ordinary clothes, especially when worn by one who normally wears, or has long worn, a military or other uniform, such as a school uniform. It is also called civies and civvies (slang for "civilian attire").


title: Mufti (dress)

text: The word originates from the Arabic "Mufti" (مفتي), meaning an Islamic scholar. It has been used by the British Army since 1816 and is thought to derive from the vaguely Eastern style dressing gowns and tasselled caps worn by off-duty officers in the early 19th century. Yule and Burnell's "Hobson-Jobson" (1886) notes that the word was "perhaps originally applied to the attire of dressing-gown, smoking-cap, and slippers, which was like the Oriental dress of the Mufti".


title: Mufti (dress)

text: A "mufti day" (also known as "casual clothes day", "casual Friday", "colour day", "own-clothes day", "home-clothes day", "plain-clothes day", "non-uniform day", "free-dress day", "civvies day", "dress-down day", and "uniform-free day") is a day where students attend school in casual clothing instead of school uniform. The term is commonly used in many countries where students are required to wear uniform, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Fiji, Australia, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Pakistan and Bangladesh. However, one school in New Zealand dropped the term because New Zealand's Human Rights Commission claimed that use of the word to mean non-uniform dress represents an "appropriation" and that the "appropriation has a history of degradation and racism."


title: Mufti (dress)

text: By extension, the term is used in reference to the practice of wearing "smart casual" attire to the office instead of business suits or other conventional clothing. Australia takes this even further, where even if a suit or smart-casual attire is the norm, "Mufti Fridays" allow employees to wear jeans, a polo shirt or even a t-shirt.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH (also known as OpenBSD Secure Shell) is a suite of secure networking utilities based on the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol, which provides a secure channel over an unsecured network in a client–server architecture.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH started as a fork of the free SSH program developed by Tatu Ylönen; later versions of Ylönen's SSH were proprietary software offered by SSH Communications Security. OpenSSH was first released in 1999 and is currently developed as part of the OpenBSD operating system.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH is not a single computer program, but rather a suite of programs that serve as alternatives to unencrypted protocols like Telnet and FTP. OpenSSH is integrated into several operating systems, namely Microsoft Windows, macOS and most Linux operating systems, while the portable version is available as a package in other systems.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenBSD Secure Shell was created by OpenBSD developers as an alternative to the original SSH software by Tatu Ylönen, which is now proprietary software. Although source code is available for the original SSH, various restrictions are imposed on its use and distribution. OpenSSH was created as a fork of Björn Grönvall's OSSH that itself was a fork of Tatu Ylönen's original free SSH 1.2.12 release, which was the last one having a license suitable for forking. The OpenSSH developers claim that their application is more secure than the original, due to their policy of producing clean and audited code and because it is released under the BSD license, the open-source license to which the word "open" in the name refers.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH first appeared in OpenBSD 2.6. The first portable release was made in October 1999. Developments since then have included the addition of ciphers (e.g., ChaCha20-Poly1305 in 6.5 of January 2014), cutting the dependency on OpenSSL (6.7, October 2014) and an extension to facilitate public-key discovery and rotation for trusted hosts (for transition from DSA to Ed25519 public host keys, version 6.8 of March 2015).


title: OpenSSH

text: On 19 October 2015, Microsoft announced that OpenSSH will be natively supported on Microsoft Windows and accessible through PowerShell, releasing an early implementation and making the code publicly available. OpenSSH-based client and server programs have been included in Windows 10 since version 1803. The SSH client and key agent are enabled and available by default, and the SSH server is an optional Feature-on-Demand.


title: OpenSSH

text: In October 2019 protection for private keys at rest in RAM against speculation and memory side-channel attacks were added in OpenSSH 8.1.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH is developed as part of the OpenBSD operating system. Rather than including changes for other operating systems directly into OpenSSH, a separate portability infrastructure is maintained by the OpenSSH Portability Team, and "portable releases" are made periodically. This infrastructure is substantial, partly because OpenSSH is required to perform authentication, a capability that has many varying implementations. This model is also used for other OpenBSD projects such as OpenNTPD.


title: OpenSSH

text: The OpenSSH server can authenticate users using the standard methods supported by the SSH protocol: with a password; public-key authentication, using per-user keys; host-based authentication, which is a secure version of 's host trust relationships using public keys; keyboard-interactive, a generic challenge–response mechanism, which is often used for simple password authentication, but which can also make use of stronger authenticators such as tokens; and Kerberos/GSSAPI. The server makes use of authentication methods native to the host operating system; this can include using the BSD Authentication system or pluggable authentication modules (PAM) to enable additional authentication through methods such as one-time passwords. However, this occasionally has side effects: when using PAM with OpenSSH, it must be run as root, as root privileges are typically required to operate PAM. OpenSSH versions after 3.7 (16 September 2003) allow PAM to be disabled at run-time, so regular users can run sshd instances.


title: OpenSSH

text: On OpenBSD, OpenSSH uses a dedicated user by default to drop privileges and perform privilege separation in accordance with the principle of least privilege, applied throughout the operating system including the Xenocara X server.


title: OpenSSH

text: OpenSSH includes the ability to set up a secured channel through which data sent to local, client-side Unix domain sockets or local, client-side TCP ports may be "forwarded" (sent across the secured channel) for routing on the server side; when this forwarding is set up, the server is instructed to send that forwarded data to some socket or TCP host/port (the host could be the server itself, "localhost"; or, the host may be some other computer, so that it appears to the other computer that the server is the originator of the data). The forwarding of data is bidirectional, meaning that any return communication is itself forwarded back to the client-side in the same manner; this is known as an "SSH tunnel", and it can be used to multiplex additional TCP connections over a single SSH connection since 2004, to conceal connections, to encrypt protocols that are otherwise unsecured, and to circumvent firewalls by sending/receiving all manner of data through one port that is allowed by the firewall. For example, an X Window System tunnel may be created automatically when using OpenSSH to connect to a remote host, and other protocols, such as HTTP and VNC, may be forwarded easily.


title: OpenSSH

text: Tunneling a TCP-"encapsulating" payload (such as PPP) over a TCP-based connection (such as SSH's port forwarding) is known as "TCP-over-TCP", and doing so can induce a dramatic loss in transmission performance (a problem known as "TCP meltdown"), which is why virtual private network software may instead use for the tunnel connection a protocol simpler than TCP. However, this is often not a problem when using OpenSSH's port forwarding, because many use cases do not entail TCP-over-TCP tunneling; the meltdown is avoided because the OpenSSH client processes the local, client-side TCP connection in order to get to the actual payload that is being sent, and then sends that payload directly through the tunnel's own TCP connection to the server side, where the OpenSSH server similarly "unwraps" the payload in order to "wrap" it up again for routing to its final destination.


title: OpenSSH

text: In addition, some third-party software includes support for tunnelling over SSH. These include DistCC, CVS, rsync, and Fetchmail. On some operating systems, remote file systems can be mounted over SSH using tools such as sshfs (using FUSE).


title: OpenSSH

text: An "ad hoc" SOCKS proxy server may be created using OpenSSH. This allows more flexible proxying than is possible with ordinary port forwarding.


title: OpenSSH

text: Beginning with version 4.3, OpenSSH implements an OSI layer 2/3 tun-based VPN. This is the most flexible of OpenSSH's tunnelling capabilities, allowing applications to transparently access remote network resources without modifications to make use of SOCKS.


title: OpenSSH

text: Before version 5.2 of OpenSSH, it was possible for an attacker to recover up to 14 bits of plaintext with a success probability of 2. The vulnerability was related to the CBC encryption mode. The AES CTR mode and arcfour ciphers are not vulnerable to this attack.


title: OpenSSH

text: A local privilege escalation vulnerability existed in OpenSSH 6.8 to 6.9 () due to world-writable (622) TTY devices, which was believed to be a denial of service vulnerability. With the use of the TIOCSTI ioctl, it was possible for authenticated users to inject characters into other users terminals and execute arbitrary commands on Linux.


title: OpenSSH

text: Malicious or compromised OpenSSH servers could read sensitive information on the client such as private login keys for other systems, using a vulnerability that relies on the undocumented connection-resuming feature of the OpenSSH client, which is called roaming, enabled by default on the client, but not supported on the OpenSSH server. This applies to versions 5.4 (released on 8 March 2010) to 7.1 of the OpenSSH client, and was fixed in OpenSSH 7.1p2, released on 14 January 2016. CVE numbers associated to this vulnerability are (information leak) and (buffer overflow).


title: OpenSSH

text: In February 2001, Tatu Ylönen, Chairman and CTO of SSH Communications Security informed the OpenSSH development mailing list that the company intended to assert its ownership of the "SSH" and "Secure Shell" trademarks, and sought to change references to the protocol to "SecSH" or "secsh", in order to maintain control of the "SSH" name. He proposed that OpenSSH change its name in order to avoid a lawsuit, a suggestion that developers resisted. OpenSSH developer Damien Miller replied urging Ylönen to reconsider, arguing that "SSH" had long since been a generic trademark.


title: OpenSSH

text: At the time, "SSH", "Secure Shell" and "ssh" had appeared in documents proposing the protocol as an open standard. Without marking these within the proposal as registered trademarks, Ylönen ran the risk of relinquishing all exclusive rights to the name as a means of describing the protocol. Improper use of a trademark, or allowing others to use a trademark incorrectly, results in the trademark becoming a generic term, like Kleenex or Aspirin, which opens the mark to use by others. After study of the USPTO trademark database, many online pundits opined that the term "ssh" was not trademarked, merely the logo using the lower case letters "ssh". In addition, the six years between the company's creation and the time when it began to defend its trademark, and that only OpenSSH was receiving threats of legal repercussions, weighed against the trademark's validity.


title: OpenSSH

text: Both developers of OpenSSH and Ylönen himself were members of the IETF working group developing the new standard; after several meetings this group denied Ylönen's request to rename the protocol, citing concerns that it would set a bad precedent for other trademark claims against the IETF. The participants argued that both "Secure Shell" and "SSH" were generic terms and could not be trademarks.


title: Marc Rowan

text: Marc J. Rowan (born August 19, 1962) is an American billionaire private equity investor. He is co-founder and CEO of Apollo Global Management.


title: Marc Rowan

text: Rowan was born to a Jewish family in 1962. His mother Barbara was a teacher and a trained concert pianist. He has one sister, Andrea. Rowan graduated "summa cum laude" with a B.S. and an M.B.A. from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.


title: Marc Rowan

text: Rowan joined the Mergers & Acquisitions Group of Drexel Burnham Lambert where he worked in New York City and Los Angeles. In 1990, Rowan co-founded the private equity firm Apollo Global Management with former Drexel Burnham colleagues Leon Black and Joshua Harris. The firm went public in March 2011.


title: Marc Rowan

text: He is a founding member and serves on the executive committee of the Youth Renewal Fund and is a member of the board of directors for the National Jewish Outreach Program, the New York Police Foundation and serves on the board of trustees of the University of Pennsylvania and the board of advisors of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. In October 2018, he donated $50 million to the Wharton School, the largest single gift in Wharton’s history. The funds would be used to recruit three Rowan Distinguished Professors, appoint Rowan Fellows and support the Penn Wharton Budget Model.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The SOMUA S35 was a French cavalry tank of the Second World War. Built from 1936 until 1940 to equip the armoured divisions of the Cavalry, it was for its time a relatively agile medium-weight tank, superior in armour and armament to its French and foreign competitors, such as the contemporary versions of the German Panzer III medium tank. It was constructed from well-sloped, mainly cast, armour sections, that however made it expensive to produce and time-consuming to maintain.


title: SOMUA S35

text: During the German invasion of May 1940, the SOMUA S35 proved itself to be a tactically effective type, but this was negated by the French command's strategic mistakes in deploying their Cavalry armoured divisions. After the defeat of France in June 1940, limiting production to a total of about 440, captured SOMUA S35s were used by the Axis powers, some of them on the Eastern Front. A derived type, the SOMUA S40, with an improved suspension, lowered hull cast and welded turret armour, had been planned to replace the original version on the production lines in July 1940. Agreements to produce this improved type for the benefit of Vichy France, Germany and Japan, ultimately did not lead to any manufacture.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The design of the SOMUA S35 comes from the changed specifications of 26 June 1934 for an "Automitrailleuse de Combat" (AMC) issued for cavalry use. These called for a much heavier design than had been originally specified in 1931. The new type had to be immune to contemporary anti-tank guns. By 17 May the Army had already contacted a subsidiary of Schneider et Cie — the "Société d'Outillage Mécanique et d'Usinage d'Artillerie" (SOMUA) based at Saint-Ouen — to build a prototype. The company accepted this proposal on 16 July and construction began on 12 October 1934. The prototype, with the name AC3, was ready on 14 April 1935. It was tested from 4 July until 2 August 1935. Then a pre-series of four was produced of an improved type, the AC4, to be tested until 27 January 1938. These first vehicles had the standard APX1 turret, fitted with the short 47 mm SA 34 gun. On 25 March 1936, the AC4 design was accepted as the standard medium tank of the French Cavalry with the official name Automitrailleuse de Combat modèle 1935 S (AMC 1935 S), when a first order for fifty was made. The tank was then more commonly known as SOMUA S35 (S for SOMUA and 35 from 1935, the year of introduction); today the even shorter abbreviation "S35" is most often used, in English sources usually with a hyphen: "S-35".


title: SOMUA S35

text: The mass-production vehicles would have the longer SA 35 gun. Originally, a total production of six hundred was planned to provide each of the three Cavalry armoured divisions with two hundred tanks. Later, budgetary restraints led to a more gradual and limited procurement. In 1936 a second order was made of fifty, followed by a hundred in 1937, and two orders of 125 each in 1938, resulting in total prewar orders of 450 units.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The hull and turret were castings with a maximum thickness of 47 mm and 40 mm respectively — the former of four sections, bolted together: two longitudinal plates formed the bottom; the superstructure was divided in a front and back section. The turret was a variant of the APX 1 as used on the Char B1: the APX 1 CE ("chemin élargi") with a larger as against ) turret ring, allowing the radio operator to assist the commander in loading the gun from an ammunition stock of 118 shells (90 AP, 28 HE) and 2,250 machine gun rounds. As with the B1, the commander was expected to direct the tank while also loading, aiming, and firing the 47 mm SA 35 main gun — although at least the radio duty could be left to another crew member. Radios were planned to be part of the standard equipment of S35s. In practice the platoon commander had an ER ("émetteur-récepteur") 29 set for communications with a higher command level, but a shortage of the short range ER28 sets for communication within the platoon meant that the other four tanks of the platoon were never fitted with any form of radio, although in some units all tanks had antennas: the programme to fit the sets themselves was postponed until the summer of 1940 and thus overtaken by events.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The suspension was designed by Eugène Brillié, the same man who had developed the first French tank, the Schneider CA1. He had worked with the Czech Škoda company and based his design on that of the LT35: eight road wheels paired on four bogies with leaf springs and an equally large tension wheel. The first fifty vehicles had tracks consisting of 144 track links, each link with a length of 75 mm; later vehicles had 103 links of 105 mm length.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The engine was in the rear of the hull side by side with two self-sealing fuel tanks, of 100 and 410 litres respectively, separated from the fighting compartment by a firewall bulkhead. The nominally 200 hp engine, designed by Javier-Sabin, drew fuel from the smaller tank, which was itself automatically replenished from the larger one. Inexperienced crews sometimes made the mistake of only filling the smaller tank. Engine and suspension maintenance was difficult and time-consuming, due to a poor accessibility, though this was improved in later vehicles.


title: SOMUA S35

text: The S 35 had an automatic fire extinguishing system using several tanks placed at critical spots, containing methyl bromide.


title: SOMUA S35

text: Like the British and the Soviets, the French believed in a strict division of labour between cavalry tanks and infantry tanks; by law, tanks ("chars") were limited to the Infantry and the Cavalry had to name its tanks "automitrailleuses".


title: SOMUA S35

text: The French Army preferred to fight a defensive battle, and was convinced it would be victorious in such an engagement, but understood that the strategic situation might impose the necessity of waging offensive warfare; during the Second World War for 1941 large offensives against Germany were planned, based on an expected French and British material superiority. Each of the two phases of an offensive – the breakthrough by the Infantry and the exploitation of it by the Cavalry – called for its own specialised vehicle, with the AMC designed to fight enemy armour. The SOMUA S35 was optimised to fulfil the latter rôle; it had good speed, an adequate range, a gun powerful enough to easily destroy its two probable opponents - the Soviet BT-7 and the German Panzer III - and armour thick enough to be practically immune to the fire of both at normal battle ranges; the armour of any German tank in May 1940 could be penetrated by the S35's 47 mm gun up to a range of . So it could carry out deep strategic penetrations and destroy enemy armour reserves trying to prevent them, possessing a good anti-tank capacity. The S35 is sometimes described as the best medium tank of the 1930s.