title: Richard Neutra

text: Neutra had a sharp sense of irony. In his autobiography, "Life and Shape", he included a playful anecdote about an anonymous movie producer-client who electrified the moat around the house that Neutra designed for him and had his Persian butler fish out the bodies in the morning and dispose of them in a specially designed incinerator. This was a much-embellished account of an actual client, Josef von Sternberg, who indeed had a moated house but not an electrified one.


title: Richard Neutra

text: The novelist/philosopher Ayn Rand was the second owner of the Von Sternberg House in the San Fernando Valley (now destroyed). A photo of Neutra and Rand at the home was taken by Julius Shulman.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Neutra's early watercolors and drawings, most of them of places he traveled (particularly his trips to the Balkans in WWI) and portrait sketches, showed influence from artists such as Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele etc. Neutra's sister Josefine, who could draw, is cited as developing Neutra's inclination towards drawing.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Neutra's son Dion has kept the Silver Lake offices designed and built by his father open as "Richard and Dion Neutra Architecture" in Los Angeles. The Neutra Office Building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Richard Neutra

text: In 1980, Neutra's widow donated the Van der Leeuw House (VDL Research House), then valued at $207,500, to California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona) to be used by the university's College of Environmental Design faculty and students. In 2011, the Neutra-designed Kronish House (1954) at 9439 Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills sold for $12.8 million.


title: Richard Neutra

text: In 2009, the exhibition "Richard Neutra, Architect: Sketches and Drawings" at the Los Angeles Central Library featured a selection of Neutra's travel sketches, figure drawings and building renderings. An exhibition on the architect's work in Europe between 1960 and 1979 was mounted by the MARTa Herford, Germany.


title: Richard Neutra

text: The typeface family Neutraface, designed by Christian Schwartz for House Industries, was based on Richard Neutra's architecture and design principles.


title: Richard Neutra

text: In 1977, he was posthumously awarded the AIA Gold Medal, and in 2015, he was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Walk of Stars in Palm Springs, California.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Neutra's 14,000 sqf "Windshield" house built on Fishers Island, NY for John Nicholas Brown II burned down on New Year's Eve 1973 and was not rebuilt.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Neutra's 1960 "Fine Arts Building" at California State University, Northridge was demolished in 1997, three years after suffering severe damage in the 1994 Northridge earthquake.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra in "Berlin, Die Geschichte der Zehlendorfer Häuser", Berlin 2016. Hatje Cantz publishers.


title: Richard Neutra

text: Harriet Roth; "Richard Neutra. The Story of the Berlin Houses 1920–1924", Berlin 2019. Hatje Cantz publishers.


title: The Sound of Music (soundtrack)

text: The soundtrack of the film "The Sound of Music" was released in 1965 by RCA Victor and is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold more than 20 million copies worldwide. The label has also issued the soundtrack in German, Italian, Spanish and French editions.


title: The Sound of Music (soundtrack)

text: The soundtrack reached the number one position on the "Billboard" 200 that year in the United States, remained in the top ten for a record 109 weeks, from May 1, 1965 to July 16, 1967, and remained on the "Billboard" 200 chart for 238 weeks. In 2015, "Billboard" named the original soundtrack album the second-best charting album of all time. It was the best-selling album in the United Kingdom in 1965, 1966 and 1968 and the second best-selling of the decade, spending a total of 70 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart. The album also stayed for 73 weeks on the Norwegian charts, and as of December 2017 it is the tenth best-charting album of all time in that country.


title: The Sound of Music (soundtrack)

text: The album has been reissued several times, including anniversary editions in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. These CD editions incorporate musical material from the film that would not fit on the original LP, with the 2015 release presenting the songs and score in their entirety.


title: The Sound of Music (soundtrack)

text: Three songs from the original Broadway production, "An Ordinary Couple", "How Can Love Survive?", and "No Way to Stop It" were replaced, in the film, with two new songs, "I Have Confidence" and "Something Good". For the original Broadway show, the music was written by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II; both the lyrics and music for the new songs were written by Rodgers, as Hammerstein died in 1960. All songs were arranged and conducted for the soundtrack by Irwin Kostal.


title: The Sound of Music (soundtrack)

text: In 2018, it was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant."


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Jonathan Greenblatt (born November 21, 1970) is an American entrepreneur, corporate executive, and the sixth National Director and CEO of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL). Prior to heading the ADL, Greenblatt served in the White House as Special Assistant to Barack Obama and Director of the Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt was born on November 21, 1970, in Trumbull, Connecticut to a Conservative Jewish family. He graduated from Tufts University in 1992, earning a Bachelor of Arts. After college, Greenblatt worked on Bill Clinton's successful presidential campaign in 1992 in Little Rock, Arkansas. He went on to join the administration as an aide in the Clinton White House and later the United States Department of Commerce, where he developed international economic policy with a focus on emerging markets and post-conflict economies. Greenblatt also holds a Masters in Business Administration from the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: In 2002, Greenblatt and his business school roommate, Peter Thum, founded Ethos Water, a premium bottled water social enterprise. The company sought to help children around the world get access to free water by donating a portion of their profits to finance water programs in developing countries. In 2005, Starbucks acquired the company for $8 million. Following the acquisition, Greenblatt served as Starbucks Vice President of Global Consumer Products, scaling Ethos across the United States. Greenblatt also co-founded Ethos International, and served on the board of directors of the Starbucks Foundation, where he developed Ethos' global investment strategy that has invested millions of dollars to bring clean water to communities in need around the world, including Bangladesh, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Honduras, India, and Kenya.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt also founded All for Good (AFG), the open source platform developed to enable more Americans to serve. AFG is the largest aggregation of volunteer opportunities on the Web, and is supported by a coalition of leading companies, non-profits, and government agencies, all of whom shared a vision of using open data to increase the number of Americans that participate in service and volunteerism. Craig Newmark, the founder of Craigslist, helped to sponsor the organization, and the open-source code was utilized by [serve.gov]. In 2011, AFG was acquired by the Points of Light Institute in a strategic partnership designed to help the organization scale.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt was formerly the CEO of GOOD Worldwide, LLC. He led GOOD's transition from a publishing company to a diversified media company. Its products include the website GOOD.is and "GOOD Magazine". As CEO, Greenblatt pushed a number of innovations at the company, including the launch of the GOOD Sheet, a broadsheet product distributed exclusively at Starbucks, and a name-your-own-pricing scheme that the company ran as an experiment. It is not clear whether this strategy was successful. Greenblatt said in 2008 that the broadsheets were intended to be ideologically neutral.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt founded the Impact Economy Initiative at the Aspen Institute to help policy makers create an enabling environment for the emerging market of social enterprise and impact investing. The Initiative worked with thought leaders across impact sectors, including co-convening the Impact Economy Summit at the White House in October 2011.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt served as an operating partner at Satori Capital, a private equity firm focused on conscious capitalism, and was an active angel investor. He also served as a member of the faculty at the UCLA Anderson School of Management, where he developed and taught its coursework on social entrepreneurship.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: In the fall of 2011, Greenblatt was appointed to serve as Special Assistant to the President for President Obama and Director of the Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation (SICP) in the United States Domestic Policy Council. As Director, he led the Office's efforts to utilize human capital and financial capital to bring attention to community solutions. The Office focused on issues such as national service, civic engagement, impact investing, and social enterprise.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: In his role as Director of SICP, Greenblatt took an active role in supporting AmeriCorps, supporting social entrepreneurs, and working with the G8 taskforce to support social impact investment. Greenblatt was involved in a number of administration priorities, including preventing gun violence and #GivingTuesday. Greenblatt left the administration in 2014 and was succeeded by David Wilkinson.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: On 30 September 2020, Greenblatt was named as one of the 25 members of the "Real Facebook Oversight Board", a group of academics, researchers and civil rights leaders created to counter the existing Facebook Oversight Board, an independent monitoring group over Facebook which they view as insufficient.


title: Jonathan Greenblatt

text: Greenblatt is the grandson of a Holocaust survivor. He is married to Marjan Keypour Greenblatt, an Iranian Jewish political refugee to the United States who is the founder and director of The Alliance for Rights of All Minorities (ARAM), a non-profit. They have three children.


title: Young Hercules

text: Young Hercules is a prequel series to the television series "" the originally aired on Fox Kids Network. It premiered on September 12, 1998 and ended on May 14, 1999, with a total of 50 episodes over the course of 1 season. It stars Ryan Gosling in the title role. The series was based on Heracles.


title: Young Hercules

text: The show features the efforts of Ares, the god of war, played by Kevin Tod Smith, who attempts often to destroy his younger half-brother to win over Zeus' good graces. Among his group is his nephew Strife (Joel Tobeck), who is the rather weaker member of the team. Strife's mother is Discord, goddess of retribution (Meighan Desmond), who acts more level-headed and power hungry than her counterpart on more than one occasion. The series has two other villains: Hera, queen of the gods and Hercules' stepmother; and Apollo, god of the sun and Hercules' half-brother.


title: Young Hercules

text: The series follows Hercules (Ryan Gosling) as he attends Cheiron's Academy to train in the arts of the warrior under the wise headmaster Cheiron the Centaur (Nathaniel Lees). He makes friends with the future king of Corinth, Prince Jason (Chris Conrad) and a thieving former member of a bandit group named Iolaus (Dean O'Gorman), who was sentenced to train at the academy as an alternative to prison for his crimes. Hercules also meets the academy's first female cadet, Lilith (Jodie Rimmer). Other characters of interest include Kora, the innkeeper who (unknown to Hercules and his friends) is a devotee of Artemis, Goddess of the Hunt. As the series develops, Kora is revealed to have special powers which allow her to do Artemis' bidding. There are hints of romance between Hercules and Kora, although their friendship keeps it all innocent.


title: Young Hercules

text: "Young Hercules"' executive producers were Robert Tapert and Sam Raimi. Liz Friedman and Eric Gruendemann were co-executive producers, and former MTV producer Cynthia Hsiung was producer of the series. Eric Lewald and Julia Lewald were head writers. In New Zealand, where principal photography was shot, Janine Dickins held down the fort as the New Zealand producer while three series directors took turns shooting the episodes in blocks of four along with a fourth director for second unit. Chris Graves, Charlie Haskell and Andrew Merrifield shot principal photography and Simon Rabbi shot second unit. Later in the series, Simon Rabbi shot principal photography for the 50th episode, "Valley of the Shadow."


title: Young Hercules

text: The series has been used in case studies of how to shoot television series efficiently. Traditional television series are shot one episode at a time. "Young Hercules" was shot in blocks of four episodes at a time. The three main directors of the series were on a rotation, one director for each four episode block. The four would be written with this in mind, keeping sets, locations, and actors similar in all four episodes even if story and plot lines might not interrelate. This saved tremendous amounts of money and time allowing the series to be shot on a shoestring budget, but with maximum on-screen dollars. The 50 episodes had a budget of roughly $20 million which includes above and below the line costs. Shooting in New Zealand also allowed the series to circumvent considerable Guild regulations for further savings. Additional money was saved shooting the series on 16 mm film. Early research was done to see if digital cameras could be used, but it was determined that technology was not adequate at the time to make digital filming economically viable.


title: Young Hercules

text: Principal photography took place in New Zealand while post-production elements including visual effects and music were all edited and integrated together in Los Angeles. Ian Bohen played Young Hercules in the pilot movie and was offered the part, but opted not to move to New Zealand where the series would shoot principal photography. Early on in the series, special visual effects were conceived by Richard Taylor's Weta Workshop, the then little known visual effects company that went on to win several Academy Awards for their work on "The Lord of the Rings". Weta and Richard Taylor stepped off "Young Hercules" early on to work on "Lord of the Rings". In fact, the early production days of "Young Hercules" saw many of its crew leave to work on the then little known Peter Jackson sensation, "Lord of the Rings".


title: Young Hercules

text: Ryan Gosling was only 17 when he was cast in the lead role. To train for the role, Ryan took intense martial arts classes by the same trainer who taught Lucy Lawless and Kevin Sorbo. He was so tall and thin that his costume had to be reworked to minimize the look of how thin he was. Original costume sketches showed a darker upper body costume. When Gosling was cast, the costume designers made the upper body of his costume lighter in color and broader in the chest to help create a more bulky look. Makeup was used on Gosling's arms to help add muscle contours. Similar tricks were used for both Sorbo and Lawless for their characters.


title: Young Hercules

text: It was known to be only superficially faithful to Greek mythology, as was its predecessor; it uses similar characters, but in a variety of stories, some of which contain anachronisms.


title: Young Hercules

text: The series was aired out of order. The episodes are listed below, as presented on DVD, in the order of their production codes. Despite this, the episodes list is not completely correct chronologically. For example, in "The Head That Wears the Crown" Jason is crowned king, yet in several following episodes, such as "Winner Take All", he is still a prince. Similarly, even though Lilith visits Hercules' mother in "Mommy Dearests", they later appear to meet for the first time in "Home for the Holidays".


title: Young Hercules

text: The series aired on the Fox Kids Network at first on Monday through Friday at 4:30 p.m. PST and Saturday mornings at 8:30 a.m. PST. Later in the year, the series aired Monday through Friday only at 3:30 p.m. PST. Although ratings on Fox Kids were strong for the season (2nd top-rated live-action series below "Power Rangers"), "Young Hercules" was not renewed.


title: Young Hercules

text: On June 23, 2015, Shout! Factory released "Young Hercules- The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time.


title: Fat Lever

text: Lafayette "Fat" Lever (; born August 18, 1960) is an American former professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association. He later served as the director of player development for the Sacramento Kings of the NBA as well as a color analyst for Kings radio broadcasts.


title: Fat Lever

text: Lever was born in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, to Elmer and Willie Lever. The second of three sons, he was nicknamed Fat by his younger brother, Elmer Jr., who had problems saying all the syllables in his name. Their father never lived with the family. In 1970, their mother, Willie, went west to work, while the brothers lived with their grandparents. The kids joined their mom in Tucson, Arizona, a year later.


title: Fat Lever

text: Lever was selected by the Portland Trail Blazers with the 11th pick in the 1982 NBA draft out of Arizona State. While at ASU, his guard-tandem teammate was Byron Scott, who left school early (1983) to sign with the San Diego Clippers. In his NBA debut, Lever recorded 9 points, 7 assists and 4 steals in a road loss against the Kansas City Kings. On January 20, Lever recorded his first career double-double with 14 points and 13 assists in a road loss against the Mavericks. Three days later, Lever recorded his second career double-double when he had 11 points and 10 assists in a road win over the Spurs. On March 20, Lever scored a season-high 19 points to go along with 6 assists as the Trailblazers beat the Nuggets.


title: Fat Lever

text: During his rookie season, Lever averaged 7.8 points per game, 2.8 rebounds per game, 5.3 assists per game, and 1.9 steals per game.


title: Fat Lever

text: Lever was considered one of the NBA's best point guards in the late 1980s while playing for the Denver Nuggets.


title: Fat Lever

text: In his debut with the Nuggets, Lever recorded 14 points and 12 assists in a win over the Warriors. On November 6, Lever recorded a double-double of 24 points and 18 assists in a road win over the Lakers, the first time it happened in Nuggets history. On March 9 against the Pacers, Lever recorded his first career triple-double with 13 points, 15 assists and a career-high 10 steals. On April 10, Lever recorded a double-double of 26 points and 18 assists in a road loss against the LA Clippers. At that time, he joined Magic Johnson (in 1982-83) as the only players since the ABA-NBA merger to have at least 2 season games having recorded 24 points and 18 assists.


title: Fat Lever

text: In his first season with the Nuggets, Lever averaged 12.8 points per game, 5.0 rebounds per game, 7.5 assists per game, and 2.5 steals per game. The next season, Lever continued his impressive performance for the Nuggets. On November 12, 1985, Lever recorded his first 30-point double-double as he recorded 31 points, 12 assists, and 9 rebounds in a road loss to the Rockets.


title: Fat Lever

text: Despite his size (6 feet 3 inches), Lever regularly led the Nuggets in rebounding. He is the Nuggets' all-time franchise leader in steals and was 2nd in career assists. He is one of only three players in NBA history to record 15 plus points, rebounds, and assists in a single playoff game (the others being Wilt Chamberlain and Jason Kidd).


title: Fat Lever

text: Lever was traded by the Nuggets to the Dallas Mavericks in 1990 for the Mavs' #9 pick in the 1990 NBA draft plus Dallas' first-round pick in the following one. The Nuggets subsequently traded the #9 pick and their own #15 pick to the Miami Heat for the Heat's #3 pick in the 1990 draft, with Denver sending the Mavs' 1991 first rounder (which was originally the Detroit Pistons' pick they acquired in the Mark Aguirre/Adrian Dantley trade) to the Washington Bullets along with Michael Adams, for the Bullets' first round pick in the 1991 Draft.


title: Fat Lever

text: Lever sat out the entire 1992–93 season due to knee injury. He finished his career with the Mavericks in 1994 with career averages of 13.9 points, six rebounds, 6.2 assists and 2.22 steals per game.


title: Fat Lever

text: Among Lever's career achievements were making two NBA All-Star teams, an All-NBA Second Team in 1987, and an All-Defensive Second Team in 1988.


title: Fat Lever

text: As of the end of the 2020–21 regular season, he ranks 11th on the all-time list of most triple-doubles in the regular season with 43 over 11 seasons, ahead of players like Michael Jordan (28), Clyde Drexler (25) and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (21).


title: Fat Lever

text: He ended his career as the Nuggets second leading assists leader, behind teammate Alex English, third in terms of rebounds, behind Issel and English.


title: Fat Lever

text: On December 2, 2017, the Nuggets retired Lever's number 12 jersey during their home game against the Los Angeles Lakers, which they won 115–100.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Church (FMC) is a Methodist Christian denomination within the holiness movement, based in the United States. It is evangelical in nature and is Wesleyan–Arminian in theology.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Church has members in over 100 countries, with 68,356 members in the United States and 1,200,797 members worldwide. The "Light & Life Magazine" is their official publication. The Free Methodist Church World Ministries Center is in Indianapolis, Indiana.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Church was organized at Pekin, New York, in 1860. The founders had been members of the Methodist Episcopal Church but were excluded from its membership for earnestly advocating what they saw as the doctrines and usages of authentic Wesleyan Methodism. Under the leadership of the Rev. Benjamin Titus (B. T.) Roberts, a graduate of Wesleyan University, the movement spread rapidly. Societies were organized, churches built, and the work established.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Before the founding of the church, Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, "The Earnest Christian". In 1868, "The Free Methodist" (now "Light & Life") was begun. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals, and Sunday school curriculum and literature.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The name "Methodist" was retained for the newly organized church because the founders felt their expulsion from the Methodist Episcopal Church happened because of their adherence to doctrines and standards of Methodism. The word "Free" was suggested and adopted because the new church (1) was anti-slavery; (2) wanted pews to be free to all regardless of status, rather than sold or rented (as was common); (3) promoted freedom of worship in the Holy Spirit, as opposed to stifling formality; (4) upheld the principle of "freedom" from secret and oath-bound societies (in particular the Masonic Lodge), so as to have full loyalty to Christ; (5) stood for "freedom" from the abuse of ecclesiastical authority (due to the bishop's action in allowing expulsion of 120 clergy and lay); and (6) desired its members experience "freedom" of transformation in sanctification via the Holy Spirit due to personal consecration and faith, rather than 'sin-management' or gradual growth following justification.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: At the 1910 session of the General Conference of the Methodist Church at Rochester, New York, a full acknowledgement was made of the wrong done to the late Roberts fifty years before, and the credentials taken from him were restored in a public meeting on his behalf to his son, Rev. Benson Roberts.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Holiness Conservatives within the Free Methodist Church left to form the Reformed Free Methodist Church in 1932, the United Holiness Church in 1966 (which joined the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches in 1994) and the Evangelical Wesleyan Church in 1963.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Free Methodist headquarters were located in Winona Lake, Indiana, until 1990 when the denomination moved to Indianapolis, Indiana.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The church has about 77,000 members in the United States . Worldwide its membership is over 1,000,000 with large segments of membership in East Central Africa (Rwanda, Burundi, DRC) and India.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In doctrine, Free Methodists’ beliefs are the standard beliefs of Wesleyan-Arminian Protestantism, with distinctive emphasis on the teaching of entire sanctification as held by John Wesley, to whom the Free Methodist Church traces its origins.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Church, along with the United Methodist Church, shares a common heritage linked to the Methodist revival in England during the 18th century. The Free Methodist Church itself arose within the context of the holiness movement within 19th century Methodism.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The first general superintendent, B. T. Roberts, was in favor of ordaining women, but never saw it take place in his lifetime. Out of his own conviction he wrote "Ordaining Women: Biblical and Historical Insights". The impact of his writings eventually prevailed in the church. The Free Methodist Church affirmed the ordination of women in 1911. As of June 2008, women represented 11% of ordained clergy (216 of 2,011) and 26% of candidates for the ministry.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Free Methodists recognize and license unordained persons for particular ministries. They mandate lay representation in numbers equal to clergy in the councils of the church.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: As a reaction to paid musicians in the Methodist Episcopal Church, early Free Methodists enjoyed a capella congregational hymns during worship. However, the General Conference of 1943 voted to allow each Conference to vote on whether or not their churches could have instrumental music. As a result, pianos and organs became common across most conferences. Currently, many churches have worship teams composed of vocalists, drums, keyboards, guitars, and other instruments.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In response to numerous national conversations with FM leaders at all levels, in 2021, the Free Methodist bishops introduced: "The Free Methodist Way: Five Values that Shape our Identity." These five values express the distinctives that set Free Methodist apart from other faith families in the body of Christ. They are as follows:


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Church's highest governing body is the World Conference, which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist General Conference. As the church in each country develops, its status progresses from Mission District to Annual Conference to General Conference. There are currently 13 General Conferences in the world, which are linked together through the articles of religion and common constitution of the first two chapters of the Book of Discipline, the World Conference, and the Council of Bishops.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The USA branch of the Free Methodist Church is currently led by three bishops: Bishop Matthew Whitehead, Bishop Linda Adams, and Bishop Keith Cowart. All three were elected in 2019.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Free Methodist World Missions oversees ministries across Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. Today, 95% of Free Methodists are located outside the United States, and that number is growing daily.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: International Child Care Ministries (ICCM), a child sponsorship initiative serves more than 21,000 children in 29 countries around the world. Through education, meals and medical care, children in need are given an opportunity for a better life. Each sponsored child is connected to a Free Methodist congregation or ministry at a local level.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Sustainable Empowerment through Economic Development (SEED), a micro-enterprise and livelihood ministry of Free Methodist World Missions, facilitates self-sustaining businesses, training in business skills and Christian discipleship. Focused on economically vulnerable members of the Free Methodist world family, it provides an international market for products produced by Free Methodist artisans.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Set Free Movement is seeking to mobilize faith communities, financial partners, and all segments of society towards ending human trafficking and creating new futures through community-based action.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Volunteers in Service Abroad (VISA) connects volunteers from the Free Methodist Church in the US and UK with Free Methodist World Missions for hands-on ministry internationally.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: B. T. Roberts began what is now Roberts Wesleyan College in 1866. Spring Arbor College followed in 1873 (renamed Spring Arbor University in 2001), Seattle Pacific University in 1891, and Greenville College (renamed Greenville University in 2017) in 1892. Central College began in 1914, a continuation of Orleans Seminary begun in 1884. Los Angeles Pacific College existed from 1903 to 1965.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The following educational institutions are a part of the Association of Free Methodist Educational Institutions. The schools are not owned by the denomination but meet a set of requirements to maintain this relationship.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In addition, the Free Methodist Church is one of several denominations supporting Azusa Pacific University (Azusa, CA). Wessington Springs College is a former, now closed institution which was located in South Dakota. Internationally, there is Osaka Christian College of the Japanese Free Methodist Church, Hope Africa University, a recently founded school in Bujumbura, Burundi, Haiti Providence University, and the Faculdade de Teologia Metodista Livre, São Paulo, Brazil.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Through the John Wesley Seminary Foundation (JWSF) graduate students who are preparing for full-time ministry in the Free Methodist Church are provided a grant or loan at the following affiliated schools:


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Before the founding of the church in 1860, B. T. Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, "The Earnest Christian". In 1868 "The Free Methodist" (now "Light & Life" Magazine) began. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals and Sunday school curriculum and literature.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The official publishing institution was established by the church at the 1886 General Conference. The church purchased the publishing business built by Rev. T. B. Arnold for $8,000. Arnold was named first publisher and B. T. Roberts was elected editor of "The Free Methodist". The Free Methodist Publishing House is recognized under its trade name Light and Life Press.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Free Methodist Publishing House operated at three locations in Chicago, Illinois. In February 1935, it moved along with Free Methodist Headquarters to Winona Lake, Indiana.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: During its history, the Free Methodist Publishing House built up a plant and accumulated property worth several hundred thousand dollars. It also contributed thousands of dollars out of its profits to other activities of the church.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Over the years, as the ministry of the Free Methodist Church expanded, various departments of the general church gradually moved into Free Methodist Publishing House accommodations. This was provided at vast cost and without the investment of any capital by the general church.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In 1960, the Free Methodist Publishing House board issued a deed in favor of the general church, whereby the church became the owner of the old property, plus nearly eight acres of land. For this the general church paid nothing, but agreed to make payments of $5,000 per year over a ten-year period to the Free Methodist Publishing House.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In 1944 the Free Methodist Church began a weekly radio show called The Light and Life Radio Hour which featured hymns, sermons, prayer, and scripture reading. The show ran until 1980 and featured several different hosts over the years including Dr. Leroy Lowell, Myron F. Boyd, and Robert Andrews.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: In 2016 Josh Avery began The FMC Radio Show which was a spiritual successor to The Light and Life Radio Hour but embodied a very different focus. In a podcast format, the show is subtitled "your officially unofficial source for all things Free Methodist". Instead of worship and sermon, the show means to act as a uniting factor in the Free Methodist Church by informing listeners about different things that are happening in the denomination.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: "Arnold’s Commentary" was published from 1894–1980. In the late 1950s and early 1960s the church pioneered fully graded church school materials. In 1960 the "Aldersgate Biblical Series" was developed as the only inductive curriculum of its time.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: A fully equipped printing area consisting of letterpresses, offset press, cutters, folders, bindery, linotypes etc. contributed toward making the church independent of commercial printers for the production for its printing needs at that time.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Acting on the recommendation of its executive committee, the board voted in 1988 to phase out printing operations. This decision and the 1989 General Conference decision to move the Press and Headquarters from Winona Lake to Indianapolis in 1990 shifted the focus of the Press. Where formerly, the Press produced and published Sunday school curriculum, this venture is now carried on in cooperation with other holiness denominations.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Beginning in 2008, the Wesleyan Publishing House, publishing arm of the Wesleyan Church, began serving the distribution and customer service needs of Light and Life Press.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Light & Life Communications, the official publishing arm of the Free Methodist Church, is a not-for-profit corporation that exists to serve in partnership with its parent body, the Free Methodist Church. Its primary purpose is to publish and distribute materials that enable the church to fulfill its stated mission. Light & Life Communications also offers its services and materials to all who seek to make Christ known.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Light + Life Magazine is the official magazine of the Free Methodist Church USA, published online. It includes in-depth journalism and interviews exploring Christian faith. Each issue is also translated into Spanish and published concurrently as Revista Luz y Vida. Jeff Finley is the magazine's executive editor.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: Light + Life Bookstore is the official bookstore of Free Methodist Church USA. Free Methodist books and exclusive titles on Christian faith and Wesleyan holiness theology.


title: Free Methodist Church

text: The Light + Life podcast hosts conversations that deepen people's faith through the Light+Life of Jesus Christ.


title: 2021 Superbike World Championship

text: The 2021 Superbike World Championship (known officially as the 2021 Motul FIM Superbike World Championship for sponsorship reasons) was the 34th season of the Superbike World Championship. The championship was won by Toprak Razgatlıoğlu at Mandalika round.


title: 2021 Superbike World Championship

text: The provisional 2021 season calendar was announced on 30 November 2020, with 13 rounds scheduled, and was later revised in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 16 February 2021 the Assen round, scheduled for 23–25 April, was postponed to 23–25 July. On 9 March 2021 the Estoril round, scheduled for 7–9 May, was postponed to an unannounced date and the Navarra round—a new event for the championship—was added into the calendar. On 16 April 2021 the Estoril round was confirmed to be held on 28–30 May. On 29 April 2021 the Phillip Island round was cancelled and a round at Most—another new venue—was added into the calendar. On 25 September 2021, it was announced that the Mandalika round was pushed back a week.


title: Le Bon Marché

text: Le Bon Marché (lit. "the good market", or "the good deal" in French; ) is a department store in Paris. Founded in 1838 and revamped almost completely by Aristide Boucicaut in 1852, it was one of the first modern department stores. It was a member of the International Association of Department Stores from 1986 to 2011.


title: Le Bon Marché

text: Now the property of LVMH, it sells a wide range of high-end goods, including food in an adjacent building at 38, rue de Sèvres, called La Grande Épicerie de Paris.


title: Le Bon Marché

text: A novelty shop called "Le Bon Marché" was founded in Paris in 1838 to sell lace, ribbons, sheets, mattresses, buttons, umbrellas and other assorted goods. It originally had four departments, twelve employees, and a floor space of three hundred square meters. The entrepreneur Aristide Boucicaut became a partner in 1852, and changed the marketing plan, instituting fixed prices and guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds, advertising, and a much wider variety of merchandise. The use of fixed prices replaced the system of haggling over prices, then commonly used in dry goods stores. The annual income of the store increased from 500,000 francs in 1852 to five million in 1860. In 1869 he built a much larger building at 24 rue de Sèvres on the Left Bank, and enlarged the store again in 1872, with help from the engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel, creator of the Eiffel Tower. The income rose from twenty million francs in 1870 to 72 million at the time of Boucicaut's death in 1877, at which time the management of the store continued by his wife, Marguerite Boucicaut. The floor space had increased from three hundred square meters in 1838 to fifty thousand, and the number of employees had increased from twelve in 1838 to 1,788 in 1879. Boucicaut was famous for his marketing innovations; a reading room for husbands while their wives shopped; extensive newspaper advertising; entertainment for children; and six million catalogs sent out to customers. By 1880 half the employees were women; unmarried women employees lived in dormitories on the upper floors.


title: Le Bon Marché

text: The architecture of the store was innovative for its time; the 1869 store was constructed by the architect Louis-Auguste Boileau. Alexandre Laplanche ornamented Boileau's ironwork technology. Louis-Charles Boileau, his son, continued the store in the 1870s, consulting the firm of Gustave Eiffel for parts of its structure. Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, the grandson of Louis-Auguste Boileau, worked on an extension to the store in the 1920s.


title: Le Bon Marché

text: The building inspired the design of the Bon Marche store in Sydney, designed by Arthur Anderson, as well as the Galerias Pacifico shopping centre in Buenos Aires, originally called "Argentine Bon Marché".


title: Le Bon Marché

text: In 1922, when the decorative arts were at their high point in France, the Pomone design and decorating department was established, following the trend of other Parisian department stores. From 1923 to 1928, Paul Follot (1877–1941) was its director, followed by René-Lucien Prou (1889–1948) and Albert-Lucien Guénot (1894–1993) up to 1955. Today's home-furnishings inventory primarily consists of brand names but not white goods.


title: Stopping power

text: Stopping power is the ability of a weapon – typically a ranged weapon such as a firearm – to cause a target (human or animal) to be incapacitated or immobilized. Stopping power contrasts with lethality in that it pertains only to a weapon's ability to make the target cease action, regardless of whether or not death ultimately occurs. Which ammunition cartridges have the greatest stopping power is a much debated topic.


title: Stopping power

text: Stopping power is related to the physical properties and terminal behavior of the projectile (bullet, shot, or slug), the biology of the target, and the wound location, but the issue is complicated and not easily studied. Although higher-caliber ammunitions usually have greater muzzle energy and momentum and thus traditionally been widely associated with higher stopping power, the physics involved are multifactorial, with caliber, muzzle velocity, bullet mass, bullet shape and bullet material all contributing to the ballistics.


title: Stopping power

text: Despite much disagreement, the most popular theory of stopping power is that it is usually caused not by the force of the bullet but by the wounding effects of the bullet, which are typically a rapid loss of blood causing a circulatory failure, which leads to impaired motor function and/or unconsciousness. The "Big Hole School" and the principles of penetration and permanent tissue damage are in line with this way of thinking. The other prevailing theories focus more on the energy of the bullet and its effects on the nervous system, including hydrostatic shock and energy transfer, which is similar to kinetic energy deposit.


title: Stopping power

text: The concept of stopping power appeared in the tail end of the 19th century when colonial troops (including American troops in the Philippines during the Moro Rebellion, and British soldiers during the New Zealand Wars) at close quarters found that their pistols were not able to stop charging native tribesmen. This led to the introduction or reintroduction of larger caliber weapons (such as the older .45 Colt and the newly developed .45 ACP) capable of stopping opponents with a single round.


title: Stopping power

text: During the Seymour Expedition in China, at one of the battles at Langfang, Chinese Boxers, armed with swords and spears, conducted a massed infantry charge against the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance, who were equipped with rifles. At point-blank range, a British soldier had to fire four .303 Lee-Metford bullets into a Boxer before he stopped charging. U.S. Army officer Bowman McCalla reported that single rifle shots were not enough: multiple rifle shots were needed to halt a Boxer. Only machine guns were effective in immediately stopping the Boxers.


title: Stopping power

text: In the Moro Rebellion, Moro Muslim Juramentados in suicide attacks continued to charge against American soldiers even after being shot. Panglima Hassan in the Hassan uprising had to be shot dozens of times before he died. This forced the Americans to phase out .38 Long Colt revolvers and start using .45 Colt against the Moros.


title: Stopping power

text: British troops used expanding bullets during various conflicts in the Northwest Frontier in India, and the Mahdist War in Sudan. The British government voted against a prohibition on their use at the Hague Convention of 1899, although the prohibition only applied to international warfare.


title: Stopping power

text: In response to addressing stopping power issues, the Mozambique Drill was developed to maximize the likelihood of a target's quick incapacitation.


title: Stopping power

text: ""Manstopper"" is an informal term used to refer to any combination of firearm and ammunition that can reliably incapacitate, or "stop", a human target immediately. For example, the .45 ACP round and the .357 Magnum round both have firm reputations as "manstoppers". Historically, one type of ammunition has had the specific tradename "Manstopper". Officially known as the Mk III cartridge, these were made to suit the British Webley .455 service revolver in the early 20th century. The ammunition used a cylindrical bullet with hemispherical depressions at both ends. The front acted as a hollow point deforming on impact while the base opened to seal the round in the barrel. It was introduced in 1898 for use against "savage foes", but fell quickly from favor due to concerns of breaching the Hague Convention's international laws on military ammunition, and was replaced in 1900 by re-issued Mk II pointed-bullet ammunition.


title: Stopping power

text: Some sporting arms are also referred to as "stoppers" or "stopping rifles". These powerful arms are often used by game hunters (or their guides) for stopping a suddenly charging animal, like a buffalo or an elephant.


title: Stopping power

text: A bullet will destroy or damage any tissues which it penetrates, creating a wound channel. It will also cause nearby tissue to stretch and expand as it passes through tissue. These two effects are typically referred to as "permanent cavity" (the track left by the bullet as it penetrates flesh) and "temporary cavity," which, as the name implies, is the temporary (instantaneous) displacement caused as the bullet travels through flesh, and is many times larger than the actual diameter of the bullet. These phenomena are unrelated to low-pressure cavitation in liquids.


title: Stopping power

text: The degree to which permanent and temporary cavitation occur is dependent on the mass, diameter, material, design and velocity of the bullet. This is because bullets "crush" tissue, and do not cut it. A bullet constructed with a half diameter ogive designed meplat and hard, solid copper alloy material may crush only the tissue directly in front of the bullet. This type of bullet (monolithic-solid rifle bullet) is conducive to causing more temporary cavitation as the tissue flows around the bullet, resulting in a deep and narrow wound channel. A bullet constructed with a two diameter, hollow point ogive designed meplat and low-antimony lead-alloy core with a thin gilding metal jacket material will crush tissue in front and to the sides as the bullet expands. Due to the energy expended in bullet expansion, velocity is lost more quickly. This type of bullet (hollow-point hand gun bullet) is conducive to causing more permanent cavitation as the tissue is crushed and accelerated into other tissues by the bullet, causing a shorter and wider wound channel. The exception to this general rule is non-expanding bullets which are long relative to their diameter. These tend to destabilize and yaw (tumble) soon after impact, increasing both temporary and permanent cavitation.


title: Stopping power

text: Bullets are constructed to behave in different ways, depending on the intended target. Different bullets are constructed variously to: not expand upon impact, expand upon impact at high velocity, expand upon impact, expand across a broad range of velocities, expand upon impact at low velocity, tumble upon impact, fragment upon impact, or disintegrate upon impact.


title: Stopping power

text: To control the expansion of a bullet, meplat design and materials are engineered. The meplat designs are: flat; round to pointed depending on the ogive; hollow pointed which can be large in diameter and shallow or narrow in diameter and deep and truncated which is a long narrow punched hole in the end of a monolithic-solid type bullet. The materials used to make bullets are: pure lead; alloyed lead for hardness; gilding metal jacket which is a copper alloy of nickel and zinc to promote higher velocities; pure copper; copper alloy of bronze with tungsten steel alloy inserts to promote weight.


title: Stopping power

text: Some bullets are constructed by bonding the lead core to the jacket to promote higher weight retention upon impact, causing a larger and deeper wound channel. Some bullets have a web in the center of the bullet to limit the expansion of the bullet while promoting penetration. Some bullets have dual cores to promote penetration.


title: Stopping power

text: Bullets that might be considered to have stopping power for dangerous large game animals are usually 11.63 mm (.458 caliber) and larger, including 12-gauge shotgun slugs. These bullets are monolithic-solids; full metal jacketed and tungsten steel insert. They are constructed to hold up during close range, high velocity impacts. These bullets are expected to impact and penetrate, and transfer energy to the surrounding tissues and vital organs through the entire length of a game animal's body if need be.


title: Stopping power

text: The stopping power of firearms when used against humans is a more complex subject, in part because many persons voluntarily cease hostile actions when shot; they either flee, surrender, or fall immediately. This is sometimes referred to as "psychological incapacitation".


title: Stopping power

text: Physical incapacitation is primarily a matter of shot location; most persons who are shot in the head are immediately incapacitated, and most who are shot in the extremities are not, regardless of the firearm or ammunition involved. Shotguns will usually incapacitate with one shot to the torso, but rifles and especially handguns are less reliable, particularly those which do not meet the FBI's penetration standard, such as .25ACP, .32 S&W, and rimfire models. More powerful handguns may or may not meet the standard, or may even overpenetrate, depending on what ammunition is used.


title: Stopping power

text: Fully jacketed bullets penetrate deeply without much expansion, while soft or hollow point bullets create a wider, shallower wound channel. Pre-fragmented bullets such as Glaser Safety Slugs and MagSafe ammunition are designed to fragment into birdshot on impact with the target. This fragmentation is intended to create more trauma to the target, and also to reduce collateral damage caused from ricocheting or overpenetrating of the target and the surrounding environments such as walls. Fragmenting rounds have been shown to be unlikely to obtain deep penetration necessary to disrupt vital organs located at the back of a hostile human.


title: Stopping power

text: Permanent and temporary cavitation cause very different biological effects. A hole through the heart will cause loss of pumping efficiency, loss of blood, and eventual cardiac arrest. A hole through the liver or lung will be similar, with the lung shot having the added effect of reducing blood oxygenation; these effects however are generally slower to arise than damage to the heart. A hole through the brain can cause instant unconsciousness and will likely kill the recipient. A hole through the spinal cord will instantly interrupt the nerve signals to and from some or all extremities, disabling the target and in many cases also resulting in death (as the nerve signals to and from the heart and lungs are interrupted by a shot high in the chest or to the neck). By contrast, a hole through an arm or leg which hits only muscle will cause a great deal of pain but is unlikely to be fatal, unless one of the large blood vessels (femoral or brachial arteries, for example) is also severed in the process.


title: Stopping power

text: The effects of temporary cavitation are less well understood, due to a lack of a test material identical to living tissue. Studies on the effects of bullets typically are based on experiments using ballistic gelatin, in which temporary cavitation causes radial tears where the gelatin was stretched. Although such tears are visually engaging, some animal tissues (but not bone or liver) are more elastic than gelatin. In most cases, temporary cavitation is unlikely to cause anything more than a bruise. Some speculation states that nerve bundles can be damaged by temporary cavitation, creating a stun effect, but this has not been confirmed.


title: Stopping power

text: One exception to this is when a very powerful temporary cavity intersects with the spine. In this case, the resulting blunt trauma can slam the vertebrae together hard enough to either sever the spinal cord, or damage it enough to knock out, stun, or paralyze the target. For instance, in the shootout between eight FBI agents and two bank robbers in the 1986 FBI Miami shootout, Special Agent Gordon McNeill was struck in the neck by a high-velocity .223 bullet fired by Michael Platt. While the bullet did not directly contact the spine, and the wound incurred was not ultimately fatal, the temporary cavitation was sufficient to render SA McNeill paralyzed for several hours. Temporary cavitation may similarly fracture the femur if it is narrowly missed by a bullet.


title: Stopping power

text: Temporary cavitation can also cause the tearing of tissues if a very large amount of force is involved. The tensile strength of muscle ranges roughly from 1 to 4 MPa (145 to 580 lbf/in), and minimal damage will result if the pressure exerted by the temporary cavitation is below this. Gelatin and other less elastic media have much lower tensile strengths, thus they exhibit more damage after being struck with the same amount of force. At typical handgun velocities, bullets will create temporary cavities with much less than 1 MPa of pressure, and thus are incapable of causing damage to elastic tissues that they do not directly contact.


title: Stopping power

text: Rifle bullets that strike a major bone (such as a femur) can expend their entire energy into the surrounding tissue. The struck bone is commonly shattered at the point of impact.


title: Stopping power

text: High velocity fragmentation can also increase the effect of temporary cavitation. The fragments sheared from the bullet cause many small permanent cavities around the main entry point. The main mass of the bullet can then cause a truly massive amount of tearing as the perforated tissue is stretched.


title: Stopping power

text: Whether a person or animal will be incapacitated (i.e. "stopped") when shot, depends on a large number of factors, including physical, physiological, and psychological effects.


title: Stopping power

text: The only way to immediately incapacitate a person or animal is to damage or disrupt their central nervous system (CNS) to the point of paralysis, unconsciousness, or death. Bullets can achieve this directly or indirectly. If a bullet causes sufficient damage to the brain or spinal cord, immediate loss of consciousness or paralysis, respectively, can result. However, these targets are relatively small and mobile, making them extremely difficult to hit even under optimal circumstances.


title: Stopping power

text: Bullets can indirectly disrupt the CNS by damaging the cardiovascular system so that it can no longer provide enough oxygen to the brain to sustain consciousness. This can be the result of bleeding from a perforation of a large blood vessel or blood-bearing organ, or the result of damage to the lungs or airway. If blood flow is completely cut off from the brain, a human still has enough oxygenated blood in their brain for 10–15 seconds of wilful action, though with rapidly decreasing effectiveness as the victim begins to lose consciousness.


title: Stopping power

text: Unless a bullet directly damages or disrupts the central nervous system, a person or animal will not be instantly and completely incapacitated by physiological damage. However, bullets can cause other disabling injuries that prevent specific actions (a person shot in the femur cannot run) and the physiological pain response from severe injuries will temporarily disable most individuals.


title: Stopping power

text: Several scientific papers reveal ballistic pressure wave effects on wounding and incapacitation, including central nervous system injuries from hits to the thorax and extremities. These papers document remote wounding effects for both rifle and pistol levels of energy transfer.


title: Stopping power

text: Recent work by Courtney and Courtney provides compelling support for the role of a ballistic pressure wave in creating remote neural effects leading to incapacitation and injury. This work builds upon the earlier works of Suneson et al. where the researchers implanted high-speed pressure transducers into the brain of pigs and demonstrated that a significant pressure wave reaches the brain of pigs shot in the thigh. These scientists observed neural damage in the brain caused by the distant effects of the ballistic pressure wave originating in the thigh. The results of Suneson et al. were confirmed and expanded upon by a later experiment in dogs which "confirmed that distant effect exists in the central nervous system after a high-energy missile impact to an extremity. A high-frequency oscillating pressure wave with large amplitude and short duration was found in the brain after the extremity impact of a high-energy missile ..." Wang et al. observed significant damage in both the hypothalamus and hippocampus regions of the brain due to remote effects of the ballistic pressure wave.


title: Stopping power

text: Emotional shock, terror, or surprise can cause a person to faint, surrender, or flee when shot or shot at. There are many documented instances where people have instantly dropped unconscious when the bullet only hit an extremity, or even completely missed. Additionally, the muzzle blast and flash from many firearms are substantial and can cause disorientation, dazzling, and stunning effects. Flashbangs (stun grenades) and other less-lethal "distraction devices" rely exclusively on these effects.


title: Stopping power

text: Pain is another psychological factor, and can be enough to dissuade a person from continuing their actions.


title: Stopping power

text: Temporary cavitation can emphasize the impact of a bullet, since the resulting tissue compression is identical to simple blunt force trauma. It is easier for someone to feel when they have been shot if there is considerable temporary cavitation, and this can contribute to either psychological factor of incapacitation.


title: Stopping power

text: However, if a person is sufficiently enraged, determined, or intoxicated, they can simply shrug off the psychological effects of being shot. During the colonial era, when native tribesmen came into contact with firearms for the first time, there was no psychological conditioning that being shot could be fatal, and most colonial powers eventually sought to create more effective manstoppers.


title: Stopping power

text: Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.


title: Stopping power

text: According to Dr. Martin Fackler and the International Wound Ballistics Association (IWBA), between of penetration in calibrated tissue simulant is optimal performance for a bullet which is meant to be used defensively, against a human adversary. They also believe that penetration is one of the most important factors when choosing a bullet (and that the number one factor is shot placement). If the bullet penetrates less than their guidelines, it is inadequate, and if it penetrates more, it is still satisfactory though not optimal. The FBI's penetration requirement is very similar at .


title: Stopping power

text: A penetration depth of may seem excessive, but a bullet sheds velocity—and crushes a narrower hole—as it penetrates deeper, so the bullet might be crushing a very small amount of tissue (simulating an "ice pick" injury) during its last two or three inches of travel, giving only between of effective wide-area penetration. Also, skin is elastic and tough enough to cause a bullet to be retained in the body, even if the bullet had a relatively high velocity when it hit the skin. About velocity is required for an expanded hollow point bullet to puncture skin 50% of the time.


title: Stopping power

text: The IWBA's and FBI's penetration guidelines are to ensure that the bullet can reach a vital structure from most angles, while retaining enough velocity to generate a large diameter hole through tissue. An extreme example where penetration would be important is if the bullet first had to enter and then exit an outstretched arm before impacting the torso. A bullet with low penetration might embed itself in the arm whereas a higher penetrating bullet would penetrate the arm then enter the thorax where it would have a chance of hitting a vital organ.


title: Stopping power

text: Excessive penetration or "overpenetration" occurs when a bullet passes through its intended target and out of the other side, with enough residual kinetic energy to continue flying as a stray projectile and risk causing unintended collateral damage to objects or persons beyond. This happens because the bullet has not released all its energy within the target, according to the energy transfer hypothesis.


title: Stopping power

text: The energy transfer hypothesis states that for small arms in general, the more energy transferred to the target, the greater the stopping power. It postulates that the pressure wave exerted on soft tissues by the bullet's temporary cavity hits the nervous system with a jolt of shock and pain and thereby forces incapacitation.


title: Stopping power

text: Proponents of this theory contend that the incapacitation effect is similar to that seen in non-concussive blunt-force trauma events, such as a knock-out punch to the body, a football player "shaken up" as result of a hard tackle, or a hitter being struck by a fastball. Pain in general has an inhibitory and weakening effect on the body, causing a person under physical stress to take a seat or even collapse. The force put on the body by the temporary cavity is supersonic compression, like the lash of a whip. While the lash only affects a short line of tissue across the back of the victim, the temporary cavity affects a volume of tissue roughly the size and shape of a football. Giving further credence to this theory is the support from the aforementioned effects of drugs on incapacitation. Pain killers, alcohol, and PCP have all been known to decrease the effects of nociception and increase a person's resistance to incapacitation, all while having no effect on blood loss.


title: Stopping power

text: Kinetic energy is a function of the bullet's mass and the square of its velocity. Generally speaking, it is the intention of the shooter to deliver an adequate amount of energy to the target via the projectiles. All else held equal, bullets that are light and fast tend to have more energy than those that are heavy and slow.


title: Stopping power

text: Over-penetration is detrimental to stopping power in regards to energy. This is because a bullet that passes through the target does not transfer all of its energy to the target. Lighter bullets tend to have more penetration in soft tissue and therefore are less likely to over-penetrate. Expanding bullets and other tip variations can increase the friction of the bullet through soft tissue, and/or allow internal ricochets off bone, therefore helping prevent over-penetration.


title: Stopping power

text: Non-penetrating projectiles can also possess stopping power and give support to the energy transfer hypothesis. Notable examples of projectiles designed to deliver stopping power without target penetration are Flexible baton rounds (commonly known as "beanbag bullets") and the rubber bullet, types of reduced-lethality ammunition.


title: Stopping power

text: The force exerted by a projectile upon tissue is equal to the bullet's local rate of kinetic energy loss, with distance formula_1 (the first derivative of the bullet's kinetic energy with respect to position). The ballistic pressure wave is proportional to this retarding force (Courtney and Courtney), and this retarding force is also the origin of both temporary cavitation and prompt damage (CE Peters).


title: Stopping power

text: Hydrostatic shock is a controversial theory of terminal ballistics that states a penetrating projectile (such as a bullet) can produce a sonic pressure wave that causes "remote neural damage", "subtle damage in neural tissues" and/or "rapid incapacitating effects" in living targets. Proponents of the theory contend that damage to the brain from hydrostatic shock from a shot to the chest occurs in humans with most rifle cartridges and some higher-velocity handgun cartridges. Hydrostatic shock is not the shock from the temporary cavity itself, but rather the sonic pressure wave that radiates away from its edges through static soft tissue.


title: Stopping power

text: The idea of "knockback" implies that a bullet can have enough force to stop the forward motion of an attacker and physically knock them backwards or downwards. It follows from the law of conservation of momentum that no "knockback" could ever exceed the recoil felt by the shooter, and therefore has no use as a weapon. The myth of "knockback" has been spread through its confusion with the phrase "stopping power" as well as by many films, which show bodies flying backward after being shot.


title: Stopping power

text: The idea of knockback was first widely expounded in ballistics discussions during American involvement in Philippine insurrections and, simultaneously, in British conflicts in its colonial empire, when front-line reports stated that the .38 Long Colt caliber revolvers carried by U.S. and British soldiers were incapable of bringing down a charging warrior. Thus, in the early 1900s, the U.S. reverted to the .45 Colt in single action revolvers, and later adopted the .45 ACP cartridge in what was to become the M1911A1 pistol, and the British adopted the .455 Webley caliber cartridge in the Webley Revolver. The larger cartridges were chosen largely due to the Big Hole Theory (a larger hole does more damage), but the common interpretation was that these were changes from a light, deeply penetrating bullet to a larger, heavier "manstopper" bullet.


title: Stopping power

text: Though popularized in television and movies, and commonly referred to as "true stopping power" by uneducated proponents of large powerful calibers such as .44 Magnum, the effect of knockback from a handgun and indeed most personal weapons is largely a myth. The momentum of the so-called "manstopper" .45 ACP bullet is approximately that of a mass dropped from a height of . or that of a baseball. Such a force is simply incapable of arresting a running target's forward momentum. In addition, bullets are designed to penetrate instead of strike a blunt force blow, because, in penetrating, more severe tissue damage is done. A bullet with sufficient energy to knock down an assailant, such as a high-speed rifle bullet, would be more likely to instead pass straight through, while not transferring the full energy (in fact only a very small percentage of the full energy) of the bullet to the victim. Most energy from a fully stopped rifle round instead goes into formation of the temporary cavity and the destruction of both the round, the wound channel, and some of the surrounding tissues. There is no physical principle preventing a hypervelocity round from causing a splash injury in which the ejecta create rocket-like impulse on their way out to cause knockback, and indeed, no principle preventing a similar effect for exit wounds causing "knockforward", but this is still generally not anywhere near the impulse required to stop the motion of a sprinting person or knock them over from pure momentum.


title: Stopping power

text: Sometimes "knockdown power" is a phrase used interchangeably with "knockback", while other times it's used interchangeably with "stopping power". The misuse and fluid meaning of these phrases have done their part in confusing the issue of stopping power. The ability of a bullet to "knock down" a metal or otherwise inanimate target falls under the category of momentum, as explained above, and has little correlation with stopping power.


title: Stopping power

text: This hypothesis, promoted by Evan P. Marshall, is based on statistical analysis of actual shooting incidents from various reporting sources (typically police agencies). It is intended to be used as a unit of measurement and not as a tactical philosophy, as mistakenly believed by some. It considers the history of shooting incidents for a given factory ammunition load and compiles the percentage of "one-shot-stops" achieved with each specific ammunition load. That percentage is then intended to be used with other information to help predict the effectiveness of that load getting a "one-shot-stop". For example, if an ammunition load is used in 10 torso shootings, incapacitating all but two with one shot, the "one-shot-stop" percentage for the total sample would be 80%.


title: Stopping power

text: Some argue that this hypothesis ignores any inherent selection bias. For example, high-velocity 9×19mm Parabellum hollow point rounds appear to have the highest percentage of one-shot stops. Rather than identifying this as an inherent property of the firearm/bullet combination, the situations where these have occurred need to be considered. The 9mm has been the predominantly used caliber of many police departments, so many of these one-shot-stops were probably made by well-trained police officers, where accurate placement would be a contributory factor. However, Marshall's database of "one-shot-stops" does include shootings from law enforcement agencies, private citizens, and criminals alike.


title: Stopping power

text: Critics of this theory point out that bullet placement is a very significant factor, but is only generally used in such one-shot-stop calculations, covering shots to the torso. Others contend that the importance of "one-shot stop" statistics is overstated, pointing out that most gun encounters do not involve a "shoot once and see how the target reacts" situation. Proponents contend that studying one-shot situations is the best way to compare cartridges as comparing a person shot once to a person shot twice does not maintain a control and has no value.


title: Stopping power

text: This school of thought says that the bigger the hole in the target, the higher the rate of bleed-out and thus the higher the rate of the aforementioned "one-shot stop". According to this theory, as the bullet does not pass entirely through the body, it incorporates the energy transfer and the overpenetration ideals. Those that support this theory cite the .40 S&W round, arguing that it has a better ballistic profile than the .45 ACP, and more stopping power than a 9mm.


title: Stopping power

text: The theory centers on the "permanent cavitation" element of a handgun wound. A big hole damages more tissue. It is therefore valid to a point, but penetration is also important, as a large bullet that does not penetrate will be less likely to strike vital blood vessels and blood-carrying organs such as the heart and liver, while a smaller bullet that penetrates deep enough to strike these organs or vessels will cause faster bleed-out through a smaller hole. The ideal may therefore be a combination: a large bullet that penetrates deeply, which can be achieved with a larger, slower non-expanding bullet, or a smaller, faster expanding bullet such as a hollow point.


title: Stopping power

text: In the extreme, a heavier bullet (which preserves momentum greater than a lighter bullet of the same caliber) may "overpenetrate", passing completely through the target without expending all of its kinetic energy. So-called "overpenetration" is not an important consideration when it comes to wounding incapacitation or "stopping power" because: (a) while a lower "proportion" of the bullet's energy is transferred to the target, a higher "absolute amount" of energy is shed than in partial penetration, and (b) overpenetration creates an exit wound.


title: Stopping power

text: As mentioned earlier, there are many factors, such as drug and alcohol levels within the body, body mass index, mental illness, motivation levels, and gunshot location on the body which may determine which round will kill or at least catastrophically affect a target during any given situation.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Similar to the previous titles, "Double Dash" challenges "Mario" series player characters to race against each other on "Mario"-themed tracks. The game introduced a number of new gameplay features, such as supporting co-op gameplay with two riders per kart. One player drives the kart, and the other uses items. Players can switch at any time. "Double Dash" is the only game in the "Mario Kart" series to allow cooperative gameplay so far. "Double Dash" supports LAN play using the Nintendo GameCube Broadband Adapter, allowing up to 16 players to compete simultaneously. There are 20 characters to select from in total, each of which with a special item, and with eleven characters being new to the series.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Double Dash" received positive reviews from critics; it attained an aggregated score of 87 out of 100 on Metacritic. Reviewers praised the graphics, new gameplay features, character and item rosters, arcade aesthetic and track design, but elements of the voice acting were poorly received. It was commercially successful, with more than 3.8 million copies sold in the United States, and more than 802,000 copies sold in Japan. It is the second best-selling GameCube game of all-time, selling around 7 million copies worldwide, behind "Super Smash Bros. Melee". It also was rereleased as a player’s choice title in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Double Dash" is a kart racing video game in which the player races in a kart against other teams in different courses.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The game screen indicates the current standings in a race, the current speed of the player's kart (as both numbers and coloured bars) and incoming weapons.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Like in the previous installments, players can pick up item boxes to receive a randomly selected item and use it to impede the opposition and gain the advantage. Some items, such as shells and bananas, allow the player to hit others to slow them down, while other items, such as the star power-up, render them temporarily invincible to attacks.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: This is the only game in the series in which instead of one character per kart, there are two: one to drive, and one to use items; and is also the first in the series where players drop their items when hit by a weapon.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The powerslide technique, an action that allows the player to drift around turns, has been improved; players can tilt the control stick while drifting to make sparks appear around their kart. If tilted enough, the sparks turn blue, and the player gains a speed boost known as a "mini-turbo".


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The "rocket start", an action that allows the player to gain a speed boost when a race begins is also improved as the Double Dash, can only be done as a team, by both players pressing A as the race commences.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: There are four game modes in "Double Dash": Grand Prix, Time Trial, Versus, and Battle. Most of the modes can be played cooperatively, while some can only be played by themselves in single-player races.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The Grand Prix mode has the player race against 7 (or 6) teams, which are controlled by the computer, in a series of predetermined courses.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The player can choose to race using 3 different engine size classes: 50cc, 100cc, and 150cc. A fourth unlockable class, Mirror Mode, allows the player to race through a mirrored version of the tracks using the 150cc engine size.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Since all karts go faster when using higher engine sizes, the 4 classes serve as difficulty levels. There are 16 tracks, divided into 4 cups: Mushroom, Flower, Star and Special. A 5th cup has the player race in every track called the All-Cup Tour. The tour always starts with Luigi Circuit and ends with Rainbow Road, but the remaining tracks show up in random order.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Every race is three laps long except for Baby Park and Wario Colosseum, which have 7 and 2, respectively.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: After all the human players cross the finish line, the positions of the computer-controlled teams are immediately locked in and they are given points based on those eight positions, ranging from 0 to 10. No matter which position they finished, everyone will move on to the next race because of these new rules.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: At the end of the cup, there will be an award ceremony for the 3 teams, where they will get a trophy ranging from bronze to gold.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In the Time Trial single-player mode, the player has to finish any of the 16 courses in the fastest time possible, with the best time being saved as a ghost, a carbon copy of the player's performance that they can race against in later runs. Each character will receive a mushroom, which can be used at any time during the run. (1P only)


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In this mode, players can choose any course and race against up to 3 (or 15 with LAN) human opponents with customized rules such as changing the item frequency or the number of laps in each race. (2P-16P only)


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In battle mode, the player fights against up to 3 (or up to 15 with LAN) human-controlled opponents using items scattered throughout a battle arena.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: There is the traditional balloon-popping battle game, in which the player must use items to pop an opponent's three balloons while defending their own. Players can also steal items from one another by speeding towards them with a mushroom or star.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In Co-op battles, the player in the back of the kart can perform a slide-attack on another driver, which can also steal balloons. Additionally, two new games have been implemented; the first is Shine Thief, a game where a team captures a Shine Sprite and maintaining possession of it for a certain amount of time, usually starting out with 55 to 60 seconds. Each time the Shine Sprite is lost, the counter will somewhat reset the time. For instance, if a player is able to keep possession of the Shine Sprite for only 30 seconds, the counter would reset to 40 instead of 60.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The other mode involves throwing Bob-ombs at each other to collect points in Bob-omb Blast. With two players, 3 points are needed to win, but when playing with 3 or 4, 4 points are required to win. If two or more players throw a bomb at each other in unison, no points will be awarded to anybody. In a way, it's similar to a tie. As in previous installments, the battle arenas are enclosed (the exception being Tilt-A-Kart), with a varying layout and a replenishing arsenal of items. (2P-16P only)


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Mario Kart: Double Dash!!" is the last game in the series without the ability to battle computer-controlled opponents.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: LAN play – "Double Dash!!" also features LAN play using the Nintendo GameCube Broadband Adapter. Up to eight GameCube consoles can be connected, allowing for 16-player multiplayer races, with two players controlling each kart.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Players can choose from a cast of 20 playable drivers divided in 10 pairs. All of the characters have their own special items which are unique to them: Mario and Luigi with Fireballs, Peach and Daisy with Hearts, Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong with Giant Bananas, Bowser and Bowser Jr. with Bowser Shells, Wario and Waluigi with Bob-ombs, Yoshi and Birdo with Eggs, Toad and Toadette with Golden Mushrooms, a Koopa Troopa (who previously appeared in "Super Mario Kart") and a Koopa Paratroopa with Triple Red/Green Shells, as well as the infant versions of Mario and Luigi with Chain Chomps. Petey Piranha and King Boo have the unique ability to use any of the other characters' special items excluding Luigi's Green Fireballs and Birdo Eggs.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Double Dash!!" was first shown at E3 2001 as a seven-second video clip. The clip featured Mario and Luigi driving their karts on a bump mapped 3D surface with no background. At the time, it was early in development, and the working title of the game was simply "Mario Kart". In April 2003, Nintendo released the first pictures and details of the game, as well as revealing the title to be "Mario Kart: Double Dash!!". At E3 2003, a playable demo of the game was available. New features, such as having two characters drive one kart, had been implemented. An updated demo with some new additions was shown at the Games Convention in August 2003. In September, Nintendo held a Gamers' Summit for the press, in which a nearly complete and more sped up version of "Double Dash!!" was displayed. The Gamers' Summit also announced the North American release date to be November 17, 2003.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The development team struggled in devising gameplay features that would be enjoyed by the fans of the series. One of the hardest tasks chief director Kiyoshi Mizuki was assigned to do was to attract people who had no prior experience with the series; he decided to make the gameplay as simple as possible. Producer Shigeru Miyamoto presented the staff with a variety of opinions which they in turn would have to incorporate into the game the best way possible. Miyamoto let the team decide which graphics they wanted to use without restrictions.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: Connectivity to the Game Boy Advance was discussed as an opportunity among the developers, but they eventually agreed that "Double Dash!!" was not suited to these connectivity ideas and decided to exclude it. It was desirable to narrow down the gap between the ability of veteran and novice players. Therefore, gameplay features like the ability to escape the banana were removed; the staff wanted both veteran and novice players to enjoy themselves.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The game's soundtrack was composed by "Super Mario Sunshine" composer Shinobu Tanaka and "Mario Kart 64" composer Kenta Nagata.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Double Dash!!" received positive reviews from critics and fans. "Nintendo Power" gave the game a perfect score, and said the graphics were of "3-D perfection" and the controls and game mechanics "rival those of any [GameCube] racing game". "Double Dash!!" also received a perfect score from "GamePro", who commented that the gameplay remains "fast and furious". The feature of having two riders per kart was praised by Justin Leeper and Andy McNamara of "Game Informer"; McNamara stated: "Giving the player control of two different characters is pretty cool in single-player, but add a friend on the back of your kart in multiplayer and it opens the game up like never before." GameSpy called "Double Dash!!" a "great-looking, great-playing game that most gamers will instantly warm to." Eurogamer thought the game was one of the "finest pieces of electronic entertainment ever developed." GameZone's Louis Bedigian felt that none of the racing games he had played for the GameCube were as "spectacular" as "Double Dash!!". "GMR"s Andrew Pfister said, "Mario Kart: Double Dash is the most fun you'll have with a game this year. And probably next year. And maybe even the year after that". Brett Elston of GamesRadar praised the game's "dual-riders idea and untouchable multiplayer". "Electronic Gaming Monthly" said that the game's "pure, exhilarating glee will envelop your soul".


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: "Double Dash!!" has also received criticism from the media. Considering the 7-year gap since "Mario Kart 64", GameSpot's Ryan Davis stated that he was "a little disappointed with the limited scope of the game". He also said that the repetition of the voice acting was "unrelenting". "IGN" was also critical towards "Double Dash!!" for not progressing beyond its predecessor, calling the game a "mediocre effort". The UK-based publication "Edge" accused the game of "not being a racing game anymore." Game Revolution criticized the game's single-player mode for lacking substance and the track design for being "bland".


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In its first seven weeks of sales, "Double Dash" sold 1 million units, making it the fastest selling GameCube game up to that point. By July 2006, the game had sold 2.2 million copies and earned $105 million in the United States. "Next Generation" ranked it as the 12th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. The game ultimately sold 3.8 million units in the United States, and over 802,000 units in Japan. It received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. According to the NPD Group, "Double Dash!!" was the best-selling game of November 2003. It is also the third best-selling GameCube game in Australia. Joystiq reported in February 2009 that the game had sold nearly seven million copies worldwide.


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: The game received the "Multiplayer Game" award from ITV's "Game Stars" in 2004. It received the GameCube Video Game of the Year award from the Video Software Dealers Association (VSDA).


title: Mario Kart: Double Dash

text: In 2009, the game placed 63rd in "Official Nintendo Magazine"s 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time.


title: Frequency analysis

text: In cryptanalysis, frequency analysis (also known as counting letters) is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext. The method is used as an aid to breaking classical ciphers.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Frequency analysis is based on the fact that, in any given stretch of written language, certain letters and combinations of letters occur with varying frequencies. Moreover, there is a characteristic distribution of letters that is roughly the same for almost all samples of that language. For instance, given a section of English language, , , and are the most common, while , , and are rare. Likewise, , , , and are the most common pairs of letters (termed "bigrams" or "digraphs"), and , , , and are the most common repeats. The nonsense phrase "ETAOIN SHRDLU" represents the 12 most frequent letters in typical English language text.


title: Frequency analysis

text: In some ciphers, such properties of the natural language plaintext are preserved in the ciphertext, and these patterns have the potential to be exploited in a ciphertext-only attack.


title: Frequency analysis

text: In a simple substitution cipher, each letter of the plaintext is replaced with another, and any particular letter in the plaintext will always be transformed into the same letter in the ciphertext. For instance, if all occurrences of the letter turn into the letter , a ciphertext message containing numerous instances of the letter would suggest to a cryptanalyst that represents .


title: Frequency analysis

text: The basic use of frequency analysis is to first count the frequency of ciphertext letters and then associate guessed plaintext letters with them. More s in the ciphertext than anything else suggests that corresponds to in the plaintext, but this is not certain; and are also very common in English, so might be either of them also. It is unlikely to be a plaintext or which are less common. Thus the cryptanalyst may need to try several combinations of mappings between ciphertext and plaintext letters.


title: Frequency analysis

text: More complex use of statistics can be conceived, such as considering counts of pairs of letters ("bigrams"), triplets ("trigrams"), and so on. This is done to provide more information to the cryptanalyst, for instance, and nearly always occur together in that order in English, even though itself is rare.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Suppose Eve has intercepted the cryptogram below, and it is known to be encrypted using a simple substitution cipher as follows:


title: Frequency analysis

text: For this example, uppercase letters are used to denote ciphertext, lowercase letters are used to denote plaintext (or guesses at such), and ~ is used to express a guess that ciphertext letter represents the plaintext letter .


title: Frequency analysis

text: Eve could use frequency analysis to help solve the message along the following lines: counts of the letters in the cryptogram show that is the most common single letter, most common bigram, and is the most common trigram. is the most common letter in the English language, is the most common bigram, and is the most common trigram. This strongly suggests that ~, ~ and ~. The second most common letter in the cryptogram is ; since the first and second most frequent letters in the English language, and are accounted for, Eve guesses that ~, the third most frequent letter. Tentatively making these assumptions, the following partial decrypted message is obtained.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Using these initial guesses, Eve can spot patterns that confirm her choices, such as "". Moreover, other patterns suggest further guesses. "" might be "", which would mean ~. Similarly "" could be guessed as "", yielding ~ and ~. Furthermore, "" might be "", giving ~. Filling in these guesses, Eve gets:


title: Frequency analysis

text: In turn, these guesses suggest still others (for example, "" could be "", implying ~) and so on, and it is relatively straightforward to deduce the rest of the letters, eventually yielding the plaintext.


title: Frequency analysis

text: In this example from The Gold-Bug, Eve's guesses were all correct. This would not always be the case, however; the variation in statistics for individual plaintexts can mean that initial guesses are incorrect. It may be necessary to backtrack incorrect guesses or to analyze the available statistics in much more depth than the somewhat simplified justifications given in the above example.


title: Frequency analysis

text: It is also possible that the plaintext does not exhibit the expected distribution of letter frequencies. Shorter messages are likely to show more variation. It is also possible to construct artificially skewed texts. For example, entire novels have been written that omit the letter "" altogether — a form of literature known as a lipogram.


title: Frequency analysis

text: The first known recorded explanation of frequency analysis (indeed, of any kind of cryptanalysis) was given in the 9th century by Al-Kindi, an Arab polymath, in "A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages". It has been suggested that close textual study of the Qur'an first brought to light that Arabic has a characteristic letter frequency. Its use spread, and similar systems were widely used in European states by the time of the Renaissance. By 1474, Cicco Simonetta had written a manual on deciphering encryptions of Latin and Italian text.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Several schemes were invented by cryptographers to defeat this weakness in simple substitution encryptions. These included:


title: Frequency analysis

text: A disadvantage of all these attempts to defeat frequency counting attacks is that it increases complication of both enciphering and deciphering, leading to mistakes. Famously, a British Foreign Secretary is said to have rejected the Playfair cipher because, even if school boys could cope successfully as Wheatstone and Playfair had shown, "our attachés could never learn it!".


title: Frequency analysis

text: The rotor machines of the first half of the 20th century (for example, the Enigma machine) were essentially immune to straightforward frequency analysis.


title: Frequency analysis

text: However, other kinds of analysis ("attacks") successfully decoded messages from some of those machines.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Frequency analysis requires only a basic understanding of the statistics of the plaintext language and some problem solving skills, and, if performed by hand, tolerance for extensive letter bookkeeping. During World War II (WWII), both the British and the Americans recruited codebreakers by placing crossword puzzles in major newspapers and running contests for who could solve them the fastest. Several of the ciphers used by the Axis powers were breakable using frequency analysis, for example, some of the consular ciphers used by the Japanese. Mechanical methods of letter counting and statistical analysis (generally IBM card type machinery) were first used in World War II, possibly by the US Army's SIS. Today, the hard work of letter counting and analysis has been replaced by computer software, which can carry out such analysis in seconds. With modern computing power, classical ciphers are unlikely to provide any real protection for confidential data.


title: Frequency analysis

text: Frequency analysis has been described in fiction. Edgar Allan Poe's "The Gold-Bug", and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes tale "The Adventure of the Dancing Men" are examples of stories which describe the use of frequency analysis to attack simple substitution ciphers. The cipher in the Poe story is encrusted with several deception measures, but this is more a literary device than anything significant cryptographically.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: Healing the centurion's servant is one of the miracles performed by Jesus of Nazareth as related in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke (both part of the Christian biblical canon). The story is not recounted in the Gospels of either John or Mark.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: According to these accounts, a Roman centurion asks Jesus for his help because his servant is ill. Jesus offers to go to the centurion's house to perform a healing, but the centurion hesitates and suggests that Jesus' word of authority would be sufficient. Impressed, Jesus comments approvingly at the strong religious faith displayed by the soldier (despite not being a Jew) and grants the request, which results in the servant being healed the same day.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: The story of the centurion is not mentioned in the Gospel of Mark, the earliest of the four gospels. One theory is that material not in Mark but found in both Matthew and Luke may have come from a lost source known as "Q". If true then this passage would still be an anomaly as Q is believed to have been a collection of sayings of Jesus (a list of sermons and quotations) with no other contextual material; but the story of the centurion does include background detail. It would also be the only miracle story that originated in Q. One possibility is that only the dialogue was in Q, and both Matthew and Luke added the background details from a shared oral history.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: The Gospel of John does narrate the account of Jesus healing the son of a royal official at Capernaum at a distance in . Some modern commentators treat them as the same event. However, in his analysis of Matthew, R. T. France presents linguistic arguments against the equivalence of "pais" and son and considers these two separate miracles. Merrill C. Tenney in his commentary on John and Orville Daniel in his Gospel harmony also consider them two different incidents.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: The basic problem is the difference between the two accounts. Since Luke does not say that the centurion himself came to Christ, but only sent to Him, first Jews, and then his friends. St. John Chrysostom, Theophylact of Ohrid, and Euthymius, all hold that these events in Luke happened first and then last of all the centurion came to Christ. He did this "either for the sake of doing Him honour, or because of the urgency of the disease, and the imminent peril of death." St. Augustine and Bede are of the opinion that the centurion never came to Jesus but only came in the sense of sending his friends as emissaries.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: The statements made by the centurion are used in the Prayer of Humble Access contained in many Anglican, Methodist, Presbyterian, and other Christian Eucharist liturgies. His statements are also used as part of the Communion rite in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: According to I. Howard Marshall, there were no Roman forces in Galilee prior to AD 44; therefore, the soldier was probably a member of Herod Agrippa's troops, which modeled Roman organization. Either way, although his nationality is not given, he is clearly a gentile.


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: Luke 7:2 and 7:10 refer to the person to be healed as (), unambiguously meaning "servant" but has the centurion himself call him () – which has a number of more ambiguous meanings including "child" (, ), "son" () and, "servant" (, ).


title: Healing the centurion's servant

text: Christ says, "He did not find such faith in all Israel," which according to John McEvilly implies that he was a Pagan soldier, most likely Roman. He further states that this statement must have excluded those who "from the very nature of things, and the well-known evidence of facts, were excepted." This exception would include the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, the Patriarchs and Prophets of the Old Testament, the Apostles, etc. This is clear when Jesus refers to John the Baptist, saying, “No greater arose among the born of women.” (Matt 11:11) And of course he would have excluded himself.