title: Donald Bren

text: Bren has donated more than $200 million to support programs in K-12 public schools and higher education institutions in Southern California.


title: Donald Bren

text: Many of Bren's contributions have benefited universities in California, including the University of California, Irvine, University of California, Santa Barbara, and Chapman University. At the University of California, Bren "has contributed more to support endowed chairs than any other single donor in UC's history." Privately and through the Donald Bren Charitable Trust, he has directed contributions to support its faculty and programs. At UC Irvine, the Bren Events Center, the Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences and the recently built Donald Bren Hall are named after him, honoring his patronage of the school. The University also named its Claire Trevor School of the Arts after his stepmother. Additionally, UC Santa Barbara named Bren Hall and the Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, a graduate school, after him as well. Bren made a donation to the Bren School of Environmental Science and Management to "enhance and strengthen the school's core interdisciplinary programs, personnel, and special activities." When commenting about the continued support from Bren, UC Santa Barbara Chancellor Henry T. Yang said, "Bren's vision for developing a peerless, world-leading institution offering an interdisciplinary program of environmental science, management, and policy has been a tremendous source of inspiration and leadership for the Bren School."


title: Donald Bren

text: In August 2007, Bren pledged $20 million to the recently established UC Irvine School of Law. The purpose of the gift was to establish an endowment to help recruit and support a nationally recognized dean and 11 distinguished law scholars, and also to provide the dean with discretionary start-up funding. In recognition of the gift, the school was initially named the "UC Irvine Donald Bren School of Law". In 2008 an agreement was reached between Bren and the University that the school would not bear his name. Erwin Chemerinsky, dean of the law school, said, "We are deeply grateful for the Bren gift, but it was decided between the chancellor and Mr. Bren that our name should be parallel to other UC schools."


title: Donald Bren

text: Bren, a trustee at the California Institute of Technology, supported new faculty as Bren Scholars and endowed five Bren Professorships.


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2003, Bren also donated $1 million to the Marine Corps University in Quantico, Virginia. The funds were used to endow two academic chairs focusing on ethics & leadership and innovation & transformation.


title: Donald Bren

text: In addition to higher education, Bren has also contributed significantly to K-12 public schools in California.


title: Donald Bren

text: He has supported THINK Together, a provider of after-school services for K-12 students in Southern California. Bren first donated to this organization in 2001 with a contribution that helped the after-school program expand its services to 40 schools in the Santa Ana district. According to officials, the contribution would benefit more than 10,000 students over 10 years.


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2006, Bren also made a contribution to the Irvine Unified School District in Irvine, California, in the amount of $20 million. This donation would be used by the district to hire art, music and science teachers. The funding would benefit students in grades fourth through sixth over a 10-year period, giving them access to music, arts and science programs. This contribution is in addition to the $25 million that Bren provided to Irvine schools in 2000. According to Tim Shaw, former chief executive officer of the Irvine Public Schools Foundation, the annual gift "seeded the strong public support of elementary arts, music and science instruction."


title: Donald Bren

text: In March 2009, he was ranked 9th in "The (London) Sunday Times'" "Green Rich List"- a list of the 100 wealthiest people, who have either invested in green technology/businesses or made large contributions to environmental causes. Bren's placement on the list was due to his $20 million in donations to UC Santa Barbara's School of Environmental Science.


title: Donald Bren

text: Throughout a 30-year time span, Bren donated of land to be used for parks, greenways, recreation and wilderness preserves. The donated land fulfills Bren's plans and commitment to preserve more than 50-percent of historic Irvine Ranch of . Of this, were designated as the Irvine Ranch National Natural Landmark. During the 2006 ceremony at Crystal Cove State Park to celebrate this designation, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said "it is really a spectacular gift that [Bren's] given to [California]. Donald Bren is...the ultimate of generosity. Not only what he contributes to the environment, but what he contributes continuously to the community, if it is in education, if it is in arts, if it is music, if it is the environment, the 10s of millions of dollars he's invested in the environment, to protect the environment. He's an extraordinary man."


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2008, the state of California also designated the land as the first California Natural Landmark because of the land's ecological value. The protected land, once a part of Irvine Ranch, is operated by The Irvine Ranch Conservancy. Recently, Bren completed his pledge to set aside more than 50,000 acres of the original 93,000-acre ranch as open space by designating 20,000 acres (81 km2) to Orange County, California, as an open-space and parklands gift in June 2010. The gift was accepted in a unanimous decision by the Orange County Board of Supervisors and was the largest donation of private property to public ownership in Orange County history. In a ceremony in the same year, he was recognized for donating more than 20,000 acres of pristine wilderness that he gave to Orange County, asking only that it remain open space forever. In August 2014, the Irvine Company announced plans to donate and preserve 2,500 additional acres of land previously approved for housing, bringing the preserved lands of the Irvine Ranch to 60%.


title: Donald Bren

text: Gale Norton, former U.S. Secretary of the Interior, speaking about Bren's history of land donations, said, "The Irvine Ranch illustrates what cooperative conservation is all about. A conservation-minded corporate citizen is working hand-in-hand with federal and state agencies, The Nature Conservancy, local communities, private citizens and other partners to thoughtfully and purposefully create an environment where both people and wildlife can thrive."


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2007, Bren made a $2.5 million commitment to the Burnham Institute for Medical Research in La Jolla, California. The contribution established The Donald Bren Presidential Chair and the money donated was used to support research conducted by the Institute such as cancer, neurodegeneration, diabetes, and childhood diseases among others.


title: Donald Bren

text: From a 2011 interview, solar energy is one of the areas he is exploring for a future philanthropic gift. Bren said, "It's my view that solar energy may be the ultimate solution for energy for most of the world. I believe, based on what little I know about it, that there is a possibility of a breakthrough."


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2006 the "Los Angeles Times" named Bren as both the most powerful and wealthiest person in Southern California, and the "Orange County Business Journal" named him "Businessperson of the Year" based on the company's office expansion, new building construction, and Bren being recognized for his conservation efforts by the federal government. In 2011 the Urban Land Institute awarded Bren its first Vanguard Award, calling him "one of the most consequential developers in American history." In 2014 he was named on OC Register's list of the 100 most influential people in Orange County.


title: Donald Bren

text: In 2004 Bren received the University of California Presidential Medal, the University's highest honor, because of his financial support throughout the years which at the time was more than $43 million. During the award ceremony, former UC President, Robert Dynes said, "[Bren's] passionate philanthropy and commitment to educational excellence have helped strengthen the university."


title: Donald Bren

text: In 1998, Bren received the Marine Corps University Foundation's Semper Fidelis Award, which recognizes a distinguished American leader whose commitment to personal and professional excellence embodies those qualities of leadership and character uniquely associated with the United States Marine Corps. Past award recipients include former President George H.W. Bush and former Secretary of State George P. Schultz. The Foundation also presented Bren with its most prestigious award in 2003, the General Leonard F. Chapman Medallion named in honor of the 24th Commandant of the United States Marine Corps.


title: Donald Bren

text: Bren serves on the board of trustees at Caltech and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. He was elected a Fellow with the American Academy of Arts & Sciences in 2007 in the category of Business, Corporate and Philanthropic Leadership.


title: Donald Bren

text: Bren keeps a low public profile and as he explains, "I'm not a public official. I'm a businessman, I'm a builder, I'm a planner... And if I feel that I've done the job well, that's the satisfaction I get, not from doing interviews or being more public." "OC Weekly" described Bren in 2005 as "one of the nation's least public billionaires", who guards his privacy "jealously". The "Los Angeles Times" that year canceled a pending article discussing how the fictional Caleb Nichol of the popular television show "The O.C." was based on Bren, allegedly because the Irvine Company threatened to withdraw advertising. The "Times" denied the allegation and stated that the story was canceled for timing reasons.


title: Donald Bren

text: Bren supported Republican Pete Wilson's Senate and gubernatorial campaigns, and Democrat Dianne Feinstein, whom he calls "a great senator for California."


title: Fredo Bang

text: Fredrick Dewon Thomas Givens II (born March 29, 1996), known professionally as Fredo Bang, is an American rapper from Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He is best known for his tracks "Oouuh" and "Top" (featuring Lil Durk). In April 2020, he released his debut studio album, "Most Hated", through Se Lavi Productions and Def Jam Recordings.


title: Fredo Bang

text: Givens was born on March 29, 1996, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Givens grew up close to rappers Krazy Trey and Da Real Gee Money, both of whom were eventual victims of homicide in 2014 and 2017 respectively.


title: Fredo Bang

text: Givens gained recognition after the release of his July 2018 single "Oouuh". His highest viewed videos are "Top", "Father", Oouuh" and "Trust Issues" which all have reached over 20 million views on YouTube.


title: Fredo Bang

text: In January 2020, he was featured on Moneybagg Yo's track "Spin on Em", which received a music video in May 2020. The record was produced by Fredo Bang's go-to producers and close affiliates, DJ Chose and Hardbody B-Eazy. In April 2020, he released his debut studio album "Most Hated", which peaked at number 110 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Fredo Bang

text: On September 25, 2020, he released a new project titled "In the Name of Gee", which peaked at number 40 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Fredo Bang

text: In January 2016, Givens was arrested on charges of attempted second degree murder. He served two years in jail for the charge before being released in 2018. He gets off parole in 2023.


title: Fredo Bang

text: On July 22, 2021, Givens was arrested again in Miami on a fugitive warrant out of Louisiana. He was arrested a day after his fellow Top Boy Gorilla artist Lit Yoshi, who was arrested on attempted murder charges.


title: Fredo Bang

text: Givens identifies as spiritual but not religious, although he believes in a God. He does not have any children, but looks after Gee Money's children after Gee was murdered in Late 2017.


title: The Setting Sun

text: Twenty-nine year old Kazuko, her brother Naoji, and their widowed mother are members of an impoverished aristocratic family living in post-war Tokyo. Kazuko had been married, but divorced and returned to the family household after claiming that she had had an extramarital affair with a painter she admired. The child she had been expecting was stillborn. Naoji, who served with the military in the South Pacific, is declared missing. Kazuko recalls a time when she burned snake eggs, thinking that they were viper eggs. It is revealed that at the time of Kazuko's father's death, there were many snakes present in and around the house, which therefore have become ominous in her and her mother's eyes.


title: The Setting Sun

text: Kazuko and her mother move to the Izu peninsula countryside with the help of a relative, and she begins working in the fields to support them, claiming to be growing into a "coarse woman". One day, Naoji eventually returns. He is addicted to opium as he had been before the war. He treats his mother and sister cruelly, and spends most of the time among Tokyo's literary circles which he had been associated with before he was drafted. Kazuko finds Naoji's "Moonflower Journal," in which he rants about people's bigotry and insincerity, and writes about his addiction and his struggles as a writer and individual.


title: The Setting Sun

text: Kazuko writes to novelist Uehara, an old acquaintance and mentor of her brother, whom she once met when she was still married. She declares that she loves and adores him and wants to have his child, although she knows that he is an alcoholic. She repeatedly refers to ideas of Christianity and Marxism, having read a book by Rosa Luxemburg which she found in her brother's belongings, and dedicates the letters to "M.C.", resolving the initials both as "My Chekhov" and "My Child". He does not respond. Meanwhile, her mother's health is deteriorating, and she is diagnosed with tuberculosis. Kazuko sees a black snake on the porch and remembers how her father died when one was present. Soon after, her mother dies.


title: The Setting Sun

text: Kazuko eventually meets Uehara, years after their first encounter. Shortly after, Naoji commits suicide, leaving behind a letter to his sister which gives his feelings of weakness over his aristocratic descent as the reason, also denouncing all ideologies which suppress the individual. The story ends with a letter by Kazuko to Uehara. She reveals that she is pregnant, and wants to raise the child on her own, disposing of the old morality and embracing a new revolutionary way of life. She ends the letter addressing Uehara once again as M.C., this time resolving the initials as "My Comedian".


title: The Setting Sun

text: "The Setting Sun" first appeared in serialised form in "Shinchō" magazine between July and October 1947, before being published as a book the same year.


title: The Setting Sun

text: An English edition appeared in September 1956 in a translation provided by Donald Keene. The first two chapters had been printed in "Harper's Bazaar" the previous month.


title: The Setting Sun

text: The character of Kazuko was modeled after writer and poetess Shizuko Ota (1913–1982), a mistress of the then married Dazai. Her diary served as the basis for Kazuko's notes.


title: The Setting Sun

text: Ozamu's novel is nowadays widely regarded as his best-known work, which "created an immediate sensation" (Keene) upon its first appearance. It has been touted as an accurate portrait of post-war Japan, and its title became eponymous for the decline of the Japanese aristocracy of the time.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Sal Iacono (born July 5, 1971), also known as Cousin Sal, is an American comedian, writer, and game show host. He is known for his roles on "The Man Show" and the late night television show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". He is Jimmy Kimmel's cousin, hence his nickname Cousin Sal.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Iacono was born in Brooklyn to Fran Iacono and Vincent Iacono. He graduated from Elwood-John Glenn High School in 1989 and attended SUNY Oswego, earning a degree in Public Justice in 1993.


title: Sal Iacono

text: He went on to study law at Touro Law Center in Huntington, New York on Long Island, receiving his Juris Doctor in 1996. In 1997, Iacono moved from Long Island to Hollywood to pursue a career in television.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Iacono's first foray into television writing was on the Fox Sports program "Sports Geniuses", a sports-themed game show starring Matt Vasgersian on which Sal also appeared nightly in a trivia challenge. From there, he joined the writing staff of Comedy Central's "The Man Show" starring Adam Carolla and Iacono's cousin Jimmy Kimmel. In 2002, Iacono joined Kimmel during his weekly prognostication sketches on "Fox NFL Sunday". Iacono wrote for the puppet show "Crank Yankers".


title: Sal Iacono

text: When "Win Ben Stein's Money" co-host Nancy Pimental left the show in 2002, Iacono replaced her, becoming Ben Stein's co-host and comic tormentor. Iacono was the co-host through the rest of the run of the series and was nominated for an Emmy Award in the Outstanding Game Show Host category.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Iacono has been a permanent member of the "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" writing staff since 2003. He also appears frequently on the show in comedy sketches. These comedy bits are often shot using a hidden camera, and "Cousin Sal" either helps Jimmy prank their aunt Chippy or he pretends to be a store employee or delivery person who is incredibly inept or annoying. Cousin Sal's victims are invariably dumbfounded or become extremely infuriated, much to the delight of the viewing audience.


title: Sal Iacono

text: On "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" on May 16, 2008, Iacono had a birthday cake delivered to Kimmel on air by his favorite wrestler Rowdy Roddy Piper. He and Piper were confronted by Santino Marella, who had the cake thrown on him and was attacked by Iacono. The following Monday, Marella (dressed as Piper) brought Iacono to the ring on "Monday Night Raw" to "apologize" to "Cousin Sal". The real Piper entered the ring and Marella got his own apology cake thrown on him and on his way back to the locker room, he challenged Iacono to a wrestling match, which Piper accepted on Iacono's behalf. The match took place at the "Friday Night SmackDown!" tapings in Los Angeles on June 3, 2008. Sal was accompanied to the ring by Kimmel and Piper, and won the match.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Iacono is a regular guest on The Bill Simmons Podcast. "Cousin Sal" picks the lines for the next weeks NFL games, defends the Dallas Cowboys, and talks about sports and sports betting with Bill. Sal also joined the Adam Carolla Podcast on Mondays during the 2010 NFL season to discuss the previous Sunday's NFL action. In May 2017, Iacono became host of the 'Against All Odds' gambling podcast, part of Simmons's Ringer Podcast Network.


title: Sal Iacono

text: In July 2020 Iacono debuted a new podcast called "Extra Points" with his friend Dave Dameshek as part of a newly formed sports gambling media company of the same name founded by Iacono.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Along with his appearances on Bill Simmons's podcast, Sal was also a regular columnist on Grantland.com, which was a sports and pop culture website formerly run by Simmons.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Sal is an analyst on Fox sports gambling show Fox Bet Live. Its series premier was on September 10, 2018.


title: Sal Iacono

text: In 2002, Sal was a guest prognosticator with his cousin Jimmy Kimmel on FOX NFL Sunday. In addition, starting in 2019 for FOX NFL Thursday, Sal will be the prognosticator. Kimmel has also made a guest appearance on it.


title: Sal Iacono

text: Iacono currently resides near Los Angeles with his wife, Melissa, and three sons, Archie, Jack, and Harrison (aka Harriso).


title: Xiezhi

text: The xiezhi () is a mythical ancient creature of Chinese origin impact to throughout East Asian legends. It resembles an ox or goat, with thick dark fur covering its body, bright eyes, and a single long horn on its forehead. It has great intellect and understands human speech. The "xiezhi" possesses the innate ability to distinguish right from wrong and when it finds corrupt officials, it will ram them with its horn and devour them. It is known as a symbol of justice.


title: Xiezhi

text: According to legend, the "xiezhi", was a single-horned sheep or goat which had power to divine the guilt or innocence of a person. Gao Yao, the minister of justice for the legendary Emperor Shun employed the beast during criminal proceedings, and he would command the sheep to ram (head-butt) the accused. The beast would ram the guilty, but spare the innocent. The account appears in Wang Chong, "Lunheng" (80 AD).


title: Xiezhi

text: In the same work ("Lunheng"), the legend is prefaced the remark that public offices are painted with the images of the beast and the minister.


title: Xiezhi

text: As a symbol of traditional Chinese law, "xiezhi" has been promoted by the Chinese Dynasties. The judicial hat () was also referred to as the "xiezhi" after the mythical sheep/ox. The "xiezhi" hat was part of the attire of censors () into the 8th century during the Tang period, especially for an impeachment trial.


title: Xiezhi

text: Legend has it that during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, King Wen of Chu once obtained a "xiezhi" and put its image on his head, and then the "xiezhi" crown became a fashion in the State of Chu. Law enforcement officials in the Qin Dynasty also wore such crowns, as did the Han Dynasty, which inherited the Qin system. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, images of the xiezhi became an indispensable ornament in the Xie Men, and the XieZhi crown was titled on the law. Therefore, law enforcement officials were called "xiezhi".


title: Xiezhi

text: Mentions of the "xiezhi" in Chinese literature can be traced back to the Han Dynasty. "Rhapsody on the Imperial Park" (), Sima Xiangru mentions the "xiezhi" "sagacious stag" among the preys in the year-end barricade hunt staged by the Son of Heaven. Scholar Yáng Fú (杨孚) described the xiezhi in his treatise Yiwu Zhi as a "righteous beast, which rams the wrongful party when it sees a fight and bites the wrongful party when it hears an argument". It is described in the Shuowen Jiezi as being "a cattle-like beast with one horn; in ancient times. It settled disputes by ramming the party at fault".


title: Xiezhi

text: As an inherently just beast, the xiezhi was used as a symbol of justice and law. The Censorate of the Ming and Qing eras, who were responsible for the monitoring of the civil service, wore the xiezhi as a badge of office. Among the common folk, the image of the xiezhi was believed to dispel evil spirits; a xiezhi might be carved on a lock to frighten off evil spirits. Similarly, military policemen of the Republic of China wear badges bearing the xiezhi and it is engraved on the gavels in the law courts of the People's Republic of China.


title: Xiezhi

text: In 2022, a species of prehistoric giraffoid artiodactyl from early Miocene China, "Discokeryx xiezhi", was named after the Xiezhi in reference to a single bony plate on top of its skull which bore a resemblance to the horn of the mythical creature.


title: Xiezhi

text: In Japan, it is known as , also sometimes referred to as a . The kaichi is described as similar to a lion with one horn on the top of its head.


title: Xiezhi

text: The "xiezhi" is known as "haetae" () in Korea. According to Korean records, the "haetae" has a muscular leonine body covered with sharp scales, a bell in its neck, and a horn on its forehead. It lives in the frontier areas of Manchuria.


title: Xiezhi

text: In Joseon-dynasty Korea, the "haetae" was believed to protect against fire disasters. Sculptures of "haetae" were used in architecture (for example, at Gyeongbok Palace) to ward off fire. A cartoon "haetae" named is the city mascot of Seoul.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: Digital Eclipse is an American video game developer based in Emeryville, California. Founded by Andrew Ayre in 1992, the company found success developing commercial emulations of arcade games for Game Boy Color. In 2003, the company merged with ImaginEngine and created Backbone Entertainment. A group of Digital Eclipse employees split off from Backbone to form Other Ocean Interactive, which, in 2015, bought and revived the Digital Eclipse brand. Among its staff is video game preservation specialist Frank Cifaldi.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: Digital Eclipse was founded in 1992 by Andrew Ayre, Hans Kim, John Neil, and Howard Fukuda. The company's first offices were opened on a "nondescript, factory-filled" street in Emeryville, California, where Ayre (a native of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) had moved following his graduation from Harvard University to live with his girlfriend. Initially a technology startup company, Digital Eclipse soon found that their software would be useful in the video game industry, and turned to game development instead. Using their technology, the company opted to produce commercial emulations of arcade games, such as Williams Electronics' "Joust", "Defender", and "". For these games, Digital Eclipse developed an interpreter that emulated the games' arcade machines' chipset, including the Motorola 6809 central processing unit. This approach was meant to have the emulations act true to the original versions of these games, and not carry any imperfections direct ports could have introduced. All three emulated games were released as part of "The Digital Arcade" series for Mac OS in 1995.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: Digital Eclipse found further success when the Game Boy Color was released; the new handheld console included a central processing unit based on the architecture of the Zilog Z80, the processor used in older arcade machines. While other developers were moving on to develop for the more powerful PlayStation home console, Digital Eclipse developed about 60 games for their niche market on the Game Boy Color. These games included "Klax", "Spy Hunter", "Moon Patrol", "Paperboy", "Joust", "Defender", and "720°", as well as an original game, "Tarzan", which Digital Eclipse produced for Activision. Digital Eclipse also opened a second studio in Vancouver, Canada. In February 2001, the company announced their move into the games market for "wireless Web" devices, hiring Scott Nisbet as director of wireless gaming, as well as Bruce Binder as Nisbet's consultant.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: In 2003, Digital Eclipse merged with ImaginEngine, creating Backbone Entertainment; while ImaginEngine remained an independent studio within that structure, Digital Eclipse's studios became Backbone Emeryville and Backbone Vancouver, respectively. By this point, Digital Eclipse had produced 70 games on 11 different platforms. In February 2006, Backbone opened another subsidiary studio, Backbone Charlottetown, in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada, under the lead of Ayre. In May 2007, the new studio, including Ayre and several former Digital Eclipse employees, spun off from Backbone and became Other Ocean Interactive, aiming at showcasing Digital Eclipse's former traits in a smaller fashion.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: Backbone Vancouver was mostly dismantled in September 2008 and closed entirely in May 2009, while Backbone laid off the majority of its Emeryville-based staff in October 2012. On June 8, 2015, after acquiring the Digital Eclipse name, Other Ocean's parent company, Other Ocean Group, announced that it had reformed Digital Eclipse as part of its Other Ocean Emeryville studio. Co-founders include Ayre, Mike Mika—who had acted as technical director for the original Digital Eclipse—and former "Gamasutra" writer Frank Cifaldi. The new Digital Eclipse laid its focus on video game preservation, and Cifaldi became the studio's "head of restoration", a title which Cifaldi noted was an industry first. At the time, Cifaldi also stated that Digital Eclipse aimed at becoming the video game equivalent of The Criterion Collection.


title: Digital Eclipse

text: Part of Digital Eclipse's work include their own Eclipse Engine, a tool that allows them to decompile the code from older games into a machine-readable format that is then used by the Eclipse Engine to play them on modern systems. While it may take some extra work by the company to decompile the older game into the proper format one time, this approach allows them to rapidly port the Eclipse Engine version to any modern gaming system, including personal computers, consoles, and portable and mobile devices, with minimal effort. This engine has been used in Digital Eclipse's "Mega Man Legacy Collection" and "The Disney Afternoon Collection". The Eclipse Engine was primarily developed by Digital Eclipse's studio head, Mike Mika, and Other Ocean engineer Kevin Wilson, branched off from Other Ocean's Bakesale engine.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: The Blue Grotto () is a sea cave on the coast of the island of Capri, southern Italy. Sunlight passing through an underwater cavity and shining through the seawater creates a blue reflection that illuminates the cavern. The cave extends some 50 metres into the cliff at the surface, and is about deep, with a sandy bottom.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: The cave is 60 metres long and 25 metres wide. The entry is two metres wide and roughly one metre high at low tide, making safe access possible only when tides are low and the sea is calm. To enter the grotto, visitors must lie flat on the bottom of a small four-person rowboat. The oarsman then uses a metal chain attached to the cave walls to guide the boat inside the grotto.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In 2011 a visitor suffered a life altering injury when his neck was broken while entering the cave. The Cooperativa Battellieri Grotta Azzurra initially denied liability but settled a damages claim. It was concluded that the boatmen had continued entering the cave when the sea conditions were inappropriate. Swimming in the grotto is forbidden.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: The Blue Grotto is one of several sea caves worldwide that is flooded with a brilliant blue or emerald light. The quality and nature of the colour in each is determined by its unique combination of depth, breadth, water clarity, and light source.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In the case of the Blue Grotto, the light comes from two sources: the narrow arched entranceway, and an aperture approximately ten times as large directly below it, separated by a band of rock between one and two meters tall. Because it is farther from the surface much less light passes through the lower opening, but its depth and size allow it to be the grotto water's primary source of illumination.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: As light passes through the water into the cave, red reflections are filtered out and only blue light enters the cave. Objects placed in the water of the grotto famously appear silver. This is caused by tiny bubbles, which cover the outside of the object when they are placed underwater. The bubbles cause the light to refract differently than it does from the surrounding water and gives off the silver effect.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In part because of the dazzling effect of the light from the above-water opening, it is impossible for a visitor who is in one of the rowboats to identify the shape of the larger hole, the outline of the bar that separates the two holes, or the nature of the light source, other than a general awareness that the light is coming up from underneath, and that the water in the cave is more light-filled than the air. A visitor who places a hand in the water can see it "glow" eerily in this light.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: During Roman times, the grotto was used as the personal swimming hole of Emperor Tiberius as well as a marine temple. Tiberius moved from the Roman capital to the island of Capri in 27 AD. During Tiberius' reign, the grotto was decorated with several statues as well as resting areas around the edge of the cave. Three statues of the Roman sea gods Neptune and Triton were recovered from the floor of the grotto in 1964 and are now on display at a museum in Anacapri. Seven bases of statues were also recovered from the grotto floor in 2009. This suggests that there are at least four more statues lying on the cave's bottom. The cave was described by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder as being populated with Triton "playing on a shell". The now missing arms on the recovered Triton statue – usually depicted with a conch shell, suggest that the statues recovered in 1964 are the same statues Pliny the Elder saw in the 1st century AD. According to a reconstruction of how the Blue Grotto may have looked in Roman times, a swarm of Triton statues headed by a Neptune statue may have stood in the walls of the cave. The Marevivo association aims construct this by placing statues in the grotto. This project is being carried out in collaboration with the archaeological superintendence of Pompeii.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: At the back of the main cave of the Blue Grotto, three connecting passageways lead to the Sala dei Nomi, or "Room of Names", named for the graffiti signatures left by visitors over the centuries. Two more passages lead deeper into the cliffs on the side of island. It was thought that these passages were ancient stairways that led to Emperor Tiberius' palace. However, the passages are natural ones that narrow and then end further along.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: During the 18th century, the grotto was known to the locals as "Gradola", after the nearby landing place of Gradola. It was avoided by sailors and islanders because it was said to be inhabited by witches and monsters. The grotto was then "rediscovered" by the public in 1826, with the visit of German writer August Kopisch and his friend Ernst Fries, who were taken to the grotto by local fisherman Angelo Ferraro.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: The cave as in every medieval history was said to be a refuge for devils and monsters. Two priests determined to drive them away entered the cave swimming, after a few minutes spent inside it they ran away in panic as if they had seen the face of the devil. From that moment on, the two began to rant. Named the cursed cave, it preserves numerous legends.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In 1826, German writer August Kopisch and his friend Ernst Fries, a German painter, visited the cave and recorded their visit in the Kopisch's "Entdeckung der blauen Grotte auf der Insel Capri" in 1838.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In 1842 Danish choreographer August Bournonville set the second act of his ballet "Napoli" in the Blue Grotto. In this fantastic tale, Golfo, the demon who rules the Blue Grotto, transforms the ballet's heroine, Teresina, into a Naiad.


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: Mark Twain visited the Blue Grotto in 1869 and recorded his thoughts in his book "The Innocents Abroad".


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: Uranian poet Edwin Emmanuel Bradford recorded his impression of a bathing boy in the Blue Grotto in the poem "In Quest of Love", included in "In Quest of Love and Other Poems" (1914), and again in "The Bather in the Blue Grotto at Capri", included in "The New Chivalry and Other Poems" (1918) and reprinted in "To Boys Unknown" (1988). Both poems were anthologised in "Lad's Love: An anthology of Uranian poetry and prose" (2010).


title: Blue Grotto (Capri)

text: In Alberto Moravia's 1954 novel "Il disprezzo" (Contempt), a vision appears to the protagonist when, under heavy mental stress, he visits the cave alone.


title: Misty Upham

text: Misty Anne Upham (July 6, 1982 – October 5, 2014) was a Blackfeet actress. She attracted critical acclaim for her performance in the 2008 film "Frozen River", for which she was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female. She also appeared in "" and "".


title: Misty Upham

text: Misty Anne Upham was born on July 6, 1982, in Kalispell, Montana, and raised in Auburn, Washington. A Native American, she was a member of the Blackfeet Nation. She was reportedly sexually abused, assaulted and gang-raped, first as a child and then later in life as an up-and-coming actress in Hollywood by an executive at The Weinstein Company. Both Upham and family members reported that she suffered from depression and the severe after effects of these traumas.


title: Misty Upham

text: Upham's film credits include "Expiration Date", "Edge of America", "Skins" and "Skinwalkers". In 2010, she appeared on HBO's "Big Love". In 2013, she played a major supporting role in Arnaud Desplechin's "", selected in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 66th Festival de Cannes. She played the housekeeper Johnna in "", and played Liz in "Cake".


title: Misty Upham

text: On October 5, 2014, Upham left her sister's apartment on the Muckleshoot Reservation in Auburn, Washington, on foot. The following weekend, her family announced via Facebook and other media that she had not been heard from since then and that they were concerned for her wellbeing, citing past mental health problems. A spokesman for the Auburn Police Department told CNN that police had not opened an investigation and were not regarding Upham as a missing person at that time. He confirmed that family members had contacted police on several occasions in the past year to report Upham missing but that she had been located and determined to be safe within a few days in each previous case.


title: Misty Upham

text: On October 16, 2014, Misty Upham's body was found by a small search party organized by her family and other members of the Muckleshoot Tribe. Her body was found at the bottom of a cliff in a wooded area, just a short distance from where the family had previously searched. Members of the search party believe her death was an accident; that she fell off the cliff in the dark and that her life could have been saved had there been a prompt and thorough search. Citing lack of action on the part of the Auburn police, and alleging past abuse of Misty Upham by members of the Auburn Police Department, Upham's family released a statement that reads in part:


title: Misty Upham

text: "But the real tragedy is this could have been prevented on a lot of levels. We pleaded with the Auburn Police to help us find Misty but Commander Stocker made the decision that Misty did not fit the criteria of the Washington State Endangered Missing Persons Plan. This became a point of contention between us and the Auburn PD. In a statement he gave to the press he said Auburn PD doesn't have any evidence that Misty is actually missing. He went on to say that Misty packed her belonging and left her apartment. This was an inaccurate statement. We believe that Commander Stocker had animosity against Misty due to a previous encounter."


title: Misty Upham

text: "Now press reports are saying that Auburn police department found Misty. The truth is the Native American community formed a search party and found her after several days of searching without the help of the Auburn PD".


title: Misty Upham

text: On December 3, 2014, the King County Medical Examiner released a report stating Misty Upham had died of blunt-force injuries to her head and torso on October 5, 2014, the day she disappeared. The medical examiner stated that "the manner of her death – whether by foul play, suicide or accident – could not be determined."


title: Misty Upham

text: In late October 2016, the upcoming release of a documentary on Upham was announced. "11 Days - The Search for Misty Upham" investigates her disappearance and death, and the search for her led by her family in what they report was the absence of police support. It is scheduled to appear at Native American film festivals, notably in the broader context of the ongoing issue of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW).


title: Misty Upham

text: On October 15, 2017, in the wake of the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations, Upham's father, Charles Upham, went public with allegations that his daughter was raped by a member of Weinstein's production team at the same Golden Globes ceremony where she was honored, and that other members of Weinstein's team had not only witnessed the rape but had cheered the rapist.


title: Misty Upham

text: After her death, The Yale Indigenous Performing Arts Program created The Misty Upham Award for Young Native Actors in 2021 to honor Misty's legacy and her hope of uplifting more young Native actors. The Misty Upham Award was created in 2021 and each year the award honors a Native actor under 25 with an award, $500 cash prize, and performance opportunities. Misty was an inspiration. Her talent, artistry, and career broke barriers for many and it is important that that part of her legacy be celebrated and remembered. Each year, young actors submit performances of monologues from Native plays for a chance to win this award.


title: GV (company)

text: GV is a venture capital investment arm of Alphabet Inc., founded by Bill Maris, that provides seed, venture, and growth stage funding to technology companies. Founded as Google Ventures in 2009, the firm has operated independently of Google, Alphabet's search and advertising behemoth, since 2015. GV seeks to invest in startup companies in a variety of fields ranging from the Internet, software, and hardware to life science, healthcare, artificial intelligence, transportation, cyber security and agriculture.


title: GV (company)

text: The group was founded on March 31, 2009, with a $100 million capital commitment, by Bill Maris who also became GV's first CEO. In 2012, that commitment was raised to $300 million annually, and the fund has $2 billion under management. In 2014, the group announced $125 million to invest in promising European startups. By 2014, it had invested in companies such as Shape Security. In December 2015, the company was renamed GV and introduced a new logo.


title: GV (company)

text: As of 2016, GV has been less active as a seed investor, instead shifting its attention to more mature companies. In 2020, GV hired Candice Morgan as the firm's first Diversity & Inclusion Partner and promoted Terri Burns from principal to the firm’s first Black female partner.


title: GV (company)

text: In 2013, GV developed an intensive, five-day design process, called a Design Sprint, which helps startups solve problems quickly. In addition, GV provides portfolio companies with access to operational help after making a financial investment. Full-time partners at GV work with portfolio companies on design and product management, marketing, engineering, and recruiting.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The Women's World Chess Championship (WWCC) is played to determine the world champion in women's chess. Like the World Chess Championship, it is administered by FIDE.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Unlike with most sports recognized by the International Olympic Committee, where competition is either "mixed" (containing everyone) or split into men and women, in chess women are both allowed to compete in the "open" division (including the World Chess Championship) yet also have a separate Women's Championship (only open to women).


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The Women's World Championship was established by FIDE in 1927 as a single tournament held alongside the Chess Olympiad. The winner of that tournament, Vera Menchik, did not have any special rights as the men's champion did—instead she had to defend her title by playing as many games as all the challengers. She did this successfully in every other championship in her lifetime (1930, 1931, 1933, 1935, 1937 and 1939).


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Menchik died, still champion, in 1944 in a German air raid on Kent. The next championship was another round-robin tournament in 1949–50 and was won by Lyudmila Rudenko. Thereafter a system similar to that of the overall championship was established, with a cycle of Candidates events (and later Interzonals) to pick a challenger to face the reigning champion.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The first such Candidates tournament was held in Moscow, 1952. Elisaveta Bykova won and proceeded to defeat Rudenko with seven wins, five losses, and two draws to become the third champion. The next Candidates tournament was won by Olga Rubtsova. Instead of directly playing Bykova, however, FIDE decided that the championship should be held between the three top players in the world. Rubtsova won at Moscow in 1956, one-half point ahead of Bykova, who finished five points ahead of Rudenko. Bykova regained the title in 1958 and defended it against Kira Zvorykina, winner of a Candidates tournament, in 1959.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The fourth Candidates tournament was held in 1961 in Vrnjacka Banja, and was utterly dominated by Nona Gaprindashvili of Georgia, who won with ten wins, zero losses, and six draws. She then decisively defeated Bykova with seven wins, no losses, and four draws in Moscow, 1962 to become champion. Gaprindashvili defended her title against Alla Kushnir of Russia at Riga 1965 and Tbilisi/Moscow 1969. In 1972, FIDE introduced the same system for the women's championship as with the overall championship: a series of Interzonal tournaments, followed by the Candidates matches. Kushnir won again, only to be defeated by Gaprindashvili at Riga 1972. Gaprindashvili defended the title one last time against Nana Alexandria of Georgia at Pitsunda/Tbilisi 1975.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 1976–1978 Candidates cycle, 17-year-old Maya Chiburdanidze of Georgia ended up the surprise star, defeating Nana Alexandria, Elena Akhmilovskaya, and Alla Kushnir to face Gaprindashvili in the 1978 finals at Tbilisi. Chiburdanidze soundly defeated Gaprindashvili, marking the end of one Georgian's domination and the beginning of another's. Chiburdanidze defended her title against Alexandria at Borjomi/Tbilisi 1981 and Irina Levitina at Volgograd 1984. Following this, FIDE reintroduced the Candidates tournament system. Akhmilovskaya, who had earlier lost to Chiburdanidze in the Candidates matches, won the tournament was but was still defeated by Chiburdanidze at Sofia 1986. Chiburdanidze's final title defense came against Nana Ioseliani at Telavi 1988.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Chiburdanidze's domination ended in Manila 1991, where the young Chinese star Xie Jun defeated her, after finishing second to the still-active Gaprindashvili in an Interzonal, tying with Alisa Marić in the Candidates tournament, and then beating Maric in a tie-breaker match.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: It was during this time that the three Polgar sisters Susan (also known as Zsuzsa), Sofia (Zsófia), and Judit emerged as dominant players. However they tended to compete in open tournaments, avoiding the women's championship.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Susan Polgar eventually changed her policy. She won the 1992 Candidates tournament in Shanghai. The Candidates final—an eight-game match between the top two finishers in the tournament—was a drawn match between Polgar and Ioseliani, even after two tiebreaks. The match was decided by a lottery, which Ioseliani won. She was then promptly crushed by Xie Jun (8½–2½) in the championship at Monaco 1993.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The next cycle was dominated by Polgar. She tied with Chiburdanidze in the Candidates tournament, defeated her easily in the match (5½–1½), and then decisively defeated Xie Jun (8½–4½) in Jaén 1996 for the championship.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 1997, Russian Alisa Galliamova and Chinese Xie Jun finished first and second, but Galliamova refused to play the final match entirely in China. FIDE eventually awarded the match to Xie Jun by default.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: However, by the time all these delays were sorted out, Polgar had given birth to her first child. She requested that the match be postponed. FIDE refused, and eventually set up the championship to be between Galliamova and Xie Jun. The championship was held in Kazan, Tatarstan and Shenyang, China, and Xie Jun won with five wins, three losses, and seven draws.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 2000 a knock-out event, similar to the FIDE overall title and held alongside it, was the new format of the women's world championship. It was won by Xie Jun. In 2001 a similar event determined the champion, Zhu Chen. Another knock-out, this one held separately from the overall championship, in Elista, the capital of the Russian republic of Kalmykia (of which FIDE President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov is president), from May 21 to June 8, 2004, produced Bulgarian Antoaneta Stefanova as champion. As with Polgar five years prior, Zhu Chen did not participate due to pregnancy.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 2008, the title went to Russian grandmaster Alexandra Kosteniuk, who, in the final, beat Chinese prodigy Hou Yifan 2½–1½, then aged 14 (see Women's World Chess Championship 2008).


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 2010 the title returned to China once again. Hou Yifan, the runner-up in the previous championship, became the youngest ever women's world champion at the age of 16. She beat her compatriot WGM Ruan Lufei 2–2 (classic) 3–1 (rapid playoffs).


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Beginning from 2010, the Women's World Chess Championship would be held annually in alternating formats. In even years a 64-player knockout system would be used, in the odd years a classical match featuring only two players would be held. The 2011 edition was between the 2010 champion Hou Yifan and the winner of the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2009–2011. Since Hou Yifan won the Grand Prix, her challenger was the runner-up, Koneru Humpy.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: In 2011 Hou Yifan successfully defended her women's world champion title in the Women's World Chess Championship 2011 in Tirana, Albania against Koneru Humpy. Hou won three games and drew five in the ten-game match, winning the title with two games to spare.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Hou Yifan was knocked-out in the second round in Women's World Chess Championship 2012, which was played in Khanty Mansiysk. Anna Ushenina, seeded 30th in the tournament, won the final against Antoaneta Stefanova 3½–2½.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The Women's World Chess Championship 2013 was a match over 10 games between defending champion Anna Ushenina and Hou Yifan who had won the FIDE Women's Grand Prix 2011–2012. After seven of ten games Hou Yifan won the match 5.5 to 1.5 to retake the title.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: After Hou declined to defend her title at the Women's World Chess Championship 2015, the title was won by Mariya Muzychuk, who defeated Natalia Pogonina in the final.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Hou defeated Muzychuk 6–3 to reclaim the Women's World Chess Championship 2016 title for her 4th championship in March 2016.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: The following year Tan Zhongyi defeated Anna Muzychuk for the title at the Women's World Chess Championship 2017.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Tan lost the title defending it against Ju Wenjun (with Hou not participating at this event) at the Women's World Chess Championship Match 2018.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: Due to various hosting and timing issues, the championships had varied from their intended annual calendar in recent years. FIDE held a second world championship in 2018 in order to get back on schedule.


title: Women's World Chess Championship

text: After the 2018 championship tournament the new FIDE president Arkady Dvorkovich announced the format would be changed back to matches only. He said the many different champions the yearly system created discredited the championship title as a whole. Aleksandra Goryachkina won the Candidates tournament, held in June 2019, to challenge for the World Championship. Ju Wenjun retained her title in the 2020 Championship.


title: Research fellow

text: A research fellow is an academic research position at a university or a similar research institution, usually for academic staff or faculty members. A research fellow may act either as an independent investigator or under the supervision of a principal investigator.


title: Research fellow

text: Although research fellow positions vary in different countries and academic institutions, it is in general that they are junior researchers who try to develop their research careers under the guidance of senior researchers.


title: Research fellow

text: In many universities this position is a career grade of a "Research Career Pathway", following on from a postdoctoral position such as research associate, and may be open-ended, subject to normal probation regulations. Within such a path, the next two higher career grades are usually senior research fellow and professorial fellow. Although similar to the position of a research fellow, these two positions are research only posts, with the rise of the career grade there will normally be a formal requirement of a moderate amount of teaching and/or supervision (often at postgraduate level).


title: Research fellow

text: In some universities, research career grades roughly correspond to the grades of the academic pathway in the following way: research fellow (a lower or same grade as a lecturer), principal research fellow—reader, whereas senior research fellow is somewhere between a lecturer and senior lecturer or associate professor. Some universities such as Cambridge restricts Professorial grades only to academics who have excelled in both teaching and research.


title: Research fellow

text: Outside of faculty appointments, the title of "Research Fellow" or "Senior Research Fellows" can be also used as honorary or temporary awarded "fellowships" to distinguished academics by research institutes or colleges, usually from different institutions.


title: Research fellow

text: In the past, the term research fellow often referred to a junior researcher, who worked on a specific project on a temporary basis. Research fellows tended to be paid either from central university funds or by an outside organisation such as a charity or company, or through an external grant-awarding body such as a research council or a royal society, for example in the Royal Society University Research Fellowship. Particularly in Oxbridge style colleges, research fellows appointed as fellows of a college tended to, or still do, partially receive remuneration in form of college housing and subsistence. Colleges may award junior research fellowships as the equivalent of post-doctoral research posts, lasting for three or four years.


title: Research fellow

text: In India, the position of research fellowship is provided to scholars from various streams like science, arts, literature, management and others. Research fellowship is funded by government academic and research institutes, and private companies as well. Research fellows research under the supervision of experienced faculty, professor, head of department, Dean on two different posts known as Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) and senior research fellow (SRF). Research organisations like ICAR, CSIR, UGC, ICMR, SERB recruit research fellows through National Eligibility Test. After the completion of pre-defined tenure, JRF can be considered for senior research fellowship based on research fellow's performance & interview conducted by committee by research institute, research fellow is working with. There are multiple academic institutions that conduct research based Fellow Programmes in India. Some of these institutions include Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Indian Institute of Management Shillong, Indian School of Business Mohali, National School of Leadership Pune and XLRI - Xavier School of Management Jamshedpur,Kunwar Viyogi Memorial Trust Uttar Pradesh.


title: Research fellow

text: In the Russian Federation, the position and title research fellow is unknown; however, there is a broadly similar position of (, ). This position normally requires a degree of Candidate of Sciences approximately corresponding to the PhD. More senior positions normally require, in addition to the aforementioned degree, a track record of publications or certified inventions, as well as practical contributions to major research and development projects.


title: Research fellow

text: Research fellows in South Africa are considered an asset to research organisations and universities. There are highly ranked universities such as University of the Witwatersrand, University of Stellenbosch Business School, and Rhodes University which offer fellowships to South African nationals in certain fields of research.


title: Different Light

text: Different Light is the second studio album by American pop rock band the Bangles, released in January 1986. The album's Top 40 sound was a departure from their earlier 1960s-style rock'n'roll sound. It is their most successful album, reaching number two on the "Billboard" 200 and producing five charting singles, including the "Billboard" top two hits "Manic Monday" and "Walk Like an Egyptian". It is also the first album in which bassist Michael Steele sings lead vocals on some tracks.


title: Different Light

text: The 2008 reissue CD on the Wounded Bird Records label (WOU 4039) adds a bonus track: "Walk Like an Egyptian (Extended Dance Mix)".


title: Different Light

text: "Different Light" produced five singles, the first three of which were written by someone other than the Bangles. Lead single "Manic Monday", originally written by Prince under the pseudonym "Christopher" in 1984 as a duet for the "Apollonia 6" album, peaked at number two in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1986. "If She Knew What She Wants", the second single from "Different Light", was originally recorded by Jules Shear on his 1985 "Eternal Return" album. The song was originally written in the first person, however the Bangles rewrote the lyrics in the third person as they considered it more appropriate; their version charted at number 29 in the United States and number 31 in the United Kingdom. "Walk Like an Egyptian" was written by Liam Sternberg after seeing people on a ferry walking awkwardly to keep their balance as figures do in Ancient Egyptian reliefs; it became one of the most successful singles by the Bangles, hitting number one in the United States, Denmark, and the Netherlands, as well as peaking at number three in the United Kingdom. "Walking Down Your Street" hit number 11 in the United States and number 16 in the United Kingdom, and a fifth single, "Following", was released exclusively in the latter country.


title: Different Light

text: The covers of the most of the album's cassette pressings and the sheet music songbook only show 12 (out of 16) of the "different" snapshots, eliminating the third column to best fit the rectangular layout of cassette cases and book.


title: Different Light

text: The back cover of European-made CDs replicates the back cover of the vinyl LP edition, with all 16 snapshots and the track index at the top. The back cover of the US version, however, only shows the first column of four snapshots, with the track index list occupying the rest of the space – a rare deviation for Columbia's CD issues during the 1980s.


title: Different Light

text: "Rolling Stone" critic Laura Fissinger wrote that "Different Light" finds the Bangles "using less hook-happy song structure and more modernized production" than on their 1984 debut "All Over the Place", "covering their roots without burying them ten feet under." She disagreed with objections to the more "deliberate, sophisticated and airwaves ready" nature of the production and felt that the album "puts then and now in significantly better balance", while also finding that the band had advanced "past the fan-apes-idol phase" in their musicianship.


title: Different Light

text: In 2012, "Slant Magazine" ranked "Different Light" at number 78 on its list of the best albums of the 1980s.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: 5' AMP-activated protein kinase or AMPK or 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase is an enzyme (EC 2.7.11.31) that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis, largely to activate glucose and fatty acid uptake and oxidation when cellular energy is low. It belongs to a highly conserved eukaryotic protein family and its orthologues are SNF1 in yeast, and SnRK1 in plants. It consists of three proteins (subunits) that together make a functional enzyme, conserved from yeast to humans. It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal muscle. In response to binding AMP and ADP, the net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation, ketogenesis, stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake, inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipogenesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis, and modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic β-cells.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK is a heterotrimeric protein complex that is formed by α, β, and γ subunits. Each of these three subunits takes on a specific role in both the stability and activity of AMPK. Specifically, the γ subunit includes four particular Cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS) domains, giving AMPK its ability to sensitively detect shifts in the AMP/ATP ratio. AMPK is deactivated upon AMP displacement by ATP at CBS site 3, suggesting CBS3 to be the primary allosteric regulatory site. The four CBS domains create two binding sites for AMP commonly referred to as Bateman domains. Binding of one AMP to a Bateman domain cooperatively increases the binding affinity of the second AMP to the other Bateman domain. As AMP binds both Bateman domains the γ subunit undergoes a conformational change which exposes the catalytic domain found on the α subunit. It is in this catalytic domain where AMPK becomes activated when phosphorylation takes place at threonine-172 (on α1 isoform) or Thr-174 (on α2 isoform) by an upstream AMPK kinase (AMPKK). The α, β, and γ subunits can also be found in different isoforms: the γ subunit can exist as either the γ1, γ2 or γ3 isoform; the β subunit can exist as either the β1 or β2 isoform; and the α subunit can exist as either the α1 or α2 isoform. Although the most common isoforms expressed in most cells are the α1, β1, and γ1 isoforms, it has been demonstrated that the α2, β2, γ2, and γ3 isoforms are also expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: The crystal structure of mammalian AMPK regulatory core domain (α C terminal, β C terminal, γ) has been solved in complex with AMP, ADP or ATP.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Due to the presence of isoforms of its components, there are 12 versions of AMPK in mammals, each of which can have different tissue localizations, and different functions under different conditions. AMPK is regulated allosterically and by post-translational modification, which work together.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: If residue Thr-172 of AMPK's α1-subunit (or Thr-174 of AMPK's α2-subunit) is phosphorylated, AMPK is activated around 100-fold; access to that residue by phosphatases is blocked if AMP or ADP can block access for and ATP can displace AMP and ADP. That residue is phosphorylated by at least three kinases (liver kinase B1 (LKB1), which works in a complex with STRAD and MO25, Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase II-(CAMKK2), and TGFβ-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)) and is dephosphorylated by three phosphatases (protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A); protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C) and Mg-/Mn-dependent protein phosphatase 1E (PPM1E)).


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Regulation of AMPK by CaMKK2 requires a direct interaction of these two proteins via their kinase domains. The interaction of CaMKK2 with AMPK only involves the α and β subunits of AMPK (AMPK γ is absent from the CaMKK2 complex), thus rendering regulation of AMPK in this context to changes in calcium levels but not AMP or ADP.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK is regulated allosterically mostly by competitive binding to the CBS sites on its γ subunit between ATP (which allows phosphatase access to Thr-172) and AMP or ADP (each of which blocks access to phosphatases). It thus appears that AMPK is a sensor of AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP ratios and thus cell energy level. AMPK undergoes a large conformational change upon ATP binding. A region on the α subunit known as the kinase domain (KD) dissociates from its active-state conformation and loosely associates with the γ subunit ~100Å away. The KD also rotates ~180° in the conformational change. Upon KD dissociation, the active loop (AL) of the α subunit which contains the critical phosphorylated Thr residue is fully exposed to upstream phosphatases. This conformational change represents a plausible mechanism for AMPK modulation. When cellular energy states are low (high AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP levels), AMPK adopts the KD-associated conformation and AMPK is protected from dephosphorylation and remains activated. When cellular energy states are high, AMPK adopts the KD-displaced conformation, the AL is exposed to upstream phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: The pharmacological compounds Merck Compound 991 and Abbott A769662 bind to the allosteric drug and metabolism site (ADaM) on the β subunit and have been shown to activate AMPK up to 10-fold. ADaM site binding may have roles in AMPK activation as well as protection against dephosphorylation.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: There are other mechanisms by which AMPK is inhibited by insulin, leptin, and diacylglycerol by inducing various other phosphorylations.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: It is also regulated by several protein-protein interactions, and may either be activated or inhibited by oxidative factors; the role of oxidation in regulating AMPK was controversial as of 2016.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: When AMPK phosphorylates acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) or sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c), it inhibits synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, and triglycerides, and activates fatty acid uptake and β-oxidation.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK stimulates glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by phosphorylating Rab-GTPase-activating protein TBC1D1, which ultimately induces fusion of GLUT1 vesicles with the plasma membrane. AMPK stimulates glycolysis by activating phosphorylation of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 2/3 and activating phosphorylation of glycogen phosphorylase, and it inhibits glycogen synthesis through inhibitory phosphorylation of glycogen synthase. In the liver, AMPK inhibits gluconeogenesis by inhibiting transcription factors including hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4) and CREB regulated transcription coactivator 2 (CRTC2).


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK inhibits the energy-intensive protein biosynthesis process and can also force a switch from cap-dependent translation to cap-independent translation, which requires less energy, by phosphorylation of TSC2, RPTOR, transcription initiation factor 1A.66, and eEF2K. When TSC2 is activated it inhibits mTORC1. As a result of inhibition of mTORC1 by AMPK, protein synthesis comes to a halt. Activation of AMPK signifies low energy within the cell, so all of the energy consuming pathways like protein synthesis are inhibited, and pathways that generate energy are activated to restore appropriate energy levels in the cell.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK activates autophagy by directly and indirectly activating ULK1. AMPK also appears to stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis by regulating PGC-1α which in turn promotes gene transcription in mitochondria. AMPK also activates anti-oxidant defenses.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Many biochemical adaptations of skeletal muscle that take place during a single bout of exercise or an extended duration of training, such as increased mitochondrial biogenesis and capacity, increased muscle glycogen, and an increase in enzymes which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as GLUT4 and hexokinase II are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated. Additionally, recent discoveries can conceivably suggest a direct AMPK role in increasing blood supply to exercised/trained muscle cells by stimulating and stabilizing both vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Taken together, these adaptations most likely transpire as a result of both temporary and maintained increases in AMPK activity brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio during single bouts of exercise and long-term training.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: During a single acute exercise bout, AMPK allows the contracting muscle cells to adapt to the energy challenges by increasing expression of hexokinase II, translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane, for glucose uptake, and by stimulating glycolysis. If bouts of exercise continue through a long-term training regimen, AMPK and other signals will facilitate contracting muscle adaptations by escorting muscle cell activity to a metabolic transition resulting in a fatty-acid oxidation approach to ATP generation as opposed to a glycolytic approach. AMPK accomplishes this transition to the oxidative mode of metabolism by upregulating and activating oxidative enzymes such as hexokinase II, PPAR-α, PPAR-δ, PGC-1, UCP-3, cytochrome C and TFAM.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Mutations in the skeletal muscle calcium release channel (RYR1) underlies a life- threatening response to heat in patients with malignant hyperthermia susceptibility (MHS). Upon acute exposure to heat, these mutations cause uncontrolled Ca release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to sustained muscle contractures, severe hyperthermia, and sudden death. At basal conditions, the temperature-dependent Ca leak also leads to increased energy demand and activation of energy sensing AMP kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle. The activated AMPK increases muscle metabolic activity, including glycolysis, which leads to marked elevation of circulating lactate.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK activity increases with exercise and the LKB1/MO25/STRAD complex is considered to be the major upstream AMPKK of the 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylating the α subunit of AMPK at Thr-172. This fact is puzzling considering that although AMPK protein abundance has been shown to increase in skeletal tissue with endurance training, its level of activity has been shown to decrease with endurance training in both trained and untrained tissue. Currently, the activity of AMPK immediately following a 2 hour bout of exercise of an endurance trained rat is unclear. It is possible that a direct link exists between the observed decrease in AMPK activity in endurance trained skeletal muscle and the apparent decrease in the AMPK response to exercise with endurance training.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Although AMPKα2 activation has been thought to be important for mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training, a recent study investigating the response to exercise training in AMPKα2 knockout mice opposes this idea. Their study compared the response to exercise training of several proteins and enzymes in wild type and AMPKα2 knockout mice. And even though the knockout mice had lower basal markers of mitochondrial density (COX-1, CS, and HAD), these markers increased similarly to the wild type mice after exercise training. These findings are supported by another study also showing no difference in mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training between wild type and knockout mice.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: The "C. elegans" homologue of AMPK, aak-2, has been shown by Michael Ristow and colleagues to be required for extension of life span in states of glucose restriction mediating a process named mitohormesis.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: One of the effects of exercise is an increase in fatty acid metabolism, which provides more energy for the cell. One of the key pathways in AMPK's regulation of fatty acid oxidation is the phosphorylation and inactivation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1). CPT-1 transports fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation. Inactivation of ACC, therefore, results in increased fatty acid transport and subsequent oxidation. It is also thought that the decrease in malonyl-CoA occurs as a result of malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (MCD), which may be regulated by AMPK. MCD is an antagonist to ACC, decarboxylating malonyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA, resulting in decreased malonyl-CoA and increased CPT-1 and fatty acid oxidation.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK also plays an important role in lipid metabolism in the liver. It has long been known that hepatic ACC has been regulated in the liver by phosphorylation. AMPK also phosphorylates and inactivates 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR), a key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. HMGR converts 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA, which is made from acetyl-CoA, into mevalonic acid, which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become cholesterol. AMPK, therefore, helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and cholesterol synthesis.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Insulin is a hormone which helps regulate glucose levels in the body. When blood glucose is high, insulin is released from the Islets of Langerhans. Insulin, among other things, will then facilitate the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and translocation of glucose transporter GLUT-4. Under conditions of exercise, however, blood sugar levels are not necessarily high, and insulin is not necessarily activated, yet muscles are still able to bring in glucose. AMPK seems to be responsible in part for this exercise-induced glucose uptake. Goodyear et al. observed that with exercise, the concentration of GLUT-4 was increased in the plasma membrane, but decreased in the microsomal membranes, suggesting that exercise facilitates the translocation of vesicular GLUT-4 to the plasma membrane. While acute exercise increases GLUT-4 translocation, endurance training will increase the total amount of GLUT-4 protein available. It has been shown that both electrical contraction and AICA ribonucleotide (AICAR) treatment increase AMPK activation, glucose uptake, and GLUT-4 translocation in perfused rat hindlimb muscle, linking exercise-induced glucose uptake to AMPK. Chronic AICAR injections, simulating some of the effects of endurance training, also increase the total amount of GLUT-4 protein in the muscle cell.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Two proteins are essential for the regulation of GLUT-4 expression at a transcriptional level – myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) and GLUT4 enhancer factor (GEF). Mutations in the DNA binding regions for either of these proteins results in ablation of transgene GLUT-4 expression. These results prompted a study in 2005 which showed that AMPK directly phosphorylates GEF, but it doesn't seem to directly activate MEF2. AICAR treatment has been shown, however, to increase transport of both proteins into the nucleus, as well as increase the binding of both to the GLUT-4 promoter region.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: There is another protein involved in carbohydrate metabolism that is worthy of mention along with GLUT-4. The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, most notably glucose, which is the first step in glycolysis. When glucose is transported into the cell it is phosphorylated by hexokinase. This phosphorylation keeps glucose from leaving the cell, and by changing the structure of glucose through phosphorylation, it decreases the concentration of glucose molecules, maintaining a gradient for more glucose to be transported into the cell. Hexokinase II transcription is increased in both red and white skeletal muscle upon treatment with AICAR. With chronic injections of AICAR, total protein content of hexokinase II increases in rat skeletal muscle.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Mitochondrial enzymes, such as cytochrome c, succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and citrate synthase, increase in expression and activity in response to exercise. AICAR stimulation of AMPK increases cytochrome c and δ-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS), a rate-limiting enzyme involved in the production of heme. Malate dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase also increase, as well as citrate synthase activity, in rats treated with AICAR injections. Conversely, in LKB1 knockout mice, there are decreases in cytochrome c and citrate synthase activity, even if the mice are "trained" by voluntary exercise.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK is required for increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression in skeletal muscle in response to creatine depletion. PGC-1α is a transcriptional regulator for genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, gluconeogenesis, and is considered the master regulator for mitochondrial biogenesis.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: To do this, it enhances the activity of transcription factors like nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF-1), myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), host cell factor (HCF), and others. It also has a positive feedback loop, enhancing its own expression. Both MEF2 and cAMP response element (CRE) are essential for contraction-induced PGC-1α promoter activity. LKB1 knockout mice show a decrease in PGC-1α, as well as mitochondrial proteins.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK and thyroid hormone regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities, Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by thyroid hormone. They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in skeletal muscle, especially in the soleus and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was also an increase in phospho-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Loss of AMPK has been reported to alter the sensitivity of glucose sensing cells, through poorly defined mechanisms. Loss of the AMPKα2 subunit in pancreatic β-cells and hypothalamic neurons decreases the sensitivity of these cells to changes in extracellular glucose concentration. Moreover, exposure of rats to recurrent bouts of insulin induced hypoglycemia/glucopenia, reduces the activation of AMPK within the hypothalamus, whilst also suppressing the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: AMPK is recruited to lysosomes and regulated at the lysosomes via several systems of clinical significance. This includes the AXIN - LKB1 complex, acting in response to glucose limitations functioning independently of AMP sensing, which detects low glucose as absence of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate via a dynamic set of interactions between lysosomally localized V-ATPase-aldolase in contact with the endoplasmic reticulum localized TRPV. A second AMPK-control system localized to lysosomes depends on the Galectin-9-TAK1 system and ubiquitination responses at controlled by deubiquitinating enzymes such as USP9X leading to AMPK activation in response to lysosomal damage, a condition that can occur biochemically, physically via protein aggregates such as proteopathic tau in Alzheimer's disease, crystalline silica causing silicosis, cholesterol crystals causing inflammation via NLRP3 inflammasome and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions, urate crystals associated with gout, or during microbial invasion such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis or coronaviruses causing SARS. Both of the above lysosomally localized systems controlling AMPK activate it in response to metformin, a widely prescribed anti-diabetic drug.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Some evidence indicates that AMPK may have a role in tumor suppression. Studies have found that AMPK may exert most, or even all of, the tumor suppressing properties of liver kinase B1 (LKB1). Additionally, studies where the AMPK activator metformin was used to treat diabetes found a correlation with a reduced risk of cancer, compared to other medications. Gene knockout and knockdown studies with mice found that mice without the gene to express AMPK had greater risks of developing lymphomas, though as the gene was knocked out globally instead of just in B cells, it was impossible to conclude that AMP knockout had cell-autonomous effects within tumor progenitor cells.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: In contrast, some studies have linked AMPK with a role as a tumor promoter by protecting cancer cells from stress. Thus, once cancerous cells have formed in an organism, AMPK may swap from protecting against cancer to protecting the cancer itself. Studies have found that tumor cells with AMPK knockout are more susceptible to death by glucose starvation or extracellular matrix detachment, which may indicate AMPK has a role in preventing these two outcomes. There is no direct evidence that inhibiting AMPK would be an effective cancer treatment in humans.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: A seemingly paradoxical role of AMPK occurs when we take a closer look at the energy-sensing enzyme in relation to exercise and long-term training. Similar to short-term acute training scale, long-term endurance training studies also reveal increases in oxidative metabolic enzymes, GLUT-4, mitochondrial size and quantity, and an increased dependency on the oxidation of fatty acids; however, Winder et al. reported in 2002 that despite observing these increased oxidative biochemical adaptations to long-term endurance training (similar to those mentioned above), the AMPK response (activation of AMPK with the onset of exercise) to acute bouts of exercise decreased in red quadriceps (RQ) with training (3 – see Fig.1). Conversely, the study did not observe the same results in white quadriceps (WQ) and soleus (SOL) muscles that they did in RQ. The trained rats used for that endurance study ran on treadmills 5 days/wk in two 1-h sessions, morning and afternoon. The rats were also running up to 31m/min (grade 15%). Finally, following training, the rats were sacrificed either at rest or following 10 minutes of exercise.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: Because the AMPK response to exercise decreases with increased training duration, many questions arise that would challenge the AMPK role with respect to biochemical adaptations to exercise and endurance training. This is due in part to the marked increases in the mitochondrial biogenesis, upregulation of GLUT-4, UCP-3, Hexokinase II along with other metabolic and mitochondrial enzymes despite decreases in AMPK activity with training. Questions also arise because skeletal muscle cells which express these decreases in AMPK activity in response to endurance training also seem to be maintaining an oxidative dependent approach to metabolism, which is likewise thought to be regulated to some extent by AMPK activity.


title: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: If the AMPK response to exercise is responsible in part for biochemical adaptations to training, how then can these adaptations to training be maintained if the AMPK response to exercise is being attenuated with training? It is hypothesized that these adaptive roles to training are maintained by AMPK activity and that the increases in AMPK activity in response to exercise in trained skeletal muscle have not yet been observed due to biochemical adaptations that the training itself stimulated in the muscle tissue to reduce the metabolic need for AMPK activation. In other words, due to previous adaptations to training, AMPK will not be activated, and further adaptation will not occur, until the intracellular ATP levels become depleted from an even higher intensity energy challenge than prior to those previous adaptations.


title: Iberian language

text: The Iberian language was the language of an indigenous western European people identified by Greek and Roman sources who lived in the eastern and southeastern regions of the Iberian Peninsula in the pre-Migration Era (before about 375 AD). The ancient Iberians can be identified as a rather nebulous local culture between the 7th and 1st century BC. The Iberian language, like all the other Paleohispanic languages except Basque, became extinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced by Latin due to the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Iberian language

text: Iberian is unclassified: while the scripts used to write it have been deciphered to various extents, the language itself remains largely unknown. Links with other languages have been suggested, especially the Basque language, based largely on the observed similarities between the numerical systems of the two. In contrast, the Punic language of Carthaginian settlers was Semitic, while Indo-European languages of the peninsula during the Iron Age include the now extinct Celtiberian language, Ionic Greek, and Latin, which formed the basis for modern Iberian Romance languages.


title: Iberian language

text: Iberian inscriptions are found along the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, reaching up to the river Hérault in the south of France. Important written remains have been found in Ensérune, between Narbonne and Béziers in France, in an with mixed Iberian and Celtic elements. The southern limit would be Porcuna, in Jaén (Spain), where splendid sculptures of Iberian riders have been found. Further inland the exact distribution of the Iberian language inscriptions is uncertain. It seems that the culture reached the interior through the Ebro river ( in Latin) as far as Salduie (Zaragoza) but no further.


title: Iberian language

text: Among the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula the following might have spoken the Iberian language: Ausetani (northeastern Catalonia), Ilergetes (Lleida and Huesca up to the Pyrenees), Indigetes (coast of Girona), Laietani (Barcelona), Cassetani (Tarragona), Ilercavones (Murcia and Levante up to Tarragona), Edetani (Valencia, Castellón and Teruel), Contestani (Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena and Albacete), Bastetani (Granada, Almería and Murcia) and Oretani (Jaén, Ciudad Real, Albacete and Cuenca). Turduli and Turdetani are believed to be of Tartessian language.


title: Iberian language

text: For some scholars, such as Velaza (2006), Iberian could have been the language spoken by the autochthonous population of these territories, while for others, such as De Hoz (1993), Iberian could have been more of a "lingua franca".


title: Iberian language

text: The origin of the language is unknown. Although Iberian ceased to be written in the 1st century AD, it may have survived in some areas until the Visigothic period (ca. 500s to 700s), according to Menéndez Pidal.


title: Iberian language

text: There are several theories about the geographical origin of Iberian. According to the "Catalan theory", the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia, where the earliest Iberian inscriptions are documented (600 BC) (Ullastret). Its expansion towards the north and south would have been due to broad population movements in times not long before the first written documents, from the 11th to the 10th century BC, given that the Iberian language appears homogeneous in Iberian texts and, if it were of greater antiquity, dialectalization should be evident. The presence of non-interpretable elements such as Iberian anthroponyms amongst inscriptions in this area is not considered statistically significant.


title: Iberian language

text: The oldest Iberian inscriptions date to the 6th century BC or maybe the 5th century BC and the latest ones date from the end of the 1st century BC or maybe the beginning of the 1st century AD. More than two thousand Iberian inscriptions are currently known. Most are short texts on ceramic with personal names, which are usually interpreted as ownership marks. Many coins minted by Iberian communities during the Roman Republic have legends in Iberian. The longest Iberian texts were made on lead plaques; the most extensive is from Yátova (Valencia) with more than six hundred signs.


title: Iberian language

text: The northeastern Iberian script is also known as the Iberian script, because it is the Iberian script most frequently used (95% of the extant texts (Untermann 1990)). The northeastern Iberian inscriptions have been found mainly in the northeastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula: chiefly on the coast from Languedoc-Roussillon to Alicante, but with a deep penetration into the Ebro valley. This script is almost completely deciphered.


title: Iberian language

text: All the paleohispanic scripts, with the exception of the Greco-Iberian alphabet, share a common distinctive typological characteristic: they use signs with syllabic value for the occlusives and signs with monophonematic value for the remaining consonants and for vowels. From a writing systems point of view they are neither alphabets nor syllabaries; rather, they are mixed scripts that are normally identified as semi-syllabaries. Regarding their origin there is no agreement among researchers; for some they are linked only to the Phoenician alphabet, while for others the Greek alphabet played a part.


title: Iberian language

text: The southeastern Iberian script is a semi-syllabary too, but it is more similar to the Tartessian script than to the northeastern Iberian script. The southeastern Iberian inscriptions have been found mainly in the southeastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula: eastern Andalusia, Murcia, Albacete, Alicante and Valencia. This script is not completely deciphered.


title: Iberian language

text: The Greco-Iberian alphabet is a direct adaptation of an Ionic variant of a Greek alphabet to the specificities of the Iberian language. The inscriptions that use the Greco-Iberian alphabet have been found mainly in Alicante and Murcia.


title: Iberian language

text: Very little is known for certain about Iberian. The investigation of the language is past its initial phase of transcription and compiling of material, and is currently in the phase of identifying grammatical elements in the texts.


title: Iberian language

text: The hypotheses currently proposed are unconfirmed, and are likely to remain so unless the discovery of a bilingual text allows linguists to confirm their deductions.


title: Iberian language

text: Iberian appears to have five vowels commonly transcribed as . Some other languages on the peninsula such as Basque and modern Spanish also have such systems. Although five-vowel systems are extremely common all over the world, it has been suggested that this may point to a Sprachbund amongst the ancient languages of the Iberian peninsula.


title: Iberian language

text: The unrounded vowels (in frequency order: ) appear more frequently than the rounded vowels (). Although there are indications of a nasal vowel (), this is thought to be an allophone. Judging by Greek transcriptions, it seems that there were no vowel length distinctions; if this is correct then Iberian uses the long () as opposed to the short epsilon ().


title: Iberian language

text: It seems that the second element of diphthongs was always a closed vowel, as in (), (), and (). Untermann observed that the diphthong could only be found in the first cluster.


title: Iberian language

text: It is possible that Iberian had the semivowels (in words such as or ) and (only in loanwords such as from Gaulish). The fact that is lacking in native words casts doubt on whether semivowels really existed in Iberian outside of foreign borrowings and diphthongs.


title: Iberian language

text: There are a number of known affixes, especially applied to last names. For the Iberian language these seem to be postpositional, and apparently more agglutinative than fusional.


title: Iberian language

text: Thanks to the Latin Inscription of the plaque of Ascoli, which includes a list of Iberian cavalry soldiers in the Roman army (the Turma Salluitana attested in the Bronze of Ascoli), the forms of Iberian proper names have been unraveled. Iberian names are formed mainly by two interchangeable elements, each usually formed of two syllables, which are written together (Untermann 1998). For example, the element "iltiŕ" can be found in the following names: , , , , or . This discovery was a giant step: from this moment it was possible to identify with some kind of confidence the names of persons in the texts. Nevertheless, the list of components of Iberian names varies between researchers. The basic list comes from Untermann (1990) and was recently updated by Rodríguez Ramos (2002b); complementary data and criteria can be found in the Faria papers (the last two: 2007a and 2007b).


title: Iberian language

text: The following list includes some of the elements proposed as components of Iberian names: "abaŕ", "aibe", "aile", "ain", "aitu", "aiun", "aker", "albe", "aloŕ", "an", "anaŕ", "aŕbi", "aŕki", "aŕs", "asai", "aster", "ata", "atin", "atun", "aunin", "auŕ", "austin", "baiser", "balaŕ", "balke", "bartaś", "baś", "bastok", "bekon", "belauŕ", "beleś", "bels", "bene", "beŕ", "beri", "beŕon", "betan", "betin", "bikir", "bilos", "bin", "bir", "bitu", "biuŕ", "bolai", "boŕ", "boś", "boton", "ekes", "ekaŕ", "eler", "ena", "esto", "eten", "eter", "iar", "iaun", "ibeś", "ibeis", "ike", "ikoŕ", "iltiŕ", "iltur", "inte", "iskeŕ", "istan", "iunstir", "iur", "kaisur", "kakeŕ", "kaltuŕ", "kani", "kaŕes", "kaŕko", "katu", "keŕe", "kibaś", "kine", "kitaŕ", "kon", "koŕo", "koŕś", "kuleś", "kurtar", "lako", "lauŕ", "leis", "lor", "lusban", "nalbe", "neitin", "neŕse", "nes", "niś", "nios", "oŕtin", "sakaŕ", "sakin", "saltu", "śani", "śar", "seken", "selki", "sike", "sili", "sine", "sir", "situ", "soket", "sor", "sosin", "suise", "taker", "talsku", "tan", "tanek", "taneś", "taŕ", "tarban", "taŕtin", "taś", "tautin", "teita", "tekeŕ", "tibaś", "tikeŕ", "tikirs", "tikis", "tileis", "tolor", "tuitui", "tumar", "tuŕś", "turkir", "tortin", "ulti", "unin", "uŕke", "ustain", "ḿbaŕ", "nḿkei".


title: Iberian language

text: In some cases, linguists have encountered simple names, with only one element for a suffix: , and are in the plaque of Ascoli, in Ullastret and , or in other Iberian texts. More rarely there have been indications of an infix, which can be , or (Untermann used in front of or with ). In rare cases Untermann also encountered an element or prefacing a proper name (; ; ).


title: Iberian language

text: In the elements that formed Iberian names it is common to encounter patterns of variation, as in with the same variations as in //; / as /; or // and //).


title: Iberian language

text: Some Iberian onomastic elements have look-alikes in Aquitanian or Basque. This has been explained by Vascologists like Mitxelena as an "onomastic pool". However, since the meaning of most Iberian words remains opaque to date, the connection remains speculative except in a very small number of cases. An ancient sprachbund involving these two languages is deemed likely by some linguists. But as Trask notes, Basque has been of no help in translating Iberian inscriptions.


title: Iberian language

text: Whether Iberian and Basque are two languages of the same language family is still a much-debated question. Many experts on Iberian suspect that there is a relationship of some sort between Iberian and Aquitanian, a precursor of the Basque language. But there is not enough evidence to date to ascertain whether the two languages belong to the same language family or whether the relationship is due to linguistic borrowing. Lexical and onomastic coincidences could be due to borrowing, while the similarities in the phonological structures of the two languages could be due to linguistic areal phenomena (cf. the similarities between Basque and Old Spanish in spite of being languages of two different families). More scientific studies on Iberian language are needed to shed light on this question.


title: Iberian language

text: From a historical perspective, the first features where a relationship between Basque and Iberian was claimed were:


title: Iberian language

text: Although other pairs have been proposed (such as , , , ), the meanings of these Iberian morphs are still controversial. The main arguments today which relate to coinciding surface forms between Basque and Iberian are:


title: Iberian language

text: In 2005 Eduardo Orduña published a study showing some Iberian compounds that according to contextual data would appear to be Iberian numerals and show striking similarities with Basque numerals. The study was expanded upon by Joan Ferrer (2007 and 2009) based on terms found on coins, stating their value, and with new combinatorial and contextual data. The comparison proposes the following:


title: Iberian language

text: The basis of this theory is better understood if we compare some of the attested Iberian compounds with Basque complex numbers (the dots denote morpheme boundaries and are not normally written in Basque; also note that the final in numbers 3 and 4 also occurs in bound forms in Basque i.e. and ):


title: Iberian language

text: Even so, Orduña does not claim this comparison to be a proof of a family relation between Iberian and Basque, but rather owing to Iberian loanwords in the Basque language. In contrast, Ferrer believes that the similarities could be caused due to both the genetic relationship or the loan, but indicates that the loan of the entire system of numerals is rare (but has known to occur such as the case of Middle Chinese numeral being borrowed wholesale into Vietnamese, Japanese, Korean and Thai).