title: Meiji era

text: With the contribution of foreign and Japanese authors, the first military music score collections were completed and published. In the military field, the Japanese conducting school was formed, the founders of which were English, French and German cultural figures such as John William Fenton, Charles Leroux, Franz Eckert. Under their leadership, the first Japanese military conductors were raised: Suketsune Nakamura and Yoshitoyo Yotsumoto.


title: Meiji era

text: Yet, in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese missionaries introduced the first Western-style music to Japan: sacred choral music, music for organ, flute, harp, trumpet, violin, alto, double bass. However, soon the Christianity with its institutions was banned.


title: Meiji era

text: In Meiji era the ban of Christianity was lifted, thus Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant missionaries started actively preaching, and the introduction of the sacred music became the integral part of their activities.


title: Meiji era

text: Thus, the Orthodox mission introduced the traditional choral music in Japan. The great impact in the choral music development was made by Ukrainian musicians: conductors Yakov Tikhai (served in the Orthodox mission from 1874 to 1886) and Dmytro Livovsky (served in the Orthodox mission from 1880 to 1921). They organized the first traditional choirs in Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Tokyo (known as Nikolai-do), taught music in Tokyo Theological Seminary, completed and published the first musical score collections, educated the first Japanese choir conductors and music teachers. Among them are Roman Chiba, Alexey Obara, Innokentiy Kisu, Yakov Maedako, Petr Tokairin, Ioan Nakashima, Moisei Kawamura, Ioan Owata, Pavel Isiya, Vasiliy Takeda, Andrey Abe, Alexandr Komagai, Fedor Minato, Alexey Sawabe, Luka Orit.


title: Meiji era

text: The educational field also was a major way for adopting Western-style music. The educational reforms were led by Isawa Shūji (1851-1917) and Luther Whiting Mason (1828-1896). In 1880, the Music Research Institute in Tokyo (Ongaku Torishirabe Gakari), headed by Izawa Shuji, was founded. The Institute had three main tasks: 1) to introduce compulsory music teaching in schools, to introduce Western-style songs; 2) to train music teachers for the further development of professional musical activities; 3) to create music score collections for children, in which Japanese and Western style music elements could be combined. Thus, the first music scores “The First Collection for Primary School” was published in 1881. The newly educated music teachers organized lessons in singing, music theory, playing musical instruments (koto, kokyū, piano, organ and violin).


title: Meiji era

text: In 1887, the Music Research Institute was reformed into Tokyo Academy of Music, which gave the Institution a new status and contributed to its further development. Western music was regarded as an essential contributory factor for modernization. The new curriculum was improved and the number and quality of the musical events increased.


title: Meiji era

text: Tokyo Academy of Music became the first Western-style music educational establishment in Japan. This was the nascence of schools teaching composition in the Western style in Japan, the genesis of an opera tradition in Japan, and laid the foundations for the Japanese formal tradition of familiarization with Western music.


title: Meiji era

text: To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1868 and 1912 to Japanese calendar year in Meiji era, 1867 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work is an employment practice designed to make use of, or provide service across, all 24 hours of the clock each day of the week (often abbreviated as "24/7"). The practice typically sees the day divided into shifts, set periods of time during which different groups of workers perform their duties. The term "shift work" includes both long-term night shifts and work schedules in which employees change or rotate shifts.


title: Shift work

text: In medicine and epidemiology, shift work is considered a risk factor for some health problems in some individuals, as disruption to circadian rhythms may increase the probability of developing cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment, diabetes, altered body composition and obesity, among other conditions.


title: Shift work

text: Capitalist production therefore drives, by its inherent nature, towards the appropriation of labour throughout the whole of the 24 hours in the day. But since it is physically impossible to exploit the same individual labour-power constantly, during the night as well as the day, capital has to overcome this physical obstacle. An alternation becomes necessary, between the labour-powers used up by day and those used up by night ... It is well known that this shift-system, this alternation of two sets of workers, predominated in the full-blooded springtime of the English cotton industry, and that at the present time it still flourishes, among other places, in the cotton-spinning factories of the Moscow "gubernia". This 24-hour process of production exists today as a system in many of the as yet 'free' branches of industry in Great Britain, in the blast-furnaces, forges, rolling mills and other metallurgical establishments of England, Wales and Scotland.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work increases the risk for the development of many disorders. Shift work sleep disorder is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterized by insomnia, excessive sleepiness, or both. Shift work is considered essential for the diagnosis. The risk of diabetes mellitus type 2 is increased in shift workers, especially men. People working rotating shifts are more vulnerable than others.


title: Shift work

text: Women whose work involves night shifts have a 48% increased risk of developing breast cancer. This may be due to alterations in circadian rhythm: melatonin, a known tumor suppressor, is generally produced at night and late shifts may disrupt its production. The WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer listed "shift work that involves circadian disruption" as probably carcinogenic. Shift work may also increase the risk of other types of cancer. Working rotating shift work regularly during a two-year interval has been associated with a 9% increased the risk of early menopause compared to women who work no rotating shift work. The increased risk among rotating night shift workers was 25% among women predisposed to earlier menopause. Early menopause can lead to a host of other problems later in life. A recent study, found that women who worked rotating night shifts for more than six years, eleven percent experienced a shortened lifespan. Women who worked rotating night shifts for more than 15 years also experienced a 25 percent higher risk of death due to lung cancer.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work also increases the risk of developing cluster headaches, heart attacks, fatigue, stress, sexual dysfunction, depression, dementia, obesity, metabolic disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, musculoskeletal disorders, and reproductive disorders.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work also can worsen chronic diseases, including sleep disorders, digestive diseases, heart disease, hypertension, epilepsy, mental disorders, substance abuse, asthma, and any health conditions that are treated with medications affected by the circadian cycle. Artificial lighting may additionally contribute to disturbed homeostasis. Shift work may also increase a person's risk of smoking.


title: Shift work

text: The health consequences of shift work may depend on chronotype, that is, being a day person or a night person, and what shift a worker is assigned to. When individual chronotype is opposite of shift timing (day person working night shift), there is a greater risk of circadian rhythms disruption. Nighttime workers sleep an average of 1–4 hours less than daytime workers.


title: Shift work

text: Different shift schedules will have different impacts on the health of a shift worker. The way the shift pattern is designed affects how shift workers sleep, eat and take holidays. Some shift patterns can exacerbate fatigue by limiting rest, increasing stress, overworking staff or disrupting their time off.


title: Shift work

text: Muscle health is also compromised by shift work: altered sleep and eating times, changes to appetite-regulating hormones and total energy expenditure, increased snacking and binge drinking, and reduced protein intake can contribute to negative protein balance, increases in insulin resistance and increases in body fat, resulting in weight gain and more long-term health challenges.


title: Shift work

text: Compared with the day shift, injuries and accidents have been estimated to increase by 15% on evening shifts and 28% on night shifts. Longer shifts are also associated with more injuries and accidents: 10-hour shifts had 13% more and 12-hour shifts had 28% more than 8-hour shifts. Other studies have shown a link between fatigue and workplace injuries and accidents. Workers with sleep deprivation are far more likely to be injured or involved in an accident. Breaks reduce accident risks.


title: Shift work

text: One study suggests that, for those working a night shift (such as 23:00 to 07:00), it may be advantageous to sleep in the evening (14:00 to 22:00) rather than the morning (08:00 to 16:00). The study's evening sleep subjects had 37% fewer episodes of attentional impairment than the morning sleepers.


title: Shift work

text: There are four major determinants of cognitive performance and alertness in healthy shift-workers: circadian phase, sleep inertia, acute sleep deprivation and chronic sleep deficit.


title: Shift work

text: A cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between several sleep assessment criteria and different shift work schedules (3-day, 6-day, 9-day and 21-day shift) and a control group of day shift work in Korean firefighters. The results found that all shift work groups exhibited significant decreased total sleep time (TST) and decreased sleep efficiency in the night shift but efficiency increased in the rest day. Between-group analysis of the different shift work groups revealed that day shift sleep efficiency was significantly higher in the 6-day shift while night shift sleep efficiency was significantly lower in the 21-day shift in comparison to other shift groups ("p" < 0.05). Overall, night shift sleep quality was worse in shift workers than those who just worked the day shift, whereas 6-day shift provided better sleep quality compared to the 21-day shift.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work has been shown to negatively affect workers, and has been classified as a specific disorder (shift work sleep disorder). Circadian disruption by working at night causes symptoms like excessive sleepiness at work and sleep disturbances. Shift work sleep disorder also creates a greater risk for human error at work. Shift work disrupts cognitive ability and flexibility and impairs attention, motivation, decision making, speech, vigilance, and overall performance.


title: Shift work

text: In order to mitigate the negative effects of shift work on safety and health, many countries have enacted regulations on shift work. The European Union, in its directive 2003/88/EC, has established a 48-hour limit on working time (including overtime) per week; a minimum rest period of 11 consecutive hours per 24-hour period; and a minimum uninterrupted rest period of 24 hours of mandated rest per week (which is in addition to the 11 hours of daily rest).<ref name="2003/88/EC">Directive 2003/88/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 November 2003 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time.</ref> The EU directive also limits night work involving "special hazards or heavy physical or mental strain" to an average of eight hours in any 24-hour period. The EU directive allows for limited derogations from the regulation, and special provisions allow longer working hours for transportation and offshore workers, fishing vessel workers, and doctors in training (see also medical resident work hours).


title: Shift work

text: For fewer operational errors, the FAA goal calls for Flight Controllers to be on duty for 5 to 6 hours per shift, with the remaining shift time devoted to meals and breaks. For aircraft pilots, the actual time at the controls (flight time) is limited to 8 or 9 hours, depending on the time of day.


title: Shift work

text: Fatigue due to shift work has contributed to several industrial disasters, including the Three Mile Island accident, the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and the Chernobyl disaster. The Alaska Oil Spill Commission's final report on the "Exxon Valdez" oil spill disaster found that it was "conceivable" that excessive work hours contributed to crew fatigue, which in turn contributed to the vessel's running aground.


title: Shift work

text: The practices and policies put in place by managers of round-the-clock or 24/7 operations can significantly influence shift worker alertness (and hence safety) and performance.


title: Shift work

text: Air traffic controllers typically work an 8-hour day, 5 days per week. Research has shown that when controllers remain "in position" for more than two hours, even at low traffic levels, performance can deteriorate rapidly, so they are typically placed "in position" for 30-minute intervals (with 30 minutes between intervals).


title: Shift work

text: These practices and policies can include selecting an appropriate shift schedule or rota and using an employee scheduling software to maintain it, setting the length of shifts, managing overtime, increasing lighting levels, providing shift worker lifestyle training, retirement compensation based on salary in the last few years of employment (which can encourage excessive overtime among older workers who may be less able to obtain adequate sleep), or screening and hiring of new shift workers that assesses adaptability to a shift work schedule. Mandating a minimum of 10 hours between shifts is an effective strategy to encourage adequate sleep for workers. Allowing frequent breaks and scheduling 8- or 10-hour shifts instead of 12-hour shifts can also minimize fatigue and help to mitigate the negative health effects of shift work.


title: Shift work

text: Multiple factors need to be considered when developing optimal shift work schedules, including shift timing, length, frequency and length of breaks during shifts, shift succession, worker commute time, as well as the mental and physical stress of the job. Even though studies support 12-hour shifts are associated with increased occupational injuries and accident (higher rates with subsequent, successive shifts), a synthesis of evidence cites the importance of all factors when considering the safety of a shift.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work was once characteristic primarily of the manufacturing industry, where it has a clear effect of increasing the use that can be made of capital equipment and allows for up to three times the production compared to just a day shift. It contrasts with the use of overtime to increase production at the margin. Both approaches incur higher wage costs. Although 2nd-shift worker efficiency levels are typically 3–5% below 1st shift, and 3rd shift 4–6% below 2nd shift, the productivity level, i.e. cost per employee, is often 25% to 40% lower on 2nd and 3rd shifts due to fixed costs which are "paid" by the first shift.


title: Shift work

text: The 42-hour work-week allows for the most even distribution of work time. A 3:1 ratio of work days to days off is most effective for eight-hour shifts, and a 2:2 ratio of work days to days off is most effective for twelve-hour shifts. Eight-hour shifts and twelve-hour shifts are common in manufacturing and health care. Twelve-hour shifts are also used with a very slow rotation in the petroleum industry. Twenty-four-hour shifts are common in health care and emergency services.


title: Shift work

text: The shift plan or rota is the central component of a shift schedule. The schedule includes considerations of shift overlap, shift change times and alignment with the clock, vacation, training, shift differentials, holidays, etc., whereas the shift plan determines the sequence of work and free days within a shift system.


title: Shift work

text: Rotation of shifts can be fast, in which a worker changes shifts more than once a week, or slow, in which a worker changes shifts less than once a week. Rotation can also be forward, when a subsequent shift starts later, or backward, when a subsequent shift starts earlier. Evidence supports forward rotating shifts are more adaptable for shift workers' circadian physiology.


title: Shift work

text: One main concern of shift workers is knowing their schedule more than two weeks at a time. Shift work is stressful. When on a rotating or ever changing shift, workers have to worry about daycare, personal appointments, and running their households. Many already work more than an eight-hour shift. Some evidence suggests giving employees schedules more than a month in advance would give proper notice and allow planning, their stress level would be reduced.


title: Shift work

text: Though shift work itself remains necessary in many occupations, employers can alleviate some of the negative health consequences of shift work. The United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends employers avoid quick shift changes and any rotating shift schedules should rotate forward. Employers should also attempt to minimize the number of consecutive night shifts, long work shifts and overtime work. A poor work environment can exacerbate the strain of shift work. Adequate lighting, clean air, proper heat and air conditioning, and reduced noise can all make shift work more bearable for workers.


title: Shift work

text: Good sleep hygiene is recommended. This includes blocking out noise and light during sleep, maintaining a regular, predictable sleep routine, avoiding heavy foods and alcohol before sleep, and sleeping in a comfortable, cool environment. Alcohol consumption, caffeine consumption and heavy meals in the few hours before sleep can worsen shift work sleep disorders. Exercise in the three hours before sleep can make it difficult to fall asleep.


title: Shift work

text: Free online training programs are available to educate workers and managers about the risks associated with shift work and strategies they can use to prevent these.


title: Shift work

text: Algorithmic scheduling of shift work can lead to what has been colloquially termed as "clopening" where the shift-worker has to work the closing shift of one day and the opening shift of the next day back-to-back resulting in short rest periods between shifts and fatigue. Co-opting employees to fill the shift roster helps to ensure that the human costs are taken into account in a way which is hard for an algorithm to do as it would involve knowing the constraints and considerations of each individual shift worker and assigning a cost metric to each of those factors. Shift based hiring which is a recruitment concept that hires people for individual shifts, rather than hiring employees before scheduling them into shifts enables shift workers to indicate their preferences and availability for unfilled shifts through a shift-bidding mechanism. Through this process, the shift hours are evened out by human-driven market mechanism rather than an algorithmic process. This openness can lead to work hours that are tailored to an individual's lifestyle and schedule while ensuring that shifts are optimally filled, in contrast to the generally poor human outcomes of fatigue, stress, estrangement with friends and family and health problems that have been reported with algorithm-based scheduling of work-shifts.


title: Shift work

text: Mental (cognitive) fatigue due to inadequate sleep an/or disturbances of circadian rhythms is a common contributor to accidents and untoward incidents. While the this risk cannot be eliminated, it can be managed through personal and administrative controls. This type of management is conducted through a Fatigue Risk Management System (FRMS). One method used within an FRMS is objective fatigue modeling to predict periods of high risk within a 24-hour shift plan. Modeling is accomplished with tools such as the Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool (FAST) and the FAID Quantum Software


title: Shift work

text: Missing income is also a large part of shift worker. Several companies run twenty-four hour shifts. Most of the work is done during the day. When the work dries up, it usually is the second and third shift workers who pay the price. They are told to punch out early or use paid time off if they have any to make up the difference in their paychecks. That practice costs the average worker $92.00 a month.


title: Shift work

text: Melatonin may increase sleep length during both daytime and nighttime sleep in people who work night shifts. Zopiclone has also been investigated as a potential treatment, but it is unclear if it is effective in increasing daytime sleep time in shift workers. There are, however, no reports of adverse effects.


title: Shift work

text: Modafinil and R-modafinil are useful to improve alertness and reduce sleepiness in shift workers. Modafinil has a low risk of abuse compared to other similar agents. However, 10% more participants reported adverse effects (nausea and headache) while taking modafinil. In post-marketing surveillance, modafinil was associated with Stevens–Johnson syndrome. The European Medicines Agency withdrew the license for modafinil for shift workers for the European market because it judged that the benefits did not outweigh the adverse effects.


title: Shift work

text: Using caffeine and naps before night shifts can decrease sleepiness. Caffeine has also been shown to reduce errors made by shift workers.


title: Shift work

text: According to data from the National Health Interview Survey and the Occupational Health Supplement, 27% of all U.S. workers in 2015 worked an alternative shift (not a regular day shift) and 7% frequently worked a night shift. Prevalence rates were higher for workers aged 18–29 compared to other ages. Those with an education level beyond high school had a lower prevalence rate of alternative shifts compared to workers with less education. Among all occupations, protective service occupations had the highest prevalence of working an alternative shift (54%).


title: Shift work

text: One of the ways in which working alternative shifts can impair health is through decreasing sleep opportunities. Among all workers, those who usually worked the night shift had a much higher prevalence of short sleep duration (44.0%, representing approximately 2.2 million night shift workers) than those who worked the day shift (28.8%, representing approximately 28.3 million day shift workers). An especially high prevalence of short sleep duration was reported by night shift workers in the transportation and warehousing (69.7%) and health-care and social assistance (52.3%) industries.


title: Shift work

text: It is estimated that 15-20% of workers in industrialized countries are employed in shift work. Shift work is common in the transportation sector as well. Some of the earliest instances appeared with the railroads, where freight trains have clear tracks to run on at night.


title: Shift work

text: Shift work is also the norm in fields related to public protection and healthcare, such as law enforcement, emergency medical services, firefighting, security and hospitals. Shift work is a contributing factor in many cases of medical errors. Shift work has often been common in the armed forces. Military personnel, pilots, and others that regularly change time zones while performing shift work experience jet lag and consequently suffer sleep disorders.


title: Shift work

text: Those in the field of meteorology, such as the National Weather Service and private forecasting companies, also use shift work, as constant monitoring of the weather is necessary. Much of the Internet services and telecommunication industry relies on shift work to maintain worldwide operations and uptime.


title: Shift work

text: Service industries now increasingly operate on some shift system; for example a restaurant or convenience store will normally be open on most days for much longer than a working day.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine cuisine is described as a cultural blending of Mediterranean influences brought by the Spanish during the colonial period and, later, by Italian and Spanish immigrants to Argentina during 19th and 20th centuries, with influences from a further cultural blending of "criollos" (due to Spanish colonizers) with the Indigenous peoples of Argentina (such as "mate" and "humitas").


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg (220 lbs) per capita, approaching 180 kg (396 lbs) per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged 67.7 kg (149 lbs) in 2007.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Beyond "asado" (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. Social gatherings are commonly centred on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home are generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include "asado" or pasta.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Another feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as french fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honour someone. Homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavours. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine, to "bodegones" (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Amerindians lived in Argentina thousands of years before European explorers arrived. Members of an Indian tribe in the northern part of Argentina were farmers who grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536. The arrival of Europeans brought Argentina into the Columbian Exchange, with ingredients from the Old World being introduced to the country for the first time. It was during the Spanish colonial period that cattle were first introduced to Argentina, forming the foundation of the large Argentine beef industry.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Between 1853 and 1955, 6.6  million immigrants came to live in Argentina from diverse sources such as Europe, the Near and Middle East, Russia and Japan, contributing to the development of Argentine cuisine and making Argentina the country with most immigrants only second to the United States.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Most immigrants were from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of pasta dishes, including spaghetti and lasagna. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants also settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking and favourite foods with them. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime. All of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Most regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet. Grilled meat from the "asado" (barbecue) is a staple, with steak and beef ribs especially common. The term "asado" itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Popular items such as "chorizo" (pork sausage), "morcilla" (blood sausage), "chinchulines" (chitterlings), "mollejas" (sweetbread), and other parts of the animal are also enjoyed.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: In Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito (goat) are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are traditionally cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The most common condiment for Asado is "chimichurri", a sauce of herbs, garlic and vinegar. Unlike other preparations, Argentines do not include chilli in their version of "chimichurri", but it does include a still-spicy, but milder form of red pepper, ají molido.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Breaded and fried meats ("milanesas)" are used as snacks, in sandwiches, or eaten warm with mashed potatoes, "purée". "Empanadas," small pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn, and many other fillings, are a common sight at parties and picnics, or as starters to a meal. A variation, the "empanada gallega" (Galician "empanada"), is a big, round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel ("caballa" in Spanish).


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Vegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Italian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. "Fideos" (noodles), "tallarines" ("fettuccine" and "tagliatelle"), "ñoquis" ("gnocchi") are traditionally served on the 29th day of the month, "ravioles", and "canelones" ("cannelloni") can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses. Other Italian staples are "polenta", , and "pastafrola".


title: Argentine cuisine

text: In Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and "torta galesa", which is rather like "torta negra".


title: Argentine cuisine

text: "Sandwiches de miga" are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered English bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: A sweet paste, "dulce de leche" is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. "Alfajores" are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and "dulce de leche" or a fruit paste. The "policeman's" or "truck driver's" sweet is cheese with quince paste or "dulce de membrillo". "Dulce de batata" is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the "Martín Fierro"'s sweet. Apples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: A traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called "mate" (in Spanish, "mate", with the accent on the first syllable [MAH-teh]). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The "mate" (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with "yerba mate", the dried leaves and twigs of the "Ilex paraguariensis". The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a "bombilla". "Mate" can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Hot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the "mate" is refilled. The "mate" is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the "yerba" is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one "mate" to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final "gracias" (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Drinking "mate" together is an important social ritual. "Mate cocido" is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Other typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine cuisine uses locally-grown cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, as well as meat.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Meat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. Certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a highly developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, "dulce de leche" and yogurts. Some of the cheeses from Argentina are "reggianito", "sardo", "provoleta" and "cremoso". Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentine cuisine is heavily influenced by its European roots and has regional variations. "Asado", "dulce de leche", "empanadas", and "yerba mate" are found throughout Argentina. In many parts of the country, food is prepared differently and different kinds of foods are made; this includes to a smaller degree food from pre-Columbian times, as in the Northwest.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: For long periods, urban areas such as Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba welcomed European immigrants, including, above all, those of Italian and Spanish descent. Nevertheless, there was also a migratory flow of German, Swiss, and Middle-Eastern immigrants arriving in Argentina. Among the countless changes this melting pot brought was the enrichment of culinary art. Dishes such as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritters), sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. Furthermore, the bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fettuccine).


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Pizza—made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven or "a la piedra" (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients—is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Bread products are consumed all around the country. The deeply rooted bread, pastry, and dessert-making tradition derive from blending the above nationalities' products. Bakeries sell not only a wide scope of bread, cookies, and cakes, but also pastries. The latter resembles a sort of roll pastry whose main dough ingredient is either butter or fat and which may be simple or stuffed with dulce de leche, milk, jam, crema pastel, or quince or apple jelly, among other fillings. The most popular type of pastry is said to be that of "medialunas" (singular: "medialuna," literally half-moon, that is to say, crescent), based upon French croissants. Furthermore, sandwiches de miga are another type of bread products; they are made only with thin layers of white bread (generally referred to as crustless bread) and stuffed with food items ranging from ham and cheese to other more sophisticated combinations such as raw ham, tomatoes, olives, hard-boiled eggs, tuna, lettuce, red pepper, and the like.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Desserts and sweets are usually stuffed or covered with dulce de leche. The latter can be eaten alone or on top of cakes, alfajores, panqueques (crepes), and pastries, or as a topping spread over flan de leche. Chantilly cream is widely consumed and used in preparing sweets and desserts. Additionally, cakes, sponge cakes, and puddings are very popular dishes. Italian ice-creams in this region also achieved a significant degree of development by adding local flavours that somehow preserved the local spirit involved in their preparation.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Although Asado is eaten all over the country, its origin may be traced back to the Pampas. It entails manifold types of meat, which are generally eaten as follows: achuras (offal, or the cow's inner parts), morcilla (blood sausage), and sometimes also a provoleta (a piece of provolone cheese cooked on the grill with oregano) are eaten first. Then comes the choripán (a kind of spiced sausage made with pork or lamb and placed between two slices of bread), and lastly meat such as asado de tira, vacío (flank steak), lomo (tenderloin), colita de cuadril (rump), matambre (rolled stuffed steak cut into slices and served cold), entraña (hanger steak); the list is never-ending. It is quite common to eat and enjoy a dish known as "cabrito al asador" (roast kid or goat) in the province of Córdoba.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: This region is regarded as perhaps the one most influenced by Native Americans, and its foods are closely linked to the Andean-Incan tradition. When preparing regional dishes, potatoes and corn or wheat are almost always used, including quinoa (a cereal typically used in Incan cuisine), peppers, squashes and tomatoes. The most celebrated dishes are humita and tamal, in which the corn husk is stuffed with the corn filling itself, seasonings or meat.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: This region is the most suitable to taste empanadas, particularly those stuffed with meat and offering different types of tempting varieties such as the "meat empanada", salteña also filled with potatoes, or the "empanada tucumana", which is stuffed with matambre and cut with a knife, or empanadas made with cheese. Empanadas are individual-sized and closed savoury pastries which may be fried or baked in the oven and are generally eaten with the hands.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Stews such as locro, carbonada, pollo al disco, and cazuelas (casseroles) are also typical dishes characterizing this region, which also include pumpkin or potato pudding stuffed with meat.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Corrientes, Misiones and Entre Ríos is another area influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Widely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region's dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for Asado and empanadas. As well, mbeyú, chipá avatí, sopa paraguaya, sopa correntina, chipa solo or chipá con carne, el quibebé, el borí borí, chipá guasú o pastel de choclo, mbaipy, chipá mbocá o chipá caburé and some other similar meals that have as basis:manioc, corn, cheese and, sometimes, some meat.. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and pastel/Carta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the north of this region.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water but, driven by the region's high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Foods produced in the large southern region of Patagonia include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers and the products of the sheep are widely farmed there.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Marine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Mutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region's meat-based dishes. Also typical of the southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Patagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning "hot stone"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150  cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Though wine ("vino") has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer ("cerveza"; the Italian "birra" is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires ("el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires"), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million litres in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 litres per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer have supported the existence of related events, for example, beer festivals called "Oktoberfests" or ""Fiestas de la Cerveza"" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich's "Oktoberfest", and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick's Day ("Día de San Patricio"), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of "elaboraciones", whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lowers economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line "creole" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional).


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Other widely consumed spirits are "aguardiente" (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as "caña quemada" ("burnt cane") or, simply, 'caña' ("cane"). A folkloric note about "caña quemada": until 21 June it is traditional to drink "caña quemada" with "ruda macho" (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. "Caña" competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin ("ginebra"—as in the Dutch kind of gin.)


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The bitter spirit Fernet, and particularly the Italian brand Fernet-Branca, is highly popular in Argentina. (A study in 2017 found that Argentines consume more than 75% of all fernet produced globally.) Fernet is most commonly enjoyed as a mixed drink with Coca-Cola. Given Fernet's qualities as a digestive aid, it is a common choice for an after-dinner digestif.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: There are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavoured alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example, those flavoured with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, "dulce de leche". The "Hesperidina" is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter "chitronchelo" or (in Italian) "citronella", based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata).


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Argentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both "families" are mixed; the for example, is mate mixed with "caña" or gin). Among these, "mate" has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption. Mate is also one of the top exports from Argentina, as it is valued all over the world.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The fact that mate is so prevalent in the "Southern Cone", however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually). Chocolate infusions are also popular (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence, although the plant originated in Mesoamerica). This consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: 25 May and 9 July, that is, the two national dates of Argentina.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Medicinal herbs are common in the whole country; among the most popular are: chamomile, lanceleaf, "boldo", "poleo", "peperina", "carqueja", thyme, "canchalagua", rue ("macho" and "hembra", that is, "male" and "female"), mallow, rosemary, passion flower, "bira bira", "palán palán", "muña muña", to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in apéritifs and bitters, whether alcoholic or not.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Common "restoranes" or "restaurantes" and (grill restaurants) nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the small hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as "minutas", "short-order dishes". Some of the dishes included in the category of "minutas" are "milanesas", "churrascos", "bifes" (beefsteaks), "escalopes", "tallarines", "ravioles" (ravioli), "ñoquis" (gnocchi), although some are very typical of locations that sell food: ""bifes"" and ""milanesas"" are served ""a caballo"" ("on horseback", with fried egg on top), ""milanesa completa"" (a "milanesa" with two fried eggs and French fries), ""revuelto Gramajo"", ""colchón de arvejas"" (an omelette made with peas), ""suprema de pollo"" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a "milanesa"), "matambres", ""lengua a la vinagreta"" (pickled tongue), and "sandwiches" ("sandwiches de miga") are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The most common sandwiches are those made of "milanesa", baked ham and cheese, "pan de miga", toast, "pebetes", "panchos" (hot dogs), "choripanes", "morcipanes", etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of sandwich called the "chivito", even though it contains no goat meat.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: "Picadas", which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, ""cafetines"" and ""bodegones"" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, "maníes" (peanuts), etc.; "picada"s are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (""fernet"", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).


title: Argentine cuisine

text: The people of Argentina greatly enjoy "helado" (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from hail or snow.


title: Argentine cuisine

text: Breakfast typically is small and consists of coffee (or mate) and pastry. In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, Rosario or Cordoba, most towns close for lunchtime. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal and siesta. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. Argentinians often have a light evening snack (called a "merienda" – typically a coffee or mate and a pastry) and it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night, or even later on weekends.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The Order of Friars Minor (also called the Franciscans, the Franciscan Order, or the Seraphic Order; postnominal abbreviation OFM) is a mendicant Catholic religious order, founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi. The order adheres to the teachings and spiritual disciplines of the founder and of his main associates and followers, such as Clare of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, and Elizabeth of Hungary, among many others. The Order of Friars Minor is the largest of the contemporary First Orders within the Franciscan movement.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval of his order from Pope Innocent III in 1209. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the pope disallowed ownership of property, requiring members of the order to beg for food while preaching. The austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while boarding in church properties. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in the final revision of the Rule in 1223. The degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as the Observant branch (postnominal abbreviation OFM Obs.), is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being the Capuchins (postnominal abbreviation OFM Cap.) and Conventuals (postnominal abbreviation OFM Conv). The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of several smaller Franciscan orders (e.g. Alcantarines, Recollects, Reformanti, etc.), completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII. The Capuchin and Conventual remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases. Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit. In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines, after Bernardino of Siena, although the term elsewhere refers rather to Cistercians.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The "Order of Friars Minor" are commonly called simply the "Franciscans". This Order is a mendicant religious order of men that traces its origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name is the "Ordo Fratrum Minorum".


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The modern organization of the Friars Minor comprises several separate families or groups, each considered a religious order in its own right under its own minister General and particular type of governance. They all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. These are


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The Order of Friars Minor, known as the "Observants", most commonly simply called Franciscan friars, official name: "Friars Minor" (OFM). According to the 2013 "Annuario Pontificio," the OFM has 2,212 communities; 14,123 members; 9,735 priests


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin or simply Capuchins, official name: "Friars Minor Capuchin" (OFM Cap). it has 1,633 communities; 10,786 members; 7,057 priests


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The Conventual Franciscans or Minorites, official name: "Friars Minor Conventual" (OFM Conv). It has 667 communities; 4,289 members; 2,921 priests


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: A sermon on Mt 10:9 which Francis heard in 1209 made such an impression on him that he decided to fully devote himself to a life of apostolic poverty. Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The mendicant orders had long been exempt from the jurisdiction of the bishop, and enjoyed (as distinguished from the secular clergy) unrestricted freedom to preach and hear confessions in the churches connected with their monasteries. This had led to endless friction and open quarrels between the two divisions of the clergy. This question was definitively settled by the Council of Trent.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: Amid numerous dissensions in the 14th century, a number of separate congregations sprang up, almost of sects, to say nothing of the heretical parties of the Beghards and Fraticelli, some of which developed within the order on both hermit and cenobitic principles.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: A difference of opinion developed in the community concerning the interpretation of the rule regarding property. The Observants held to a strict interpretation that the friars may not hold any property either individually nor communally. The literal and unconditional observance of this was rendered impracticable by the great expansion of the order, its pursuit of learning, and the accumulated property of the large cloisters in the towns. Regulations were drafted by which all alms donated were held by custodians appointed by the Holy See, who would make distributions upon request. It was John XXII who had introduced Conventualism in the sense of community of goods, income, and property as in other religious orders, in contradiction to Observantism or the strict observance of the rule. Pope Martin V, in the Brief "Ad statum" of 23 August 1430, allowed the Conventuals to hold property like all other orders.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: Projects for a union between the two main branches of the order were put forth not only by the Council of Constance but by several popes, without any positive result. By direction of Pope Martin V, John of Capistrano drew up statutes which were to serve as a basis for reunion, and they were actually accepted by a general chapter at Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the Conventual houses refused to agree to them, and they remained without effect.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the Franciscan Pope Sixtus IV, who bestowed a vast number of privileges on both original mendicant orders, but by this very fact lost the favor of the Observants and failed in his plans for reunion. Julius II succeeded in doing away with some of the smaller branches, but left the division of the two great parties untouched. This division was finally legalized by Leo X, after a general chapter held in Rome in 1517, in connection with the reform movement of the Fifth Lateran Council, had once more declared the impossibility of reunion. Leo X summoned on 11 July 1516 a general chapter to meet at Rome on the feast of Pentecost 31 May 1517. This chapter suppressed all the reformed congregations and annexed them to the Observants; it then declared the Observants an independent order, and separated them completely from the Conventuals. The less strict principles of the Conventuals, permitting the possession of real estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues, were recognized as tolerable, while the Observants, in contrast to this "usus moderatus", were held strictly to their own "usus arctus" or "pauper".


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: All of the groups that followed the Franciscan Rule literally were united to the Observants, and the right to elect the Minister General of the Order, together with the seal of the order, was given to the group united under the Observants. This grouping, since it adhered more closely to the rule of the founder, was allowed to claim a certain superiority over the Conventuals. The Observant general (elected now for six years, not for life) inherited the title of "Minister-General of the Whole Order of St. Francis" and was granted the right to confirm the choice of a head for the Conventuals, who was known as "Master-General of the Friars Minor Conventual"—although this privilege never became practically operative.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: In 1875, the Kulturkampf expelled the majority of the German Franciscans, most of whom settled in North America.


title: Order of Friars Minor

text: The habit has been gradually changed in colour and certain other details. Its colour, which was at first grey or a medium brown, is now a dark brown. The dress, which consists of a loose sleeved gown, is confined by a white cord, from which is hung, since the fifteenth century, the Seraphic Rosary with its seven decades. Sandals are substituted for shoes. Around the neck and over the shoulders hangs the cowl.


title: Energy Brands

text: Energy Brands, also doing business as Glacéau, is a privately owned subsidiary of The Coca-Cola Company based in Whitestone, Queens, New York, that manufactures and distributes various lines of drinks marketed as enhanced water. Founded in May 1996 by J. Darius Bikoff with an electrolyte enhanced line of water called Smartwater, Energy Brands initially distributed its products to health food stores and independent retailers in the New York area. Adding Fruitwater and VitaminWater to its line in 1998 and 2000, respectively, the company expanded to nationwide distribution in the early 2000s.


title: Energy Brands

text: By 2002, the Glacéau line of waters were the top-selling enhanced water brand in the United States, with the company's VitaminWater being its best-selling product. In 2006, the company earned US$350 million in revenue. The company then began its global expansion, launching its products in the United Kingdom and Australia in 2008, France in 2009 and Argentina in 2011.


title: Energy Brands

text: Energy Brands is owned primarily by Bikoff, employees, and small investors. Rapper 50 Cent obtained a minority share of the company as part of an endorsement deal in the company. Thirty percent of the equity was sold to LVMH sometime in the 2000s, which in turn sold those shares. The shares eventually were sold to India-based Tata Group in August 2006, which held the shares until May 2007 when The Coca-Cola Company purchased the company as an independent subsidiary, leaving its actual operations with its existing management including Bikoff.


title: Energy Brands

text: J. Darius Bikoff, a self-proclaimed health nut born on September 21, 1961, first conceived of the idea of vitamin-enhanced water in 1996. According to him, he was feeling "run down" and concerned he was catching a cold, so he took some Vitamin C and drank some mineral water. As he consumed the items, he started thinking about the idea of having them together instead of having to take them separately. He founded Energy Brands in May 1996 using his personal savings and contracting with an aquifer in Connecticut for the base water used. The individual products carried the Glacéau name, with the company's first product being Glacéau Smartwater.


title: Energy Brands

text: Reflecting on the company's early history, Bikoff notes that it was "very tough" as he struggled with founding the company having no actual experience in beverage manufacturing, beyond working in an aluminum fabrication factory. While launching his company, he was also having to deal with personal struggles including a divorce and having to file for bankruptcy. He started by personally introducing Smartwater to smaller independent natural food stores around New York, moving to a statewide launch when the product became successful. He used this same basic method, adding in "mom-and-pop stores", for the launches of Fruitwater and VitaminWater in 1998 and 2000, respectively. By 2001, the company's drinks were sold in over 4,000 retail stores in the New York area. According to Bikoff, this enabled his products to go unnoticed by the large beverage makers until the product was firmly established when he could then cultivate relationships with various independent distributors opening the way for nationwide distribution.


title: Energy Brands

text: Bikoff eventually allowed LVMH to buy a 30% equity share in the company. LVMH later sold the stake to another investor, who in turn sold it again. The shares ended up in the hands of India-based Tata Group in August 2006, which paid $677 million for the 30% equity, seeking to expand its American business interests.


title: Energy Brands

text: $1.2 billion of the sales went to the Tata Group for its 30% minority ownership, which Tata agreed to sell. Under the purchase agreement, Energy Brands remains nearly autonomous as a subsidiary of Coca-Cola, with Coca-Cola primarily operating with a hands-off method, leaving Bikoff and Energy Brands principal operating officers in charge. In discussing the role of Coca-Cola, Bikoff states: "We run independently, we have our own offices. If Coca-Cola don't call me, I don't call them."


title: Energy Brands

text: Energy Brands began launching its products in the United Kingdom and Australia in 2008, with France following in 2009 and Argentina in 2011. The company eventually plans to expand to Canada and Mexico.


title: Energy Brands

text: On April 5, 2006, Energy Brands filed a lawsuit against PepsiCo in the U.S. District Court in Manhattan alleging that PepsiCo's SoBe "Life Water" packages infringed its trade dress for similar drinks. In the subsequent settlement Pepsi agreed to change its packaging.


title: Energy Brands

text: On January 14, 2009, the Center for Science in the Public Interest filed a class-action lawsuit against Energy Brands' parent company in the Northern District of California Court. The suit alleges that the marketing of the drink as a "healthful alternative" to soda is deceptive and in violation of Food and Drug Administration guidelines. The consumer group states that "according to CSPI nutritionists, the 33 grams of sugar in each bottle of VitaminWater do more to promote obesity, diabetes and other health problems than the vitamins in the drinks do to perform the advertised benefits listed on the bottles". Coca-Cola dismissed the allegations as "ridiculous," on the grounds that "no consumer could reasonably be misled into thinking VitaminWater was a healthy beverage" and an attempt by the group to increase its readership.


title: Energy Brands

text: In 2011, the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation ordered the coordination of different lawsuits against Coca-Cola Co. that alleged it misled the public about the nutritional benefits of VitaminWater.


title: Energy Brands

text: As a privately owned company, Energy Brands has never been required to release information about its sales figures or other financial information. Bikoff himself never stated what percentage of the company he owned before it was sold. "Forbes" magazine once reported that he owned only 25% of the company, but in an interview with "The Times", he denied this stating: "Did anyone say I had less than 50%? Look, I maintained control of the company and I maintain it today. But I don’t talk about my share as every story becomes one about personal wealth." In 2006, the company was reported to have an annual sales revenue of $350 million.


title: Energy Brands

text: Before the sale to Coca-Cola, 70% shares of the company were held by company employees and smaller investors, with 30% held by the Tata Group. In October 2004, rapper Curtis Jackson—known as 50 Cent—was given a minority share in the company in exchange for becoming a spokesperson after learning that he was a fan of the beverage. The health-conscious Jackson noted that he first learned of the product while at a gym in Los Angeles, and stated that "they do such a good job making water taste good." After becoming a shareholder and endorser, Jackson worked with the company to create a new grape-flavored "Formula 50" variant of VitaminWater and mentioned the drinks in various songs and interviews. It's unknown how much Jackson made from the purchase of his shares by Coca-Cola, with estimates in the financial press mainly in the $100 – 400million range. Though he no longer has an equity stake in the company, Jackson continues to act as a spokesperson for VitaminWater, enthusiastically supporting the product, including singing about it at the BET Awards and expressing his excitement over the company's continuing to allow his input on products.


title: Energy Brands

text: Energy Brands' first product was Glacéau Smartwater, vapor-distilled water with added electrolytes, which was released at the company's launch in 1996. Glaceau Fruitwater, adding zero-calorie fruit flavors to the core Smartwater, followed in 1998. In 2000, VitaminWater was launched, adding vitamins and natural flavors with Smartwater. Designed to "fill the gap" between soft drinks and water for people who knew they should be drinking more water but weren't, VitaminWater was targeted primarily at adults. With fewer calories than soda, the company states that the drink both hydrates consumers and provides nutrients they are likely to be missing.


title: Energy Brands

text: In 2002, Energy Brands' Glacéau drinks were the top-selling brand of enhanced water. VitaminWater is considered its most successful of the four products. On April 2, 2009, Glacéau VitaminWater introduced a new line for the weight-conscious market called VitaminWater10 that has 10 calories per eight-ounce serving, and later VitaminWater Zero, a calorie-free drink, down from the older line that serves 50 kilocalories. Both drinks include Truvia as a sweetener. VitaminWater Zero also uses Erythritol. In September 2010, a rebranded version of the 10 calorie drink was introduced to the Canadian market, although Vitaminwater Zero is still exclusively a US product.


title: Energy Brands

text: vitaminwater is a mineral water product distributed by Energy Brands and was introduced in 2000. Some ingredients are added according to the flavor and intended purpose of the drink.


title: Energy Brands

text: In 2008, the Australian consumer organisation Choice gave one of its annual 'Shonky' awards to vitaminwater, saying that, despite the claim that the drinks were healthy, "one bottle contains about a third of the recommended daily sugar intake for an average adult woman ... and none contains more than 1% fruit juice". Choice also noted that the label on one flavour blatantly mocked food regulations designed to protect consumers by stating, "We are prohibited from making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in this bottle", before making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in the bottle.


title: Energy Brands

text: In 2009, brand owner The Coca-Cola Company was sued by the Center for Science in the Public Interest. The suit alleged that the marketing of the drink as a "healthful alternative" to soda is deceptive and in violation of Food and Drug Administration guidelines. The consumer group stated that "according to CSPI nutritionists, the 33 grams of sugar in each bottle of Vitaminwater do more to promote obesity, diabetes and other health problems than the vitamins in the drinks do to perform the advertised benefits listed on the bottles". Coca-Cola criticized the suit as "ridiculous" on the grounds that "no consumer could reasonably be misled into thinking Vitaminwater was a healthy beverage" and that the suit was an attempt by the group to increase its readership. In 2013, a federal judge ruled that the lawsuit could move forward as a class-action lawsuit.


title: Energy Brands

text: In January 2011, the United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) ruled that an advertisement that claimed vitaminwater was "nutritious" was misleading due to the high sugar content (23 g per 500 ml) of the drink. The ruling banning the advertisement stated: "Because Vitamin Water contained about a quarter of a consumer's GDA (guideline daily amount) for sugar as well as the added vitamins, we considered that the description of Vitamin Water as 'nutritious' was misleading".


title: Energy Brands

text: Smartwater is vapor-distilled water with electrolytes added for taste. It is available in 600 mL, 700 mL, 850 mL, 1 L, 1.5 L, and 20 oz bottles.


title: Energy Brands

text: vitaminenergy is an energy drink which consists of many of the same ingredients as vitaminwater, such as crystalline fructose (a sugar), electrolytes, natural flavors, and vitamins (Vitamin B3, B5, B6, B12, and C) along with natural caffeine and ribose. Specific ingredients are added according to the flavor of the drink. Either 16 oz, 200 calories and 150 mg caffeine per can, or 2 oz, no calories. The vitaminenergy website does not show ingredients or amount of caffeine for the 'shot' product.


title: Energy Brands

text: fruitwater was a less sweetened, sparkling version of VitaminWater drink that was sold from 2013 to 2015. It consisted of the same ingredients only with a light fruit flavor and less crystalline fructose. Aside from “natural flavor,” fruitwater does not contain any actual fruit juice. Ingredients include Guarana seed, which has twice as much caffeine as coffee. Coca-Cola discontinued the drink in 2015 due to poor sales.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The second season of the American political drama television series "The West Wing" aired in the United States on NBC from October 4, 2000 to May 16, 2001 and consisted of 22 episodes.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The second season made frequent use of flashbacks, revealing Bartlet's campaign for the presidency in the period prior to events covered in the first season. The first two episodes, "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen, Part I" and "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen, Part II", showed how many of the central characters were introduced to Josiah Bartlet, his campaign for the presidential nomination, and his election. Aaron Sorkin originally planned to have such flashbacks as a major part of the entire season, but budget and logistical demands prevented this.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The second season had star billing for eight major roles. Seven of these were filled by returning main cast members from the first season, while Moira Kelly departed the cast at the end of the previous season. Rob Lowe once again receives star billing, while Martin Sheen receives the "and" credit for his role as President Josiah Bartlet. The rest of the ensemble, now including previously recurring Janel Moloney, are credited alphabetically.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The second season details the period between the end of President Bartlet's second year in office and the middle of his third. It covers a wider legislative array than the first season does, and presents issues including the rights of hate groups and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: In this season, "The West Wing" characters are shown as being more capable of legislating thanks to an increased approval rating (described as a temporary "bubble" due to the shooting that ends the first season). Also vital to this theme is the new doctrine for legislating laid out in the first-season episode "Let Bartlet Be Bartlet."


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The multiple sclerosis arc (also introduced in the first season) becomes central late in the second season as staff members are introduced one-by-one to the President's ailment and the public made aware. This theme remains central to the entire series.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: Mrs. Landingham, the longtime secretary of President Bartlet, dies in the penultimate episode, "18th and Potomac." In the final episode, "Two Cathedrals," Mrs. Landingham's funeral is central as is the question of whether the President will run for re-election.


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The season ends with the President announcing his multiple sclerosis, and concludes just moments before he answers a reporter's question: "Mr. President, can you tell us right now if you'll be seeking a second term?"


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 81% with an average score of 10 out of 10 based on 16 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "President Bartlet is tested by his biggest scandal yet, but "The West Wing"s approval ratings are way up in a second season that is teeming with dramas on a national scale and burning with an idealistic fervor that will have viewers cheering."


title: The West Wing (season 2)

text: The second season received 18 Emmy Award nominations for the 53rd Primetime Emmy Awards, winning a total of 8 awards. Consecutive wins included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Allison Janney), Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series (Thomas Schlamme for "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen"), and Outstanding Cinematography for a Single Camera Series (Thomas Del Ruth). Bradley Whitford won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, and the series also won for Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series, Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Series, and Outstanding Single Camera Sound Mixing for a Series. Notable nominations included Martin Sheen and Rob Lowe for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, John Spencer and Richard Schiff for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Stockard Channing for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Oliver Platt for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series, Aaron Sorkin for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen", and Laura Innes for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for "Shibboleth".


title: RP2040

text: The RP2040 is a 32-bit dual ARM Cortex-M0+ microcontroller integrated circuit by Raspberry Pi Ltd (was Raspberry Pi Trading Ltd). At the same time, it was released as part of the Raspberry Pi Pico board.


title: RP2040

text: Announced on 21st January 2021, the RP2040 is the first microcontroller designed by Raspberry Pi Ltd (was Raspberry Pi Trading Ltd). The microcontroller is low cost, with the Raspberry Pi Pico being introduced at and the RP2040 itself costing . The microcontroller can be programmed in Assembly, Rust, C/C++ and MicroPython. It is powerful enough to run TensorFlow Lite.


title: RP2040

text: At announcement time four other manufacturers (Adafruit, Pimoroni, Arduino, SparkFun) were at advanced stages of their product design, awaiting the widespread availability of chips to be put in to production. SparkFun has since released products based around the RP2040.


title: RP2040

text: Hackaday notes the benefits of the RP2040 as being from Raspberry Pi, having a good feature set, and being released in low-cost packages.


title: RP2040

text: Per the datasheet, there are multiple revisions of the chip:<br>"The full source for the RP2040 bootROM can be found at https://github.com/raspberrypi/pico-bootrom. This includes both version 1 and version 2 of the bootROM, which correspond to the B0 and B1 silicon revisions, respectively."


title: RP2040

text: A number of manufacturers have announced their own boards using the RP2040. A selection of the growing number is here:


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU; ) is a public research university in Shanghai, China. The university is funded by the Ministry of Education of China.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The university was established on April 8, 1896 as Nanyang Public School (南洋公學) by an imperial edict. The university is a member of the C9 League, Double First Class University Plan, Project 985, and Project 211. The university underwent a number of reformations and gained its current name in 1959. Shanghai Second Medical University was merged into the university on July 18, 2005.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The word "Jiao Tong" (), or historically, "Chiao Tung", means transportation or communication. It reflects the university's root — it was founded by the Ministry of Posts and Communications of the late Qing dynasty. Jiao Tong or Chiao Tung could be translated as transport but it also means "extending in all directions". Engineering and managerial sciences are major academic focuses at the various Jiaotong universities, but not the only fields of research.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 1896, the Nanyang Public School () was founded in Shanghai by the imperial edict of the Guangxu Emperor, under the Business and Telegraphs Office of the Qing imperial government. Four schools were established: a normal school, a school of foreign studies, a middle school, and a high school. Sheng Xuanhuai, the mandarin who proposed the idea to the Guangxu Emperor, became the first president and is, along with missionary educator John Calvin Ferguson, regarded as the university's founder.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The Ministry of Commerce assumed administration of the college in 1904, and in 1905 changed the college's name to Imperial Polytechnic College of the Commerce Ministry. In 1906, the college was placed under the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. Its name was changed to Shanghai Industrial College of the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. When the Republic of China was founded, the college was placed under the Ministry of Communications and its name was once again changed, this time to Government Institute of Technology of the Communications Ministry.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 1918, the Republic of China government founded the School of Management. After a merger with two other colleges in 1920, the name changed to Nan Yang College of Chiao Tung.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The college achieved world renown in the 1930s and was referred to as the "Eastern MIT". In 1938, the Ministry of Education assumed administration of the university and renamed it to National Chiao Tung University (), the name by which daughter institution National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan is known to this day. In 1943, the graduate school was founded.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, neither the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) nor the Kuomintang KMT trusted each other or were actively cooperating. After American-sponsored attempts to negotiate a coalition government failed in 1946, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The CCP defeated the Nationalists in 1949, forcing Chiang's government to retreat to Taiwan. During the evacuation, a part of the faculty and alumni was taken to Taiwan by Chiang Kai-shek, founding National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan in 1958.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: After the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. Chiao Tung lost its "National" appellation and became Chiao Tung University to reflect that all universities under the new socialist state would be public, and was renamed Jiao Tong University.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Shanghai Second Medical University was merged into Shanghai Jiao Tong University on July 18, 2005, under the name Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Since the reform and opening-up policy in China, SJTU has grown substantially. It comprises five campuses, including Xuhui, Minhang, Luwan, Qibao, and Fahua (法华), taking up an area of about 3,225,833 square meters.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 2006, it established the University of Michigan - Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute (UM-SJTU JI) with the University of Michigan.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 2013, François Hollande inaugurated the SJTU-ParisTech Elite Institute of Technology (SPEIT), an institution based on the French engineering education system. The four founding member universities are École Polytechnique, ENSTA ParisTech, Mines ParisTech and Télécom ParisTech.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Today SJTU has 31 schools (departments), 63 undergraduate programs, 250 masters-degree programs, 203 Ph.D. programs, 28 post-doctorate programs, and 11 state key laboratories and national engineering research centers.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Its total enrollment of students amounts to 40,711, of which 2,722 are international students. There are 16,221 undergraduates and 21,768 masters and Ph.D. candidates.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The university has more than 1,900 professors and associate professors, including 22 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 24 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, 139 accredited professors, and chair professors of the "Chang Jiang Scholars Program".


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 2003, Shanghai Jiao Tong University produced the "Academic Ranking of World Universities", making it the first global university ranking with multifarious indicators, which analyzes the top universities in the world on quality of faculty (40%), research output (40%), quality of education (10%) and performance vs. size (10%). Since 2009, ARWU has been published and copyrighted annually by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy, an independent organization that is not legally subordinated to any universities or government agencies.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Shanghai Jiao Tong University is consistently ranked among the top universities in the Asia-Pacific according to major international university rankings. Shanghai Jiao Tong University graduates are highly desired worldwide, with its Graduate Employability rankings 2017 placed at 33rd in the world in the QS Graduate Employability Rankings. The institution came 7th in the "QS BRICS University Rankings 2019," and 5th in the Emerging Economies University Rankings 2021 by "Times Higher Education".


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: As of 2022, the QS World University Rankings ranked SJTU 46th in the world. The Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as the "Shanghai Ranking", placed SJTU 54th in the world, 6th in Asia and 4th in China after (Tsinghua, Peking and Zhejiang). The Times Higer Education World University Rankings ranked SJTU 52nd in the world, with its industry income and research performance indicator placed at =1st and 26th respectively in the world"."


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Shanghai Jiao Tong University was ranked 28th among the most reputable universities in the world by the "Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings".


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: As of 2021, Shanghai Jiao Tong University was ranked 14th among universities around the world by "SCImago Institutions Rankings". Regarding scientific research output, the Nature Index 2022 ranks SJTU the 8th university in China, the 9th university in the Asia Pacific region, and 22nd in the world among the global universities.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: As of 2021, Shanghai Jiao Tong University ranks 11th globally and 2nd in the Asia & Oceania region by the University Ranking by Academic Performance. SJTU is ranked 2nd in the Asia & Oceania region and 17th globally by the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities with specific fields and subjects, ranked in the top 25 globally, including "Chemistry", "Mathematics", "Physics", "Chemical Engineering", "Civil Engineering", "Computer Science", "Electrical Engineering", "Material Science", "Molecular Biology & Genetics" "Mechanical Engineering", "Pharmacology & Toxicolog", "Energy Science & Engineering", "Environmental Science & Engineering" and "Biomedical Engineering".


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In the 2021 ARWU Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, the SJTU had 11 disciplines in the world's top 20, 21 disciplines in the world's top 50 and 29 disciplines in the world's top 100.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The previous main campus was located in Xujiahui, in the Xuhui District of Shanghai, formerly a mostly Catholic area and a site of several educational institutions.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The main gate, built in 1935, is of traditional Chinese style reflecting the university's earlier status as the "Imperial Polytechnic College". he main gate approaches were via a series of marble bridges, similar to, although smaller than, those built in front of Tiananmen. However, recent road expansions have demolished the river as well as most bridges. A copy of this famous gate scene has been built on the east of the Minhang campus.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The construction of the campus never came to an end in the past century. Existing buildings: the Middle College building (built in 1898), the original library (built in 1919), the gymnasium (built in 1925), the administrative building (built in 1933), the Xinjian building (built in 1953), the new Upper College building (built in 1955), the second teaching building (built in 1960), Bao Zhaolong library (built in 1985) and Haoran high-tech building (built in 1996) were constructed one after another.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The university's School of International Education is located here, where many international students take classes throughout the academic year (however, most international students who take degree courses are in Minhang campus). The campus still houses various scientific research institutions, State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, for instance, although most moved to the new campus since 1987.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The Minhang campus is located in the Minhang District on the outskirts of metropolitan Shanghai. This young campus, which was founded in 1987, covers 2,822,903m once farmland. Zizhu Science Park, where Intel, ST Microelectronics, Microsoft, Sandisk, and other high-tech companies placed their research and development centers, south of this campus.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Currently, most of the university's administrative and academic framework and the majority of undergraduate and graduate students are situated at this campus, and the campus has three libraries and seven dining halls.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: It used to be the campus of Shanghai Second Medical University, which is located in the Luwan District of Shanghai. The Aurora University (Shanghai), a pre-eminent Catholic university in Shanghai, was located there before 1952.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: In 1999, Shanghai Agricultural College was merged into SJTU. Its campus, located at 2678 Qixin Road, became the Qibao Campus of SJTU.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: This campus is where Jiao Tong's Antai College of Economics and Management and the School of Continuing Education are located.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: This campus is located at No 3 Yinlian Rd in the Lingang area. Jiao Tong's China-UK Low Carbon College moved to this campus in Step. 2018.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Today, associations organized by Jiao Tong's alumni can be found in the United States, Japan, European Union countries, Canada, Southeast Asia, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Mainland China. They call themselves Jiao Tong (Jiaoda) people.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: The routine services of these alumni associations include: updating contact lists, holding conferences, conducting Sino-foreign cultural exchanges, and keeping contact with other alumni associations throughout the world.


title: Shanghai Jiao Tong University

text: Famous alumni of SJTU or its predecessors include Jiang Zemin, Wang Daohan, Ding Guangen, Huang Yanpei, Cai Er, Chen Zhu, Qian Xuesen, Mao Yushi, Wu Wenjun, Yan Junqi, Shen Xiaoming, Yang Yuanqing and many more. More than 200 of the academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering are alumni of Jiao Tong University.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The genus Ebolavirus (- or ; - or ) is a virological taxon included in the family "Filoviridae" (filament-shaped viruses), order "Mononegavirales". The members of this genus are called ebolaviruses, and encode their genome in the form of single-stranded negative-sense RNA. The six known virus species are named for the region where each was originally identified: "Bundibugyo ebolavirus", "Reston ebolavirus", "Sudan ebolavirus", "Taï Forest ebolavirus" (originally "Côte d'Ivoire ebolavirus"), "Zaire ebolavirus", and "Bombali ebolavirus". The last is the most recent species to be named and was isolated from Angolan free-tailed bats in Sierra Leone. Each species of the genus "Ebolavirus" has one member virus, and four of these cause Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans, a type of hemorrhagic fever having a very high case fatality rate. The Reston virus has caused EVD in other primates. "Zaire ebolavirus" has the highest mortality rate of the ebolaviruses and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks of the six known species of the genus, including the 1976 Zaire outbreak and the outbreak with the most deaths (2014).


title: Ebolavirus

text: Ebolaviruses were first described after outbreaks of EVD in southern Sudan in June 1976 and in Zaire in August 1976. The name "Ebolavirus" is derived from the Ebola River in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), near the location of the 1976 outbreak, and the taxonomic suffix "-virus" (denoting a viral genus). This genus was introduced in 1998 as the "Ebola-like viruses". In 2002, the name was changed to "Ebolavirus" and in 2010, the genus was emended. Ebolaviruses are closely related to marburgviruses.


title: Ebolavirus

text: Ebolavirus is a filamentous, enveloped virus within the order "Mononegavirales" which also contains rabies and measles. This order is characterized by non-segmented, single-stranded negative-sense RNA (-ssRNA) genomes that are surrounded by a helical nucleocapsid. Filoviruses encode seven different proteins that include: NP (nucleoprotein), VP35 (part of the polymerase complex), VP40 (matrix protein), GP (glycoprotein spike), VP30 (transcription activator), VP42 (second matrix protein), and L (RdRp). Of these proteins, GP and NP proteins are crucial for viral entry and replication.


title: Ebolavirus

text: GP is the protein responsible for pathogenic differences among ebolaviruses. GP encodes two glycoproteins, one of which is sGP (soluble glycoprotein) which has a role in Ebola pathogenesis. Research has suggested that sGP is able to subvert the host immune response increasing the EBOV pathogenesis.


title: Ebolavirus

text: NP contains both the filoviral genome and the antigenome. NP oligomerization is responsible for the NC (helical nucleocapsid) formation which allows the -ssRNA genome to be protected against host cell degradation by endonucleases and host immune response. NP is also shown to recruit host cell proteins to facilitate virus transcription and replication within the cytoplasm.


title: Ebolavirus

text: Researchers have found evidence of Ebola infection in three species of fruit bat. The bats show no symptoms of the disease, indicating that they may be the main natural reservoirs of the Ebolavirus. It is possible that there are other reservoirs and vectors. Understanding where the virus incubates between outbreaks and how it is transmitted between species will help protect humans and other primates from the virus.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The researchers found that bats of three species – Franquet's epauletted fruit bat ("Epomops franqueti"), the hammer-headed bat ("Hypsignathus monstrosus") and the little collared fruit bat ("Myonycteris torquata") – had either genetic material from the Ebola virus, known as RNA sequences, or evidence of an immune response to the disease. The bats showed no symptoms themselves.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The Bombali ebolavirus (BOMV) was isolated from the little free-tailed bat ("Chaerephon pumilus") and the Angolan free-tailed bat ("Mops condylurus") in Sierra Leone.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The entry pathway that the virus uses is a key step in its cycle. Several pathways have been suggested for Ebolavirus such as phagocytosis and clathrin and caveolin mediated endocytosis. However, Nanbo et al. (2010) and Saeed et al. (2010) independently proved that neither of these pathways is actually used.


title: Ebolavirus

text: They discovered that Ebolavirus uses macropinocytosis to enter the host cells. Induction of macropinocytosis leads to the formation of macropinocytosis-specific endosomes (macropinosomes), which are large enough to accommodate Ebola virions. This discovery was proven by the fact that Ebolavirus co-localizes with sorting nexin 5 (SNX5), which consists of a large family of peripheral membrane proteins that associate with newly formed macropinosomes. Also, blocking the macropinocytosis pathway has been proven to stop Ebolavirus from entering the cells. Four different macropinocytosis specific inhibitors were tested: cytochalasin D (depolymerizing agent), wortmannin (Wort), LY-294002 (both are inhibitors of PI3K) and EIPA (5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl) amiloride), an inhibitor of the Na+/H+ exchanger specific for pinocytosis.


title: Ebolavirus

text: Then, internalized EBOV particles are transported to late endosomes and, there, co-localization with GTPase Rab7 (marker of late endosomes) is observed. Mutation of both Rab5 and Rab7 GTPases additionally inhibits viral entry. After trafficking to late endosomes, Ebola virus binds the intracellular receptor Neimann-Pick C1 (NPC1) and the viral membrane fuses with the endosomal membrane, allowing the virus to release its genome into the cytoplasm.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The main reason that there are not many available treatments is that Ebola is such a severe virus, with a 90% fatality rate. It can only be explored in a BSL-4 laboratory which is very selective. In order for it to be studied more widely, BSL-2 laboratories have been able to use systems that are substitutes for the actual infectious virus. Scientists have used pseudo types that have the same glycoprotein on the surface that is used for entry into the host cell. They also use noninfectious Ebola-like particles as a replacement system to study.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The search for a vaccine for Ebola began immediately after it was first discovered in 1976. There are currently only two FDA approved drugs. In October 2020 Immazab was officially approved and in December 2020, Ebanga was also officially approved. The difference between the two treatments is that Immazeb uses three monoclonal antibodies whereas Ebanga only has one monoclonal antibody. Both of these treatments are designed to attack the glycoprotein in order to prevent the virus from entering a new host cell and replicating. Besides these two drugs, there is more general treatment care such as managing symptoms that are caused by Ebola such as vomiting, fever, diarrhea, and any pain.


title: Ebolavirus

text: According to the rules for taxon naming established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), the name of the genus "Ebolavirus" is always to be capitalized, italicized, never abbreviated, and to be preceded by the word "genus". The names of its members (ebolaviruses) are to be written in lower case, are not italicized, and used without articles.


title: Ebolavirus

text: The genera "Ebolavirus" and "Marburgvirus" were originally classified as the species of the now-obsolete genus "Filovirus". In March 1998, the Vertebrate Virus Subcommittee proposed in the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) to change the genus "Filovirus" to the family "Filoviridae" with two specific genera: "Ebola-like viruses" and "Marburg-like viruses". This proposal was implemented in Washington, D.C., as of April 2001 and in Paris as of July 2002. In 2000, another proposal was made in Washington, D.C., to change the "-like viruses" to "-virus" resulting in today's "Ebolavirus" and "Marburgvirus".