title: John Henry Carpenter

text: Carpenter's acquittal was spearheaded by defense attorney Dan Roth. The Law Offices of Roth and Roth were located in Scottsdale, Arizona. Carpenter's acquittal subsequently propelled Roth's reputation as one of Arizona's most sought-after defense attorneys.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, healthcare, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual wellbeing during all stages of their life.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The term can also be further defined more broadly within the framework of the World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health―as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity"― to denote sexual wellbeing, encompassing the ability of an individual to have responsible, satisfying and safe sex and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. UN agencies in particular define sexual and reproductive health as including both physical and psychological well-being vis-à-vis sexuality. A further interpretation includes access to sex education, access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of birth control, as well as access to appropriate health care services, as the ability of women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth could provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Individuals face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on socioeconomic status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion, and resources available in their environment. Low income individuals may lack access to appropriate health services and/or knowledge of how to maintain reproductive health.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The WHO assessed in 2008 that "Reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% of the global burden of ill-health for women, and 14% for men." Reproductive health is a part of sexual and reproductive health and rights. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), unmet needs for sexual and reproductive health deprive women of the right to make "crucial choices about their own bodies and futures", affecting family welfare. Women bear and usually nurture children, so their reproductive health is inseparable from gender equality. Denial of such rights also worsens poverty.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: According to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, fertility starts to drop considerably around the age of 32, and around 37, it has a particularly deep nose dive. By age 44, chances of spontaneous pregnancy approach zero. As such, women are often told to have children before the age of 35, and pregnancy after 40 is considered high risk. If pregnancy occurs after the age of 40 (geriatric pregnancy), the woman and baby will be monitored closely for:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Adolescent health creates a major global burden and has a great deal of additional and diverse complications compared to adult reproductive health such as early pregnancy and parenting issues, difficulties accessing contraception and safe abortions, lack of healthcare access, and high rates of HIV, sexually transmitted infections and mental health issues. Each of those can be affected by outside political, economic and socio-cultural influences. For most adolescent females, they have yet to complete their body growth trajectories, therefore adding a pregnancy exposes them to a predisposition to complications. These complications range from anemia, malaria, HIV and other STIs, postpartum bleeding and other postpartum complications, mental health disorders such as depression and suicidal thoughts or attempts. In 2016, adolescent birth rates between the ages of 15-19 was 45 per 1000. In 2014, 1 in 3 experienced sexual violence, and there more than 1.2 million deaths. The top three leading causes of death in females between the ages of 15-19 are maternal conditions 10.1%, self-harm 9.6%, and road conditions 6.1%.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The causes of teenage pregnancy are vast and diverse. In developing countries, young women are pressured to marry for different reasons. One reason is to bear children to help with work, another on a dowry system to increase the families income, another is due to prearranged marriages. These reasons tie back to the financial needs of girls' families, cultural norms, religious beliefs, and external conflicts.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Adolescent pregnancy, especially in developing countries, carries increased health risks, and contributes to maintaining the cycle of poverty. The availability and type of sex education for teenagers varies in different parts of the world. LGBT teens may develop additional problems if they live in places where homosexual activity is socially disapproved or illegal; in extreme cases, there can be depression, social isolation, and even suicide among LGBT youth.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: 99% of maternal deaths occur in developing countries, and in 25 years, the maternal mortality globally dropped to 44%. Statistically, a woman's chance of survival during childbirth is closely tied to her social-economic status, access to healthcare, where she lives geographically, and cultural norms. To compare, a woman dies of complications from childbirth every minute in developing countries versus a total of 1% of total maternal mortality deaths in developed countries. Women in developing countries have little access to family planning services, different cultural practices, lack of information, birthing attendants, prenatal care, birth control, postnatal care, lack of access to health care, and are typically in poverty. In 2015, those in low-income countries had access to antenatal care visits averaged 40% and were preventable. All these reasons led to an increase in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR).


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: One of the international Sustainable Development Goals developed by United Nations is to improve maternal health by a targeted 70 deaths per 100,000 live births by 2030. Most models of maternal health encompass family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care. All care after childbirth recovery is typically excluded, which includes pre-menopause and aging into old age. During childbirth, women typically die from severe bleeding, infections, high blood pressure during pregnancy, delivery complications, or an unsafe abortion. Other reasons can be regional such as complications related to diseases such as malaria and AIDS during pregnancy. The younger the woman is when she gives birth, the more at risk she and her baby are for complications and possible mortality.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There is a significant relationship between the quality of maternal services made available and the greater financial standings of a country. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia exemplify this as these regions are significantly deprived of medical staff and affordable health


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: opportunities. Most countries provide for their health services through a combination of funding from government tax revenue and local households. Poorer nations or regions with extremely concentrated wealth can leave citizens on the margins uncared for or overlooked.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: However, the lack of proper leadership can result in a nation's public sectors being mishandled or poorly performing despite said nation's resources and standing. In addition, poorer nations funding their medical services through taxes places a greater financial burden on the public and effectively the mothers themselves.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Responsibility and accountability on the part of mental health sectors are strongly emphasized as to what will remedy the poor quality of maternal health globally. The impact of different maternal health interventions across the globe stagger variously and are vastly uneven. This is the result of a lack of political and financial commitment to the issue as most safe motherhood programs internationally have to compete for significant funding. Some resolve that if global survival initiatives were promoted and properly funded it would prove to be mutually beneficial for the international community. Investing in maternal health would ultimately advance several issues such as gender inequality, poverty, and general global health standards. As it currently stands, pregnant women are subjugated to high financial costs throughout the duration of their term internationally which is highly taxing and strenuous.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: In addition, if the woman and/or the man has a genetic disease, there is risk of these being passed on to the children. Birth control or technical solutions (assisted reproductive technology) can be an option then.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The sexual and reproductive health of LGBT+ people face challenges through issues like the ongoing HIV pandemic, binary organization of "men" and "women"'s reproductive health, alongside stigma and repression that limit LGBT+ people from accessing the healthcare they need. Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality. It is important to not only consider the sexual/physical health of an individual but also the cultural and contextual factors that influence an individuals well-being. Unfortunately, the lack of competent providers and stigma attached to homosexuality have a great impact on the sexual health of the LGBTQ+ population. The LGBTQ+ population faces a number of obstacles in terms of sexual and reproductive health. The different stigmas and biases that come with these barriers make receiving proper care difficult. Some of these stigmas that follow those in the LGBTQ+ population in terms of their sexual and reproductive health are associating certain diseases, and other illnesses with this community. This leaves those in the LGBTQ+ population in a position that makes them vulnerable, as well as victims of a number of health disparities. The overall health of those in the LGBTQ+ population is determinant on sexual and reproductive health as these all make up the health of these individuals. Those in the LGBTQ+ community face also face discrimination from providers and insurance companies, on top of all of the other barriers and limits on access to care that they endure. All of these factors have led to those in the LGBTQ+ population having worse health outcomes.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Access to reproductive health services is very poor in many countries. Women are often unable to access maternal health services due to a lack of knowledge about the existence of such services or lack of freedom of movement. Some women are subjected to forced pregnancy and banned from leaving the home. In many countries, women are not allowed to leave home without a male relative or husband, and therefore their ability to access medical services is limited. Therefore, increasing women's autonomy is needed in order to improve reproductive health, however, doing so may require a cultural shift. According to the WHO, "All women need access to antenatal care in pregnancy, skilled care during childbirth, and care and support in the weeks after childbirth".


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The fact that the law allows certain reproductive health services, does not necessarily ensure that such services are actually in use by the people. The availability of contraception, sterilization, and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural, and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice, it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists, and other social and medical workers being conscientious objectors.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: In developing regions of the world, there are about 214 million women who want to avoid pregnancy but are unable to use safe and effective family planning methods. When taken correctly, the combined oral contraceptive pill is over 99% effective at preventing pregnancy. However, it does not protect from sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Some methods, such as using condoms, achieve both protection from STIs and unwanted pregnancies. There are also natural family planning methods, which may be preferred by religious people, but some very conservative religious groups, such as the Quiverfull movement, oppose these methods too because they advocate the maximization of procreation. One of the oldest ways to reduce unwanted pregnancy is coitus interruptus - still widely used in the developing world.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There are many types of contraceptives. One type of contraceptive includes barrier methods. One barrier method includes condoms for males and females. Both types stop sperm from entering the woman's uterus, thereby preventing pregnancy from occurring. Another type of contraception is the birth control pill, which stops ovulation from occurring by combining the chemicals progestin and estrogen. Many women use this method of contraception, however, they discontinue using it equally as much as they use it. One reason for this is because of the side effects that may occur from using the pill, and because some health care providers do not take women's concerns about negative side effects seriously. The use of the birth control pill is common in western countries, and two forms of combined oral contraceptives are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There are many objections to the use of birth control, both historically and in the present day. One argument against birth control usage states that there is no need for birth control, to begin with. This argument was levied in 1968 when Richard Nixon was elected president, and the argument stated that since birth rates were at their lowest point since World War II ended, birth control was not necessary. Demographic planning arguments were also the basis of the population policy of Nicolae Ceaușescu in communist Romania, who adopted a very aggressive natalist policy which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people. Such policies consider that coercion is an acceptable means of reaching demographic targets. Religious objections are based on the view that premarital sex should not happen, while married couples should have as many children as possible. As such, the Catholic Church encourages premarital abstinence from sex. This argument was written out in "Humanae Vitae", a papal encyclical released in 1968. The Catholic Church bases its argument against birth control pills on the basis that birth control pills undermine the natural law of God. The Catholic Church also argues against birth control on the basis of family size, with Cardinal Mercier of Belgium arguing,  "...the duties of conscience are above worldly considerations, and besides, it is the large families who are the best" (Reiterman, 216). Another argument states that women should use natural methods of contraception in place of artificial ones, such as having sexual intercourse when one is infertile.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Support for contraception is based on views such as reproductive rights, women's rights, and the necessity to prevent child abandonment and child poverty. The World Health Organization states that "By preventing unintended pregnancy, family planning /contraception prevents deaths of mothers and children".


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: A sexually transmitted infection (STI) --previously known as a "sexually transmitted disease (STD)" or "venereal disease (VD)--" is an infection that has a significant likelihood of transmission between humans by means of sexual activity. The CDC analyses the eight most common STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B virus (HBV), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and trichomoniasis.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There are more than 600 million cases of STIs worldwide and more than 20 million new cases within the United States. Numbers of such high magnitude weigh a heavy burden on the local and global economy. A study conducted at Oxford University in 2015 concluded that despite giving participants early antiviral medications (ART), they still cost an estimated $256 billion over 2 decades. HIV testing done at modest rates could reduce HIV infections by 21%, HIV retention by 54%, and HIV mortality rates by 64%, with a cost-effectiveness ratio of $45,300 per quality-adjusted life year. However, the study concluded that the United States has led to an excess in infections, treatment costs, and deaths, even when interventions do not improve overall survival rates.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There is a profound reduction in STI rates once those who are sexually active are educated about transmissions, condom promotion, interventions targeted at key and vulnerable populations through comprehensive sex education courses or programs. South Africa's policy addresses the needs of women at risk for HIV and who are HIV positive as well as their partners and children. The policy also promotes screening activities related to sexual health such as HIV counseling and testing as well as testing for other STIs, tuberculosis, cervical cancer, and breast cancer.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The CDC stated that the rate of sexually transmitted infections is higher among minorities compared to white people. These minorities are currently being affected by different factors including health literacy, socioeconomic status, access to health services, and fear of discrimination by health providers. The rates of infection are five to eight times higher in the Black community compared to non-Hispanic White people.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Young African American women are at a higher risk for STIs, including HIV. A recent study published outside of Atlanta, Georgia collected data (demographic, psychological, and behavioral measures) with a vaginal swab to confirm the presence of STIs. They found a profound difference that those women who had graduated from college were far less likely to have STIs, potentially be benefiting from a reduction in vulnerability to acquiring STIs/HIV as they gain in education status and potentially move up in demographic areas and/or status.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Globally, an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions occur each year. The vast majority of such unsafe abortions occur in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The abortion debate is the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral, legal, and religious status of induced abortion. The sides involved in the debate are the self-described "pro-choice" and "pro-life" movements. "Pro-choice" emphasizes the right of women to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy. "Pro-life" emphasizes the right of the embryo or fetus to gestate to term and be born. Both terms are considered loaded in mainstream media, where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-abortion" are generally preferred. Each movement has, with varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position, with small numbers of anti-abortion advocates using violence, such as murder and arson.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Articles from the World Health Organization call legal abortion a fundamental right of women regardless of where they live, and argue that unsafe abortion is a silent pandemic. In 2005, it was estimated that 19-20 million abortions had complications, some complications are permanent, while another estimated 68,000 women died from unsafe abortions. Having access to safe abortion can have positive impacts on women's health and life, and vice versa. "Legislation of abortion on request is necessary but an insufficient step towards improving women's health. In some countries where it abortion is legal and has been for decades, there has been no improvement in access to adequate services making abortion unsafe due to lack of healthcare services. It is hard to get an abortion due to legal and policy barriers, social and cultural barriers (gender discrimination, poverty, religious restrictions, lack of support), health system barriers (lack of facilities or trained personnel). However, safe abortions with trained personnel, good social support, and access to facilities, can improve maternal health and increase reproductive health later in life.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The Maputo Protocol, which was adopted by the African Union in the form of a protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, states at Article 14 (Health and Reproductive Rights) that: "(2). States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to: [...] c) protect the reproductive rights of women by authorising medical abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape, incest, and where the continued pregnancy endangers the mental and physical health of the mother or the life of the mother or the foetus." The Maputo Protocol is the first international treaty to recognize abortion, under certain conditions, as a woman's human right.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The "General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life", adopted by the Human Rights Committee in 2018, defines, for the first time ever, a human right to abortion - in certain circumstances (however these UN general comments are considered soft law, and, as such, not legally binding).


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: When negotiating the Cairo Programme of Action at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), the issue was so contentious that delegates eventually decided to omit any recommendation to legalize abortion, instead advising governments to provide proper post-abortion care and to invest in programs that will decrease the number of unwanted pregnancies.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender based violence"; paragraph 18 of its "General recommendation No. 35 on gender based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19" states that: "Violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights, such as forced sterilizations, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, criminalisation of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and post abortion care, forced continuation of pregnancy, abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, are forms of gender based violence that, depending on the circumstances, may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment." The same "General Recommendation" also urges countries at paragraph 31 to [...] In particular, repeal:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: a) Provisions that allow, tolerate or condone forms of gender based violence against women, including [...] legislation that criminalises abortion".


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: In 2008, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, a group comprising members from 47 European countries, has adopted a resolution calling for the decriminalization of abortion within reasonable gestational limits and guaranteed access to safe abortion procedures. The nonbinding resolution was passed on April 16 by a vote of 102 to 69.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Accesses to abortion is not only a question of legality but also an issue of overcoming de "facto barriers", such as conscientious objections from medical staff, high prices, lack of knowledge about the law, lack of access to medical care (especially in rural areas). The "de facto" inability of women to access abortion even in countries where it is legal is highly controversial because it results in a situation where women have rights only on paper, not in practice; the UN in its 2017 resolution on "Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence" urged states to guarantee access to "safe abortion where such services are permitted by national law".


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There are two primary arguments for maintaining legalized abortion today in the U.S. The first is recognizing the full citizenship of women. The "Roe v. Wade" court case on abortion compared the citizenship of women and fetuses Because the Constitution defines born people as citizens, Justice Harry Blackmun ruled that fetuses were not citizens. The citizenship of women is emphasized because fetuses are not individual entities that can exist without the woman. Another reason why the full citizenship of women is defined by advocates for abortion is that it recognizes the right of women to manage their own bodies. Fertility affects women's bodies. The argument for abortion prevents others from making decisions that alter a woman's body. Pro-choice advocates also attempt to confirm that state-mandated education or other outside biases do not attempt to influence these decisions. Feminists argue that women throughout history have had to justify their citizenship politically and socially. The right to manage one's own body is a matter of health, safety, and respect. The citizenship of women and the right to manage their own bodies is a societal confirmation that feminists highlight as a pro-choice justification.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The second primary argument to uphold legalized abortion and creating better access to it is the necessity of abortion and the health and safety of pregnant women. There are two events that largely changed the course of public opinion about abortion in the U.S. The first is Sherry Finkbine, who was denied access to an abortion by the board of obstetrician-gynecologists at her local hospital. Although she was privileged enough to afford the trip, Finkbine was forced to travel to Sweden for an abortion to avoid caring for a damaged fetus in addition to four children. The other event that changed public opinion was the outbreak of rubella in the 1950s and 60s. Because rubella disrupted the growth of fetuses and caused deformities during pregnancy, the California Therapeutic Abortion Act was signed in 1967, permitting doctors to legally abort pregnancies that pose a risk to a pregnant woman's physical or mental health. These two events are commonly used to show how the health and safety of pregnant women are contingent upon abortions as well as the ability to give birth to and adequately take care of a child. Another argument in favor of legalized abortion to service necessity are the reasons why an abortion might be necessary. Nearly half of all pregnancies in the United States are unintended, and over half of all unintended pregnancies in the United States are met with abortion. Unintended pregnancy can lead to serious harm to women and children for reasons such as not being able to afford to raise a baby, inaccessibility to time off of work, difficulties facing single motherhood, difficult socio-economic conditions for women. Unintended pregnancies also have a greater potential for putting women of color at risk due to systematically produced environmental hazards from proximity to pollution, access to livable income, and affordable healthy food. These factors as threats to the health and safety of pregnant women run parallel to data that shows the number of abortions in the United States did not decline while laws restricting legal access to abortion were implemented.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: At a global level, the region with the strictest abortion laws is considered to be Latin America (see Reproductive rights in Latin America), a region strongly influenced by the Catholic Church in Latin America.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital circumcision or cutting, is the traditional, non-medical practice of altering or injuring the female reproductive organs, often by removing all or parts of the external genitalia. It is mostly practiced in 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, and affects over 200 million women and girls worldwide. More severe forms of FGM are highly concentrated in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: FGM often takes the form of a traditional celebration conducted by an elder or community leader. The age that women undergo the procedure varies depending on the culture, although it is most commonly performed on prepubescent girls. Certain cultures value FGM as a coming of age ritual for girls and use it to preserve a woman's virginity and faithfulness to the husband after marriage. It is also closely connected with some traditional ideals of female beauty and hygiene. FGM may or may not have religious connotations depending on the circumstances.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: There are no health benefits of FGM, as it interferes with the natural functions of a woman's and girls' bodies, such as causing severe pain, shock, hemorrhage, tetanus or sepsis (bacterial infection), urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissue, recurrent bladder and urinary tract infections, cysts, increased risk of infertility, childbirth complications and newborn deaths. Sexual problems are 1.5 more likely to occur in women who have undergone FGM, they may experience painful intercourse, have less sexual satisfaction, and be two times more likely to report a lack of sexual desire. In addition, the maternal and fetal death rate is significantly higher due to childbirth complications.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: FGM can have severe negative psychological effects on women, both during and after the procedure. These can include long-term symptoms of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and low self-esteem. Some women report that the procedure was carried out without their consent and knowledge, and describe feelings of fear and helplessness while it was taking place. A 2018 study found that larger quantities of the hormone cortisol were secreted in women who had undergone FGM, especially those who had experienced more severe forms of the procedure and at an early age. This marks the body's chemical response to trauma and stress and can indicate a greater risk for developing symptoms of PTSD and other trauma disorders, although there are limited studies showing a direct correlation.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The Istanbul Convention prohibits FGM (Article 38). Legislation has been introduced in certain countries to prevent FGM. A 2016 survey of 30 countries showed 24 had policies to manage and prevent FGM, although the process to provide funding, education, and resources were often inconsistent and lacking. Some countries have seen a slight decline in FGM rates, while others show little to no change.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The practice of forcing young girls into early marriage, common in many parts of the world, is threatening their reproductive health. According to the World Health Organization:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Niger has the highest prevalence of child marriage under 18 in the world, while Bangladesh has the highest rate of marriage of girls under age 15. Practices such as bride price and dowry can contribute to child and forced marriages.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo, Egypt, from 5 to 13 September 1994. Delegations from 179 States took part in negotiations to finalize a Programme of Action on population and development for the next 20 years. Some 20,000 delegates from various governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and the media gathered for a discussion of a variety of population issues, including immigration, infant mortality, birth control, family planning, and the education of women.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: This definition of the term is also echoed in the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, or the so-called Beijing Declaration of 1995. However, the ICPD Program of Action, even though it received the support of a large majority of UN Member States, does not enjoy the status of an international legal instrument; it is therefore not legally binding.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The Program of Action endorses a new strategy which emphasizes the numerous linkages between population and development and focuses on meeting the needs of individual women and men rather than on achieving demographic targets. The ICPD achieved consensus on four qualitative and quantitative goals for the international community, the final two of which have particular relevance for reproductive health:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The keys to this new approach are empowering women, providing them with more choices through expanded access to education and health services, and promoting skill development and employment. The programme advocates making family planning universally available by 2015 or sooner, as part of a broadened approach to reproductive health and rights, provides estimates of the levels of national resources and international assistance that will be required, and calls on governments to make these resources available.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Half of the development goals put on by the United Nations started in 2000 to 2015 with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Reproductive health was Goal 5 out of 8. To monitor the progress, the UN agreed to four indicators:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Progress was slow, and according to the WHO in 2005, about 55% of women did not have sufficient antenatal care and 24% had no access to family planning services. The MDGs expired in 2015 and were replaced with a more comprehensive set of goals to cover a span of 2016–2030 with a total of 17 goals, called the Sustainable Development Goals. All 17 goals are comprehensive in nature and build off one another, but goal 3 is "To ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages". Specific goals are to reduce global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births, end preventable deaths of newborns and children, reduce the number by 50% of accidental deaths globally, strengthen the treatment and prevention programs of substance abuse and alcohol. In addition, one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goal 5 is to ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The CDC estimated that one in five people in the US had a sexually transmitted infection (STI). CDC funding for STI prevention, when accounting for inflation, has reduced by 40% in the period 2003–2020.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: HIV/AIDS in Africa is a major public health problem. The population of Sub-Saharan Africa is the worst affected region with the disease especially affecting the young female population. According to the National Library of Medicine, "Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is occupied by 12% of the global population, but disproportionately has more than 90% of children younger than 15 years of age and 68% of adults that are living with HIV2." In Nigeria in specific, "There is early sexual maturity and considerable sexual activity between 9 and 15 years of age." HIV is also transmissible through breast milk, which proves that women infected with HIV/AIDS have to deal with more health consequences. South of the Sahara, the AIDS epidemic is the leading cause of death.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The reasons for the high spread of HIV/AIDS can be broken down into 7 main subsections: poverty, inadequate medical care, lack of prevention and education, taboo and stigma, sexual behavior, prostitution, and sexual violence against women. With a high population of individuals living in extreme poverty, condoms, HIV tests, and other forms of screening are not prioritized, leaving many individuals lacking the necessities to protect themselves from the disease. According to the International Finance Corporation, "Health care in Sub-Saharan Africa remains the worst in the world, with few countries able to spend the $34 to $40 a year per person that the World Health Organization considers the minimum for basic health care." Notably, though widespread poverty, "an astonishing 50 percent of the region's health expenditure is financed by out-of-pocket payments from individuals." This represents the lack of both affordability and accessibility surrounding the health care system in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the United Nation, Sub-Saharan Africa struggles with the highest rate of education exclusion in the world; 60% of youth ages 15 to 17 are not in school. With this lack of education, information regarding HIV/AIDS and prevention practices are not transmitted to a number of individuals, leading to more citizens being unaware of the severity of the disease. Stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS further contributes to the high infection rate. In African villages, an individual's life is closely intertwined with their friends, families, and neighbors around them. Individuals who have HIV/AIDS are motivated to keep it a secret in fear of isolation and alienation. The extremity of this stigma is conveyed by some of the dialogue, people living with HIV are often ridiculed as "a walking corpse", referred to as "an HIV" and even called in Tanzania, "nyambizi", or submarine, which implies that an HIV-positive person is "menacing and deadly." Sexual behavior and prostitution also play a part in the increased rate of transmission of HIV/AIDS in Africa. Due to the high rates of poverty, prostitution is widespread, and sexual partners are often changing, increasing the likelihood of transmission. Africa has one of the highest rates of rape in the world, with many women getting AIDS due to raped and sexual violence by an HIV-infected offender. Similarly, gender roles within many African countries contribute to this, as "in much of sub-Saharan Africa, women are a subordinate group who are expected to become pregnant, bear children, and fulfill the sexual desires of their husbands without hesitation".


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: In most African countries, the total fertility rate is very high often due to a lack of access to contraception, family planning, and practices such as forced child marriage. For instance, Niger, Angola, Mali, Burundi, Somalia and Uganda have very high fertility rates. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, "Africa has the lowest rate of contraceptive use (33%) and the highest rate of unmet need for contraceptives (22%)." In Mozambique, despite efforts in improving access to modern contraceptive methods, the general fertility rate is "still high at 5.3 and the unmet need for contraceptives is also high at 26%." Among young women, the fertility rate has dramatically increased from 167 births per 1000 aged between (15–19 years) in 2011 to 194 in 2015 with a large increase in rural areas from 183 to 230. Contraceptive prevalence among (15–19 years) remains low at 14% in 2015 when compared to the national prevalence among the reproductive age group (15–49 years) at 25% in the same year.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The copper IUD has been provided less frequently than other contraceptive methods but there have been signs of an increase in most reported provinces. The most frequently provided methods are implants and injectable progesterone, which is not as ideal as condom usage, which is still required with this method to decrease the risk of HIV. In Nigeria, specifically, people who have multiple partners are often unwilling to protect themselves with condoms. "In a study conducted in a rural community in South West Nigeria in 1993, it was found that although 94.7% of 302 candidates aged between 20 and 54 years admitted hearing about the condom, only 51.3% admitted ever using it." According to the International Family Planning Perspective, "these injectable progesterone products made up 49% of South Africa's contraceptive use and up to 90% in some provinces." Though contraceptive use is rising in African countries, discontinuation rates are also high. Weak health systems challenge Sub-Saharan African countries in expanding contraceptive outreach, promotions and service.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The updated contraceptive guidelines in South Africa attempt to improve accessibility by providing special service delivery and prompting awareness for adolescents, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex people, disabled people, chronically ill people, women who are perimenopausal, sex workers, migrants and males. They also aim to increase access to long-acting contraceptive methods such as the copper IUD, the single rod progestogen implant combined with estrogen and progesterone injectables. Tanzanian provider perspectives also realized the biggest obstacle in maintaining healthy contraceptive care in their communities: lack of consistency. Contraceptive dispensaries found that the capability of providing service to patients was inconsistent and substandard. This resulted in unsatisfied reproductive goals, low educational attainment, miseducation about the side effects of certain contraceptives.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Accessibility has also been hindered as a result of inadequate quantities of properly trained medical personnel. According to the African Journal of Reproductive Health, "Shortage of the medical attendant...is a challenge, we are not able to attend to a big number of clients, also we do not have enough education which makes us unable to provide women with the methods they want". The majority of medical centers are staffed by people without medical training and few doctors and nurses, despite federal regulations, due to lack of resources. One center had only one person who was able to insert and remove implants, and without her, they were unable to service people who required this method of contraceptive care. Another dispensary which carried two methods of birth control shared that they sometimes run out of both materials at the same time which makes it difficult to keep up with the supply and demand chain.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Unbalanced gender dynamics, spousal dynamics, economic conditions, religious norms, cultural norms, and constraints in supply chains all contribute to contraceptive rates and usage. One instance of this is a provider who referenced harmful propaganda about the side effects of contraceptive usage. The spread of this propaganda is one of the many examples of influential people in the community, such as elders and religious leaders, discouraging proper contraceptive care/health. In some cases, influential members of the community often convince others that condoms and contraceptive pills contain microorganisms that cause cancer.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: In regards to spousal and gendered dynamics, many women often have faced pressure from their spouse or family members to use avoid birth control which resulted in them using it secretly. This is also one of the many reasons women frequently preferred undetectable contraceptive methods which can lead to less effective contraceptives.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Sub-Saharan Africa ranks first in STD yearly incidence compared to other world regions, reiterating the major problem that public health is in African countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, STDs are the most common reasons that individuals seek medical care. According to the World Health Organization, every year in Africa "there are 3.5 million cases of syphilis, 15 million cases of chlamydial disease, 16 million cases of gonorrhea, and 30 million cases of trichomoniasis."


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: The majority of HIV infections, risks, and other sexually transmitted diseases in sub-Saharan Africa disproportionately impact women. Women, particularly under the age of 30, account for more than half of new infections on the African continent, employing incidence rates that are often double that of their male counterparts. Not only do women contain more risk of infection, but the consequences of these diseases are often significantly worse for women, as they can affect reproductive health as well. Some consequences of bacterial STIs include "pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic pelvic pain, tubal infertility, pregnancy complications, fetal and neonatal death." HIV infection is less unbalanced in gender infections, but other STDs disproportionately affect women, "who bear 80 percent of the disability." Previously stated, women are also more susceptible to infection due to social stigma and gendered expectations. "Most women with STDs will not seek medical care at all, or will only present late for treatment, when complications have already developed, complications that have devastating physical, psychological, and social consequences, particularly for women and their children." Women of lower-income status are often the least likely subgroup to receive any sort of medical attention.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Individuals who identify as transgender often yield significantly higher rates of HIV in comparison to other subgroups. African politics and government are silent on LGBTQ+ issues in the political sphere, which translates in part to their accessibility and prioritization in healthcare. "It is possible that the invisibility of transgender people in epidemiological data from Africa is related to the criminalization of same-sex behaviour in many countries," representative of how traditional attitudes shape one's ability to participate similarly in society. Further research conducted among transgender women in South Africa shows more "health disparities and poor access to appropriate mental, sexual and reproductive health services." Still, however, there is limited data concerning transgender individuals within African countries.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Individuals identifying as part of the LGBTQ+ community, in a study conducted by BMC International Health and Human Rights, resulted all in facing some sort of discrimination by healthcare providers based on their sexual orientation and/or gender identity. Violations took four distinct forms: availability, accessibility, acceptability, and quality. Facilities in South Africa lack services for specific LGBT concerns, providers refuse to care for patients identifying within the community, and if did, articulate moral disapproval. Finally, the lack of quality and knowledge about LGBTQ+ identities and health needs contributes to disproportionate negative harms, avoiding or delaying seeking healthcare with these implications.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Reproductive health can be impacted by exposures in the workplace. Both women and men who work during their reproductive years can be exposed to a variety of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards at work that can impact their fertility. Many women continue to work while pregnant, thus increasing the likelihood that both mother and baby could be exposed.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Harmful substances can enter a woman's body through breathing in (inhalation), contact with the skin, or swallowing (ingestion). Pregnant workers and those planning to become pregnant should be especially concerned about exposure to reproductive hazards. Some chemicals (such as alcohol) can circulate in the mother's blood, pass through the placenta, and reach the developing fetus. Other hazardous agents can affect the overall health of the woman and reduce the delivery of nutrients to the fetus. Radiation can pass directly through the mother's body to harm her eggs or the fetus. Some drugs and chemicals can also pass through a mother's body into the nursing baby through the breast milk.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Reproductive hazards do not affect every woman or every pregnancy. Whether a woman or her baby is harmed depends on how much of the hazard they are exposed to, when they are exposed, how long they are exposed, how they are exposed, and personal factors like age, stage of menstrual cycle, stage of pregnancy or when exposure occurs. For example, exposure to a hazard could block ovulation and pregnancy only at specific times of the menstrual cycle. Exposure during the first 3 months of pregnancy might cause a birth defect or a miscarriage. Exposure during the last 6 months of pregnancy could slow the baby's growth, affect its brain development, or cause premature labor.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Workplace substances that affect female workers and their pregnancies can also harm their families. Without knowing it, workers can bring home harmful substances that can affect the health of other family members—both adults and children. For example, lead brought home from the workplace on a worker's skin, hair, clothes, shoes, tool box, or car can cause lead poisoning in family members, especially young children.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: A number of occupational hazards can impact reproductive health and subsequently reproductive outcomes including chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards. Although more than 1,000 workplace chemicals have been shown to have reproductive effects on animals, most have not been studied in humans. In addition, most of the 4 million other chemical mixtures in commercial use remain untested.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Many chemicals are not evaluated for reproductive toxicity and occupational exposure limits are developed based on nonpregnant adults. Exposure levels considered safe for an adult may, or may not be safe for a fetus.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Some workplace hazards can affect reproductive health, the ability to become pregnant, and the health of unborn children. Most women can safely keep working in their job during their pregnancy. But some jobs involve exposures that are harmful to pregnant or breastfeeding women. Some female health problems that may be caused by workplace reproductive hazards include the following:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: High levels of physical or emotional stress or exposure to chemicals such as pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organic solvents and carbon disulfide, may disrupt the balance between the brain, pituitary gland, and ovaries. This disruption can result in an imbalance of estrogen and progesterone, and lead to changes in menstrual cycle length and regularity and ovulation. Because these sex hormones have effects throughout a woman's body, severe or long-lasting hormone imbalances may affect a woman's overall health.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: About 10% to 15% of all couples are infertile or have subfertility, which means that they are unable to conceive a child after 1 year of trying to become pregnant. Many factors can affect fertility, and these factors can affect one or both partners. Damage to the woman's eggs or the man's sperm, or a change in the hormones needed to regulate the normal menstrual cycle are just a few things that can cause problems with fertility. More common causes of infertility include:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Infertility can be caused by change in the hormones needed to regulate the normal menstrual cycle and uterine growth. Hazards that can reduce fertility in women include:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: About 1 in every 6 pregnancies ends in a miscarriage—the unplanned termination of a pregnancy. Miscarriages can occur very early in pregnancy, even before the woman knows she is pregnant. Miscarriages and stillbirths occur for many reasons, such as the following:


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: A birth defect is a physical abnormality present at birth, though it may not be detected until later. About 2% to 3% of babies are born with a major birth defect. In most cases, the cause of the birth defect is unknown. The first 3 months of the pregnancy is a very sensitive time of development because the internal organs and limbs are formed during this period. Many women are not aware that they are pregnant during much of this critical period.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: About 7% of babies born in the United States are born underweight or prematurely. Poor maternal nutrition, smoking, and alcohol use during pregnancy are believed to be responsible for most of these cases. Although better medical care has helped many underweight or premature babies to develop and grow normally, they are more likely than other babies to become ill or even die during their first year of life.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Sometimes the brain of the fetus does not develop normally, which leads to developmental delays or learning disabilities later in life. About 10% of children in the United States have some form of developmental disability. Such problems are often not noticeable at birth. They can be difficult to measure, may be temporary or permanent, and range from mild to severe. Developmental problems may appear as hyperactivity, short attention span, reduced learning ability, or (in severe cases) intellectual disability.


title: Sexual and reproductive health

text: Even if a woman is not trying to become pregnant, her general health can be harmed by reproductive hazards that alter the production of sex hormones. Sex hormones have effects throughout a woman's body. Some workplace exposures can cause an imbalance of estrogen and progesterone levels in the blood. This disruption can increase vulnerability to:


title: Combinational logic

text: In automata theory, combinational logic (also referred to as time-independent logic or combinatorial logic) is a type of digital logic which is implemented by Boolean circuits, where the output is a pure function of the present input only. This is in contrast to sequential logic, in which the output depends not only on the present input but also on the history of the input. In other words, sequential logic has "memory" while combinational logic does not.


title: Combinational logic

text: Combinational logic is used in computer circuits to perform Boolean algebra on input signals and on stored data. Practical computer circuits normally contain a mixture of combinational and sequential logic. For example, the part of an arithmetic logic unit, or ALU, that does mathematical calculations is constructed using combinational logic. Other circuits used in computers, such as half adders, full adders, half subtractors, full subtractors, multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders and decoders are also made by using combinational logic.


title: Combinational logic

text: Practical design of combinational logic systems may require consideration of the finite time required for practical logical elements to react to changes in their inputs. Where an output is the result of the combination of several different paths with differing numbers of switching elements, the output may momentarily change state before settling at the final state, as the changes propagate along different paths.


title: Combinational logic

text: Combinational logic is used to build circuits that produce specified outputs from certain inputs. The construction of combinational logic is generally done using one of two methods: a sum of products, or a product of sums. Consider the following truth table :


title: Combinational logic

text: Using sum of products, all logical statements which yield true results are summed, giving the result:


title: Combinational logic

text: Minimization (simplification) of combinational logic formulas is done using the following rules based on the laws of Boolean algebra:


title: Combinational logic

text: With the use of minimization (sometimes called logic optimization), a simplified logical function or circuit may be arrived upon, and the logic combinational circuit becomes smaller, and easier to analyse, use, or build.


title: Yusufzai

text: The Yusufzai or Yousafzai (, ), also referred to as the Esapzai (, ) are one of the largest tribes of ethnic Pashtuns. They are natively based in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, to which they migrated to from Suliman mountains during the 16th century, but they are also present in smaller numbers in parts of Afghanistan, including Kunar, Kabul, Kandahar and Farah. Outside of these countries, they can be found in Rohilkhand, Bannu Ghoriwala (Mughal Khel), Balochistan Sibi (Akazai) and Chagai (Hassanzai).


title: Yusufzai

text: Their name may originate from the names of the "Aspasioi" and the "Aśvakan", who were the ancient inhabitants of the Kunar, Swat, and adjoining valleys in the Hindu Kush.


title: Yusufzai

text: Most of the Yusufzai speak a northern variety of Pashto and some southern variety of Pashto (as in case of Mughal Khel) and Afghan dialect Persian; the Yusufzai dialect is considered prestigious in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.


title: Yusufzai

text: In Pashto phonology, as /f/ is found only in loanwords and tends to be replaced by /p/, the name is usually pronounced as "Yūsəpzay" or "Īsəpzay". The name literally means "descendant of Yusuf" in Pashto; "Yūsuf" () is an Arabic and Aramaic masculine given name meaning "(God) shall add."


title: Yusufzai

text: According to some scholars, including philologist J.W. McCrindle, the name "Yūsəpzay" or "Īsəpzay" is derived from the tribal names of "Aspasioi" and "Assakenoi" – the ancient inhabitants of the Kunar Valley and the Swat Valley who offered resistance when Alexander invaded their land in 327–326 BCE. According to historian R.C. Majumdar, the "Assakenoi" were either allied to or a branch of the larger "Aspasioi", and both of these ancient tribal names were probably derived from the word "Aśvaka", which literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "cavalrymen" (from "aśva" or "aspa", the Sanskrit and Avestan words for "horse").


title: Yusufzai

text: McCrindle noted: "The name of the "Aśvaka" indicates that their country was renowned in primitive times, as it is at the present day, for its superior breed of horses. The fact that the Greeks translated their name into "Hippasioi" (from "ἵππος", a horse) shows that they must have been aware of its etymological signification."


title: Yusufzai

text: The name of the "Aśvakan" or "Assakan" is also the origin of the ethnonym "Afghān", which has been historically used for all Pashtuns.


title: Yusufzai

text: According to a popular mythical genealogy, recorded by 17th-century Mughal courtier Nimat Allah al-Harawi in his book "Tārīkh-i Khān Jahānī wa Makhzan-i Afghānī", the Yusufzai tribe descended from their eponymous ancestor Yūsuf, who was son of Mand, who was son of Khashay (or Khakhay), who was son of Kand, who was son of Kharshbūn, who was son of Saṛban (progenitor of the Sarbani tribal confederacy), who was son of Qais Abdur Rashid (progenitor of all Pashtuns). Qais Abdur Rashid was a descendant of Afghana, who was described as a grandson of the Israelite king Saul and commander-in-chief of the army of prophet Solomon. Qais was claimed to be a contemporary of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a kinsman of Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. When Khalid ibn al-Walid summoned Qais from Ghor to Medina, Qais accepted Islam and the prophet renamed him "Abdur Rashīd" (meaning "Servant of the Guide to the Right Path" or "Servant of God" in Arabic). Abdur Rashid returned to Ghor and introduced Islam there. The book stated that Yūsuf's grandfather (and Mand's father), Khashay, also had two other sons, Muk and Tarkalāṇī, who were the progenitors of the Gigyani and Tarkani tribes, respectively. Yūsuf had one brother, Umar, who was the progenitor of the Mandanr tribe, which is closely related to Yusufzais.


title: Yusufzai

text: The 1595 Mughal account "Ain-i-Akbari" also mentioned the tradition of Israelite descent among Pashtuns, which shows that the tradition was already popular among 16th-century Pashtuns.


title: Yusufzai

text: During the early modern period, the Yusufzai tribe of Afghans was first explicitly mentioned in "Baburnama" by Babur, a Timurid ruler from Fergana (in present-day Uzbekistan) who captured Kabul in 1504. On 21 January 1519, two weeks after his Bajaur massacre, Babur wrote: "On Friday we marched for Sawad (Swat), with the intention of attacking the Yusufzai Afghans, and dismounted in between the water of Panjkora and the united waters of Chandāwal (Jandul) and Bajaur. Shah Mansur Yusufzai had brought a few well-flavoured and quite intoxicating confections."


title: Yusufzai

text: As part of a treaty with Yusufzai Afghans, Babur married Bibi Mubarika, daughter of Yusufzai chief Shah Mansur, on 30 January 1519.Bibi Mubarika played an important role in the establishment of friendly relations of Yusufzai Pashtun chiefs with Babur, who later founded the Mughal Empire after defeating Pashtun Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. One of Mubarika's brothers, Mir Jamal Yusufzai, accompanied Babur to India in 1525 and later held high posts under Mughal emperors Humayun and Akbar.


title: Yusufzai

text: During the 1580s, many Yusufzais and Mandanrs rebelled against the Mughals and joined the Roshani movement of Pir Roshan. In late 1585, Mughal Emperor Akbar sent military forces under Zain Khan Koka and Birbal to crush the rebellion. In February 1586, about 8,000 Mughal soldiers, including Birbal, were killed near the Karakar Pass between Swat and Buner by the Yusufzai lashkar led by Kalu Khan. This was the greatest disaster faced by the Mughal Army during Akbar's reign.


title: Yusufzai

text: In 1630, under the leadership of Pir Roshan's great-grandson, Abdul Qadir, thousands of Pashtuns from the Yusufzai, Mandanrs, Kheshgi, Mohmand, Afridi, Bangash, and other tribes launched an attack on the Mughal Army in Peshawar. In 1667, the Yusufzai again revolted against the Mughals, with one of their chiefs in Swat proclaiming himself the king. Muhammad Amin Khan brought a 9,000 strong Mughal Army from Delhi to suppress the revolt. Although the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb was able to conquer the southern Yusufzai plains within the northern Kabul valley, he failed to wrest Swat and the adjoining valleys from the control of the Yusufzai.


title: Yusufzai

text: Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772), the founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire, categorized all Afghan tribes into four "ulūs" (tribal confederacies) for administrative purposes: Durrani, Ghilji, Sur, and Bar Durrani ("Upper Durranis"). The Yusufzai were included in the Bar Durrani confederacy along with other eastern Pashtun tribes, including the Mohmand, Afridi, Bangash, and Khattak. The Bar Durrani were also known as the Rohilla, and comprised the bulk of those Pashtuns who settled in Rohilkhand, India.


title: Yusufzai

text: Najib ad-Dawlah, who belonged to the Yusufzai tribe, was a prominent Rohilla chief. In the 1740s, he founded the city of Najibabad in Rohilkhand. In 1757, he supported Ahmad Shah Durrani in his attack on Delhi. After his victory, Ahmad Shah Durrani re-installed the Mughal emperor Alamgir II on the Delhi throne as the titular Mughal head, but gave the actual control of Delhi to Najib ad-Daula. From 1757 to 1770, Najib ad-Daula served as the governor of Saharanpur, also ruling over Dehradun. In 1761, he took part in the Third Battle of Panipat and provided thousands of Rohilla troops and many guns to Ahmad Shah Durrani to defeat the Marathas. He also convinced Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh, to join the Durrani forces. Before his departure from Delhi, Ahmad Shah Durrani appointed Najib ad-Dawlah as "mir bakshi" (paymaster-general) of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. After his death in 1770, Najib ad-Dawlah was succeeded by his son, Zabita Khan, who was defeated in 1772 by the Marathas, forcing him to flee from Rohilkhand. However, the descendants of Najib ad-Dawlah continued to rule Najibabad area until they were defeated by the British at Nagina on 21 April 1858 during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Yusufzai

text: Today, many Yusufzais are settled in India, most notably in Rohilkhand region, as well as in Farrukhabad, which was founded in 1714 by Pashtun Nawab Muhammad Khan Bangash.


title: Yusufzai

text: In 1849, Yusufzais established the state of Swat under the leadership of Saidu Baba, who appointed Sayyid Akbar Shah, a descendant of Pir Baba, as the first emir. After Akbar Shah's death in 1857, Saidu Baba assumed control of the state himself. In Dir, descendants of 17th-century Akhund Ilyas Yusufzai, the founder of the city of Dir, laid the foundation of the state of Dir. In 1897, the British Raj annexed Dir and granted the title of the "Nawab of Dir" to Sharif Khan Akhundkhel, the ruler of Dir (1886–1904). In 1926, the British Raj granted the title of the "Wali of Swat" to Miangul Abdul Wadud, the ruler of Swat (1918–1949).


title: Yusufzai

text: The princely states of Swat and Dir existed until 1969, after which they were merged into West Pakistan, and then in 1970 into the North-West Frontier Province (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of Pakistan. Their area is part of the present-day Buner, Lower Dir, Upper Dir, Malakand, Shangla, and Swat districts.


title: Yusufzai

text: Yusufzai Pashto, which is a variety of Northern Pashto, is the prestige variety of Pashto in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Some of its consonants differ from the other dialects:


title: Yusufzai

text: The Yusufzai Pashtun aristocracy was historically divided into several communities based on patrilineal segmentary groups:


title: Yusufzai

text: The "khān" referred to the Yusufzai landowners. In the 16th century, saint Sheikh Milli, a prominent Yusufzai dignitary, distributed the Yusufzai land among the major Yusufzai tribal clans ("khēl"). However, to avoid inequalities, he ordered that the lands should not become permanent property of the clans, but rather they should be realloted within the patrilineal clans periodically after every ten years or so. In this system ("wēsh"), each landowning "khān" would own shares ("brakha") representing his proportion of the total area distributed. Through a regular rotation of ownership, the Yusufzai landowners would migrate for up to 30 miles for their new share after each cycle, although the tenants cultivating the land would stay on.


title: Yusufzai

text: The "hamsāya" or "shade sharers" were the clients or dependents from other (non-Yusufzai) Pashtun tribes who became attached to the Yusufzai tribe over the years.


title: Yusufzai

text: The "faqīr" or "poor" were the non-Pashtun landless peasants who were assigned to the Yusufzai landowners. As dependent peasants, the "faqīr" used to pay rent for the land they cultivated.


title: Yusufzai

text: In the 19th century, the distinction between "hamsāya" as a "dependent Pashtun tribe" and "faqīr" as "non-Pashtun landless peasants" became blurred. Both terms were then interchangeably used to simply refer to landless dependents or clients.


title: Yusufzai

text: The "mlātəṛ" or "supporters" provided services to their patrons as artisans ("kasabgar"), musicians ("ḍəm"), herders, or commercial agents, mostly in return for a payment in grain or rice.


title: Yusufzai

text: The "ghulām" or "slaves" were more closely attached to their patron and his family and frequently entrusted with a variety of functions within their master's household. Although the "ghulām" were less free as compared to the "hamsāya" or the "faqīr", they generally enjoyed a higher status in the society.


title: Wiener filter

text: In signal processing, the Wiener filter is a filter used to produce an estimate of a desired or target random process by linear time-invariant (LTI) filtering of an observed noisy process, assuming known stationary signal and noise spectra, and additive noise. The Wiener filter minimizes the mean square error between the estimated random process and the desired process.


title: Wiener filter

text: The goal of the Wiener filter is to compute a statistical estimate of an unknown signal using a related signal as an input and filtering that known signal to produce the estimate as an output. For example, the known signal might consist of an unknown signal of interest that has been corrupted by additive noise. The Wiener filter can be used to filter out the noise from the corrupted signal to provide an estimate of the underlying signal of interest. The Wiener filter is based on a statistical approach, and a more statistical account of the theory is given in the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimator article.


title: Wiener filter

text: Typical deterministic filters are designed for a desired frequency response. However, the design of the Wiener filter takes a different approach. One is assumed to have knowledge of the spectral properties of the original signal and the noise, and one seeks the linear time-invariant filter whose output would come as close to the original signal as possible. Wiener filters are characterized by the following:


title: Wiener filter

text: This filter is frequently used in the process of deconvolution; for this application, see Wiener deconvolution.


title: Wiener filter

text: Let formula_1 be an unknown signal which must be estimated from a measurement signal formula_2. Where alpha is a tunable parameter. formula_3 is known as prediction, formula_4 is known as filtering, and formula_5 is known as smoothing (see Wiener filtering chapter of for more details).


title: Wiener filter

text: The Wiener filter problem has solutions for three possible cases: one where a noncausal filter is acceptable (requiring an infinite amount of both past and future data), the case where a causal filter is desired (using an infinite amount of past data), and the finite impulse response (FIR) case where only input data is used (i.e. the result or output is not fed back into the filter as in the IIR case). The first case is simple to solve but is not suited for real-time applications. Wiener's main accomplishment was solving the case where the causality requirement is in effect; Norman Levinson gave the FIR solution in an appendix of Wiener's book.


title: Wiener filter

text: where formula_7 are spectral densities. Provided that formula_8 is optimal, then the minimum mean-square error equation reduces to


title: Wiener filter

text: This general formula is complicated and deserves a more detailed explanation. To write down the solution formula_23 in a specific case, one should follow these steps:


title: Wiener filter

text: The causal finite impulse response (FIR) Wiener filter, instead of using some given data matrix X and output vector Y, finds optimal tap weights by using the statistics of the input and output signals. It populates the input matrix X with estimates of the auto-correlation of the input signal (T) and populates the output vector Y with estimates of the cross-correlation between the output and input signals (V).


title: Wiener filter

text: In order to derive the coefficients of the Wiener filter, consider the signal "w"["n"] being fed to a Wiener filter of order (number of past taps) "N" and with coefficients formula_34. The output of the filter is denoted "x"["n"] which is given by the expression


title: Wiener filter

text: The residual error is denoted "e"["n"] and is defined as "e"["n"] = "x"["n"] − "s"["n"] (see the corresponding block diagram). The Wiener filter is designed so as to minimize the mean square error (MMSE criteria) which can be stated concisely as follows:


title: Wiener filter

text: where formula_37 denotes the expectation operator. In the general case, the coefficients formula_38 may be complex and may be derived for the case where "w"["n"] and "s"["n"] are complex as well. With a complex signal, the matrix to be solved is a Hermitian Toeplitz matrix, rather than symmetric Toeplitz matrix. For simplicity, the following considers only the case where all these quantities are real. The mean square error (MSE) may be rewritten as:


title: Wiener filter

text: To find the vector formula_40 which minimizes the expression above, calculate its derivative with respect to each formula_41


title: Wiener filter

text: Assuming that "w"["n"] and "s"["n"] are each stationary and jointly stationary, the sequences formula_43 and formula_44 known respectively as the autocorrelation of "w"["n"] and the cross-correlation between "w"["n"] and "s"["n"] can be defined as follows:


title: Wiener filter

text: Note that for real formula_47, the autocorrelation is symmetric:formula_48Letting the derivative be equal to zero results in:


title: Wiener filter

text: These equations are known as the Wiener–Hopf equations. The matrix T appearing in the equation is a symmetric Toeplitz matrix. Under suitable conditions on formula_51, these matrices are known to be positive definite and therefore non-singular yielding a unique solution to the determination of the Wiener filter coefficient vector, formula_52. Furthermore, there exists an efficient algorithm to solve such Wiener–Hopf equations known as the Levinson-Durbin algorithm so an explicit inversion of T is not required.


title: Wiener filter

text: In some articles, the cross correlation function is defined in the opposite way:formula_53Then, the formula_54 matrix will contain formula_55; this is just a difference in notation.


title: Wiener filter

text: The realization of the causal Wiener filter looks a lot like the solution to the least squares estimate, except in the signal processing domain. The least squares solution, for input matrix formula_58 and output vector formula_59 is


title: Wiener filter

text: The FIR Wiener filter is related to the least mean squares filter, but minimizing the error criterion of the latter does not rely on cross-correlations or auto-correlations. Its solution converges to the Wiener filter solution.


title: Wiener filter

text: For complex signals, the derivation of the complex Wiener filter is performed by minimizing formula_61 =formula_62. This involves computing partial derivatives with respect to both the real and imaginary parts of formula_38, and requiring them both to be zero.


title: Wiener filter

text: The Wiener filter has a variety of applications in signal processing, image processing, control systems, and digital communications. These applications generally fall into one of four main categories:


title: Wiener filter

text: For example, the Wiener filter can be used in image processing to remove noise from a picture. For example, using the Mathematica function:


title: Wiener filter

text: It is commonly used to denoise audio signals, especially speech, as a preprocessor before speech recognition.


title: Wiener filter

text: The filter was proposed by Norbert Wiener during the 1940s and published in 1949. The discrete-time equivalent of Wiener's work was derived independently by Andrey Kolmogorov and published in 1941. Hence the theory is often called the "Wiener–Kolmogorov" filtering theory ("cf." Kriging). The Wiener filter was the first statistically designed filter to be proposed and subsequently gave rise to many others including the Kalman filter.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: Shark Tank is an Australian reality competition television series that premiered on 8 February 2015 and aired until 7 August 2018 on Network Ten, in which aspiring entrepreneur-contestants made business presentations to a panel of "Shark" investors. "Shark Tank" was filmed at Fox Studios Australia.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: Four seasons of the program were aired. It was announced on 31 October 2018 that the show would not return for a fifth season in 2019.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: Hosted by Sarah Harris, the show featured a panel of multimillionaire investors called "Sharks" who listened to entrepreneurs pitch businesses or products they wished to develop. If one or more Sharks were interested, investment deals could be made on the show. However, if all sharks declined, contestants left with nothing. A 2018 investigation by Fairfax Media revealed that during the 2017 season, fifty pitches resulted in twenty-seven deals, of which only four actually closed.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: "Shark Tank" has been described as demonstrating "the drama of pitch meetings and the interaction between the entrepreneurs and tycoons." Sharks were compensated for their participation but invested their own money.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: "Shark Tank" was the second Australian series to be based on the show format. A previous unsuccessful adaptation, "Dragons' Den" (2005), aired on the Seven Network.


title: Shark Tank (Australian TV series)

text: "Shark Tank" premiered on 8 February 2015 and aired 15 episodes through to 7 June 2015 with a regular timeslot of 8:00pm Sunday. It was renewed for a second season in the season finale. Season 2 premiered in 2016 with Glen Richards replacing John McGrath as a panelist. The series was renewed for a third season that began airing on 20 June 2017.


title: Women in prison film

text: The women in prison film (or WiP film) is a subgenre of exploitation film that began in the early 20th century and continues to the present day.


title: Women in prison film

text: Their stories feature imprisoned women who are subjected to sexual and physical abuse, typically by sadistic male or female prison wardens, guards and other inmates. The genre also features many films in which imprisoned women engage in lesbian sex.


title: Women in prison film

text: WiP films are works of fiction intended as pornography. The films of this genre include a mixture of erotic adventures of the women in prison. The flexible format, and the loosening of film censorship laws in the 1960s, allowed filmmakers to depict more extreme fetishes, such as voyeurism (strip searches, group shower scenes, catfights), sexual fantasies (lesbianism, rape, sexual slavery), fetishism (bondage, whipping, degradation), and sadism (beatings, torture, cruelty).


title: Women in prison film

text: Prior to these films, another expression of pornographic women in prison was found in "true adventure" men's magazines such as "Argosy" in the 1950s and 1960s, although it is possible that Denis Diderot's novel "The Nun" anticipated the genre. Nazis tormenting damsels in distress were particularly common in these magazines.


title: Women in prison film

text: Most women-in-prison films employ the same stock characters and formulaic situations. Characters that are fellow inmates may include a sarcastic prostitute, a manipulative snitch, or an aggressive lesbian. The female criminals are usually hypersexualized and fetishize homosexual relationships. The authority figure of the prison is usually a cruel woman who herself is a variation of the traditional prison lesbian. Common scenes in women in prison films may include:


title: Women in prison film

text: The narrative peaks with some kind of rebellion, which may include a fight, attempted break out, or natural disaster such as a prison fire or earthquake. The story then follows with an uprising or escape sequence in which the villains are killed and the prisoner is freed. Occasionally a new inmate is an undercover reporter investigating corruption as in "Bare Behind Bars" or a government agent sent to rescue a political prisoner ("Caged Heat 2: Stripped of Freedom", "Love Camp 7"). Most commonly, the prisoner is reunited with a man (a lover, father, or priest) who guides her to goodness so she can reestablish her life with familial and heterosexual relationships.


title: Women in prison film

text: In the silent era, only a few films featured women as leading characters in crime dramas. A silent film star who perfected such roles was Priscilla Dean, most notably in "The Wicked Darling" (1919) and "Outside the Law" (1920).


title: Women in prison film

text: But it was not until the 1930s that Hollywood began making movies partially set in women's prisons, such as "Up the River" (1930), with Claire Luce, "Ladies They Talk About" (1933), with Barbara Stanwyck, "Hold Your Man" (1933), with Jean Harlow, and "Girls on Probation" (1938), with Jane Bryan, but generally, only a small part of the action took place inside the institution. Women-in-prison films developed in the 1930s as melodramas in which young heroines were shown the way to a righteous life by way of the prison. Under the influence of pulp magazines and paperbacks, they became popular B movies during this period. It was not until the 1950s, beginning with the release of "Caged" (1950), starring Eleanor Parker and Agnes Moorehead, "So Young, So Bad" (also 1950), with Anne Francis and Rita Moreno, "Women's Prison" (1955) with Ida Lupino and Cleo Moore and, in Great Britain, "The Weak and the Wicked" (1954), with Glynis Johns and Diana Dors, that an entire film was set inside a women's correctional facility.


title: Women in prison film

text: Several films were made about women prisoners interned by the Germans and Japanese during the Second World War such as "Two Thousand Women" and "Three Came Home".


title: Women in prison film

text: The film that kicked off the genre in a new direction was Jesús Franco's "99 Women", which was a big box office success in the U.S. in 1969. That year "Love Camp 7" was also among the first pure exploitation films that influenced the women in prison and Nazi exploitation genres.


title: Women in prison film

text: In 1999, the popular TV series "Bad Girls" was released on Britain's television network, ITV. "Bad Girls" took a turn from the usual prison drama seen before to show a different perspective of women's lives and sexuality in prison. Sociologist Didi Herman states,"Unlike other mainstream television products that may have lesbian or gay characters within a prevailing context of heteronormativity, ["Bad Girls"] represents lesbian sexuality as normal, desirable, and possible."


title: Women in prison film

text: A number of the WiP films remain banned by the BBFC in the United Kingdom. Among them are "Love Camp 7" (rejected in 2022) and "Women in Cellblock 9" (rejected in 2004), on the grounds that they contain substantial scenes of sexual violence and in the case of the latter an actress who at 16 was under age at the time of production, rendering it child pornography under U.K. law.


title: Women in prison film

text: Examples of traditional WiP films set in the U.S. include: "The Concrete Jungle" (1982), and "Chained Heat" (1983) with Linda Blair, Tamara Dobson and Sybil Danning, "Cell Block Sisters" (1995), "Caged Hearts" (1995), "Bad Girls Dormitory" (1985), "Under Lock & Key", "Caged Fear" (1991), "Caged" (1950), "Freeway" (1996) with Reese Witherspoon and Brittany Murphy, and "Stranger Inside" (2001).


title: Women in prison film

text: American tourists are incarcerated overseas in "Chained Heat 2" (1993) with Brigitte Nielsen and "Red Heat" (1985) with Linda Blair. Both films are about innocent women who are thrown into foreign prisons and forced to face sadistic guards and brutal rape. Mainstream, non-exploitation prison films dealing with this theme include "Bangkok Hilton" (1989) starring Nicole Kidman and "Brokedown Palace" (1999) with Claire Danes, both which are set in Thailand and are focused on women who are imprisoned for smuggling drugs. Also "Prison Heat" (1993 film), set in Turkey, is about four innocent American women who are mistakenly thrown in prison for cocaine possession.


title: Women in prison film

text: Jonathan Demme's "Caged Heat" (1974) is one of the better known WiP films and has a cult following due to its tongue-in-cheek approach and casting of horror icon Barbara Steele as the warden. Demme also co-wrote "The Hot Box" in 1972, which is about female prisoners who break free and start a rebellion against their captors.


title: Women in prison film

text: In recent years, films that parody or pay homage to the classic WiP films of the '70s have emerged such as Cody Jarrett's "Sugar Boxx" (2009) and Steve Balderson's "Stuck!" (2010). Both of these films mimic classic WiP films by including typical WiP film characters, predictable scenes, and similar plots overall.


title: Women in prison film

text: Italian exploitation directors have produced scores of WiP films with far more graphic sex and violence than those produced in the U.S.


title: Women in prison film

text: Bruno Mattei directed "Women's Prison Massacre" (1985), "Caged Women" (1984), and "Jail — A Women's Hell" (2006). Other films include "Women in Fury" (1985) and "Caged Women in Purgatory" (1991).


title: Women in prison film

text: The Nazi exploitation subgenre centers on the same theme of captive women suffering abuses in war-time prison camps. Many of these films were developed in the late 1970s and the early 1980s as the industry continued to grow. Films such as "SS Experiment Love Camp," "SS Camp 5: Women's Hell", "Hell Behind Bars" and "Hell Penitentiary" directed by Sergio Garrone in 1983, "Gestapo's Last Orgy" (1977) directed by Cesare Canevari, "Helga, She Wolf of Spilberg" (1978) and "Fraulein Devil" (1977) directed by Patrice Rhomm, "SS Hell Camp" (1977) directed by Luigi Batzella, "Women in Cell Block 7" (1973) directed by Rino Di Silvestro and "Nazi Love Camp 27" (1977) directed by Mario Caiano were partly inspired by the U.S./Canadian "Ilsa" series.


title: Women in prison film

text: The abuse of Chinese women in Japanese detention or prisoner-of-war camps during World War II is depicted in a series of Hong Kong films. Prime examples include "Bamboo House of Dolls" (1973) with Birte Tove (1945-2016) and "Great Escape from a Women's Prison".


title: Women in prison film

text: "Comfort Women" (1992) is based on real events. Chinese prostitutes are abducted by Japanese soldiers and used for brutal scientific experiments at the notorious Unit 731 medical camp.


title: Women in prison film

text: "A Chinese Torture Chamber Story" (1994) and its sequel are based on historical records of China's Qing dynasty. The topic of sex "is usually considered taboo in traditional Chinese society", which makes the film industry scandalous and frowned upon by many.


title: Women in prison film

text: One of the very early examples of the genre in Japan began with "Death row Woman", a noir drama made by the master of J-horror Nobuo Nakagawa in 1960, although the plot doesn't focus entirely inside of the prison. After, the women prison films are often made into a series based on popular characters from manga comics such as "Prisoner Maria" and the series, most known by the Meiko Kaji films. Many Japanese films include themes of vengeance and retribution with a heroine who take revenge against the drug or prostitution syndicates responsible for her incarceration. In the film "," the audience "can see a story of Japanese women in captivity, with lots of very life-like scenes" because Japanese directors desire to produce "natural looking stories" to enhance the reality of the situation. Many Japanese films contain these "natural looking stories" because they were based on life events, such as the internment camps.


title: Women in prison film

text: The "jungle prison" subgenre has films set in fictional Banana republic nations run by corrupt dictators in either South America or Southeast Asia. The majority of these were filmed in the Philippines where production costs are low. Here, a group of nubile prisoners are herded together in a stockade prison camp and used as slave labor, doing tasks such as cutting sugar cane or digging in a quarry. These films usually involve a revolution subplot with political prisoners freed by other inmates in a climactic raid where the villains are killed. Actress Pam Grier starred in several Filipino jungle films such as Roger Corman's "The Big Doll House" and its sequel "The Big Bird Cage", plus "Women in Cages", and "Black Mama White Mama" (story co-written by Jonathan Demme).


title: Women in prison film

text: "Sweet Sugar" (1972) starred Phyllis Davis, "Caged Heat 2: Stripped of Freedom" (1994) featured Jewel Shepard as an undercover agent. The especially brutal "Escape from Hell", a.k.a. "Escape" (1979) and its sequel "Hotel Paradise" came from Italy. Jesus Franco's "Sadomania" features scenes such as gladiator fights to the death and prisoners hunted like animals in an alligator-infested swamp.


title: Women in prison film

text: The Nunsploitation (nun exploitation) subgenre emerged at the same time as the WiP film and is composed of the same basic elements. The stories are set in isolated convents that resemble prisons where sexually-repressed nuns are driven to rampant lesbianism and perversity.


title: Women in prison film

text: The Mother Superior is usually a cruel and corrupt warden-like martinet. The nuns are treated like convicts, with rule-breakers subjected to whippings or Inquisition-style tortures. The added element of religious guilt entails scenes of masochism and self-flagellation.


title: Women in prison film

text: A notable European horror-hybrid is the 1969 Spanish film, "The House That Screamed". A psycho-killer lurks in a house for wayward girls run by a harsh disciplinarian (Lilli Palmer). This groundbreaking film has influenced many others, particularly the Dario Argento thriller "Suspiria".


title: Women in prison film

text: "Human Experiments" (1979), and "Hellhole" (1985) are two examples of a spate of horror films where prisoners are experimented on by mad scientists.


title: Women in prison film

text: "Caged Heat 3000" (1995) stars Lisa Boyle (a.k.a. Cassandra Leigh) as an inmate on an asteroid prison. Includes futuristic touches such as electric bra torment and cattle prod-like sticks.


title: Women in prison film

text: "Star Slammer", a.k.a. "Prison Ship" (1986) is one of several low-budget space sagas set in the future.


title: Women in prison film

text: "Chained Heat 3: Hell Mountain" (1998) and "Chained Rage: Slave to Love" (2002) are both set in a barbaric post-nuclear world where slaves are forced to toil in the mines.


title: Women in prison film

text: "Terminal Island" (1973) with Phyllis Davis, Tom Selleck, and Marta Kristen and "Caged in Paradise" (1989) starring Irene Cara are both set on isolated island penal colonies with no prisons or guards. Inmates are simply stranded there and must fend for themselves. The 1985 Japanese film "Banished Behind Bars" has a similar theme.


title: Women in prison film

text: Janet Perlman's satirical graphic novel "Penguins Behind Bars" is a parody of the women in prison genre. It was later adapted by Perlman as an animated short which aired in the U.S. on Cartoon Network.


title: Women in prison film

text: In recent years, North American Pictures, the Canadian makers of "Chained Heat 2" set up a separate production company in the Czech Republic called Bound Heat Films for creating R-rated, erotic WiP, Nazisploitation, and female slavery films. Many of these star Rena Riffel (from "Showgirls"). Titles include: "School of Surrender", "Dark Confessions", "Stories from Slave Life", "No Escape", "Caligula's Spawn", "Slave Huntress", and "Bound Cargo". While not technically considered pornography the nudity in many of the scenes in these films draws on fetishes as a dramatic element.


title: Women in prison film

text: Bars and Stripes is a video producer that maintains a website entirely devoted to its line of prison-based BDSM fetish films. A stable of recurring "inmates" are listed with mug shots and information. Most of the films are part of a continuing story. Other companies that exclusively produce prison fetish films include: Chain Gang Girls, CagedTushy.com, and SpankCamp.com.


title: Women in prison film

text: Cheryl Dunye is an independent film producer who produced the prison drama "Stranger Inside ("2001) about a young African American women who purposely misbehaves in juvenile detention to get transferred to the women's prison in an effort to reunite with her imprisoned mother.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Pipe smoking is the practice of tasting (or, less commonly, inhaling) the smoke produced by burning a substance, most commonly tobacco, in a pipe. It is the oldest traditional form of smoking.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Regular pipe smoking is known to carry serious health risks including increased danger of various forms of cancer as well as pulmonary and cardiovascular illnesses.


title: Pipe smoking

text: A number of Native American cultures have pipe-smoking traditions, which have been part of their cultures since long before the arrival of Europeans. Tobacco is often smoked, generally for ceremonial purposes, though other mixtures of sacred herbs are also common. Various types of ceremonial pipes have been smoked in ceremony to seal covenants and treaties, most notably treaties of peace (hence the misnomer, "peace pipe"). Tobacco was introduced to Europe from the Americas in the sixteenth century and spread around the world rapidly.


title: Pipe smoking

text: In Asia during the nineteenth century, opium (which previously had only been eaten) was added to tobacco and smoked in pipes. Madak (the mixture of opium and tobacco) turned out to be far more addictive than orally-ingested opium, leading to social problems in China which culminated in the First (18391842) and Second Opium War (18561860).


title: Pipe smoking

text: According to Alfred Dunhill, Africans have had a long tradition of smoking hemp in gourd pipes, asserting that by 1884 the King of the Baluka tribe of the Congo had established a "riamba" or hemp-smoking cult in place of fetish-worship. Enormous gourd pipes were used.


title: Pipe smoking

text: In the twentieth century, pipe smoking was adopted as a preferred method of inhaling a variety of psychoactive drugs, and some claim it is a more intense method of ingestion. Smokeable crack cocaine has a reputation for being more addictive than cocaine's insufflated form. Similarly, methamphetamine has gained popularity in a crystalline form which when smoked in a pipe lets the user avoid the painful nasal irritation of snorting. When not applied to a cigarette or joint, the liquid form of PCP is typically smoked in a pipe with tobacco or cannabis.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Sales of pipe tobacco in Canada fell nearly 80% in a recent fifteen-year period to 27,319 kilograms in 2016, from 135,010 kilograms in 2001, according to federal data. By comparison, Canadian cigarette sales fell about 32% in the same period to 28,600,000,000 units.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Pipes have been fashioned from an assortment of materials including briar, clay, ceramic, corncob, glass, meerschaum, metal, gourd, stone, wood, bog oak and various combinations thereof, most notably, the classic English calabash pipe.


title: Pipe smoking

text: The size of a pipe, particularly the bowl, depends largely on what is intended to be smoked in it. Large western-style tobacco pipes are used for strong-tasting, harsh tobaccos, the smoke from which is usually not inhaled. Smaller pipes such as the midwakh or kiseru are used to inhale milder tobaccos such as "dokha" and "kizami" or other substances such as cannabis and opium.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Water pipes bubble smoke through water to cool and wash the smoke. The two basic types are stationary hookahs, with one or more long flexible drawtubes, and portable bongs.


title: Pipe smoking

text: Spoon pipes (glass pipes or glass bowl pipes) have become increasingly common with the rise of cannabis smoking. Spoon pipes are normally made of borosilicate glass to withstand repeated exposure to high temperatures. They consist of a bowl for packing material into, stem for inhaling, and a carbureter (carb) for controlling suction and airflow into the pipe. These pipes utilize a two step process. First, the user inhales while lighting the smoking material and holding down the carb, allowing smoke to fill the stem. Then, the user releases the carb while inhaling to allow air to enter the stem and smoke to be pulled into the user's mouth.


title: Pipe smoking

text: The overall health risks are 10% higher in pipe smokers than in non-smokers. However, pipe or cigar smokers who are former-cigarette smokers might retain a habit of smoke inhalation. In such cases, there is a 30% increase in the risk of heart disease and a nearly three times greater risk of developing COPD. In addition, there is a causal relationship between pipe smoking and mortality due to lung and other cancers, as well as periodontal problems, such as tooth and bone loss.


title: Pipe smoking

text: However, all tobacco products deliver nicotine to the central nervous system, and there is a confirmed risk of dependence. Many forms of tobacco use are associated with a significantly increased risk of morbidity and premature mortality due to tobacco-related diseases.


title: Pipe smoking

text: The customs, vocabulary and etiquette that surround pipe smoking culture vary across the world and depend both on the people who are smoking and the substance being smoked.


title: Pipe smoking

text: For example, in many places in Europe and North America, tobacco pipe smoking has sometimes been seen as genteel or dignified and has given rise to a variety of customized accessories and even apparel such as the smoking jacket, and the former Pipe Smoker of the Year award in the UK, as well as the term "kapnismology" ("the study of smoke").