title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Nam is a bespectacled, swarthy 14-year-old seventh-grader who is considered unattractive. She harbors a crush on Chon, a good-looking and popular tenth-grade freshman from her school who she feels is way out of her league. She hangs out with her three best friends known as the Cheer Gang and helps her mother out in their family-owned bed and breakfast. An average student, she begins to take her studies seriously in hopes of seeing her father in the United States who works there as a chef's assistant. She and her sister are promised a plane ticket if they ever rank first in school.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: While lining up for refreshments, Nam and her friends are disturbed by two boys who rudely cut in front of them. Chon, who saw the girls being harassed, swept into the rescue and bought the beverages for Nam and her friends. On her way home, Nam learns that Chon got into a fight with the two boys and quickly rushes to the scene, only to find the situation has been dissipated. She finds a bloodied button on the floor (which she assumes is Chon's) and keeps it as a memento, calling it Mr. Button. The next day, Chon receives corporal punishment from the school superintendent for the incident. Feeling guilty, Nam approaches Chon to give him some plasters while Chon assures her that none of it was her fault. He thanks her and calls her by her name. Nam rejoices at the thought of her crush knowing her name.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: At the urge of her three best friends, Nam follows the advice of the guidebook called "Nine Recipes of Love", which can supposedly win the affection of the man of your dreams if followed closely. Some of the methods described in the book sound outlandish to Nam at first but she willingly tries them all eventually. These include spelling Chon's name on the stars, controlling his mind, and leaving chocolates on his motorbike - all in a seemingly futile attempt to get noticed by him. Over the course of the summer, she tries to improve her looks by wearing braces, switching from glasses to contacts, and doing all sorts of skin regiments.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: At the beginning of eighth-grade, Nam and her friends get into a scuffle with her schoolmate, Faye, while signing up for after-school clubs. As a consequence, Nam and her friends are barred from signing up to the popular Thai Dance Club. Instead, their English teacher, Teacher Inn, connives them into signing up for the English Drama Club, becoming part of the school production of "Snow White" in the upcoming school fair. To Nam's surprise, she finds Chon working in the production as a stage painter. She is then picked by Teacher Inn to play the titular role since she is the best in English in her class. She also befriends Pin, a female upperclassman and one of Chon's close friends, who is recruited by Teacher Inn to be the makeup artist for the school play. Pin gives Nam a makeover and when she asks for his opinion, Chon only replies that he doesn't see any difference. During rehearsals, Chon saves Nam from falling off the stage. On the day of the play, Chon is noticeably absent and Nam assumes he went to see the Thai Dance Club. In actuality, he is coerced by the school superintendent to participate in a photography contest that happens to be on the same day as the school fair. Later at the backstage, she sees an apple with a bite in it left on her station with a note saying that they tasted the apple and it isn't poisoned. Nam quickly becomes a hot topic in their school when footage of her performance is shown at the school cafeteria. Meanwhile, Chon's childhood friend, Top, transfers to their school in the middle of the year. After seeing Nam in the school play, Top falls in love at first sight.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Now in the ninth-grade, Nam experiences a sudden rise in popularity when she is chosen, once again by Teacher Inn, as the drum major for the regional sports parade. At the same time, Chon, who is now a senior, finally manages to get into the school's soccer team after making the penalty shot. During Valentine's Day, Chon gives Nam an uprooted rose bush. But her glee suddenly turns into disappointment when he tells her that it is from his friend. Later that night, she finds a note in her bag telling her to meet on the third floor of the school building. The following day, she goes to the meeting place where she sees Chon coming up the stairs to greet her. However, they were interrupted by Top who tells Nam that the note was his and proceeds to ask her to be his girlfriend. Taken aback by this sudden proposal, Nam was unable to respond in fear of hurting Top and ruining her chances with Chon. Top, on the other hand, takes this as acceptance and declares her as his girlfriend. He easily drags her into watching Chon's games and joining their outings, which unintendedly only brought her closer to Chon. As Nam begins to spend more time with Chon and his friends, the Cheer Gang grows cold and distant towards her.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Chon candidly opens up to Nam about her father. He tells her that he was born on the day his father missed the penalty shot and feels that he is the reason why his father has given up on soccer. During a friend's birthday party, Top shares the story about a promise he made with Chon: that they would never like the same girl. In the middle of the celebration, Top suddenly kisses Nam on the cheek much to her discomfort. Later that night, Nam tells Top to not involve himself with her any more and that he didn't have the right to kiss her as she never agreed to be his girlfriend in the first place. She tells him that she is in love with someone else but doesn't tell him who. Out of distraught, Top makes Chon promise that he will not pursue Nam. Without any more friends, Nam begins to focus her time on studying for the finals.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: As the end of the year approaches, Nam has a tearful reconciliation with her three best friends. In the following days, she learns that she ranked first in school, which means that it's only a matter of time before she is bound for America. The Cheer Gang gets together for one last time to help Nam finish the unwritten "tenth recipe" of the love guidebook: direct confession. With the help of her friends, Nam plucks up the courage to go to Chon and finally confesses her feelings for him. She tearfully reveals that she has been in love with him for the past three years and hands him a rose trimmed from the same rose bush that he gave her on Valentine's, along with Mr. Button. However, to her dismay, Chon reveals that he had begun dating Pin about a week ago, which leaves Nam visibly hurt and heartbroken. That night, Chon comes home to find out that he is accepted into the trainee program of the Bangkok Glass Football Club but has to leave for the camp the following morning. He goes into his room and takes out a notebook containing all of Nam's photos. It is revealed that Chon has been in love with Nam all these years and has kept a diary in hopes of revealing his true feelings to her one day. But as it turned out, he never mustered the courage to do and the timing couldn't have been worse. He leaves the diary in front of Nam's house before leaving for Bangkok. At the same time, Nam is shown crying in her bedroom.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Nine years later, Nam has made a name for herself as a successful fashion designer in New York. She returns to Thailand after being invited as a guest in a TV talk show. She talks about her career and recounts her days in her old school. As soon as the topic of her first love is brought up, she gets a surprise visit from Chon who is revealed to have given up his soccer career in order to pursue professional photography. Chon takes out Mr. Button and returns it to Nam, telling her that she's mistaken it as his. Nam then asks Chon if he has been married, to which he replies that he has been waiting for someone to return from the U.S. after all these years.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Opening on Thailand's Queen's Birthday/Mother's Day holiday weekend of August 12 – 15, 2010, "First Love" was in third place behind the slapstick monastic comedy Luangphee Teng 3 and Toy Story 3, but rose to second place the following weekend. At last count, First Love had earned around $2.6 million (or ฿70 million).


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: It was initially televised on ABS-CBN, dubbed in Filipino (Tagalog) on June 5, 2011, and was replayed on June 20 and October 28. The movie re-aired on its movie cable network during the thanksgiving season due to viewers' requests at 8 pm. It was shown again on March 30, 2012, and June 9, 2012, under free movie block Kapamilya Blockbusters. The full and uncut scenes are aired on its subsidiary network and Filipino-Asian Blockbuster Movie Network on Cable Cinema One.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: The film lauded for its countryside "feel-good" approach and its natural performances, which contrasts most romantic teen comedies at the time. In Thailand, the film placed in 3rd place from its weekend gross in almost a hundred cinemas and then up to 2nd place on the next weekend behind Kuan Mun Ho. The other two movies (including Toy Story 3) simultaneously released with First Love dropped to 3rd and 4th respectively. The film managed to maintain its position in 3rd place the following weekends and stayed inside the top 5 for six consecutive weeks. The film was shown in cinemas for nearly ten weeks (until October 2010), making it one of the longest-running movies in the history of Thai cinema. The film grossed a total of $2,659,443, becoming the second highest-grossing locally produced film in Thailand.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: By early 2011, copies of the film were uploaded on the Internet, with several other countries applying for screening rights.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: In the Philippines, the movie made an impact on viewers after it was dubbed in Filipino and shown on free TV on June 5, 2011 on ABS-CBN. It dominated the daytime viewership ratings, Just 2 weeks after it was first shown on free TV, on June 20, the film repeated in an afternoon slot. The movie block time slot got the highest rating compared to other programs.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Mario Maurer and Pimchanok Luevisadpaibul, the main stars of the movie, arrived in the Philippines together on August 3, 2013 for their fan conference on the following day as part of their endorsement deal with a local clothing brand.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: Due to the film's success in the Philippines, Star Cinema produced and released the Filipino romantic comedy film Suddenly It's Magic which starred Erich Gonzales, Mario Maurer, and Pimchanok Luevisadpaibul.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: In 2012, it has been announced that First Love will have its sequel and will be produced by the same team however, the sequel never came to fruition. In 2020, J&T Express released a commercial featuring Mario Maurer and Pimchanok Luevisadpaibul reprising the roles of P’Shone and Nam. In the commercial, Nam opens up a fashion boutique. During the opening day, P’Shone wasn’t able to attend due to tight schedule in his work, resulting a turbulence to their relationship. A day later, P’Shone sent his diary to Nam through a package. When Nam receives the diary, she rekindles her relationship with P’Shone.


title: First Love (2010 Thai film)

text: In 2019, the movie was adapted into a Chinese web series titled "A Little Thing Called First Love" starring Lai Kuan-lin. It broadcast on Hunan TV.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: Light of My Life is an American drama film written and directed by Casey Affleck. It stars Affleck, Anna Pniowsky, Tom Bower, and Elisabeth Moss and follows a man who must protect his daughter by disguising her as his son after a plague wiped out most of the female population.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 8, 2019. It was released on August 9, 2019, by Saban Films.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: Almost a decade after a mysterious pandemic wiped out most of the female population, Dad and his daughter Rag journey through British Columbia. Rag is one of the very few females of the human species left on Earth. Dad must protect her by disguising her as his son from male bandits who are looking for any female human. In a flashback, before Mom dies, Dad promises to her that he will tell their daughter everything about Mom.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: After leaving the woods where they first camped, the two take shelter in an abandoned house. After staying for a few days, the two narrowly escape from four men breaking in looking for them. The father hitches a ride and steals the car from the owner to get themselves to his grandparents' home.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: Arriving there, they find that the house is now occupied by Tom and his two friends, Calvin and Lemmy. Tom is a religious man and has a friendly approach to Dad and Rag. At night, the two sneak out their belongings into a nearby cabin in case of a "red alert", a term the father uses when dangerous men are approaching. The next morning, Tom teaches Rag how to use a shotgun for self-defense. Tom eventually suspects that the "son" is a daughter and he questions Dad with concern, not wanting Rag to be in the possession of a random male with evil intentions. He tells Dad that he lost nine female relatives in a matter of weeks, eight to the virus and one to "a pack of monsters". Moved by the story, Dad admits that Rag is, indeed, his daughter; he proves it with a photo of the family, explaining that Rag is short for Raggedy Ann, as her name is Anna Elizabeth.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: Later, three men arrive, barge into the house and kill Tom and Lemmy (Calvin apparently tipped off the intruders). Rag and Dad hide in the attic and he manages to drop her out of the window. He then proceeds to fight and kill the first and then second bandits; however, the last attacker almost strangles him to death. Rag appears and shoots the bandit, killing him but also hitting Dad's side. They go to the cabin, where Rag removes the shot pellet from his wound. While Dad rests, a flashback shows him promising Mom that he will look after Rag. After Rag has treated his wound, he says they will go to the safe place with friendly people that Tom mentioned earlier. As Dad breaks down in tears, Rag comforts him, in the same way Mom did in flashbacks, when Rag was a baby.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: In September 2016, it was announced Casey Affleck would write, direct, and star in the film, while Teddy Schwarzman would produce under his Black Bear Pictures banner. In February 2017, it was announced Anna Pniowsky would star in the film, and Sierra/Affinity would produce the film and handle international sales. In August 2018, it was revealed Elisabeth Moss had joined the cast of the film.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: Daniel Hart composed the film score. The soundtrack was released at Varèse Sarabande Records on August 16, 2019.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 8, 2019. Shortly after, Saban Films acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on August 9, 2019.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: "Light of My Life" grossed $20,056 in the United States and Canada and $527,105 in other territories.


title: Light of My Life (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Its deliberate pace may test the patience, but viewers attuned to "Light of My Life"s sober wavelength will be rewarded with a thought-provoking chiller." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 67 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Fundamental analysis, in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business's financial statements (usually to analyze the business's assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; and competitors and markets. It also considers the overall state of the economy and factors including interest rates, production, earnings, employment, GDP, housing, manufacturing and management. There are two basic approaches that can be used: bottom up analysis and top down analysis. These terms are used to distinguish such analysis from other types of investment analysis, such as quantitative and technical.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Fundamental analysis is performed on historical and present data, but with the goal of making financial forecasts. There are several possible objectives:


title: Fundamental analysis

text: There are two basic methodologies investors rely upon when the objective of the analysis is to determine what stock to buy and at what price:


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Investors can use one or both of these complementary methods for stock picking. For example, many fundamental investors use technical indicators for deciding entry and exit points. Similarly, a large proportion of technical investors use fundamental indicators to limit their pool of possible stocks to "good" companies.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: The choice of stock analysis is determined by the investor's belief in the different paradigms for "how the stock market works". For explanations of these paradigms, see the discussions at efficient-market hypothesis, random walk hypothesis, capital asset pricing model, Fed model Theory of Equity Valuation, market-based valuation, and behavioral finance.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: The intrinsic value of the shares is determined based upon these three analyses. It is this value that is considered the true value of the share. If the intrinsic value is higher than the market price, buying the share is recommended. If it is equal to market price, it is recommended to hold the share; and if it is less than the market price, then one should sell the shares.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: The analysis of a business's health starts with a financial statement analysis that includes financial ratios. It looks at dividends paid, operating cash flow, new equity issues and capital financing. The earnings estimates and growth rate projections published widely by Thomson Reuters and others can be considered either "fundamental" (they are facts) or "technical" (they are investor sentiment) based on perception of their validity.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Determined growth rates (of income and cash) and risk levels (to determine the discount rate) are used in various valuation models. The foremost is the discounted cash flow model, which calculates the present value of the future:


title: Fundamental analysis

text: The simple model commonly used is the P/E ratio (price-to-earnings ratio). Implicit in this model of a perpetual annuity (time value of money) is that the inverse, or the E/P rate, is the discount rate appropriate to the risk of the business. Usage of the P/E ratio has the disadvantage that it ignores future earnings growth.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Because the future growth of the free cash flow and earnings of a company drive the fair value of the company, the PEG ratio is more meaningful than the P/E ratio. The PEG ratio incorporates the growth estimates for future earnings, e.g. of the EBIT. Its validity depends on the length of time analysts believe the growth will continue and on the reasonableness of future estimates compared to earnings growth in the past years (oftentimes the last seven years). IGAR models can be used to impute expected changes in growth from current P/E and historical growth rates for the stocks relative to a comparison index.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: The amount of debt a company possesses is also a major consideration in determining its financial leverage and its health. This is meaningful because a company can reach higher earnings (and this way a higher return on equity and higher P/E ratio) simply by increasing the amount of net debt. This can be quickly assessed using the debt-to-equity ratio, the current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) and the return on capital employed (ROCE). The ROCE is the ratio of EBIT divided by the "capital employed", i.e. all the current and non-current assets less the operating liabilities, which is the real capital of the company no matter if it is financed by equity or debt.


title: Fundamental analysis

text: Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets.


title: Live (South Korean TV series)

text: Live () is a 2018 South Korean television series starring Jung Yu-mi, Lee Kwang-soo, Bae Sung-woo and Bae Jong-ok. It aired on tvN from March 10 to May 6, 2018 every Saturday and Sunday at 21:00 (KST).


title: Live (South Korean TV series)

text: "Live" tells the story of police officers - from the lowest field cadets and patrol officers, to their superiors including corporals, captains, and more - as they form the 'Live' team at the Hongil patrol division. Each officer has their own story, and each works hard in their own places at one of the busiest, most stressful jobs in the world, in order to earn a living.


title: Live (South Korean TV series)

text: This is Noh Hee-kyung and Kim Kyu-tae's fifth collaboration; actor Lee Kwang-soo had previously worked with both Kim and Noh on "It's Okay, That's Love" and Noh on "Dear My Friends".


title: Hot Water Music

text: Hot Water Music is an American punk rock band formed in October 1994 and based in Gainesville, Florida. Since their formation, the group has consisted of Chuck Ragan and Chris Wollard on shared lead vocals and guitars, bass guitarist Jason Black, and drummer George Rebelo. Since 2017, the band has also included guitarist-vocalist Chris Cresswell. The band initially broke up in August 1998, but reformed by October 1998. A second breakup came in 2006 but the band has been active since 2008.


title: Hot Water Music

text: Ragan, Black, and Rebelo initially met while living in Sarasota. Black and Rebelo had played together in jazz bands in school. Ragan and Rebelo met while working at eateries on the same street, with the corner becoming a frequent gathering place for Sarasota musicians. As Wollard was based in Bradenton at the time, he met the other three at a storage facility which was frequently used as a rehearsal space for both Sarasota and Bradenton bands. Frustrated by the lack of musical opportunities in their respective hometowns, Black, who had been attending University of Florida for a year, recommended that the other three join him in Gainesville, a city known for its historic and contemporary music scene.


title: Hot Water Music

text: Upon moving to Gainesville and variously filling in as performers in each others' bands Fossil and Thread, the four joined together as Hot Water Music in October 1994. The band's name was taken from the collection of short stories by Charles Bukowski of the same name.


title: Hot Water Music

text: The band played its first show at the Ringling School of Art in Sarasota, Florida in the fall of 1994. After rapidly releasing a series of singles splits, and EPs, the band released their first two LPs in 1997, "Fuel for the Hate Game" and "Forever and Counting", the latter of which was released under the temporary moniker The Hot Water Music Band due legal concerns on the part of the band's label Doghouse Records regarding an unrelated record titled "Hot Water Music" by Elektra Records band Hot Water that same year.


title: Hot Water Music

text: After two years of rigorous touring had exhausted the band's members and strained their relationships, they announced that they would be breaking up following a farewell show at the Hardback Cafe in Gainesville on August 28, 1998. Their intention to disband was evidently short-lived, as, during the show, Ragan announced to the audience, "I'm sure a lot of people here came a long way tonight because they heard this was our last show. I don't know what to tell you guys...we're trying to keep it going." The performance from this show was recorded and released as the live album "Live at the Hardback".


title: Hot Water Music

text: On October 26, 1998, Hot Water Music announced their reformation, playing their comeback show on December 5, 1998 at the Hardback Cafe. In promotion of the band's upcoming album "No Division" on Some Records, scheduled for release in September 1999, Hot Water Music toured the United States with Discount, Elliott and Leatherface, from May to June 1999. A tour of Europe and the United Kingdom was then booked, originally intended to be shared with fellow Gainesville hardcore band As Friends Rust, but due to disagreements over top-billing, the two bands ended up booking separate tours. The incident also caused the cancellation of a split 7" vinyl the two bands had planned to release through Good Life Recordings in promotion of the tour. As Friends Rust ultimately headlined its own tour with Ensign and Ignite, while Hot Water Music invited Discount back to open for them on their European dates.


title: Hot Water Music

text: The band next signed to Epitaph Records, releasing three more albums, 2001's "A Flight and a Crash", their commercial breakthrough "Caution" in 2002, and their final record "The New What Next", before disbanding in 2005. In promotion of "The New What Next", Hot Water Music embarked on a six-week North American tour supported by Florida post-hardcore band Moments in Grace, which spanned from October 13 to November 21, 2004 The package tour also included Alexisonfire from October 13 to November 13; Don't Look Down from October 13–23; Planes Mistaken for Stars from October 23 to November 21; and Silverstein from November 15–21. Engine Down was initially to be on the tour but was replaced by Silverstein. The trip took the bands through the United States' West Coast, South and East Coast, followed by two dates in Canada, and finished in the American Midwest. It also included a stop to play The Fest 3 festival in Gainesville, Florida on October 31, 2004.


title: Hot Water Music

text: In late 2005, Hot Water Music announced through the No Idea Records website that they would be going on a hiatus following Chuck Ragan's departure, citing "family" reasons. While this was initially intended as a temporary hiatus, the band announced in 2006 that the break would be permanent. The three remaining members then started a new project, The Draft, whose first album, "In a Million Pieces", was released on September 12, 2006. Chuck Ragan continued with a primarily-acoustic solo project, releasing his debut record "Feast or Famine" in 2007.


title: Hot Water Music

text: Less than two years after announcing their hiatus, the band announced that they would be reuniting for a handful of shows in 2008 to commemorate the release their B-sides compilation record "Till The Wheels Fall Off". The band continued to be semi-active, sporadically performing and touring over the next few years.


title: Hot Water Music

text: In 2011, the band announced that, after releasing a 7" single to support their European tour with Make Do and Mend, they would be releasing a new LP of original material through Rise Records. Hot Water Music released the album, "Exister", in 2012.


title: Hot Water Music

text: After the release of their 2017 record "Light It Up", Wollard announced that he was taking a break from the band to focus on his health. The band continued to play previously booked shows with The Flatliners' Chris Cresswell and Chris DeMakes of Less Than Jake filling in for Wollard at several dates. Cresswell also filled in for Wollard for the band's 25th anniversary tour in 2019. While Wollard is not currently performing live with the band, he is still involved in their studio endeavors, playing and singing on their 2019 "Shake Up The Shadows" EP, with Cresswell joining the recording on backing vocals. In 2021, the band signed with Equal Vision Records for their ninth LP "Feel The Void", the band's first album featuring Cresswell as a permanent member, with Cresswell performing lead vocals on the track "Turn the Dial."


title: Hot Water Music

text: Prior to founding Hot Water Music, the band's members played in several other groups, including Yellow Section (Ragan), Burial (Rebelo), Kelly Green (Black and Rebelo), Thread (Black and Wollard), and Fossil (Ragan and Rebelo). Between 1996 and 1998 Wollard and Rebelo, along with Jack Bailey and Heather Ann Parker, formed The Blacktop Cadence and released their album "Chemistry for Changing Times" in 1997. From 1998 through 1999, Ragan and Wollard joined Samantha Jones for the acoustic side-project Rumbleseat, which released four 7" singles and contributed several songs to compilations, later releasing an eponymous compilation in 2005 after their breakup.


title: Hot Water Music

text: Following Hot Water Music's 2005 hiatus announcement, Chuck Ragan began a solo career, releasing several records, as well as various collaborative efforts with other artists, including a collaborative live acoustic project called The Revival Tour, featuring several punk rock, bluegrass, and alt-country performers with Ragan's goal to "sharing music together" and "bringing it to people in an extremely honest and grassroots fashion." During this hiatus, Black, Rebelo, and Wollard formed The Draft, which released an LP and two EPs before disbanding, returning for a reunion tour in 2013. Wollard's first solo effort, "Chris Wollard and the Ship Thieves" was released in 2009. Jason Black joined Senses Fail in 2008, playing on their record "The Fire" before departing in 2012. Rebelo joined Against Me! in 2009, playing on their 2010 LP White Crosses, leaving the band that same year. Rebelo has been a member of The Bouncing Souls since 2013, playing on their 2016 record "Simplicity".


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Spiral Jetty is an earthwork sculpture constructed in April 1970 that is considered to be the most important work of American sculptor Robert Smithson. Smithson documented the construction of the sculpture in a 32-minute color film also titled "Spiral Jetty". Built on the northeastern shore of the Great Salt Lake near Rozel Point in Utah entirely of mud, salt crystals, and basalt rocks, "Spiral Jetty" forms a , counterclockwise coil jutting from the shore of the lake.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: In 1999, the artwork was donated to the Dia Art Foundation and is one of 11 locations and sites they manage. Since its initial construction, those interested in its fate have dealt with questions of proposed changes in land use in the area surrounding the sculpture. In order to preserve the work, Dia Art Foundation asks that visitors do not take existing rocks from the artwork, make fire pits, or trample vegetation. There are no facilities at the site so visitors must carry out any waste with them.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: The sculpture is built of mud, precipitated salt crystals, and basalt rocks. It forms a , counterclockwise coil originally jutting from the shore of the lake, though due to the drying of the lake, as of 2022 a mile of lakebed separates "Spiral Jetty" from the shore. Depending upon the water level of the Great Salt Lake, the sculpture is sometimes visible and sometimes submerged.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Smithson reportedly chose the Rozel Point site based on the blood-red color of the water and its connection with the primordial sea. The red hue of the water is due to the presence of salt-tolerant bacteria and algae that thrive in the extreme 27 percent salinity of the lake's north arm, which was isolated from freshwater sources by the building of a causeway by the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1959.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Smithson was reportedly attracted to the Rozel Point site because of the stark anti-pastoral beauty and industrial remnants from nearby Golden Spike National Historic Site, as well as an old pier and a few unused oil rigs. While observing the construction of the piece from a helicopter, Smithson reportedly remarked "et in Utah ego" as a counterpoint to the pastoral Baroque painting "et in Arcadia ego" by Nicolas Poussin.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: To move the rock into the lake, Smithson hired Bob Phillips of nearby Ogden, Utah, who used two dump trucks, a large tractor, and a front end loader to haul the 6,650 tons of rock and earth into the lake. It is reported that Smithson had a difficult time convincing a contractor to accept the unusual proposal. Spiral Jetty was the first of his pieces to require the acquisition of land rights and earthmoving equipment. Phillips often told people that his best-known construction job was "the only thing I ever built that ... was to look at and had no purpose".


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Phillips described the use of earth-moving equipment along the lakeside as "tricky", and said of Smithson that "I don’t think he had done any geology work or anything on it. He just had in his mind what it should look like.… He just had the eye for it. I assume it was the artist in him." Work began on the jetty in April 1970. The work was constructed twice; the first time requiring six days. After contemplating the result for two days, Smithson called the crew back and had the shape altered to its present configuration, an effort requiring moving 7,000 tons of basalt rock during an additional three days.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Phillips' son appeared on the PBS "Antiques Roadshow" program in 2017 with a photograph and collection of documents related to the building of the project.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: The sculpture was financed in part by a $9,000 USD grant from the Virginia Dwan Gallery of New York. In 1999, "Spiral Jetty" was donated to Dia Art Foundation. As owner and custodian of "Spiral Jetty", the foundation maintains the lease from the Utah Division of Forestry, Fire & State Lands of state sovereign lands in Great Salt Lake upon which the artwork is sited.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: At the time Dia acquired "Spiral Jetty", the work was fully submerged in the lake. Beginning in the early 2000s, however, sustained drought in Utah caused water levels to recede, and "Spiral Jetty" became visible for the first prolonged period in its history. As a result, the prominence of "Spiral Jetty" has risen dramatically over the past decade, increasing both the visitorship to the site and the public’s interest in the artwork, at the local, national, and international levels.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Dia is committed to maintaining a photographic record of the work and documenting changes to the piece over time. Dia collaborates with two organizations in Utah, the Great Salt Lake Institute at Westminster College (GSLI) and the Utah Museum of Fine Arts (UMFA) at the University of Utah, who have been deeply involved in the advocacy of "Spiral Jetty" over the years.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: The issue of preservation has been complicated by ambiguous statements by Smithson, who expressed an admiration for entropy in that he intended his works to mimic earthly attributes in that they remain in a state of arrested disruption and not be kept from destruction.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: Dia's website states that visitors are prohibited from removing rocks from the artwork or from stepping on vegetation that is on the grounds of the artwork. Visitors are also prohibited from constructing fire pits near the artwork or on the parking lot. If caught, visitors will face strict fines. The website also states that visitors are instructed to carry out their waste.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: In 2008 plans were announced for exploratory oil drilling approximately five miles from the jetty. This was met with strong resistance from artists, and the state of Utah received more than 3,000 e-mails about the plan, most opposing the drilling.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: In 1970 during the construction of the jetty, Robert Smithson wrote and directed a 32-minute color film, "Spiral Jetty". The film was shot by Smithson and his wife Nancy Holt, and funded by Virginia Dwan and Douglas Christmas.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: The film documented the construction process and also formed an ancillary artwork. Smithson combines his interest in geology, paleontology, astronomy, mythology and cinema, stating that he had an interest in documenting "the earth's history". In conjunction with filmed sequences of the jetty, Smithson incorporates footage of dinosaurs in a natural history museum and the ripped pages from a history text. During this scene, Smithson refers to the institutions of history: "the earth's history seems at times like a story recorded in a book, each page of which is torn into small pieces. Many of the pages and some of the pieces of each page are missing". Smithson's narrative supports an alternative view of historical discourse and the art object's placement or production outside of the museum institution. His writings also indicate that the helicopter film sequences over the jetty were a method of "recapitulating the scale of the jetty". By visually disorienting the viewer, Smithson is able to negate a time and place for the materiality of the artwork or create what he calls a "cosmic rupture". Through this state, the viewer is meant to be unable to categorize or classify the site, and will be left in a state free from the dialect of history.


title: Spiral Jetty

text: The work was named Utah's official state work of land art in 2017. April 2020 marked the "Spiral Jetty"s 50th anniversary, which Smithson referred to shortly before his death in 1973 as "the work of the decade".


title: Ma clique

text: The Ma clique or Ma family warlords is a collective name for a group of Hui (Muslim Chinese) warlords in Northwestern China who ruled the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia for 10 years from 1919 until 1928. Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the region came under Chinese Muslim warlord Ma Qi's control until the Northern Expedition by the Republic of China consolidated central control in 1928. There were three families in the Ma clique ("Ma" 馬/马, meaning "horse," being a common Hui rendering of the common Muslim name "Muhammad"), each of them respectively controlled 3 areas, Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia. The three most prominent members of the clique were Ma Bufang, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Hongbin, collectively known as the Xibei San Ma (, "Three horses of the Northwest"). Some contemporary accounts, such as Edgar Snow's, described the clique as the "Four Ma" (rather than Three), adding Ma Bufang's brother Ma Buqing to the list of the top warlords. Other prominent Ma's included Ma Anliang, Ma Qi, Ma Lin, Ma Hu-shan, and Ma Zhongying.


title: Ma clique

text: The Ma Clique warlords were all generals in the military of the Republic of China, who controlled most of Mainland China until it was overtaken by the communist People's Liberation Army. The clique was begun by Muslim generals who served in the military of the Qing dynasty, most notably in the Kansu Braves army, who fought in the Boxer Rebellion against invading foreign forces. It was continued by two generations of their descendants.


title: Ma clique

text: After the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing, the Ma Clique Generals declared their allegiance to the Republic of China. Unlike the Mongols, Hui Muslims refused to secede from the Republic, and Ma Qi quickly used his diplomatic and military powers to make the Tibetan and Mongol nobles recognize the Republic of China government as their overlord, and sent a message to President Yuan Shikai reaffirming that Qinghai was securely in the Republic. He replaced "Long, Long, Long, Live the reigning Emperor", with "Long live the Republic of China" on inscriptions. Ma Anliang also agreed to join the new Republic of China government.


title: Ma clique

text: When the Kuomintang seized power in the Northern Expedition, the Ma Clique warlords became members of the Kuomintang party, and their armies were renamed as divisions of the National Revolutionary Army. The Ma Clique Ninghai Army under General Ma Qi was renamed the National Revolutionary Army 26th Division.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Zhongying led the KMT 36th Division to fight against the pro-Soviet governor of Xinjiang, Jin Shuren during the Kumul Rebellion, and the Soviets themselves during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. The 36th Division also crushed the First East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934).


title: Ma clique

text: In the Sino-Tibetan War, Ma Clique forces led by Ma Bufang defeated the Tibetan Army. Also during the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai Ma Bufang waged war against Tibetan tribes in Qinghai to bring them under his control.


title: Ma clique

text: During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Ma Clique forces fought against the Japanese, Ma Hongbin led his 81st corps to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Wuyuan. Ma Bufang sent Ma Biao to attack the Japanese army. 40 years before, Ma Biao had fought in the Boxer Rebellion against the Eight Nation Alliance.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Bufang was ordered by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang in the 1940s to intimidate and help oust the forces of the pro Soviet Governor Sheng Shicai. The Ma Clique forces also clashed with the forces of the Second East Turkestan Republic during the Ili Rebellion.


title: Ma clique

text: The Ma clique traces its origins to the officers of Qing dynasty General Dong Fuxiang. General Ma Anliang was the de facto leader of the Muslims of northwest China.


title: Ma clique

text: The Three (or Five) Ma took control of the region during the Warlord Era, siding first with the Guominjun and then the Kuomintang; they fought against the Red Army during the Long March and the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War.


title: Ma clique

text: The Qing dynasty had granted Ma Bufang's family a yellow standard which had his family name "Ma" on it. Ma Bufang continued to use this standard in battle.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Bufang recruited many Salar officers from Xunhua County into his army like Han Yimu and General Han Youwen.


title: Ma clique

text: During one campaign against the Communists in the Civil War, in Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia, Muslim soldiers numbered 31,000.


title: Ma clique

text: During the final stages of the Chinese Civil War, the Ma fought for the Kuomintang side in defiance until the communists wiped out his cavalry and took Gansu in August 1949, just months before the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Upon the arrival of communist forces, Ma Hongbin had little possibility of winning and joined to communists' side. He was appointed vice-chairman (later restyled vice-governor) of Gansu province. He later died in Lanzhou in 1960. Ma Hongkui fled with the Kuomintang to Taiwan. He was indicted by Republic of China Control Yuan as a scapegoat. He later migrated to the United States, where he died on January 14, 1970.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Bufang with his son Ma Jiyuan fled by an airplane from Qinghai to Chongqing, then Hong Kong. In October 1949, Chiang Kai-shek urged him to return to the Northwest to resist the PLA, but he chose to migrate to Saudi Arabia with more than 200 relatives and subordinates, in the name of hajj. He later worked as the first ambassador to Saudi Arabia for the Republic of China.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Lin's eldest son Ma Burong defected to the Communists after 1949 and donated 10,000 Yuan to support Chinese troops in the Korean War. One of Ma Chengxiang's Hui officers, Ma Fuchen 馬輔臣, defected to the Communists.


title: Ma clique

text: Ma Guoliang's son Ma Tingbin became a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference after defecting to the Communists.


title: Separation of variables

text: In mathematics, separation of variables (also known as the Fourier method) is any of several methods for solving ordinary and partial differential equations, in which algebra allows one to rewrite an equation so that each of two variables occurs on a different side of the equation.


title: Separation of variables

text: so that the two variables "x" and "y" have been separated. "dx" (and "dy") can be viewed, at a simple level, as just a convenient notation, which provides a handy mnemonic aid for assisting with manipulations. A formal definition of "dx" as a differential (infinitesimal) is somewhat advanced.


title: Separation of variables

text: but that fails to make it quite as obvious why this is called "separation of variables". Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to formula_6, we have


title: Separation of variables

text: If one can evaluate the two integrals, one can find a solution to the differential equation. Observe that this process effectively allows us to treat the derivative formula_8 as a fraction which can be separated. This allows us to solve separable differential equations more conveniently, as demonstrated in the example below.


title: Separation of variables

text: where formula_12 is the population with respect to time formula_13, formula_14 is the rate of growth, and formula_15 is the carrying capacity of the environment.


title: Separation of variables

text: Much like one can speak of a separable first-order ODE, one can speak of a separable second-order, third-order or "n"th-order ODE. Consider the separable first-order ODE:


title: Separation of variables

text: The derivative can alternatively be written the following way to underscore that it is an operator working on the unknown function, "y":


title: Separation of variables

text: Thus, when one separates variables for first-order equations, one in fact moves the "dx" denominator of the operator to the side with the "x" variable, and the "d"("y") is left on the side with the "y" variable. The second-derivative operator, by analogy, breaks down as follows:


title: Separation of variables

text: The third-, fourth- and "n"th-derivative operators break down in the same way. Thus, much like a first-order separable ODE is reducible to the form


title: Separation of variables

text: Consider the simple nonlinear second-order differential equation:formula_35This equation is an equation only of "y<nowiki>"</nowiki>" and "y'", meaning it is reducible to the general form described above and is, therefore, separable. Since it is a second-order separable equation, collect all "x" variables on one side and all "y'" variables on the other to get:formula_36Now, integrate the right side with respect to "x" and the left with respect to "y"':formula_37This givesformula_38which simplifies to:formula_39This is now a simple integral problem that gives the final answer:formula_40


title: Separation of variables

text: The method of separation of variables is also used to solve a wide range of linear partial differential equations with boundary and initial conditions, such as the heat equation, wave equation, Laplace equation, Helmholtz equation and biharmonic equation.


title: Separation of variables

text: The analytical method of separation of variables for solving partial differential equations has also been generalized into a computational method of decomposition in invariant structures that can be used to solve systems of partial differential equations.


title: Separation of variables

text: Let us attempt to find a solution which is not identically zero satisfying the boundary conditions but with the following property: "u" is a product in which the dependence of "u" on "x", "t" is separated, that is:


title: Separation of variables

text: Since the right hand side depends only on "x" and the left hand side only on "t", both sides are equal to some constant value −"λ". Thus:


title: Separation of variables

text: −"λ" here is the eigenvalue for both differential operators, and "T"("t") and "X"("x") are corresponding eigenfunctions.


title: Separation of variables

text: This solves the heat equation in the special case that the dependence of "u" has the special form of .


title: Separation of variables

text: In general, the sum of solutions to which satisfy the boundary conditions also satisfies and . Hence a complete solution can be given as


title: Separation of variables

text: This is the sine series expansion of "f"("x"). Multiplying both sides with formula_49 and integrating over results in


title: Separation of variables

text: This method requires that the eigenfunctions "X", here formula_51, are orthogonal and complete. In general this is guaranteed by Sturm–Liouville theory.


title: Separation of variables

text: which are a sequence of linear differential equations that can be readily solved with, for instance, Laplace transform, or Integrating factor. Finally, we can get


title: Separation of variables

text: If the boundary condition is nonhomogeneous, then the expansion of and is no longer valid. One has to find a function "v" that satisfies the boundary condition only, and subtract it from "u". The function "u-v" then satisfies homogeneous boundary condition, and can be solved with the above method.


title: Separation of variables

text: For some equations involving mixed derivatives, the equation does not separate as easily as the heat equation did in the first example above, but nonetheless separation of variables may still be applied. Consider the two-dimensional biharmonic equation


title: Separation of variables

text: Taking the derivative of this expression with respect to formula_58 gives formula_59 which means formula_60 and likewise, taking derivative with respect to formula_61 leads to formula_62 and thus formula_63, hence either "F"("x") or "G"("y") must be a constant, say −λ. This further implies that either formula_64 or formula_65 are constant. Returning to the equation for "X" and "Y", we have two cases


title: Separation of variables

text: which can each be solved by considering the separate cases for formula_68 and noting that formula_69.


title: Separation of variables

text: In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, separation of variables can still be used, but in some details different from that in Cartesian coordinates. For instance, regularity or periodic condition may determine the eigenvalues in place of boundary conditions. See spherical harmonics for example.


title: Separation of variables

text: For many PDEs, such as the wave equation, Helmholtz equation and Schrodinger equation, the applicability of separation of variables is a result of the spectral theorem. In some cases, separation of variables may not be possible. Separation of variables may be possible in some coordinate systems but not others, and which coordinate systems allow for separation depends on the symmetry properties of the equation. Below is an outline of an argument demonstrating the applicability of the method to certain linear equations, although the precise method may differ in individual cases (for instance in the biharmonic equation above).


title: Separation of variables

text: where formula_73 is a differential operator with respect to formula_6 and formula_75 is a differential operator with respect to formula_13 with boundary data:


title: Separation of variables

text: The right hand side depends only on formula_6 and the left hand side only on formula_86 so both must be equal to a constant formula_87, which gives two ordinary differential equations


title: Separation of variables

text: which we can recognize as eigenvalue problems for the operators for formula_73 and formula_75. If formula_73 is a compact, self-adjoint operator on the space formula_92 along with the relevant boundary conditions, then by the Spectral theorem there exists a basis for formula_92 consisting of eigenfunctions for formula_73. Let the spectrum of formula_73 be formula_96 and let formula_97 be an eigenfunction with eigenvalue formula_98. Then for any function which at each time formula_13 is square-integrable with respect to formula_6, we can write this function as a linear combination of the formula_97. In particular, we know the solution formula_102 can be written as


title: Separation of variables

text: For some functions formula_104. In the separation of variables, these functions are given by solutions to formula_105


title: Separation of variables

text: Hence, the spectral theorem ensures that the separation of variables will (when it is possible) find all the solutions.


title: Separation of variables

text: For many differential operators, such as formula_106, we can show that they are self-adjoint by integration by parts. While these operators may not be compact, their inverses (when they exist) may be, as in the case of the wave equation, and these inverses have the same eigenfunctions and eigenvalues as the original operator (with the possible exception of zero).


title: Separation of variables

text: where formula_108 and formula_109 are 1D discrete Laplacians in the "x"- and "y"-directions, correspondingly, and formula_110 are the identities of appropriate sizes. See the main article Kronecker sum of discrete Laplacians for details.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Conrad Thomas Lant (born 15 January 1963), also known by his stage name Cronos, is an English musician and songwriter. He is the founder, vocalist, bassist, and occasional guitarist of extreme metal band Venom.


title: Conrad Lant

text: After playing in a couple of high school bands; Dwarfstar and Album Graecum, Conrad Lant took the stage name Cronos and joined a band called Guillotine as a guitarist in 1979, where he met Jeffrey Dunn, who later became Mantas. In 1979, the original bassist left one week before a church hall gig. Instead of not playing the venue, Cronos took up the bass and they changed the band name to 'Venom'. He continued to play the bass throughout his career in Venom. In 1980, the band's vocalist, Clive Archer (with stage name Jesus Christ), left the band, leaving Cronos to take over this role too and finalising the band into a three-piece group.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Cronos was working in a recording studio after he left school called Impulse Studios, the studio had a number of labels releasing albums by folk musicians and local TV comedians, although he eventually convinced the studio to start a label for rock bands, the label was called 'Neat Records' and began signing bands from up and down the UK, releasing singles and albums from 1980 onwards. As the members of Venom could not afford the studio time fees, Cronos was able to talk the studio engineer into letting him have some free time in exchange for staying back late after work and carrying out other unpaid work. Cronos sent many copies of the Venom demos to various record labels and also the rock press, where a journalist for the 'Sounds' magazine [Geoff Barton] featured three Venom songs in his playlist, which got the attention of the label 'Neat Records', who then agreed to release the first Venom single.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Cronos was also responsible for designing and creating all of the Venom logo and the sleeves artwork for their many single and album releases. He wanted to use the Sigil of Baphomet as the band's main emblem, although he wanted to recreate a new version of the sigil to be new and original concept, so he set out to redesigning it. The Venom logo was drawn and redrawn many times before he was happy, and the development of the logo can be seen from the band's many singles and albums releases, as the logo become more and more fine tuned as the years go on. The logo continues to evolve as Cronos still designs new versions for merchandise and other albums.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Venom took a break in 1988 and so Cronos embarked on a solo career and occasionally featured in many other bands of a similar genre, including Cronos, Enthroned, Cradle of Filth (Cronos contributed a monologue to the end of the Cradle track "Haunted Shores," from their 1996 album "Dusk... and Her Embrace"), Warpath, Massacre, and Necrodeath. He also produced some albums for other bands.


title: Conrad Lant

text: In 1995, Cronos contacted the original guitarist and drummer and reformed the original Venom lineup, where they headlined the Dynamo Festival in 1996. Venom tried to continue with the original lineup members but only managed to play one show per year for the next few years. They had signed a three album deal with CBH/Steamhammer in Germany, but when they took the option for the second album after "Cast in Stone", certain members did not want to continue. Venom employed a stand in drummer for the next album, "Resurrection", which was well received by the critics, although they still only managed to play two shows, Wacken and Holland.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Venom took another short break after Cronos was hurt in a climbing accident, but in 2004, Cronos enlisted his 'Cronos band' guitarist 'Mykas' and set about rebuilding the band's reputation with the album "Metal Black" in 2006, and a sold out UK tour in the UK and four headline shows at major European festivals. In 2007, Cronos replaced the guitarist with 'Rage, releasing the album "Hell" in 2008 and again touring to sell-out shows. By 2009, 'Dante' joined the band, and starting with a full South American tour, Venom continue to headline many various festivals each year. As of 2019, the lineup of Cronos, Rage and Dante is 10 years old, with three albums such as 2011's "Fallen Angels", 2015's "From the Very Depths", and 2018's "Storm the Gates".


title: Conrad Lant

text: In 2000, the band went on to headline the Wacken Open Air Festival in Germany and play a one-off show in the Netherlands before they were forced to take a break after Cronos was injured in a climbing accident in 2002, which left him unable to play bass or sing for nearly two years. He took to the computer to pass the time and studied computing and games programming, he learned 3D software skills and worked as the main multimedia engineer for the computer and internet solutions companies K-Class Systems and Globalfibre.tv, where along with company owner Scott Toward, they created the first computer models for streaming media for the internet and mobile phones, as well as programming and building gaming maps and developing internet access via satellites.


title: Conrad Lant

text: Cronos again reformed Venom in around 2003, temporarily recruiting an unknown basic nu-metal drummer and guitarist, as he just needed a couple of average players to help him kick start the band while he looked for professional permanent musicians. Cronos had asked guitarist Mantas to rejoin the band, although he declined his offer releasing a statement on Blabbermouth saying he would never rejoin Venom as he was working in a new direction with his new band 'Zero Tolerance' and was in the process of recording an album.


title: Conrad Lant

text: After Cronos spent the next couple of years of planning and intensive rehearsals, Venom released their album, "Metal Black", in early 2006, and they embarked on a sold out world tour. Venom played the classic single "Die Hard" along with Phil Anselmo (Pantera, Down) in the Gods of Metal 2006 in Italy, where they headlined. Cronos appeared on Dave Grohl's heavy metal side project Probot in 2004, and guest starred on the track Knights of the 21st Century on HammerFall's 2005 album "".


title: Kin selection

text: Kin selection is the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even when at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Kin altruism can look like altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection. Kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.


title: Kin selection

text: Charles Darwin discussed the concept of kin selection in his 1859 book, "On the Origin of Species", where he reflected on the puzzle of sterile social insects, such as honey bees, which leave reproduction to their mothers, arguing that a selection benefit to related organisms (the same "stock") would allow the evolution of a trait that confers the benefit but destroys an individual at the same time. R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 set out the mathematics of kin selection, with Haldane famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. In 1964, W.D. Hamilton popularised the concept and the major advance in the mathematical treatment of the phenomenon by George R. Price which has become known as Hamilton's rule. In the same year, John Maynard Smith used the term "kin selection" for the first time.


title: Kin selection

text: According to Hamilton's rule, kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. Hamilton proposed two mechanisms for kin selection. First, kin recognition allows individuals to be able to identify their relatives. Second, in viscous populations, populations in which the movement of organisms from their place of birth is relatively slow, local interactions tend to be among relatives by default. The viscous population mechanism makes kin selection and social cooperation possible in the absence of kin recognition. In this case, nurture kinship, the treatment of individuals as kin as a result of living together, is sufficient for kin selection, given reasonable assumptions about population dispersal rates. Note that kin selection is not the same thing as group selection, where natural selection is believed to act on the group as a whole.


title: Kin selection

text: In humans, altruism is both more likely and on a larger scale with kin than with unrelated individuals; for example, humans give presents according to how closely related they are to the recipient. In other species, vervet monkeys use allomothering, where related females such as older sisters or grandmothers often care for young, according to their relatedness. The social shrimp "Synalpheus regalis" protects juveniles within highly related colonies.


title: Kin selection

text: Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of kin selection (without using that term). In "On the Origin of Species", he wrote about the conundrum represented by altruistic sterile social insects that:


title: Kin selection

text: In this passage "the family" and "stock" stand for a kin group. These passages and others by Darwin about kin selection are highlighted in D.J. Futuyma's textbook of reference "Evolutionary Biology" and in E. O. Wilson's "".


title: Kin selection

text: The earliest mathematically formal treatments of kin selection were by R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 and 1955. J.B.S. Haldane fully grasped the basic quantities and considerations in kin selection, famously writing "I would lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins". Haldane's remark alluded to the fact that if an individual loses its life to save two siblings, four nephews, or eight cousins, it is a "fair deal" in evolutionary terms, as siblings are on average 50% identical by descent, nephews 25%, and cousins 12.5% (in a diploid population that is randomly mating and previously outbred). But Haldane also joked that he would truly die only to save more than a single identical twin of his or more than two full siblings. In 1955 he clarified:


title: Kin selection

text: W. D. Hamilton, in 1963 and especially in 1964 popularised the concept and the more thorough mathematical treatment given to it by George Price.


title: Kin selection

text: Kin selection causes changes in gene frequency across generations, driven by interactions between related individuals. This dynamic forms the conceptual basis of the theory of sociobiology. Some cases of evolution by natural selection can only be understood by considering how biological relatives influence each other's fitness. Under natural selection, a gene encoding a trait that enhances the fitness of each individual carrying it should increase in frequency within the population; and conversely, a gene that lowers the individual fitness of its carriers should be eliminated. However, a hypothetical gene that prompts behaviour which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the individual displaying the behaviour, may nonetheless increase in frequency, because relatives often carry the same gene. According to this principle, the enhanced fitness of relatives can at times more than compensate for the fitness loss incurred by the individuals displaying the behaviour, making kin selection possible. This is a special case of a more general model, "inclusive fitness". This analysis has been challenged, Wilson writing that "the foundations of the general theory of inclusive fitness based on the theory of kin selection have crumbled" and that he now relies instead on the theory of eusociality and "gene-culture co-evolution" for the underlying mechanics of sociobiology.


title: Kin selection

text: Kin selection is contrasted with group selection, according to which a genetic trait can become prevalent within a group because it benefits the group as a whole, regardless of any benefit to individual organisms. All known forms of group selection conform to the principle that an individual behaviour can be evolutionarily successful only if the genes responsible for this behaviour conform to Hamilton's Rule, and hence, on balance and in the aggregate, benefit from the behaviour.


title: Kin selection

text: This inequality is known as Hamilton's rule after W. D. Hamilton who in 1964 published the first formal quantitative treatment of kin selection.


title: Kin selection

text: The relatedness parameter ("r") in Hamilton's rule was introduced in 1922 by Sewall Wright as a coefficient of relationship that gives the probability that at a random locus, the alleles there will be identical by descent.


title: Kin selection

text: A 2014 review of many lines of evidence for Hamilton's rule found that its predictions were confirmed in a wide variety of social behaviours across a broad phylogenetic range of birds, mammals and insects, in each case comparing social and non-social taxa. Among the experimental findings, a 2010 study used a wild population of red squirrels in Yukon, Canada. Surrogate mothers adopted related orphaned squirrel pups but not unrelated orphans. The cost of adoption was calculated by measuring a decrease in the survival probability of the entire litter after increasing the litter by one pup, while benefit was measured as the increased chance of survival of the orphan. The degree of relatedness of the orphan and surrogate mother for adoption to occur depended on the number of pups the surrogate mother already had in her nest, as this affected the cost of adoption. Females always adopted orphans when "rB" was greater than "C", but never adopted when "rB" was less than "C", supporting Hamilton's rule.


title: Kin selection

text: Altruism occurs where the instigating individual suffers a fitness loss while the receiving individual experiences a fitness gain. The sacrifice of one individual to help another is an example.


title: Kin selection

text: First, if individuals have the capacity to recognise kin and to discriminate (positively) on the basis of kinship, then the average relatedness of the recipients of altruism could be high enough for kin selection. Because of the facultative nature of this mechanism, kin recognition and discrimination are expected to be unimportant except among 'higher' forms of life. Kin recognition may be selected for inbreeding avoidance, and little evidence indicates that 'innate' kin recognition plays a role in mediating altruism. A thought experiment on the kin recognition/discrimination distinction is the hypothetical 'green beard', where a gene for social behaviour is imagined also to cause a distinctive phenotype that can be recognised by other carriers of the gene. Due to conflicting genetic similarity in the rest of the genome, there would be selection pressure for green-beard altruistic sacrifices to be suppressed, making common ancestry the most likely form of inclusive fitness.


title: Kin selection

text: Secondly, even indiscriminate altruism may be favoured in "viscous" populations, those with low rates or short ranges of dispersal. Here, social partners are typically genealogically close kin, and so altruism can flourish even in the absence of kin recognition and kin discrimination faculties—spatial proximity and circumstantial cues serving as a rudimentary form of discrimination. This suggests a rather general explanation for altruism. Directional selection always favours those with higher rates of fecundity within a certain population. Social individuals can often enhance the survival of their own kin by participating in and following the rules of their own group.


title: Kin selection

text: Hamilton later modified his thinking to suggest that an innate ability to recognise actual genetic relatedness was unlikely to be the dominant mediating mechanism for kin altruism:


title: Kin selection

text: Hamilton's later clarifications often go unnoticed. Stuart West and colleagues have countered the long-standing assumption that kin selection requires innate powers of kin recognition. Another doubtful assumption is that social cooperation must be based on limited dispersal and shared developmental context. Such ideas have obscured the progress made in applying kin selection to species including humans, on the basis of cue-based mediation of social bonding and social behaviours.


title: Kin selection

text: Eusociality (true sociality) is used to describe social systems with three characteristics: an overlap in generations between parents and their offspring, cooperative brood care, and specialised castes of non-reproductive individuals. The social insects provide good examples of organisms with what appear to be kin selected traits. The workers of some species are sterile, a trait that would not occur if individual selection was the only process at work. The relatedness coefficient "r" is abnormally high between the worker sisters in a colony of Hymenoptera due to haplodiploidy. Hamilton's rule is presumed to be satisfied because the benefits in fitness for the workers are believed to exceed the costs in terms of lost reproductive opportunity, though this has never been demonstrated empirically. Competing hypotheses have been offered to explain the evolution of social behaviour in such organisms.


title: Kin selection

text: The eusocial shrimp "Synalpheus regalis" protects juveniles in the colony. By defending the young, the large defender shrimp can increase its inclusive fitness. Allozyme data demonstrated high relatedness within colonies, averaging 0.50. This means that colonies represent close kin groups, supporting the hypothesis of kin selection.


title: Kin selection

text: Vervet monkeys utilise allomothering, parenting by group members other than the actual mother or father, where the allomother is typically an older female sibling or a grandmother. Individuals act aggressively toward other individuals that were aggressive toward their relatives. The behaviour implies kin selection between siblings, between mothers and offspring, and between grandparents and grandchildren.


title: Kin selection

text: Whether or not Hamilton's rule always applies, relatedness is often important for human altruism, in that humans are inclined to behave more altruistically toward kin than toward unrelated individuals. Many people choose to live near relatives, exchange sizeable gifts with relatives, and favour relatives in wills in proportion to their relatedness.


title: Kin selection

text: Interviews of several hundred women in Los Angeles showed that while non-kin friends were willing to help one another, their assistance was far more likely to be reciprocal. The largest amounts of non-reciprocal help, however, were reportedly provided by kin. Additionally, more closely related kin were considered more likely sources of assistance than distant kin. Similarly, several surveys of American college students found that individuals were more likely to incur the cost of assisting kin when a high probability that relatedness and benefit would be greater than cost existed. Participants’ feelings of helpfulness were stronger toward family members than non-kin. Additionally, participants were found to be most willing to help those individuals most closely related to them. Interpersonal relationships between kin in general were more supportive and less Machiavellian than those between non-kin.


title: Kin selection

text: In one experiment, the longer participants (from both the UK and the South African Zulus) held a painful skiing position, the more money or food was presented to a given relative. Participants repeated the experiment for individuals of different relatedness (parents and siblings at r=.5, grandparents, nieces, and nephews at r=.25, etc.). The results showed that participants held the position for longer intervals the greater the degree of relatedness between themselves and those receiving the reward.


title: Kin selection

text: A study of food-sharing practices on the West Caroline islets of Ifaluk determined that food-sharing was more common among people from the same islet, possibly because the degree of relatedness between inhabitants of the same islet would be higher than relatedness between inhabitants of different islets. When food was shared between islets, the distance the sharer was required to travel correlated with the relatedness of the recipient—a greater distance meant that the recipient needed to be a closer relative. The relatedness of the individual and the potential inclusive fitness benefit needed to outweigh the energy cost of transporting the food over distance.


title: Kin selection

text: Humans may use the inheritance of material goods and wealth to maximise their inclusive fitness. By providing close kin with inherited wealth, an individual may improve his or her kin's reproductive opportunities and thus increase his or her own inclusive fitness even after death. A study of a thousand wills found that the beneficiaries who received the most inheritance were generally those most closely related to the will's writer. Distant kin received proportionally less inheritance, with the least amount of inheritance going to non-kin.


title: Kin selection

text: A study of childcare practices among Canadian women found that respondents with children provide childcare reciprocally with non-kin. The cost of caring for non-kin was balanced by the benefit a woman received—having her own offspring cared for in return. However, respondents without children were significantly more likely to offer childcare to kin. For individuals without their own offspring, the inclusive fitness benefits of providing care to closely related children might outweigh the time and energy costs of childcare.


title: Kin selection

text: Family investment in offspring among black South African households also appears consistent with an inclusive fitness model. A higher degree of relatedness between children and their caregivers was correlated with a higher degree of investment in the children, with more food, health care, and clothing. Relatedness was also associated with the regularity of a child's visits to local medical practitioners and with the highest grade the child had completed in school, and negatively associated with children being behind in school for their age.


title: Kin selection

text: Observation of the Dolgan hunter-gatherers of northern Russia suggested that there are larger and more frequent asymmetrical transfers of food to kin. Kin are more likely to be welcomed to non-reciprocal meals, while non-kin are discouraged from attending. Finally, when reciprocal food-sharing occurs between families, these families are often closely related, and the primary beneficiaries are the offspring.


title: Kin selection

text: Violence in families is more likely when step-parents are present, and that "genetic relationship is associated with a softening of conflict, and people's evident valuations of themselves and of others are systematically related to the parties' reproductive values". Numerous studies suggest how inclusive fitness may work amongst different peoples, such as the Ye'kwana of southern Venezuela, the Gypsies of Hungary, and the doomed Donner Party of the United States.


title: Kin selection

text: Evolutionary psychologists, following early human sociobiologists' interpretation of kin selection theory initially attempted to explain human altruistic behaviour through kin selection by stating that "behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection." However, many evolutionary psychologists recognise that this common shorthand formulation is inaccurate:


title: Kin selection

text: As with the earlier sociobiological forays into the cross-cultural data, typical approaches are not able to find explanatory fit with the findings of ethnographers insofar that human kinship patterns are not necessarily built upon blood-ties. However, as Hamilton's later refinements of his theory make clear, it does not simply predict that genetically related individuals will inevitably recognise and engage in positive social behaviours with genetic relatives: rather, indirect context-based mechanisms may have evolved, which in historical environments have met the inclusive fitness criterion. Consideration of the demographics of the typical evolutionary environment of any species is crucial to understanding the evolution of social behaviours. As Hamilton himself put it, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start".


title: Kin selection

text: Under this perspective, and noting the necessity of a reliable context of interaction being available, the data on how altruism is mediated in social mammals is readily made sense of. In social mammals, primates and humans, altruistic acts that meet the kin selection criterion are typically mediated by circumstantial cues such as shared developmental environment, familiarity and social bonding. That is, it is the context that mediates the development of the bonding process and the expression of the altruistic behaviours, not genetic relatedness as such. This interpretation is compatible with the cross-cultural ethnographic data and has been called nurture kinship.


title: Kin selection

text: Though originally thought unique to the animal kingdom, evidence of kin selection has been identified in the plant kingdom.


title: Kin selection

text: Competition for resources between developing zygotes in plant ovaries increases when seeds had been pollinated with male gametes from different plants. How developing zygotes differentiate between full siblings and half-siblings in the ovary is undetermined, but genetic interactions are thought to play a role. Nonetheless, competition between zygotes in the ovary is detrimental to the reproductive success of the (female) plant, and fewer zygotes mature into seeds. As such, the reproductive traits and behaviors of plants suggests the evolution of behaviors and characteristics that increase the genetic relatedness of fertilized eggs in the plant ovary, thereby fostering kin selection and cooperation among the seeds as they develop. These traits differ among plant species. Some species have evolved to have fewer ovules per ovary, commonly one ovule per ovary, thereby decreasing the chance of developing multiple, differently fathered seeds within the same ovary. Multi-ovulated plants have developed mechanisms that increase the chances of all ovules within the ovary being fathered by the same parent. Such mechanisms include dispersal of pollen in aggregated packets and closure of the stigmatic lobes after pollen is introduced. The aggregated pollen packet releases pollen gametes in the ovary, thereby increasing likelihood that all ovules are fertilized by pollen from the same parent. Likewise, the closure of the ovary pore prevents entry of new pollen. Other multi-ovulated plants have evolved mechanisms that mimic the evolutionary adaption of single-ovulated ovaries; the ovules are fertilized by pollen from different individuals, but the mother ovary then selectively aborts fertilized ovules, either at the zygotic or embryonic stage.


title: Kin selection

text: After seeds are dispersed, kin recognition and cooperation affects root formation in developing plants. Studies have found that the total root mass developed by "Ipomoea hederacea" (morning glory shrubs) grown next to kin is significantly smaller than those grown next to non-kin; shrubs grown next to kin thus allocate less energy and resources to growing the larger root systems needed for competitive growth. When seedlings were grown in individual pots placed next to kin or non-kin relatives, no difference in root growth was observed. This indicates that kin recognition occurs via signals received by the roots. Further, groups of "I. hederacea" plants are more varied in height when grown with kin than when grown with non-kin. The evolutionary benefit provided by this was further investigated by researchers at the Université de Montpellier. They found that the alternating heights seen in kin-grouped crops allowed for optimal light availability to all plants in the group; shorter plants next to taller plants had access to more light than those surrounded by plants of similar height.


title: Kin selection

text: The above examples illustrate the effect of kin selection in the equitable allocation of light, nutrients, and water. The evolutionary emergence of single-ovulated ovaries in plants has eliminated the need for a developing seed to compete for nutrients, thus increasing its chance of survival and germination. Likewise, the fathering of all ovules in multi-ovulated ovaries by one father, decreases the likelihood of competition between developing seeds, thereby also increasing the seeds' chances of survival and germination. The decreased root growth in plants grown with kin increases the amount of energy available for reproduction; plants grown with kin produced more seeds than those grown with non-kin. Similarly, the increase in light made available by alternating heights in groups of related plants is associated with higher fecundity.


title: Kin selection

text: Kin selection has also been observed in plant responses to herbivory. In an experiment done by Richard Karban et al., leaves of potted "Artemisia tridentata" (sagebrushes) were clipped with scissors to simulate herbivory. The gaseous volatiles emitted by the clipped leaves were captured in a plastic bag. When these volatiles were transferred to leaves of a closely related sagebrush, the recipient experienced lower levels of herbivory than those that had been exposed to volatiles released by non-kin plants. Sagebrushes do not uniformly emit the same volatiles in response to herbivory: the chemical ratios and composition of emitted volatiles vary from one sagebrush to another. Closely related sagebrushes emit similar volatiles, and the similarities decrease as relatedness decreases. This suggests that the composition of volatile gasses plays a role in kin selection among plants. Volatiles from a distantly related plant are less likely to induce a protective response against herbivory in a neighboring plant, than volatiles from a closely related plant. This fosters kin selection, as the volatiles emitted by a plant will activate the herbivorous defense response in related plants only, thus increasing their chance of survival and reproduction.


title: Kin selection

text: Kin selection may play a role in plant-pollinator interactions, especially because pollinator attraction is influenced not only by floral displays, but by the spatial arrangement of plants in a group, which is referred to as the “magnet effect”. For example, in an experiment performed on "Moricandia moricandioides", Torices et al. demonstrated that focal plants in the presence of kin show increased advertising effort (defined as total petal mass of plants in a group divided by the plant biomass) compared to those in the presence of non-kin, and that this effect is greater in larger groups. "M. moricandioides" is a good model organism for the study of plant-pollinator interactions because it relies on pollinators for reproduction, as it is self-incompatible. The study design for this experiment included planting establishing pots of "M. moricandioides" with zero, three or six neighbors (either unrelated or half-sib progeny of the same mother) and advertising effort was calculated after 26 days of flowering. The exact mechanism of kin recognition in "M. moricandioides" is unknown, but possible mechanisms include above-ground communication with volatile compounds, or below-ground communication with root exudates.


title: Kin selection

text: The ability to differentiate between kin and non-kin is not necessary for kin selection in many animals. However, because plants do not reliably germinate in close proximity to kin, it is thought that, within the plant kingdom, kin recognition is especially important for kin selection there, but the mechanism remains unknown.


title: Kin selection

text: One proposed mechanism for kin recognition involves communication through roots, with secretion and reception of root exudates. This would require exudates to be actively secreted by roots of one plant, and detected by roots of neighboring plants. The root exudate allantoin produced by rice plants, "Oryza sativa", has been documented to be in greater production when growing next to cultivars that are largely unrelated. High production levels of Allantoin correlated to up regulation of auxin and auxin transporters, resulting in increased lateral root development and directional growth of their roots towards non kin, maximizing competition. This is mainly not observed in "Oryza Sativa" when surrounded by kin, invoking altruistic behaviors to promote inclusive fitness. However the root receptors responsible for recognition of kin exudates, and the pathway induced by receptor activation, remain unknown. The mycorrhiza associated with roots might facilitate reception of exudates, but again the mechanism is unknown.


title: Kin selection

text: Another possibility is communication through green leaf volatiles. Karban et al. studied kin recognition in sagebrushes, "Artemisia tridentata". The volatile-donating sagebrushes were kept in individual pots, separate from the plants that received the volatiles, finding that plants responded to herbivore damage to a neighbour's leaves. This suggests that root signalling is not necessary to induce a protective response against herbivory in neighbouring kin plants. Karban et al. suggest that plants may be able to differentiate between kin and non-kin based on the composition of volatiles. Because only the recipient sagebrush's leaves were exposed the volatiles presumably activated a receptor protein in the plant's leaves. The identity of this receptor, and the signalling pathway triggered by its activation, both remain to be discovered.


title: Kin selection

text: The theory of kin selection has been criticised by W. J. Alonso (in 1998) and by Alonso and C. Schuck-Paim (in 2002). Alonso and Schuck-Paim argue that the behaviours which kin selection attempts to explain are not altruistic (in pure Darwinian terms) because: (1) they may directly favour the performer as an individual aiming to maximise its progeny (so the behaviours can be explained as ordinary individual selection); (2) these behaviours benefit the group (so they can be explained as group selection); or (3) they are by-products of a developmental system of many "individuals" performing different tasks (like a colony of bees, or the cells of multicellular organisms, which are the focus of selection). They also argue that the genes involved in sex ratio conflicts could be treated as "parasites" of (already established) social colonies, not as their "promoters", and, therefore the sex ratio in colonies would be irrelevant to the transition to eusociality. Those ideas were mostly ignored until they were put forward again in a series of controversial papers by E. O. Wilson, Bert Hölldobler, Martin Nowak and Corina Tarnita. Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson argued that


title: Kin selection

text: They, like Alonso and Schuck-Paim, argue for a multi-level selection model instead. This aroused a strong response, including a rebuttal published in "Nature" from over a hundred researchers.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: Al Pratt is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the first character to use the name Atom. He initially had no superpowers and was originally a diminutive college student and later a physicist, usually depicted as a "tough-guy" character. Al Pratt is also the father of Damage and the godfather of Atom Smasher.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: The character made his live-action debut in the television series "Smallville", played by Glenn Hoffman. Henry Winkler cameoed as the character in the DC Extended Universe film "Black Adam" (2022).


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: The Atom first appeared in "All-American Comics" #19 (October 1940) and was created by writer Bill O'Connor and artist Ben Flinton. The character continued to appear on and off through issue #72 (April 1946). In 1947, the Atom moved from "All-American Comics" to "Flash Comics" with issue #80 (February 1947), and continued until issue #104 (February 1949).


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In winter 1940, the Atom also began appearing in "All Star Comics" as a member of the Justice Society of America, beginning with issue #3. He continued with that team until issue #57 (Feb 1951).


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: Initially a proverbial 98-pound weakling, bullied at school and unable to impress the girl of his dreams, Mary James, the Al Pratt was trained to fighting condition by ex-boxer Joe Morgan (the same man who trained Pratt's fellow mystery men, Wildcat and the Guardian). Pratt soon became a founding member of the Justice Society of America, appearing in the team's various stories during their original Golden Age appearances. In "All Star Comics" #3 (Winter 1940), the Atom describes himself to his fellow JSAers as "Al Pratt, a quiet sophomore at Calvin College". He later became a founding and active member of the All-Star Squadron. During World War II, Pratt served as a tank driver for the United States Army.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: According to "Jess Nevins' Encyclopedia of Golden Age Superheroes", the Atom "fights the Emperor of America, agents of the Black Dragon Society, and the Carnival of Crime, in addition to the Cootie Gang, Mandini the Magician and the scavenger Undersea Raiders".


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In 1948, the Atom gained super strength as a result of the latent effects of his 1942 battle with the reluctant supervillain Cyclotron (after whose costume Pratt redesigned his own). It was later revealed that he had taken partial custodianship of Cyclotron's daughter, Terri.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: Pratt's last Golden Age appearance was in "All Star Comics" #57 in 1951, also the last Golden Age Justice Society story. Later it was revealed that a special Senate investigation panel had moved to obtain the identities of all active superheroes, at which point virtually all members of the Justice Society retired. At this point in his life, as depicted in "JSA" #70, Pratt was engaged to Mary James, leading to their marriage at an undefined point in time (as confirmed by "Justice Society of America: The Kingdom" Special and others).


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: Pratt was revived with the rest of the team in 1963 in "The Flash" #137, and continued to make various appearances in the years that followed.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: "The Atom" comic book, showcasing the adventures of Ray Palmer, brought the Atom of Earth-2 together with the Atom of Earth-1. Issue #29 (1967) depicts Al Pratt as living in Calvin City and as being a professor at Calvin College; he also possesses a modified automobile that transforms from an ordinary convertible to the "Atomobile". In this story it is Ray Palmer who builds a "special dimensional vibrator" that allows travel between the two Earths. The villain in this adventure is The Thinker. In issue #36 (1968) Al Pratt is specifically named a professor of nuclear physics at Calvin College. Built into the belt of his Atom uniform is his own "atomic vibrator" which allows travel between the Earths. Al is depicted as a young-looking man who is "so busy as the Atom" that he "sort of let romance pass [him] by". Shown also are his friends Bill and Betty Roberts, as well as his first meeting with Marion Thayer on a double date. It is unknown what had happened to Marion Thayer, but in "DC Comics Presents" #30 (February 1981), Pratt's wife Mary resembles the blonde Thayer more than the brunette James.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: The Atom's status with the Justice Society of America was as a reserve member up until after the formation of "Infinity, Inc." Following the Crisis on Infinite Earths, the "Last Days of the Justice Society Special" (1986) told how Pratt, along with his teammates, prevented the unleashing of Ragnarök, a time-displaced and world-shattering event initiated by Adolf Hitler originally on April 12, 1945. In order to stave off the destruction of the world, Al and the others chose to enter a magical limbo - seemingly for all eternity.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: The 1992 miniseries "Armageddon: Inferno" brought Al Pratt and the other members of the JSA back into the post-Crisis world. The short-lived series "Justice Society of America" (1992–1993) told the tale of the team's reintegration into society. Al was depicted as a short, stocky, balding man with radioactive, super-powered hands and a body aged to about 60 years or so. He was also written as a man more interested in training the next generation of heroes than "running off on crazy super-hero missions" (issue #2), though he still was hotheaded. It was revealed that Mary died while the JSA was trapped in the Ragnarok dimension, and that Al was naturally upset he never got to say goodbye. The series brought Al and the JSA into conflict with the Ultra-Humanite, Pol St. Germain, and Kulak the Sorcerer.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: The Justice Society had been on active duty only briefly when 1994's "" miniseries depicted Al Pratt's murder by the temporal villain Extant, who increased his temporal rate, aging him to death.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In the 1980s, Al Pratt's godson Al Rothstein was introduced; Rothstein was known as the superhero Nuklon (later changing his name to Atom Smasher), first appearing as a member of Infinity, Inc.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In 1994, it was revealed that Pratt had a son named Grant Emerson. Al Pratt was unaware of this - he had been told that there were complications with childbirth and that the child had not survived, but Al's wife was suffocated by the villain Vandal Savage, who kidnapped Grant and genetically altered him into a superbeing. After the onset of puberty, he became the superhero Damage. Damage later appeared in two incarnations of the Teen Titans, eventually joined the Freedom Fighters, and then became a member of the Justice Society of America, until his death during Blackest Night.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: It was initially believed that the modern Manhunter Kate Spencer is his granddaughter. However, Kate is in fact the granddaughter of Phantom Lady and Iron Munro. Al Pratt allowed Sandra Knight (the Phantom Lady) to use his contact information in order to enter a home for unwed mothers, which led to the mix-up.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In the afterlife, the Atom also befriended the recently deceased Starman, David Knight. In dreams, David brought his brother, the next Starman, Jack Knight to a banquet in limbo attended by Atom and several other deceased mystery men.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In the "Blackest Night" crossover, Al Pratt was reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps, to attack the Justice Society and his sons Damage and Atom Smasher.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In "DC Universe," a continuation of "DC Rebirth," the Prime Earth version of Atom was seen when John Stewart and Barry Allen go back in time and meet the Justice Society of America at the time when the Legion of Doom plotted to meddle with history.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In the pages of "," Al Pratt is revealed to be entombed in the Valhalla Cemetery. Batman later revived him with a Black Lantern Ring.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: During his early days of crime fighting, Al Pratt possessed no metahuman qualities. Instead, he is a formidable boxer, expert physicist, and superb athlete. After being bombarded by Cyclotron's energies, Pratt gained immense strength, stamina, durability, and speed, as well as the ability to focus radioactive energy into a punch. In addition, the Atom has resistance to certain types of radiation. He also gained eternal youth after the battle with Ian Karkull.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: In the Elseworlds story "JSA: The Golden Age", Al Pratt was summoned by Tex Thompson for a test subject for the superhero of the atomic age project. He was rejected due to the nature of his atomic-based abilities which would've poisoned Adolf Hitler. Though Al was hired to work in the recruitment offices of Federal Bureau of Supeheroes.


title: Atom (Al Pratt)

text: On Earth-2, Al Pratt is an active member of the Justice Society of America after it became the Justice Society Infinity alongside his godson Nuklon. The Justice Society Infinity had an encounter with Power Girl when she ended up on their world and Atom learned from her that his godson's counterpart went by the name Atom Smasher. Power Girl couldn't bring herself to let Atom know that her world's Al Pratt is dead.