title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: According to political scientist Anamaria Dutceac Segeste, the significance of the salute is diverse: although it has been used by nationalists, it cannot be monopolized as such; it has been used without aggressive nationalist connotations, i.e. at sport events, by opponents of Milošević, by President Boris Tadić during the 2008 Summer Olympics, etc.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: The salute is used by members and supporters of almost all Serbian political parties on their rallies during election campaigns. It can be seen at all kinds of street demonstrations and celebrations.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: Croats, Bosniaks, and Kosovar Albanians, who have been at war with Serbs in the past, find the salute provocative. A 1998 "Politika" news article spoke of the "perennial demonization" of the salute, "which had already entered the catalogue of planitarian gestures", together with the closed fist, outstretched palm and V sign.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: During the Yugoslav wars, the salute was widely used as a Serb symbol. In the prelude of the Bosnian War, Bosnian Serbs were encouraged to vote in the 1991 referendum through posters which displayed the three fingers. During the wars, Serb soldiers raised the three fingers as a sign of victory.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: When Russian peacekeeping troops entered Sarajevo in 1994, they used the salute when greeting the Serb troops, and because of this, they were branded pro-Serb; the UNPROFOR used the Serb salute when greeting the Serbs, and the V sign when greeting the Bosniaks, showing impartiality.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In 2006, the United Nations published the case titled IT-00-39-T from the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, describing several atrocities committed by Serb military and police forces on Bosniak and Croatian civilians on 20 July 1992, in the villages Keratem, Omarska and Trnopolje. Detaines were executed, humiliated, and were forced to spit on the Bosnian flag and do the three-finger sign.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: There were instances when non-Serb captives were forced to use the salute. According to a BBC documentary about the Srebrenica massacre, published by Human Rights Watch on 16 August 1995, Bosnian Serb forces transported Bosnian civilians in busses to the village of Tisca. During the travel the civilians saw Chetniks showed the three-finger symbol and when they arrived, Serb police forces forced them to surrender them to hand over gold and jewellery and threatening to chop off the women's breasts.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In 2008, The Bosnian newspaper "Oslobođenje" published a coverage of the arrest of Radovan Karadžić. On 24 July, the paper accusingly compared the leaders of Republic Srpska with those of the wartime era in the front paper depicting Milorad Dodik next to Karadžić with a photograph of Dodik giving the three-fingered salute during the war.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: On 22 October 1999, Human Rights Watch obtained photographs from the KLA administration in Peć depicting Serb soldiers carrying assault rifle, doing the three-finger salute and standing in front of burning houses. KLA officials told the Human Rights Watch that the photographs had been found in the homes of ethnic Serb citizens in the Peć area after Serbian and Yugoslav forces withdrew from Kosovo on 12 June.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In 1999, after the NATO bombing of Serbia, Colin Woodard wrote about thousands of Serbian Americans who filled the park opposite the White House on Pennsylvania Avenue, shouting "Kosovo is Serbia" and "Stop the bombing", while wearing military caps and making the three-finger salute. Serb Orthodox priests at the gathering spoke to the crowd, stating that "Serbia was a civilised nation".


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In 2001, after the end of the Kosovo war, the UCPMB forces were to hand over themselves to the KFOR, however, an incident occurred when Serb forces shot dead a UCPMB senior commander (who was not keen on the agreement with the KFOR) as he accidentally drove into a village where Serb generals led a parade giving the Serbian three fingered salute.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In a famous photograph of the Red Star Belgrade team celebrating their victory at the 1990–91 European Cup, eight players are seen using the Serb salute, while a Croatian player, Robert Prosinečki, is not.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: After winning the 1995 European basketball championship, the entire then-Yugoslav team displayed the three fingers. Aleksandar Đorđević says he flashed the three fingers "not to be provocative. Just: that's Serbia, that's us, that's me – nothing else. It's my pride." Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic raises three fingers after his victories.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In 2001, Australian football team Perth Glory's Bobby Despotovski (of Serbian parentage) was sanctioned by the Australian Soccer Federation for giving the salute to the predominantly Croatian-community crowd at a Melbourne Knights home game and inciting a fight; Despotovski and coach Bernd Stange were subsequently assaulted by Knights fans, forcing the next fixture between the sides to be moved to Launceston.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: Serbian water polo player Aleksandar Šapić said in 2007 that "I know that it was used by soldiers in war, but I do not raise three fingers because I hate someone. I respect all peoples, and know what is in my heart."


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: The salute was met with controversy in Turkey after Duško Tošić, playing for Beşiktaş, used the salute after Serbia won over Albania in the guest match in the UEFA 2016 qualifiers; Beşiktaş fans threatened him through Turkish media.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: There have been instances in the former Yugoslavia where supporters paradoxically borrow symbols and slogans from the other ethnic groups: in May 2003, Bosnian Croat club Široki Brijeg fans, during a match against Bosniak FK Željezničar Sarajevo, chanted "kill the Turk" and raised the three-finger salute.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: In the 2022 World Cup, FIFA opened a disciplinary case against Croatian fans following their taunting of the Canadian goalkeeper, Milan Borjan. Fans chanted 'Borjan is an Ustaše', referring to the pro-Nazi regime which exterminated Serbs, gypsies and Jews in Croatia and Bosnia in World War 2.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: Borjan was born in an ethnic Serb region of Croatia that was part of the conflict that split the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s. In response to the taunting, he showed the three finger salute.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: 2007 Eurovision winner Marija Šerifović used the salute when celebrating points; controversially, she used the salute when receiving the maximum of 12 points from Bosnian viewers, after which Bosnian media reported it as being used as a direct provocation. The Swedish-Serbian National Association called it 'ridiculous', saying that the salute is not to be mistaken in that way, but viewed of as nothing more than 'a modified V sign', even though the three finger salute is older than the V sign.


title: Three-finger salute (Serbian)

text: Rade Leskovac, president of a Serb minority party in Croatia, caused controversy in 2007 when election posters featuring him with the salute were posted around Vukovar.


title: Angela Goethals

text: Angela Bethany Goethals ( ) is an American film, television and stage actress. Goethals made her acting debut in the Broadway production of "Coastal Disturbances" in 1987, and later played the sister of Macaulay Culkin's character in "Home Alone" (1990). Throughout the 1990s, Goethals went on to star in several independent films and television shows, including a leading role on the sitcom "Phenom" (1993), as well as a small role in "Jerry Maguire" (1996).


title: Angela Goethals

text: In 1999, Goethals graduated from Vassar college with a B.A. in French before returning to acting. In 2005, she landed a recurring guest appearance on "24", and also gained recognition and critical acclaim for her starring role in the black comedy horror mockumentary "" (2006).


title: Angela Goethals

text: Goethals was born and raised in New York City, New York, the daughter of Rosalind, a teacher and single mother who raised Angela and her sister Sara. She is a great-great-granddaughter of George Washington Goethals, the chief engineer of the Panama Canal, and namesake of New York's Goethals Bridge.


title: Angela Goethals

text: She was a cheerleader at Stuyvesant High School and was introduced to the acting world by actress Jeanie Hackett, a family friend, who took her to several auditions. At the age of nine she got her first professional acting job, as the understudy to Sarah Michelle Gellar in "The Widow Claire", an off-Broadway play written by Horton Foote. Two years later Goethals appeared as the daughter of Edwin Booth, portrayed by David Strathairn, in a workshop production of "Booth: A House Divided", at The Players, New York City.


title: Angela Goethals

text: Goethals appeared in her first movie, drama "Rocket Gibraltar", two years later. The cast included Burt Lancaster, Kevin Spacey and Macaulay Culkin. Her sister Sara also had a small part. Later that year Goethals also appeared in "Heartbreak Hotel", a film directed by Chris Columbus about the fictional kidnapping of Elvis Presley.


title: Angela Goethals

text: Goethals's first starring role came in the 1993 TV series "Phenom". She played Angela Doolan, a young tennis player struggling with the challenges of life including her single mother (Judith Light), obsessive tennis coach (William Devane) and bratty younger sister (Ashley Johnson). It ran for 22 episodes before being cancelled by network ABC in May 1994.


title: Angela Goethals

text: In 1990, Goethals played Linnie, the sister of main character Kevin McCallister (Macaulay Culkin), in "Home Alone". The blockbuster family comedy, directed by Chris Columbus, is about a young boy facing two inept burglars when he's left home alone. The movie made nearly $500m worldwide. Goethals was one of only three main cast members not to return in the sequel, "", two years later.


title: Angela Goethals

text: Goethals' next role in a blockbuster movie came in 1996's "Jerry Maguire", a film that starred Tom Cruise, Cuba Gooding, Jr. and Renée Zellweger. Goethals played Kathy Sanders, Jerry's client who fakes tears when he calls her to inform her of his departure from the agency.


title: Angela Goethals

text: In 1999, Goethals graduated from the private liberal arts college, Vassar, with a bachelor's degree in French, in which she is fluent, and she rode in the IHSA Zone II Region 1 at the Advanced Walk-Trot-Canter level. In February 2002 she moved back to Los Angeles to pursue film and television.


title: Angela Goethals

text: 2002 saw Goethals star as Polly in Comedy Central's first original movie, "Porn 'n Chicken". The movie was based on the true story of the Porn 'n Chicken Club at Yale University. Its members gathered weekly to eat fried chicken and watch porn. The club made headlines in 2001 when members announced plans to make their own porn film, entitled ""The StaXXX"". Despite a trailer being released for their film, it was never finished and no further footage ever emerged. Later in 2002, Goethals also starred in the 1980s based sitcom "Do Over". The show featured Penn Badgley as 34-year-old Joel Larsen, catapulted back in time to 1981 and forced to relive his school life. Goethals played his sister, Cheryl.


title: Angela Goethals

text: Between 2003 and 2004, Goethals made guest appearances on the popular TV series "Boston Public", "Six Feet Under" and "Without a Trace", as well as playing a minor role in the Adam Sandler romantic comedy, "Spanglish".


title: Angela Goethals

text: In 2005, Goethals made a recurring guest appearance on the TV show "24". She played Maya Driscoll, the mentally ill daughter of then Director of CTU Los Angeles, Erin Driscoll. Maya appeared in six episodes (including one uncredited) before committing suicide in a bathroom at CTU between 5pm and 6pm on Day 4. Since then, Goethals has gone on to make guest appearances on the TV series "Grey's Anatomy", "" and "Crossing Jordan".


title: Angela Goethals

text: She was nominated four times to a Young Artist Award at the Young Artist Awards: in 1989 for Best Young Actress in a Motion Picture Comedy or Fantasy for "Heartbreak Hotel" (1988), in 1991 for Best Young Actress Supporting Role in a Motion Picture for "Home Alone" (1990), in 1992 for Best Young Actress Starring in a Motion Picture for "V.I. Warshawski" (1991) and in 1994 for Youth Actress Leading Role in a Television Series for "Phenom" (1993).


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: Marie Denise DeBartolo York (born 1950) is an American billionaire businesswoman, who is the owner and co-chair of the San Francisco 49ers American football team. She is the daughter of late construction magnate Edward J. DeBartolo Sr. and the late Marie Patricia Montani DeBartolo.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: DeBartolo grew up in a family famous for real estate development. She attended Saint Mary's College of Indiana, a Catholic women's college near the University of Notre Dame.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: After graduation, she joined the family business, The DeBartolo Corporation, and became its executive vice president. In 1994, following her father's death, she became company co-chairman and all 78 DeBartolo malls were sold.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: In 1978, Edward DeBartolo purchased the National Hockey League's Pittsburgh Penguins. and established DeBartolo York as owner and president. She presided over the Penguins 1990–91 championship season, and was the third woman to serve as president of a Stanley Cup-winning team. In 1991, the year following the championship, she sold the Penguins to assist the DeBartolo Corporation, which was facing challenges in the aftermath of the real estate collapse of 1987.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: Denise became operating head of the 49ers in 1999 after her brother, Eddie Jr., was convicted of failing to tell authorities that former Louisiana governor Edwin Edwards attempted to extort him. Although Eddie could have resumed control of the 49ers after a year, he decided instead to turn his controlling stake in the team over to Denise in return for other portions of the family interests. Despite a years-long perception that the league forced the transaction, Eddie revealed in a 2016 interview that he decided to give the 49ers to his sister and brother-in-law in order to focus on his family. She and her husband have since given over control of the 49ers to their son, Jed York.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: On May 24, 2018, the York family via 49ers Enterprises bought shares in English association football club Leeds United to become a minority investor, the 49's Enterprises is the business arm of the NFL side San Francisco 49ers.


title: Denise DeBartolo York

text: She is married to retired American cancer research pathologist John York. The Yorks have four children: sons Jed and Tony (deceased 2018), and daughters Jenna and Mara; and live in the Youngstown, Ohio suburb of Canfield, Ohio.


title: Geophagia

text: Geophagia (), also known as geophagy (), is the intentional practice of eating earth or soil-like substances such as clay, chalk, or termite mounds. It is a behavioural adaptation that occurs in many non-human animals and has been documented in more than 100 primate species. Geophagy in non-human primates is primarily used for protection from parasites, minerals supplements and helps metabolize toxic compounds from leaves. Geophagy also occurs in humans and is most commonly reported among children and pregnant women.


title: Geophagia

text: Human geophagia is a form of pica – the craving and purposive consumption of non-food items – and is classified as an eating disorder in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM) if not socially or culturally appropriate. Sometimes geophagy is a consequence of carrying a hookworm infection. Although its etiology remains unknown, geophagy has many potential adaptive health benefits as well as negative consequences.


title: Geophagia

text: philosopher and physician, was the first to record the use of clay by sick or injured animals in the second century AD. This type of geophagia has been documented in "many species of mammals, birds, reptiles, butterflies and isopods, especially among herbivores".


title: Geophagia

text: Many species of South American parrots have been observed at clay licks, and sulphur-crested cockatoos have been observed ingesting clays in Papua New Guinea. Analysis of soils consumed by wild birds show that they often prefer soils with high clay content, usually with the smectite clay families being well represented.


title: Geophagia

text: The preference for certain types of clay or soil can lead to unusual feeding behaviour. For example, Peruvian Amazon rainforest parrots congregate not just at one particular bend of the Manu River but at one specific layer of soil which runs hundreds of metres horizontally along that bend. The parrots avoid eating the substrate in layers one metre above or below the preferred layer. These parrots regularly eat seeds and unripe fruits containing alkaloids and other toxins that render the seeds and fruits bitter and even lethal. Because many of these chemicals become positively charged in the acidic stomach, they bind to clay minerals which have negatively charged cation-exchange sites, and are thereby rendered safe. Their preferred soils have a much higher cation-exchange capacity than the adjacent, rejected layers of soils because they are rich in the minerals smectite, kaolin, and mica. The preferred soils surpass the pure mineral kaolinate and surpass or approach pure bentonite in their capacity to bind quinine and tannic acid.


title: Geophagia

text: "In vitro" and "in vivo" tests of these soils and many others from southeastern Peru indicate that they also release nutritionally important quantities of minerals such as calcium and sodium. In the Manu River example cited above, the preferred soil bands had much higher levels of sodium than those that were not chosen. Repeated studies have shown that the soils consumed most commonly by parrots in South America have higher sodium contents than those that are not consumed.


title: Geophagia

text: It is unclear which factor is driving avian geophagy. However, evidence is mounting that sodium is the most important driver among parrots in southeastern Peru. Parrots are known to eat toxic foods globally, but geophagy is concentrated in very specific regions. Researchers Lee etal. show that parrot geophagy in South America is positively correlated to a significant degree with distance from the ocean. This suggests that overall lack of sodium in the ecosystem, not variation in food toxicity, is a better predictor of the spatial distribution of geophagy. This work, coupled with the recent findings of consistently high sodium levels in consumed soils, make it highly likely that sodium is the primary driver of avian geophagy among parrots (and possibly other taxa) in the western Amazon Basin. This supplemental nutrients hypothesis is further supported by peak geophagy occurring during the parrots' breeding season.


title: Geophagia

text: There are several hypotheses about the importance of geophagia in bats and primates. Chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda, have been observed to consume soil rich in kaolinite clay shortly before or after consuming plants including "Trichilia rubescens", which possesses antimalarial properties in the laboratory.


title: Geophagia

text: Geophagy is a behavioural adaptation seen in 136 species of nonhuman primates from the suborder Haplorrhini (81%) and Strepsirrhini (19%). The most commonly ingested soils are soils from mounds, soils from tree bases, soils from termite mounds, 'Pong' soils, forest floor. Studies have shown many benefits of geophagy such as protection from parasites (4.9%), minerals supplements (19.5%) and helps metabolize toxic compounds from leaves (12.2%) nonexclusive. From soil analysis it has been seen that one of the main compounds in the earth consumed by these primates is clay minerals that contains kaolinite which is commonly used in medications for diarrheal and intestinal problems. Geophagic behaviour plays an important role in nonhuman primates health. This kind of zoopharmacognosy use differs from one species to another. For example, Mountain Gorillas from Rwanda tend to ingest clay soil during dry season, when the vegetation changes forcing them to feed on plants that have more toxic compounds, in this case the ingested clay absorbs these toxins providing digestive benefits. This kind of seasonal behavioural adaptation is also seen in the Red-Handed Howler monkeys from the western Brazilian Amazonia, which also have to adapt to the shift of feeding on leaves that contains more toxic compounds. In other cases, geophagy is used by the Ring-Tailed Lemurs as a preventive and therapeutic behaviour for parasites control and intestinal infection. These benefits from clay ingestion can also be observed among Rhesus Macaques. In a study that was carried out in the Island of Cayo Santiago, it has been observed that the Rhesus Macaques had intestinal parasites and they were their health was not affected and they didn't have many gastrointestinal effects from these parasites. Data observed, shows that this was caused by the consumption of clay soil by this specie. On the other hand observations have shown that behavioural geophagy provides minerals supplements, as seen among Cambodian's Colobinae. The study was done at the salt licks in Veun Sai-Siem Pang Conservation Area, a site that is visited by various species of nonhuman primates. More in-depth research needs to be carried out in order to better understand this behavioural adaptation of geaophagy among nonhuman primates.


title: Geophagia

text: There is debate over whether geophagia in bats is primarily for nutritional supplementation or detoxification. It is known that some species of bats regularly visit mineral or salt licks to increase mineral consumption. However, Voigt etal. demonstrated that both mineral-deficient and healthy bats visit salt licks at the same rate. Therefore, mineral supplementation is unlikely to be the primary reason for geophagia in bats. Additionally, bat presence at salt licks increases during periods of high energy demand. Voigt etal. concluded that the primary purpose for bat presence at salt licks is for detoxification purposes, compensating for the increased consumption of toxic fruit and seeds.


title: Geophagia

text: Geophagia is nearly universal around the world in tribal and traditional rural societies (although apparently it has not been documented in Japan or Korea). In the ancient world, several writers noted the phenomenon of geophagia. Pliny is said to have noted the ingestion of soil on Lemnos, an island of Greece, and the use of the soils from this island was noted until the 14thcentury. The textbook of Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) mentions geophagia, and the famous medical textbook titled "DeMedicina" edited by A.Cornelius Celsus (14–37 CE) seems to link anaemia to geophagia.


title: Geophagia

text: Early explorers in the Americas noted the existence of geophagy amongst Native Americans, including Gabriel Soares de Sousa, who in 1587 reported a tribe in Brazil using it in suicide, and Alexander von Humboldt, who said that a tribe called the Otomacs ate large amounts of soil. In Africa, David Livingstone wrote about slaves eating soil in Zanzibar, and it is also thought that large numbers of slaves brought with them soil-eating practices when they were shipped to the New World as part of the transatlantic slave trade. Slaves who practised geophagia were nicknamed "clay-eaters" because they were known to consume clay, as well as spices, ash, chalk, grass, plaster, paint, and starch.


title: Geophagia

text: In more recent times, according to "Dixie's Forgotten People: the South's Poor Whites", geophagia was common among poor whites in the Southeastern United States in the 19th and early 20thcenturies, and was often ridiculed in popular literature. The literature also states, "Many men believed that eating clay increased sexual prowess, and some females claimed that eating clay helped pregnant women to have an easy delivery." Geophagia among Southerners may have been caused by the high prevalence of hookworm disease, of which the desire to consume soil is a symptom. Geophagia has become less prevalent as rural Americans assimilate into urban culture. However, cooked, baked, and processed dirt and clay are sold in health food stores and rural flea markets in the American South.


title: Geophagia

text: In Africa, kaolinite, sometimes known as "kalaba" (in Gabon and Cameroon), "calaba", and "calabachop" (in Equatorial Guinea), is eaten for pleasure or to suppress hunger. Kaolin for human consumption is sold at most markets in Cameroon and is often flavoured with spices such as black pepper and cardamom. Consumption is greatest among women, especially to cure nausea during pregnancy, in spite of the possible dangerous levels of arsenic and lead to the unborn child. Another example of geophagia was reported in Mangaung, Free State Province in South Africa, where the practice was geochemically investigated. Calabash chalk is also eaten in west Africa.


title: Geophagia

text: In Haiti, poor people are known to eat mud biscuits made from soil, salt, and vegetable shortening. These biscuits hold minimal nutritional value, but manage to keep the poor alive. However, long-term consumption of the biscuits is reported to cause stomach pains and malnutrition, and is not recommended by doctors.


title: Geophagia

text: Bentonite clay is available worldwide as a digestive aid; kaolin is also widely used as a digestive aid and as the base for some medicines. Attapulgite, another type of clay, is an active ingredient in many anti-diarrheal medicines.


title: Geophagia

text: Clay minerals have been reported to have beneficial microbiological effects, such as protecting the stomach against toxins, parasites, and pathogens. Humans are not able to synthesize vitamin B12 (cobalamin), so geophagia may be a behavioral adaption to obtain it from bacteria in the soil. Mineral content in soils may vary by region, but many contain high levels of calcium, copper, magnesium, iron, and zinc, minerals that are critical for developing fetuses which can cause metallic, soil, or chewing ice cravings in pregnant women. To the extent that these cravings, and subsequent mineral consumption (as well as in the case of cravings for ice, or other cold neck vasoconstricting food which aid in increasing brain oxygen levels by restricting neck veins) are therapeutically effective decreasing infant mortality, those genetic predispositions and the associated environmental triggers, are likely to be found in the infant as well. Likewise, multigenerationally impoverished villages or other homogenous socioeconomic closed genetic communities are more likely to have rewarded gene expression of soil or clay consumption cravings, by increasing the likelihood of survival through multiple pregnancies for both sexes.


title: Geophagia

text: There are obvious health risks in the consumption of soil that is contaminated by animal or human feces; in particular, helminth eggs, such as "Ascaris", which can stay viable in the soil for years, can lead to helminth infections. Tetanus poses a further risk. Lead poisoning is also associated with soil ingestion, as well as health risks associated with zinc exposure can be problematic among people who eat soils on a regular basis. Gestational geophagia (geophagia in pregnancy) has been associated with various homeostatic disruptions and oxidative damage in rats.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Iris Mittenaere (; born 25 January 1993) is a French model, television host, and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Universe 2016. She is the second Miss Universe from France after Christiane Martel, who was elected Miss Universe 1953. Mittenaere had previously been crowned Miss France 2016 and Miss Nord-Pas-de-Calais 2015.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Mittenaere was born on 25 January 1993 in Lille, to Yves Mittenaere, a middle school history and geography teacher, and Laurence Druart, a primary schoolteacher and museum guide. She has a brother, Baptiste, and a sister, Cassandre, and a younger half-sister, Manon. Her parents divorced when she was three years old.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Mittenaere attended school in Steenvoorde, where she lived with her mother. In 2011, she graduated with honors from "lycée" with a focus on science. After graduating, she moved to Lille, where she attended Lille 2 University of Health and Law, studying dentistry.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Prior to becoming Miss France, Mittenaere was in her fifth year of a dental surgery fellowship and planned on becoming a dental surgeon after graduating.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: After winning the local title of Miss Flandre 2015 on May 2, 2015 in Bailleul, Mittenaere entered the Miss Nord-Pas-de-Calais 2015 regional pageant in Orchies, which she won on September 26, 2015. Mittenaere initially only entered Miss Flandre after being contacted on Facebook by the contest organizers, due to there being a lack of candidates that applied. Mittenaere represented Nord-Pas-de-Calais at the Miss France 2016 pageant. On 19 December 2015, she was crowned Miss France by outgoing Miss France 2015 and former Miss Nord-Pas-de-Calais 2014 Camille Cerf in Lille. It was a back-to back victory for the region.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: As Miss France, Mittenaere promoted oral hygiene and launched an awareness campaign on oral health. She participated in oral hygiene awareness programs at French schools targeting young schoolchildren.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In November 2016, Mittenaere presented the Francophone Group of the Year's Award at the NRJ Music Award in Cannes.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: During her reign as Miss France 2016, Mittenaere traveled to China, Italy, Morocco, Germany, the Caribbean, and Ivory Coast.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: As Miss France, Mittenaere later competed in Miss Universe 2016. She was the only European delegate to progress to the semi-finals of the competition, later going on to win the title. Mittenaere became only the second woman from her country to win the crown after Christiane Martel won Miss Universe 1953. Mittenaere was additionally the first European winner since Oxana Fedorova of Russia, who was crowned Miss Universe 2002 but soon after dethroned, and the first European titleholder to complete her year as Miss Universe since Mona Grudt of Norway, who won Miss Universe 1990.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In the first part of the question and answer portion, Mittenaere called for open borders. She was asked the following by host Steve Harvey: "Given today's worldwide refugee crisis, do countries have an obligation to accept refugees or do they have a right to close their borders?" Mittenaere replied:


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: According to one of the judges, Mickey Boardman, who wrote about his experience as a Miss Universe judge in "The New York Times", "it was the question-and-answer portion that put her over the top. While the other contestants didn’t seem to actually answer the question about a mistake they had made in life and what they had learned from it, she was poised and well spoken". The top three contestants were asked the same final question by Harvey: "Name something over the course of your life that you failed at, and tell us what you learned from that experience ?" and she replied:


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Mittenaere was crowned with the DIC Crown at the Miss Universe 2016 contest. As a result of a lawsuit between IMG and Diamonds International Corporation (DIC), she wore the Diamond Nexus Crown from March 2017 until the end of her reign.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In her capacity as Miss Universe, she served as a judge at Puteri Indonesia in Jakarta, at Miss Egypt in Cairo at Miss Peru in Lima, at Miss Guyana held in New York City, and at Miss Diva in Mumbai.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: As a global ambassador, Mittenaere attended diplomatic events at the Embassy of France in Cairo, the Embassy of France in Manila, the Embassy of the United States, Manila, the Consulate general of France in New York, the Consulate general of France in Alexandria, and was invited to Emmanuel Macron's speech to the French expatriate community at the Kaufmann Concert Hall of 92Y in New York City. She traveled to Bali to shoot a commercial for C 1000, a vitamin brand available in Indonesia and attended Farouk Systems's Global Conference in Cancun.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: As a charity ambassador for Smile Train, she traveled to Mexico City and Cap-Haïtien to visit cleft lip and cleft palate patients and witnessed a cleft surgery first-hand. As the newest "madrina" of the Latino Commission on AIDS, she attended the annual fundraising Cielo Gala to benefit the commission and was also invited to Project Sunshine's 14th Annual Benefit Celebration "Brighter Together" in New York City.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: At New York Fashion Week, she walked the runway for Sherri Hill in February and September 2017. In June 2017, she attended "Joyrich" x Snoop Dogg's Fashion show at "MADE LA 2017" in Los Angeles and was invited to the AmfAR generationCURE Solstice 2017 in New York City.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In March 2017, during her week-long homecoming celebration in Paris and in her hometown of Lille, Mittenaere was invited by François Hollande, the president of France, to visit Élysée Palace and was given a regional award by Xavier Bertrand, the president of Hauts-de-France. Mittenaere also walked for Jean Paul Gaultier at Paris Fashion Week, attended the Palais des Festivals at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival and attended the AmFAR Charity Event, Cinema Against AIDS, in Cannes.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: During her reign as Miss Universe, Mittenaere traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Haiti, the Cayman Islands, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, India, and Egypt, in addition to numerous trips around the United States and France.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: For her last walk as the reigning Miss Universe, Mittenaere wore a Michael Cinco scarlet red ombré Couture gown, in full Swarovski crystals, which featured a fitted bodice and flowing train, before passing on the crown to her successor Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters of South Africa as Miss Universe 2017 on 26 November 2017 at Planet Hollywood Las Vegas in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: From 4 to 9 December 2017, she participated to the "Miss Universe's Christmas Tour" in the Philippines, alongside her successor Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters and predecessor Pia Wurtzbach, then served as co-president of the jury with Jean-Paul Gaultier at Miss France 2018, appearing on stage with the five finalists as a part of the fashion swimsuit portion of the competition and putting an end to her international pageant career.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In December 2017, a documentary film about her Miss Universe reign, produced by Endemol Shine Group and titled "From Miss France to Miss Universe, the fabulous destiny of Iris", was broadcast on TF1 and watched by 5.4 million viewers in France. The camera crew followed Mittenaere's reign as Miss Universe, her humanitarian travel, her trips and homecoming in France, and her family's reaction to her new life.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: Iris Mittenaere began her television career in 2018, becoming a co-host of the French version of "Ninja Warrior". In February 2018, Iris Mittenaere presented an award at the 2018 Victoires de la Musique, wearing designer Stéphane Rolland. In September 2018, Mittenaere began competing in the ninth season of "Danse avec les stars", the French version of "Dancing with the Stars". Her professional partner on the show was Anthony Colette, and together they placed second in the season's finale on December 1, 2018. From February 2019, she is the host of the Lottery Drawings and EuroMillions on TF1.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In March 2018, she was invited by the First Lady of Ivory Coast to attend the 7th Gala dinner of the "Children of Africa" Foundation, marking its 20th anniversary and the opening of a new hospital. She also participated to a Smile Train event, visiting families of cleft patients in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Iris Mittenaere partnered with French Artist Philippe Shangti to create a photographic artwork titled ""I'm Iris, I'm not a princess"", sold 40,000 euros in June 2018 at an Auction for proceeds to Smile Train.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: On 7 November 2018, Iris Mittenaere released her first autobiography titled in French "Toujours y croire : Miss Univers, une jeune femme (pas) comme les autres" which means "Always believe in yourself: Miss Universe, a young woman (un)like any other". The book was published by HarperCollins. The book chronicles Mittenaere's origins in Northern France and her pageantry experience, in addition to beauty tutorials and advice for young women in order to build self-confidence. The same day, Mittenaere's "Toujours y croire" book tour launched, kicking off in her hometown of Lille. Other cities include Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Cannes, Dunkirk, Reims, Nantes in France, Brussels in Belgium and Geneva in Switzerland.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: On February 3, 2019, Iris Mittenaere was on the judging panel of "Top Model Belgium" 2019 at Le Lido. From February 12 to 17, 2019, she was the guest star in Jean-Paul Gaultier's "Fashion Freak Show" at the Folies Bergère. She is Morgan's brand ambassador for 2019. On April 20, 2019, she was the face of "Casa Fashion show"s 14th edition, ""The future is female"", in Casablanca, Morocco. From May 2019 to January 2020, she is a vedette in choreographer Kamel Ouali's "L' Oiseau Paradis" new revue at the Paradis Latin. On May 22, 2019, Iris Mittenaere climbed the steps of the Palais des Festivals at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival in a couture light pink crystallized ballgown designed by Michael Cinco. She also attended de Grisogono Host Gala Dinner, wearing a bejewelled blue one-shoulder gown, designed by Lebanese Ziad Nakad, which was adorned in gems and sequins.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In Forbes France’s Summer 2019 issue, Iris Mittenaere was interviewed and placed in France's top 5 of digital influencers on the 2019 list.


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: On June, 2022, Mittenaere was guest judge on the first episode of "Drag Race France" titled ""Bonjour, Bonjour, Bonjour!"" together with the French fashion designer "Jean Paul Gaultier".


title: Iris Mittenaere

text: In August 2022, Mittenaere announced her engagement to French businessman Diego El Glaoui, with whom she had been in a relationship for three years.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: Jellyfish Entertainment (), is a South Korean entertainment company established by composer and producer Hwang Se-jun in Seoul, South Korea.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: Jellyfish Entertainment is the home of artists including Jang Hye-jin, VIXX, Verivery and formerly gugudan, Park Yoon-ha. The agency is also the home of actors including Kim Sun-young, Kim Se-jeong, Lim Seul-ong and Kim Min-kyu.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: Jellyfish Entertainment was founded on August 17, 2007 in Seoul by composer and producer Hwang Se-jun. The first artist to sign under the company was the established ballad singer Sung Si-kyung, who released the single "Parting Once Again" (). One year later, the company signed Lisa and Park Hak-ki.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In November 2008, singer Park Hyo-shin signed to the agency and was featured on the album "Hwang Project Vol.1 Welcome To The Fantastic World". The following year, "Super Star K" contestant Seo In-guk and Altair (Lee Ji-hoon) later joined Jellyfish Entertainment.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In December 2010, Jellyfish Entertainment artists collaborated for the "Jelly Christmas" holiday album project with the lead single "Christmas Time". In December 2011 Sung Si-kyung, Brian Joo, Seo In-guk, Park Hak-ki, Park Jang-hyun and Hwang Project collaborated again for "Jelly Christmas" with the single "Christmas for All""."


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In April 2012, Jellyfish Entertainment revealed lineup trainees of their upcoming boy group and formed the boy group on "MyDOL", a competition survival show that aired on Mnet. The winners debuted as a member of VIXX on May 24, 2012.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In June, Lee Seok-hoon of SG Wannabe released the digital single "The Beginning of Love" (Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island with Lee Seok Hoon) as part of Hwang Se-jun's "Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island" project. On September 12, Jellyfish Entertainment held their first live concert "Jellyfish Live" at Tokyo's Zepp Diver City in Japan, and in December, both Park Hyo-shin and Sung Si-kyung held concert performances in Seoul. Jellyfish Entertainment's artists collaborated again for the "Jelly Christmas 2012 Heart Project" with the single “Because It's Christmas” with the proceeds from the project donated to The Salvation Army Korea.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In February 2013, the "Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island" project released the digital singles "I Can't Live Because of You" by Seo In-guk featuring Verbal Jint (Y.BIRD from Jellyfish Island With Seo In Guk) in February and "Girl’s Why?" by VIXX and indie duo OKDAL (Y.BIRD from Jellyfish with VIXX & OKDAL) in October.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In December, 19% of Jellyfish's shares were acquired by their distributor, CJ E&M and joined the CJ E&M label system as an independent label.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In July 2015, "K-pop Star 4" TOP 6 contestant Park Yoon-ha signed under the agency. following month, VIXX LR was formed as the sub-unit of VIXX, composed of rapper Ravi and vocalist Leo. The "Jelly Christmas 2015" single was released on December 15 with the song "Love In The Air" ().


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In the first half of 2016, Jellyfish trainees Kim Na-young, Kang Mi-na and Kim Se-jeong represented Jellyfish Entertainment in the television survival show "Produce 101". Kang Mi-na and Kim Se-jeong winning the survival show debuted as part of the lineup of the year-long project girl group I.O.I, while still under Jellyfish Entertainment. It was confirmed that following their promotions as part of I.O.I, the trainees would officially debut as members of the agency's first girl group.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On June 3, Jellyfish Entertainment launch their new music channel "Jelly Box". "Jelly Box" is similar to Jellyfish Entertainment's previous project "Y.Bird from Jellyfish Island" and it will showcase Jellyfish Entertainment artists and producers and include collaborations with artists outside of the label.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In October, Jellyfish Entertainment announced that former Dal Shabet member Jiyul, signed a contract with the agency in order to pursue her career as an actress. In November, former Jewelry member Kim Ye-won, joined Jellyfish Entertainment as an actress.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On December 13, Jellyfish Entertainment released their "Jelly Christmas 2016" single album with the song, "Falling" (), as part of their digital music channel project "Jelly Box". The Jellyfish artists participating were Seo In-guk, VIXX, Gugudan, Park Yoon-ha, Park Jung-ah, Kim Gyu-sun, Kim Ye-won and Jiyul.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In April 2017, agency trainee Yun Hee-seok represented Jellyfish Entertainment in the second season of the television survival show "Produce 101".


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On April 10, actress Cho Hye-jung joined Jellyfish Entertainment. In June, actress Jung So-min joined Jellyfish Entertainment.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: In August, Jellyfish's 32% shares was acquired by CJ E&M, which previously acquired 19% of Jellyfish's shares in 2013 and effectively becoming Jellyfish Entertainment largest shareholder after having 51%. The following month, Gugudan 5959 was formed as the sub-unit of Gugudan, composed of Hyeyeon and Mina.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On May 3, agency trainee Kim Min-kyu and Choi Jun-seong represented Jellyfish Entertainment in the fourth season of the television survival show "Produce X 101".


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On March 6, it was revealed that as of June 6, 2019, CJ E&M had sold 40,396 shares of Jellyfish Entertainment for 1.9 billion won. The stake was acquired by Hwang Se-jun, the CEO of the company, increasing his stake from 51% to 73.53%.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: From May to July, Gugudan member Sally participated in the Chinese television survival show "Produce Camp 2020". She placed sixth and made into the final group, BonBon Girls 303.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On December 30, Jellyfish Entertainment announced that Gugudan would end all group activities and officially disband on December 31, 2020.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On March 31, 2021, Mimi, Soyee, and Nayoung announced that they would depart from Jellyfish after their contracts have ended. On April 7, Haebin and Hyeyeon announced their departures from Jellyfish. On April 30, Hana announced her departure from Jellyfish.


title: Jellyfish Entertainment

text: On August 6, Jellyfish Entertainment trainees Kim Da-yeon and Sakamoto Shihona competing in the television survival show Girls Planet 999. On October 22, Dayeon successfully placed 4th in the final lineup of the show's debut group, Kep1er.


title: Text corpus

text: In linguistics, a corpus (plural "corpora") or text corpus is a language resource consisting of a large and structured set of texts (nowadays usually electronically stored and processed). In corpus linguistics, they are used to do statistical analysis and hypothesis testing, checking occurrences or validating linguistic rules within a specific language territory.


title: Text corpus

text: A corpus may contain texts in a single language ("monolingual corpus") or text data in multiple languages ("multilingual corpus").


title: Text corpus

text: In order to make the corpora more useful for doing linguistic research, they are often subjected to a process known as annotation. An example of annotating a corpus is part-of-speech tagging, or "POS-tagging", in which information about each word's part of speech (verb, noun, adjective, etc.) is added to the corpus in the form of "tags". Another example is indicating the lemma (base) form of each word. When the language of the corpus is not a working language of the researchers who use it, interlinear glossing is used to make the annotation bilingual.


title: Text corpus

text: Some corpora have further "structured" levels of analysis applied. In particular, smaller corpora may be fully parsed. Such corpora are usually called Treebanks or Parsed Corpora. The difficulty of ensuring that the entire corpus is completely and consistently annotated means that these corpora are usually smaller, containing around one to three million words. Other levels of linguistic structured analysis are possible, including annotations for morphology, semantics and pragmatics.


title: Text corpus

text: Corpora are the main knowledge base in corpus linguistics. Other notable areas of application include:


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) was an infantry regiment of the British Army established in 1970, with a comparatively short existence ending in 1992. Raised through public appeal, newspaper and television advertisements, their official role was the "defence of life or property in Northern Ireland against armed attack or sabotage" but unlike troops from Great Britain they were never used for "crowd control or riot duties in cities". At the time the UDR was the largest infantry regiment in the British Army, formed with seven battalions plus another four added within two years.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: It consisted mostly of part-time volunteers until 1976, when a full-time cadre was added. Recruiting in Northern Ireland at a time of intercommunal strife, some of its (mostly Ulster Protestant) members were involved in sectarian killings. The regiment was originally intended to more accurately reflect the demographics of Northern Ireland, and began with Catholic recruits accounting for 18% of its soldiers; but by the end of 1972, after the introduction of internment this had dropped to around 3%. It is doubtful if any other unit of the British Army has ever come under the same sustained criticism as the UDR.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Uniquely in the British Army, the regiment was on continuous active service throughout its 22 years of service. It was also the first infantry regiment of the British Army to fully incorporate women into its structure.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The UDR was raised in 1970, soon after the beginning of the Northern Ireland "Troubles". Before then, the main security forces were the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the Ulster Special Constabulary (USC), otherwise known as the "B Specials". Catholics were reluctant to join what they saw as unionist militias that lacked impartiality leading to the forces becoming almost entirely Protestant.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Large scale intercommunal rioting in 1969 stretched police resources in Northern Ireland, so the British Army was deployed to assist the police. On 28 August 1969 security in Northern Ireland, including the USC, was put under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding in Northern Ireland, General Ian Freeland.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The USC, which had no training in riot control, was mobilised to assist the RUC. A catalogue of incidents ensued, such as Specials from Tynan shooting dead an unarmed civil rights demonstrator in Armagh on 14 August 1969. While the Northern Ireland cabinet remained supportive of the USC, it was put to them at a London meeting on 19 August that disbanding the USC was top of the British Government's agenda.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The Hunt Report commissioned by the Government of Northern Ireland published on 3 October 1969, recommended that the RUC "should be relieved of all duties of a military nature as soon as possible". Further; a "locally recruited part-time force, under the control of the G.O.C., Northern Ireland, should be raised" ... and that it "together with the police volunteer reserve, should replace the Ulster Special Constabulary". The new force was to be "impartial in every sense" and "remove the responsibility of military-style operations from the police".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The British Government accepted the findings of the Hunt Report and published a Bill and white paper on 12 November 1969 to begin the process of establishing the UDR. Parliamentary debate in Westminster highlighted concerns that members of the USC were to be allowed to join the new force.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: A working party was set up at Headquarters Northern Ireland (HQNI) chaired by Major General A.J. Dyball of the Royal Ulster Rifles, then the deputy director of operations in Northern Ireland. The team included a staff officer from the Ministry of Defence (MOD), a member of the Ministry of Home Affairs (Stormont) and Lieutenant Colonel S Miskimmon, the USC staff officer to the RUC. After discussions, they advocated a strength of 6,000 men (2,000 more than the Hunt recommendations), combat dress for duties, a dark green parade uniform, county shoulder titles, and a "red hand of Ulster" cap badge. The rank of "volunteer" was suggested for private soldiers. They recommended that each battalion should have a mobile force of two platoons, each equipped with a Land Rovers fitted for radio plus three "manpack" radio sets.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: After the presentation to the Ministry of Defence, a Government White Paper confirmed the agreed aspects of the new force and its task as:


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: When the Ulster Defence Regiment Bill, the legislation establishing the regiment, was being debated in Parliament there was considerable discussion about its proposed name. An Amendment to the legislation was proposed that would have given the Regiment the name "Northern Ireland Territorial Force". Proponents of this Amendment were concerned to ensure that the word "Ulster" be removed from the name of the regiment. They argued that the name "Ulster" evoked emotive resistance from many Catholics in Northern Ireland and that the term "Ulster" had been associated with the Orange organisations and other organisations perceived as excluding Catholics e.g. the Ulster Protestant Volunteers, the Ulster Constitution Defence Committee, the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Ulster Special Constabulary. They argued "Ulster" had strong party political and partisan connotations and would deter Catholic participation in the new regiment. One speaker said the name "Ulster" would "frighten the Catholics away". They also argued that as three of Ulster's nine counties were not in Northern Ireland, the title was inaccurate, especially given that persons from outside of Northern Ireland would be prohibited by law from joining the regiment.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: For the Government's part, those defending the proposed name argued that the term "Ulster" should still be included because of precedent; in the past, it had been attached to certain regiments in Northern Ireland. Another opponent of the amendment disagreed that Catholics would be put off joining because of the force. He pointed to the Ulster Unionist Party as an example of an organisation that included the word Ulster and had many Catholic members. The Under-Secretary of State for the British Army said "the Government considered that the use of the word 'Ulster' is, frankly, unimportant". Another speaker said a majority in Northern Ireland prefer the word "Ulster". The proposed Amendment was defeated and the UDR got its name.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The Ulster Defence Regiment Act 1969 received Royal Assent on 18 December 1969 and was brought into force on 1 January 1970.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: General Sir John Anderson GCB, KCB DSO (5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards) was appointed as the first Colonel Commandant. He came to be known as the "Father of the Regiment". The first regimental commander was a WW2 veteran of some distinction, Brigadier Logan Scott-Bowden CBE DSO MC & Bar.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Regimental Headquarters was set up in a small bungalow behind the NAAFI shop at Thiepval Barracks, Lisburn.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Recruitment began on 1 January with a press conference. Advertisements appeared in local newspapers informing the Northern Ireland public that: "There's a new regiment in the army. We want you to help us form it." A coupon was provided for applicants to fill in, alternatively, those interested could pick up an information leaflet and application form from their local army barracks, TA Centre, Post Office, police station or library. A one-minute television commercial was produced which included a personal appeal by Brigadier Scott-Bowden. Recruiting was open to all "male citizens of good character" between the ages of 18–55. Application forms were sent to all members of the USC, which was soon to be wound up.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Vetting was carried out by a Regular Army team of mostly retired officers from outside Northern Ireland including a vice admiral and a number of major generals. Each applicant had to provide two references and the referees would be interviewed by a vetting officer. Applicants were divided into three categories: those who were immediately deemed acceptable, those who were to be immediately rejected, and those whose applications threw up doubt about their suitability. All applications were supposed to be submitted to the RUC Special Branch and Criminal Investigation Department, but in practice, this didn't always happen because of the initially high number of applicants.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: On 13 January 1970 seven "training majors" from the regular army reported for duty. None had served in Northern Ireland previously. Their job was to raise each battalion and have it ready for duty on 1 April. These came to be known as TISOs (training, intelligence, and security officers). Each was assisted by a regular army quartermaster, a corporal clerk, a civil service Clerical Officer to act as Chief Clerk, and a typist.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Premises were acquired from diverse sources including wooden huts in army training centres, USC huts or whatever accommodation could be found in regular army barracks or Territorial Army Centres.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Seven battalions were formed initially: 1st (County Antrim); 2nd (County Armagh); 3rd (County Down); 4th (County Fermanagh); 5th (County Londonderry); 6th (County Tyrone) and 7th (City of Belfast). On 1 April 1970 the regiment joined the British Army's Order of Battle and became operational.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: To recruit company and platoon officers, Scott-Bowden and his subordinates were obliged to award instant commissions to people deemed suitable. The ideal candidates were sought in the USC, reserve forces, university Officers' Training Corps and Army Cadet Force. In various battalions officers of company and platoon rank could be found who had served in the USC, the Regular and Territorial Army, the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force, the Royal Marines, the Indian Army and even the United States Army. In addition to the problem of finding officers there had to be observant of the Protestant/Catholic ratio but by March 1971, 18 Catholic officers had been recruited and the total number of officers was just enough for battalions to function at their current strengths. This rose to 23. All seven battalions were led by former commandants of the USC.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The appointment of non-commissioned officers (NCOs) was carried out in a variety of ways too. In most cases, men were selected who had previously held non-commissioned rank in any of the armed forces or the USC. In at least one case (2 UDR) they were chosen by the men themselves. In some battalions, men were appointed as lance corporals (l/cpl) on a duty-by-duty basis to assess their worth. In the Newry (C) company of 3 UDR, many of the recruits had formerly been soldiers in the local territorial company of the Royal Irish Fusiliers, including the company commander. It was a simple matter to appoint men who had previously been his NCOs and he supplemented these with former sergeants from the USC. The filling of senior NCO posts in this manner did have a drawback in that many men of comparatively young ages who had considerable years of service before retirement or promotion created a "promotion block".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The response from the B Specials was mixed. Some felt betrayed and resigned immediately, while others made application to join the UDR as soon as forms were available. Others joined the newly formed RUC Reserve instead, especially in Belfast, where during the first month of recruiting, only 36 Specials applied to join the UDR compared to an average of 29% – 2,424, one thousand of whom were rejected, mainly on the grounds of age and fitness. Around 75% of the men of the Tyrone B Specials applied, of whom 419 were accepted and, as a result, the 6th Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment started life as the only battalion more or less up to strength, and remained so during its history. In five of the seven battalions, former Specials made up more than half of personnel; in the 4th Battalion, Ulster Defence Regiment, it reached 87%. The story was different in Belfast (10%) and the rest of Antrim (42%), where the figures were more balanced, with a correspondingly higher proportion of Catholic recruits.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Some former B Specials felt so aggrieved at the loss of their force that they booed and jeered passing UDR patrols. Most anger seemed to be in County Down, where the USC District adjutant actively campaigned to persuade his men not to apply.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The "Belfast Telegraph" stated on 18 February 1970 that the first two soldiers reported as signing up were a 19-year-old Catholic and a 47-year-old Protestant. The regiment began with Catholic recruits accounting for 18% of the membership. Many were ex-regular soldiers, "eager to get back into uniform". By 1987 Catholic membership was 4%.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: By March 1970, there had been 4,791 applications to join, of which 946 were from Catholics and 2,424 from current or former members of the B-Specials. 2,440 had been accepted, including 1,423 from current or former B-Specials.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: As the percentage of recruits from both communities did not reflect the religious demographics of Northern Ireland, it never became the model Lord Hunt intended. Catholics continued to join the regiment, but the numbers were never representative. They were highest in 3 UDR, which had the highest percentage of Catholics throughout the Troubles, beginning with 30%, although this was a much lower percentage than that of the battalion area. Some sections were staffed entirely by Catholics, which led to protests from the B Specials Association that in 3 UDR "preference for promotion and allocation of appointments was being given to Catholics". This was partially explained by the fact that in the mostly Catholic town of Newry, the Territorial Army company of the Royal Irish Fusiliers had been disbanded in 1968 and the vast majority of its soldiers had joined the UDR en masse.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The company commander of C Company, (Newry), 3 UDR, was the former commander of the TA unit and was pleased to see that virtually all of his TA soldiers were on parade, in the TA Centre, in exactly the same drill hall as they had previously used, for the first night of the new regiment. He noted there were some former B Specials in the room and observed they did not initially associate with the others – not on the grounds of religion but because the former TA soldiers all knew each other socially and sat together on canteen breaks whereas the former specials kept to their group of comrades, but within a week both had melded together.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: By 1 April 1970, only 1,606 of the desired 4,000 men had been enlisted, and the UDR began its duties much under strength. The regiment continued to grow, however. In 1973 numbers peaked at 9,100 (all part-time) and at the time of amalgamation had stabilised its numbers at 2,797 permanent cadre soldiers and 2,620 part-time.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Unlike the USC, who were controlled by the Stormont government in Belfast, the UDR was under the direct command of the General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland (GOCNI), the commander of the British Army in Northern Ireland. A six-man UDR Advisory Council (three Protestant and three Catholic) was formed and chaired by the colonel commandant. Its brief was "to advise the GOCNI on policy for the administration of the Ulster Defence Regiment, in particular on recruitment; and on such specific matters as the GOCNI might refer to the council."


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The regiment would be commanded by a regular army brigadier. Battalions were to be commanded by "local members of the force".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Commanding officers were initially former County Commandants from the disbanded USC. All were men of previous military experience, such as Dublin-born Desmond Woods who had at one time been the youngest winner of the Military Cross (serving with the Royal Ulster Rifles) and Michael Torrens-Spence DSO, DSC, AFC. All were appointed lieutenant colonel on a one-year contract. However, some of these men were already past retirement age and after their year's contract was up they were replaced by lieutenant colonels from the regular army, the first of these being Lt Col Dion Beard of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment (1 RTR) who took over at 3 UDR on 15 February 1971. The policy of appointing regular officers was not universally popular within the regiment, with the public or with some politicians, but the British Army persisted in replacing former USC commanding officers and by the time of amalgamation, around 400 regular army officers had served in these posts, some of whom went on to achieve general officer rank.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: A newspaper for the regiment was published, called "Defence". Commanders were able to communicate their views through this as well as through Part 2 Orders (routine orders) which, as with every British Army unit, were displayed on company noticeboards and were compulsory reading.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The first seven battalions raised made the UDR the largest infantry regiment in the British Army at that time. Two years later, four more were added, taking the total to eleven – 8th (County Tyrone); 9th (Country Antrim); 10th (City of Belfast) and 11th (Craigavon).


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Organised into 11 Battalions (59) companies: two in Belfast and the remainder cover county or sub-county areas. Seven of the eleven are commanded by regular commanding officers. In addition the training majors, quartermaster, regimental sergeant majors, chief clerks, and signaller NCOs are also regulars. There are a number of 'conrate' (full-time UDR) posts in each unit, including adjutants, permanent staff instructors, security guards, etc. Many of the officer and senior rank conrates are ex-regulars. The remainder are part-timers. Their main tasks are guarding key points, patrolling, and surveillance, and manning vehicle checkpoints. They do not operate in the 'hard' areas of Belfast, and are not permitted to become involved in crowd confrontations anywhere. Men are armed with self-loading rifles or sub-machine guns. The current strength of the Regiment is 7910.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Until 1976 the full-time cadre were "conrates" (so called because they had a "consolidated rate of pay") whose duties consisted of guarding bases and carrying out administrative tasks. The role of the regiment was expanded by raising full-time platoons, known as "Operations Platoons", to perform duties on a 24-hour basis. The first of these was raised at 2 UDR under the command of a sergeant. By the end of the 1970s, the permanent cadre had been raised to sixteen platoons. These were then increased to company strength with the conrate role being phased out and full-time UDR soldiers undertaking their own guard duties and administration.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In 1990, the regiment's numbers stood at 3,000 part-time and 3,000 full-time soldiers, with 140 attached regular army personnel in key command and training positions. The standard of training of the permanent cadre made them suitable to be used in much the same way as regular soldiers and it was not uncommon for regular army units to then come under local command and control of a UDR Battalion Headquarters.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The dispersal of UDR soldiers into their areas of responsibility was through sub-barracks of platoon or company size. Battalion headquarters would usually be located in the county town, but not always as some counties had two battalions. Guarded by conrate soldiers, these barracks would become doubly active after 6 as part-time soldiers arrived for evening duties. After Ulsterisation began in 1976, many battalion headquarters had full-sized permanent cadre companies and these would maintain a 24-hour presence in the battalion's "tactical area of responsibility" (TAOR).


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: An example of this structure can be seen in the make-up of 2 UDR based at Drumadd Barracks in Armagh:


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Sub-headquarter units would maintain contact with their own patrols and HQ by radio. In many cases the radios were operated by Greenfinches (female soldiers), whose husbands or sons and/or daughters were on one of the active patrols, which led to tense moments when mobile units or foot patrols came under attack and submitted a "contact report" by radio.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The early image of the regiment, due to equipment and uniform shortages, was of a rag-tag bunch using World War II weaponry, old army uniforms and carrying pockets full of loose change in order to make reports from public telephone boxes. Many of the soldiers were veterans of earlier campaigns with the British Army or had been in the Special Constabulary and were middle-aged; this earned them the public nickname of "Dad's Army" – the sobriquet given to the Home Guard during World War II.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: After equipment shortages were resolved, male soldiers dressed in a similar fashion to regular army units. Camouflage jackets were worn and headgear was a distinctive dark green beret with a gold coloured "Maid of Erin" style harp, surmounted by St Edward's Crown (in later years this was dulled down by blackening, a common practice for units of the British army when wearing cap badges on operational duties). The badge was a direct copy of the Royal Ulster Rifles cap badge with the Latin motto removed from its base. Female "Greenfinch" soldiers wore combat jackets and rifle green skirts with the UDR beret and cap badge. For ceremonial occasions men wore a rifle green version of British Army (). Female "best dress" was a rifle green jacket and skirt. The beret was retained as headgear for men and women in best dress. On the formation of operations platoons, narrow coloured slides were adopted and worn on the shoulder straps in battalion colours. These indicated to the trained eye that the wearers were full-time soldiers. They were dispensed with as the operations platoons expanded into full-time rifle companies and were replaced by battalion-specific epaulette slides. Rank badges were as for infantry NCOs and officers and worn in the same fashion.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Initially, the weapons issued were of WW2 vintage such as Lee–Enfield rifles and Sten submachine guns. In early 1972 the rifles were replaced with the standard issue L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle (SLR). Other weaponry became available too: 9 mm Browning pistols (Browning 9mm), the Sterling submachine guns (SMG), the L4A4 Light Machine Guns (Bren LMG) and L7A2 General Purpose Machine Gun (GPMG)s. Small stocks of Federal Riot Guns (FRG) were kept and used to fire plastic bullets to knock down doors and other obstacles during search operations. A number of Carl Gustav (Charlie G) 84 mm recoilless rifles were stocked but rarely deployed as the weapon was unsuited to most operations. (see Boat Sections below). SLRs were replaced in 1988 by the SA80 and at the same time machine guns were superseded by the Light Support Weapon. Metal caltrops were used at vehicle check points to puncture tyres on cars trying to escape roadblocks.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: For personal protection off duty, some soldiers were issued with a Walther PP. Major Ken Maginnis acquired permission for some to purchase Browning 9mm pistols at £200 each. These were deemed to be more effective. In the late 1980s the Walther PP was replaced by the Walther P5, considered a more practical weapon because of its size and ballistic capabilities. Any soldier considered to be at particularly high risk would be permitted to keep his rifle at home. This policy was known as "weapons out" and was reduced by 75%, when SLRs replaced Lee–Enfields in 1972, due to the high number of rifles stolen by paramilitaries.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The weapons out policy was eventually discontinued on the introduction of the SA80 rifle by that time only a small number were held at home by soldiers of 6 UDR.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The standard patrol vehicle was the 3/4 ton Land Rover used extensively throughout the British armed forces. Following withdrawal from police service, a number of Shorland armoured cars were allocated to the regiment. Rarely used after initial service because the turret weapon was a GPMG and deemed unsuitable for urban use due to its rapid rate of fire. The Shorland was not generally popular due to its instability on the road. This was due to the heavy turret. However, some battalions continued to use them into the 1980s in high-risk area because of the increased protection plate armour gave over Makrolon polycarbonate armour fitted to Land Rovers. The tough Shorlands saved the lives of a number of people on patrol.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Units were sometimes deployed by Royal Air Force and Army Air Corps helicopters for rapid insertion or for duties in areas of greatest threat where it was unwise to use "green transport" (wheeled).


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Several battalions were supplied with rigid Dell Quay Dory craft for patrolling waterways shared with the Republic of Ireland in an attempt to prevent gun-running across these narrow channels such as Carlingford Lough. Assisted by land-based Decca Marine radar mounted on a Land Rover, deployed at Killowen Point. These boats were armed with Bren light machine guns and carried a Carl Gustav 84mm anti-tank weapon in addition to the rifles and sub-machine guns normally carried by soldiers. The shore-based dories proved inadequate and a paper was submitted by 3 UDR in 1972, recommending a naval vessel to be stationed in the centre of Carlingford Lough to assist with the suppression of gun-running. This suggestion was adopted and to the end of the security situation a small warship was on station off the coast of the Warrenpoint/Rostrevor shoreline. This intervention was called Operation Grenada. Gun-running across these coastal estuaries ceased as a result. 3 UDR continued to dories and the radar stretches of the coast. The radar was withdrawn from use and later dispatched to the south Atlantic during the Falklands War on board the SS Atlantic Conveyor and lost when the ship was sunk after being hit by two Argentine Exocet missiles. The 4th Battalion also carried out waterway patrols on upper and lower Lough Erne.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: At first there were not enough radios to issue to each patrol and those available were of the PYE "Bantam" type used by the police, which did not have sufficient range. As a result, UDR patrols were issued with pockets of small change to use in telephone boxes in order to effectively report back to base. When radios were issued they were of the type used by the regular army such as Larkspur A41 manpacks, B47 and C42 vehicle mounted sets. Over time these were replaced with "Stornophones" as vehicle sets with preselected frequencies which operated on the NINET rebroadcast system, working through masts strategically placed on various high points throughout Northern Ireland such as Slieve Croob. Pyephones continued to be used for foot patrols but the range of these sets gradually improved. Each battalion was able to communicate with other battalions using C42's and B47's installed in the battalion or company Operations room (Ops Room) or Communications Centre (Comcen) as well as the BID 150 system of cryptic coding and scrambler telephone system.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Search dogs were originally provided by the regular army but eventually a UDR dog section was formed to provide more immediate assistance in search operations. One of the dog handlers, Corporal Brian David Brown of 3 UDR together with his Labrador dog Oliver was killed in Kilkeel by an IRA bomb in 1986. Cpl Brown was posthumously awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: All members of the British Armed Forces, including the UDR, carried a number of small information cards to assist in the execution of their duties in Northern Ireland. These were generally referred to by their colour. The most important of these was the Yellow Card which contained the rules for opening fire.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: This content of this information card was seen as vitally important and all soldiers were taught to be entirely familiar with it as it contained specific instructions to be followed when opening fire on a suspected enemy. Requiring, "total understanding and instantaneous recall of the provisions..." Warnings were to be issued to allow suspects to surrender. Soldiers could only shoot without warning "if there is no other way to protect themselves or those whom it is their duty to protect from the danger of being killed or seriously injured." The card was amended in 1980 to carry the words "Firearms must only be used as a last resort". The use of the card was debated in Parliament.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: 25% of the new recruits in 1970 had no previous military or special constabulary experience. Training was done by a team of regular soldiers attached to each unit headed up by a training major, assisted by former instructors from the armed forces who were recruits themselves.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The annual training commitment for each part-time soldier was twelve days and twelve, two-hour training periods. Part of which included attendance at annual training camp. As an incentive, any soldier who fulfilled his training was given an annual bounty of £25-£35, later increased to £150 for the first year, £250 for the second and £350 for the third and subsequent years. This bounty in modern terms would be worth £1674 per year. Pay was also given for training days but this was less than the rate for operational duty.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: As with all British military recruits, training started with an introduction to basic battle skills and the book of the same name, which, where possible, was issued to each individual soldier. Instruction was also given on the Army marksmanship pamphlet "Shoot to Kill".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Part-time (and later, permanent cadre) soldiers were required to attend an annual camp for a seven-day period. Camps were located at:


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: These camps not only provided intensive training but they included days out and social events where soldiers could relax and drop their guard, well away from the troubled areas they normally patrolled.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: From 1975 onwards specially trained search teams were created to comb the countryside and derelict buildings for illegal stashes of weapons and explosives. Some of these dumps were booby trapped and particular care and alertness was needed.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Training continued to be done at each battalion's own HQ until 2 July 1979 when the UDR Training Centre opened at the old weekend training camp at Ballykinlar, Co Down. The first recruit courses as the centre for permanent cadre troops were four weeks long and the subjects included physical training, foot drill, assault course, range firing, foot and mobile patrol procedures (including vehicle stops), map reading, signals, first aid and a grounding in legal responsibilities. The first recruit course passed out on 28 July 1979 and the salute was taken by Brigadier David Miller, Commander UDR. Courses were not just for permanent cadre and included training for:platoon commanders, platoon sergeants, potential NCOs, skill-at-arms, surveillance, intelligence, photography and search updating.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In 1990 the UDR Training Centre became responsible for all military training in Northern Ireland. Under the command of a regular army lieutenant colonel seconded to the UDR. The centre then ran courses for the regular army and RAF Regiment individual reinforcements on search team training, combat medics, skill-at-arms, and NCO training; as well as the management of the extensive weapon ranges at Ballykinlar.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In some cases several members of a family would join the same unit. This led to husbands, wives, sons and daughters, even grandparents serving together. Whilst this did create a good "esprit de corps" there were problems created. Once anyone in a family joined the Ulster Defence Regiment the entire household, even children, had to be educated on personal safety. The hours were long and soldiers had to forfeit a normal family life. On duty too there were issues. Family members had to be split into different patrols and vehicles so that if one unit was attacked an entire family would not run the risk of being killed or wounded at the same time. In 1975 there were eighty four married couples serving and fifty three family groups of three or more.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: UDR soldiers lived in their own civilian homes, (except for attached regular army personnel who were given "quarters").


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Many lived in Protestant or Catholic enclaves which put them within easy reach of local paramilitary or community groups. The years 1972–73 saw paramilitary threats from loyalist and republican sources. Of the 288 incidents of intimidation reported, all but twelve were from Protestants who had been threatened from within their own community. Sometimes this was to gain information or to persuade soldiers to join (or remain within) loyalist organisations. The intimidation included: threatening letters and phone calls, abduction, shots fired from passing cars and off-duty soldiers being assaulted.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In the early days some even lived in what would later become known as "hard line areas" such as Private Sean Russell of 7 UDR who lived in the New Barnsley Estate in Belfast. This led to many UDR soldiers becoming targets for various paramilitary groups whilst off duty and indeed Sean Russell was subsequently targeted and killed whilst at home, in front of his family.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In 1970–71, Catholics made up about 36% of the population and about 18% of the UDR. By the end of 1972 the number of Catholics in the UDR had dropped to 3% and never rose above that figure again. There are a number of reasons for this. In the early years of the conflict, relations soured between the Catholic community and the Army. This was mainly due to incidents such as the Falls Curfew, internment, Bloody Sunday and Operation Motorman. There were also frequent claims of UDR soldiers abusing Catholics at checkpoints and during house searches. Many Catholic soldiers left the regiment due to pressure and intimidation from their own community, and the IRA's policy of singling out Catholic soldiers for assassination. Catholics within the regiment also reported being intimidated by Protestant fellow soldiers. Other Catholics resigned in protest at what they saw as the Army's harsh and biased treatment of their community, especially after Operation Demetrius (the introduction of internment). The "Belfast Telegraph" reported that 25% of the regiment's Catholics resigned in 1971, half of those in the months following Operation Demetrius. By the end of 1972, the vast majority had resigned or simply stopped turning up for duty.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Senior officers attempted to halt the exodus of Catholics, allowing battalion commanders to appear on television (not usually permitted for the rank of lieutenant colonel in those days). Appeals were made to religious and political leaders and extra personal security measures were introduced. Brigadier Scott-Bowden's successor in 1972 was Brigadier Denis Ormerod, a Catholic whose mother's family came from the Republic of Ireland. His second-in-command (Deputy Commander UDR), Colonel Kevin Hill, was also Catholic, as was his successor Colonel Paddy Ryan. Ormerod admitted in his memoirs that his religion and appointment as the senior Catholic Army officer in Northern Ireland helped him considerably in his rapport with religious leaders of his own faith but that these appointments created unease with Protestants leading to meetings with concerned unionist politicians including, notably, Ian Paisley.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Although an integral part of the British Army the UDR's duties did not require it to be called upon to serve outside Northern Ireland. This type of engagement was subsequently referred to as "Home Service" and was similar to the model adopted by the short-lived Home Service Force raised in the UK in 1982.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The primary function of the regiment was to assist the Royal Ulster Constabulary by "guarding key points and installations, to carry out patrols and to establish check points and road blocks against armed guerrilla-type attacks".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Patrols and vehicle checkpoints on public roads were designed to hinder the activities of paramilitary groups and to reassure the law-abiding general public. Writing in 1991, Ken Maginnis recounted that the Regiment had originally been formed as a "sop to Unionism" and it was never intended to have a "serious" operational role, with UDR soldiers at first being assigned to "demeaning" and pointless posts such as guarding water reservoirs.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The first operational deployment of the regiment was by the 2nd and 6th battalions, deploying 400 soldiers in an 8th Infantry Brigade operation along the border with the Irish Republic in Armagh, Tyrone and Fermanagh to intercept the movement of munitions into Northern Ireland. As the force was initially part-time the presence of its soldiers was mostly felt during evenings and weekends. It was expected to answer to general call-outs, and was mobilised on a permanent basis on several occasions such as Operation Motorman to provide assistance to the police and army. As the regiment acquired more full-time soldiers it assumed duties previously assigned to the police or Army in support of Operation Banner. By 1980, the full-time element had matched the numbers of part-timers and the regiment's role had expanded to include tactical responsibility for 85% of Northern Ireland, supporting the Royal Ulster Constabulary.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The first Ulster Workers' Council strike took place between 15 and 28 May 1974. This is arguably the greatest test of integrity and loyalty the UDR had to endure, along with the RUC. The regiment was not called out but 3 (Co Down) UDR, then at annual camp in Magilligan was deployed on Sunday 19 May by road and air to the south Tyrone and south Fermanagh areas usually patrolled by 4 (Co Fermanagh) UDR and 6 (Co Tyrone) UDR. Two days previously on 17 May loyalist paramilitaries had carried out a series of bombings in Dublin and Monaghan. The authorities believed the Provisional IRA would retaliate so had provided the 3rd Battalion as reinforcements to the local battalions.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Despite there being no call out UDR soldiers flocked to their bases for duty. They were frustrated in not being able to take any direct action against the strikers but the only orders they got were to "stand back and observe". A patrol from 7 UDR was able to prevent loyalists from throwing stones and bottles at regular troops in the Ballybeen estate in Dundonald. Barricades preventing soldiers from the Newtownabbey company of 10 UDR who lived in Monkstown from getting to their base were lifted when the platoon commander and platoon sergeant went down and warned the people manning the barricades that they would "regret it in the future" if they continued to prevent the UDR from getting out on patrol.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Some soldiers took their turn manning the barricades alongside the UDA. These were men who lived in UDA dominated housing estates and had been threatened. Those soldiers in such areas who did not take a turn on duty were not allowed to get out of the estates to report for duty and had their cars and homes damaged and in some cases they and their wives were refused service in local shops following the strike.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: There were two reported instances of loyalists trying to subvert the loyalty of UDR units. One was against an entire company of 3 UDR and one against a platoon from the 8th battalion. Both failed.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Units from 7 UDR took up positions around key points at the shipyards, an oil refinery in Sydenham and an electricity sub station in the Castlereagh hills. Forty drivers were drafted in from 1, 9 and 10 UDR battalions to assist the Royal Corps of Transport. Eventually 10 UDR and regular units forcibly dismantled the barricades in Monkstown.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Prior to the strike some army commanders and the Brigadier UDR had expressed doubts about who the UDR was loyal to and who they would support in the event of such an action by loyalists. Brigadier Baxter later commented: "During the strike the UDR came of age".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Ulsterisation was the British Government's policy to reduce regular Army troop numbers in Northern Ireland and bring local forces into the front line. This was as a result of international opinion about British soldiers being used in what many viewed as a "colonial occupation". It was also called "normalisation", or "police primacy". The term "Ulsterisation" was coined by the media. The then Assistant Chief Constable of the RUC, Jack Hermon, summed it up when he said, "Ulstermen need to learn to live together and be policed by Ulstermen. If they have to kill, let them kill each other, not English soldiers."


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The scheme was hampered by the shortfall of conrate officers in the UDR who could take on the role of operations officers. It also placed heavier demands upon senior NCO "watchkeepers" in the operations rooms, or and communication centres (comcens).


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The main outcome of Ulsterisation was the creation of the "Province Reserve UDR" (PRUDR) whereby each of the 56 available companies would take it in turns to operate anywhere in the province, although in practice this normally meant in South Armagh.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: In the early days of the regiment female members of the Royal Military Police accompanied patrols when available to enable female suspects to be searched. There were never enough of these RMP searchers so in 1973 an act was passed in Parliament to recruit women into the regiment. On 16 August 1973 a regular army officer from the Women's Royal Army Corps, Major Eileen Tye, took up the post of "Commander Women" at HQUDR. By September 352 women had been enrolled and the first enlistments were carried out at 2 UDR's HQ in Armagh on the 16th. This use of women as an integrated part of the regiment preceded similar usage in the regular army by 20 years, and paved the way for the disbandment of the Women's Royal Army Corps in 1992.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The only available clothing was mostly ATS surplus from WWII. Many women were unhappy with the semi-formal skirts and knee length boots they had to wear in all weathers. Eventually the regulations were relaxed and by the time of the merger women were wearing full combat uniform. The women soldiers also wore a silk cravat in their battalion colour.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: A team of WRAC instructors led by WO2 Brooker was assigned to train the women in a one-week course consisting of drill, army organisation, map reading, searching of women and vehicles, radio procedure and basic first aid. Their assignment finished after one year when Greenfinches with the relevant experience were assigned to take over as instructors.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The first recruits were largely from the executive and professional classes. Some were wives of serving UDR soldiers and others were married to soldiers on long-term (accompanied) posting to Northern Ireland, including the wives of some commanding officers. Some soldiers (male and female) were inclined to settle in Northern Ireland after their time in the army was finished and for female ex-soldiers and the wives of male ex-soldiers being a Greenfinch seemed to be an attractive and familiar career.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The country and border battalions welcomed the use of women as essential in the searching of women and children but the city based battalions were slower to see the advantages and to some extent resented the presence of Greenfinches at first. In the short-term all came to appreciate the value of having females with patrols. Through time the role of women was expanded as it was realised that their higher pitched voices were more suited to radio transmission than men. Tasked to relieve RMP women at the Belfast city centre segment gates they learned how to accept abuse from the public and how to avoid traps that could be set for them while they searched other women; i.e., razor blades placed in pockets.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Some women were trained in the use of "Sea Watch" radar to assist seaborne patrols in those battalions with fast boats.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Initially a part-time female officer was appointed in each battalion to supervise the women soldiers but through time the women came under command of the Officer Commanding (OC) of the company they were assigned to. In later years some women became battalion adjutants or company commanders and a few were attached to brigade staffs throughout Northern Ireland.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Accommodation for changing and toilet facilities was another problem faced early on and it took several years for the all-male environments of UDR bases to adapt to suit female needs.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The name "Greenfinch" applied to the women's UDR comes from the system of radio "appointment titles" (codewords) used by the army to identify certain people or branches of the service. Male soldiers in the regiment were identified as "Greentop" and women were given the codeword "Greenfinch" with female commanders being referred to as "Goldfinch". This became their working nickname. It is still applied today to women in the Royal Irish Regiment.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The recruitment of women soldiers peaked in 1986 with 286 permanent cadre and 530 part timers but the establishment never dropped below 700 from 1978 onwards.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Greenfinches were used to deny terrorists the use of women and children in paramilitary activities. On patrol they were used to search for explosives, weapons, ammunition and documents, as well as driving patrol vehicles, operating radios and acting as interviewers. The use of females in barracks included clerical, catering and store-keeping duties in addition to staffing "Operations Rooms" and "Intelligence Cells", released male soldiers for operational duties.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Women soldiers were required to pass annual skills tests to qualify for grades and pay increments. If these tests were failed the Greenfinch concerned would be downgraded and suffer a drop in wages. They received regular "role specific" training which included: person and vehicle searching, map reading, first aid, signals, personal security and terrorist recognition; as well as regimental history, military etiquette, rank structure and dress regulations, and also fitness training. They were advised to maintain a high degree of fitness.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Although not armed on duty Greenfinches were trained to fire a full range of weapons and taught how to make a weapon "safe" as part of the training on dealing with casualties. HQUDR ran a .22 shooting competition.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Some Greenfinches were issued with (or purchased) personal protection weapons (PPW's) if considered to be at high risk.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Issues which affected other servicewomen also applied to Greenfinches. Rules regarding pregnancy, marriage, and pay. To join, married women were required to submit written permission from their husbands and those with children were obliged to sign a declaration confirming childcare arrangements.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Ministry of Defence regulations concerning women soldiers meant that Greenfinches would be discharged in the fourth month of pregnancy. If they returned to their unit after maternity leave they were required to retake the basic recruits course. Their previous service did not count towards medal entitlement or promotion. Some sympathetic battalion commanders avoided putting female soldiers through this by sending them on extended, long term leave but keeping them "on strength".


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: The European Court ruled against the Ministry of Defence in 1990 and awarded compensation to 78 former Greenfinches totaling £370,000. Regulations then changed and all British servicewomen were subsequently allowed 48 weeks unpaid maternity leave, following which they could return to duty without preconditions.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: A study in 1988 showed that half the women serving were married and 42% were mothers, with two thirds of their children being infants or of school age.


title: Ulster Defence Regiment

text: Four Greenfinches were killed as active servicewomen between 1974 and 1992. The first was Private Eva Martin, age 28, fatally wounded by rocket fragments on 3 May 1974 during a PIRA attack on 6 UDR's outlying base at the Deanery, Clogher. She was also the first female from the security forces to die in the Troubles.