title: Gran Chaco

text: To the west, in the Semiarid/Arid Chaco, medium-sized forests consists of white quebracho ("Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco") and red quebracho ("Schinopsis lorentzii") with a slightly shorter subcanopy made up of several species from the family Fabaceae, as well as several arboreal cacti species that distinguish this area of the Chaco. There is a scrub-like shrub and herbaceous understory. On sandy soils, the thick woodlands turn into savannas where the aforementioned species prevail, as well as species such as "Jacaranda mimosifolia". The giant "Stetsonia coryne", found throughout the western Semiarid/Arid region becomes very conspicuous in these sandy savannas. Various upland systems of plant associations occur throughout the Gran Chaco. The Highlands of the Argentinian Chaco are made up of, on the dry, sunny side (up to 1800m), "Schinopsis haenkeana" woodlands. The cooler side of the uplands hosts "Zanthoxylum coco" (locally referred to as Fagara coco) and "Schinus molleoides" (locally referred to as "Lithrea molleoides") as the predominant species. Other notable species include "Bougainvillea stipitata", and several species from the Fabaceae. The Paraguyan uplands have other woodland slope ecosystems, notably, those dominated by "Anadenanthera colubrina" on moist slopes. Both of these upland systems, as well as numerous other Gran Chaco areas, are rich with endemism.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Faunal diversity in the Gran Chaco is also high. The Gran Chaco has around 3,400 plant, 500 bird, 150 mammal, and 220 reptile and amphibian species. Animals typically associated with tropical and subtropical forests are often found throughout the eastern Humid Chaco, including jaguars, howler monkeys, peccaries, deer, and tapirs. "Edentate" species, including anteaters and armadillos, are readily seen here, as well. Being home to at least 10 species, the Argentinian Chaco is the location of the peak diversity for the armadillo, including species such as the nine-banded armadillo ("Dasypus novemcinctus"), whose range extends north to the southern US, and the southern three-banded armadillo ("Tolypeutes matacus"). The pink fairy armadillo ("Chlamyphrous truncatus"), is found nowhere else in the world. The giant armadillo ("Priodontes maximus"), while not found in the eastern Humid Chaco, can be seen in the drier Arid Chaco of the west. Some other notable endemics of the region include the San Luis tuco-tuco ("Ctenomys pontifex"). This small rodent is only found in the Argentinian Chaco. All of 60 species of "Ctenomys" are endemic to South America. The Chacoan peccary ("Catagonus wagneri"), locally known as "tauga", is the largest of the three peccary species found in the area. This species was thought to be extinct by scientists until 1975, when it was recorded by Dr. Ralph Wetzel.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Due to the climate of the Gran Chaco, herpetofauna are restricted to moist refugia in various places throughout the chaco. Rotting logs, debris piles, old housing settlement, wells, and seasonal farm ponds are examples of such refugia. The black-legged seriema ("Chunga burmeisteri"), blue-crowned parakeet ("Aratinga acuticadauta"), Picui ground dove ("Columbina picui"), guira cuckoo ("Guira guira"), little thornbird ("Phacellodomus sibilatrix"), and many-colored Chaco finch ("Saltaitricula multicolor") are notable of the 409 bird species that are resident or breed in the Gran Chaco; 252 of these Chaco species are endemic to South America.


title: Gran Chaco

text: The Chaco is one of South America's last agricultural frontiers. Very sparsely populated and lacking sufficient all-weather roads and basic infrastructure (the Argentinian part is more developed than the Paraguayan or Bolivian part), it has long been too remote for crop planting. The central Chaco's Mennonite colonies are a notable exception.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Two factors may substantially change the Chaco in the near future: low land valuations and the region's suitability to grow fuel crops. Suitability for the cultivation of "Jatropha" has been proven. Sweet sorghum as an ethanol plant may prove viable, too, since sorghum is a traditional local crop for domestic and feedstock use. The feasibility of switchgrass is currently being studied by Argentina's Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, as is the Karanda’y palm tree in the Paraguayan Chaco.


title: Gran Chaco

text: While advancements in agriculture can bring some improvements in infrastructure and employment for the region, loss of habitat and virgin forest is substantial and will likely increase poverty. Paraguay, after having lost more than 90% of its Atlantic rainforest between 1975 and 2005, is now losing its xerophytic forest (dry forests) in the Chaco at an annual rate of (2008). In mid-2009, a projected law, initiated by the Liberal Party, that would have outlawed deforestation in the Paraguayan Chaco altogether, "Deforestacion Zero en el Chaco" did not get a majority in the parliament.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Deforestation in the Argentinian part of the Chaco amounted to an average of per year between 2001 and 2007. According to Fundación Avina, a local NGO, on average, are cleared per day. The soy plantations not only eliminate the forest, but also other types of agriculture. Indigenous communities are losing their land to agribusinesses. Since 2007, a law is supposed to regulate and control the cutting of timber in the Gran Chaco, but illegal logging continues.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Among the aggressive investors in the Paraguayan Gran Chaco are U.S.-based agribusinesses Cargill Inc., Bunge Ltd., and Archer Daniels Midland Co.


title: Gran Chaco

text: In September 1995, the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area was established in an area of the Chaco in Bolivia. It is administered and was established solely by the indigenous peoples, including the Izoceño Guaraní, the Ayoreode, and the Chiquitano.


title: Gran Chaco

text: Other protected areas include Defensores del Chaco National Park and Tinfunqué National Park in Paraguay, and Copo National Park and El Impenetrable National Park in Argentina.


title: Gran Chaco

text: The following Argentine provinces, Bolivian and Paraguayan departments, and Brazilian states lie in the Gran Chaco area, either entirely or in part.


title: Subtle body

text: A subtle body is a "quasi material" aspect of the human body, being neither solely physical nor solely spiritual, according to various esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. This contrasts with the mind–body dualism that has dominated Western thought. The subtle body is important in the Taoism of China and Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, mainly in the branches which focus on tantra and yoga, where it is known as the "Sūkṣma-śarīra" (). However, while mostly associated with Asian cultures, non-dualistic approaches to the mind and body are found in many parts of the world.


title: Subtle body

text: Subtle body concepts and practices can be identified as early as 2nd century BCE in Taoist texts found in the Mawangdui tombs. Although "evidently present" in Indian thought as early as the 4th to 1st century BCE when the Taittiriya Upanishad describes the Panchakoshas, a series of five interpenetrating sheaths of the body. A fully formed subtle body theory didn't develop in India until the tantric movement that affected all its religions in the Middle Ages. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism the correlation of the subtle body to the physical body is viewed differently according to school, lineage and scholar but for Completion stage purposes is visualised within the body. The subtle body consists of focal points, often called chakras, connected by channels, often called nadis, that convey subtle breath, often called prana. Through breathing and other exercises, a practitioner may direct the subtle breath to achieve supernormal powers, immortality, or liberation.


title: Subtle body

text: Subtle body in the Western tradition is called the "body of light". The concept derives from the philosophy of Plato: the word 'astral' means 'of the stars'; thus the astral plane consists of the Seven Heavens of the classical planets. Neoplatonists Porphyry and Proclus elaborated on Plato's description of the starry nature of the human psyche. Throughout the Renaissance, philosophers and alchemists, healers including Paracelsus and his students, and natural scientists such as John Dee, continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. The concept of the astral body or body of light was adopted by 19th and 20th-century ceremonial magicians.


title: Subtle body

text: The Theosophy movement was the first to translate the Sanskrit term as 'subtle body', although their use of the term is quite different from Indic usage as they synthesize Western and Eastern traditions. This makes the term problematic for modern scholars, especially as the Theosophist view often influences New Age and holistic medicine perspectives. Western scientists have started to explore the subtle body concept in research on meditation.


title: Subtle body

text: The Yogic, Tantric and other systems of Hinduism, Vajrayana Buddhism, as well as Chinese Taoist alchemy contain theories of subtle physiology with focal points (chakras, acupuncture points) connected by a series of channels (nadis, meridians) that convey subtle breath (prana, vayu, ch'i, ki, lung). These invisible channels and points are understood to determine the characteristics of the visible physical form. By understanding and mastering the subtlest levels of reality one gains mastery over the physical realm. Through breathing and other exercises, the practitioner aims to manipulate and direct the flow of subtle breath, to achieve supernormal powers "(siddhis)" and attain higher states of consciousness, immortality, or liberation.


title: Subtle body

text: Early concepts of the subtle body (Sanskrit: "sūkṣma śarīra") appeared in the Upanishads, including the "Brhadaranyaka Upanishad" and the "Katha Upanishad". The "Taittiriya Upanishad" describes the theory of five koshas or sheaths, though these are not to be thought of as concentric layers, but interpenetrating at successive levels of subtlety:


title: Subtle body

text: Subtle internal anatomy included a central channel (nadi). Later Vedic texts called samhitas and brahmanas contain a theory of five "winds" or "breaths" ("vayus, pranas"):


title: Subtle body

text: A millennium later, these concepts were adapted and refined by various spiritual traditions. The similar concept of the is seen as the vehicle of consciousness in later Samkhya, Vedanta, and Yoga, and is propelled by past-life tendencies, or "bhavas". Linga can be translated as "characteristic mark" or "impermanence" and the Vedanta term sarira as "form" or "mold". "Karana" or "instrument" is a synonymous term. In the Classical Samkhya system of Isvarakrsna (ca. 4th century CE), the "Lińga" is the characteristic mark of the transmigrating entity. It consists of twenty-five tattvas from eternal consciousness down to the five organs of sense, five of activity ("buddindriya" or "jñānendriya", and "karmendriya" respectively) and the five subtle elements that are the objects of sense ("tanmatras") The "Samkhyakarika" says:


title: Subtle body

text: The classical Vedanta tradition developed the theory of the five bodies into the theory of the koshas "sheaths" or "coverings" which surround and obscure the self (atman). In classical Vedanta these are seen as obstacles to realization and traditions like Shankara's Advaita Vedanta had little interest in working with the subtle body.


title: Subtle body

text: In Tantra traditions meanwhile (Shaiva Kaula, Kashmir Shaivism and Buddhist Vajrayana), the subtle body was seen in a more positive light, offering potential for yogic practices which could lead to liberation. Tantric traditions contain the most complex theories of the subtle body, with sophisticated descriptions of energy nadis (literally "stream or river", channels through which "vayu" and "prana" flows) and chakras, points of focus where nadis meet.


title: Subtle body

text: The main channels, shared by both Hindu and Buddhist systems, but visualised entirely differently, are the central (in Hindu systems: "sushumna"; in Buddhist: "avadhuti"), left and right (in Hindu systems: "ida" and "pingala"; Buddhist: "lalana" and "rasana"). Further subsidiary channels are said to radiate outwards from the chakras, where the main channels meet.


title: Subtle body

text: Chakra systems vary with the tantra; the "Netra Tantra" describes six chakras, the "Kaulajñana-nirnaya" describes eight, and the "Kubjikamata Tantra" describes seven (the most widely known set).


title: Subtle body

text: The modern Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that the subtle body "is the vehicle of desires and vital forces". He held that the subtle body is one of three bodies with which the soul must cease to identify in order to realize God.


title: Subtle body

text: In Buddhist Tantra, the subtle body is termed the "innate body" () or the "uncommon means body" ("asadhdrana-upayadeha"), or , rendered in Tibetan as "traway-lu" (transliterated "phra ba’i lus"). The subtle body is sometimes known as , the “body made of mind” and is the means for synchronising the body and the mind, particularly during meditation.


title: Subtle body

text: The subtle body consists of thousands of subtle energy channels (nadis), which are conduits for energies or "winds" (lung or prana) and converge at chakras. According to Dagsay Tulku Rinpoche, there are three main channels ("nadis"), central, left and right, which run from the point between the eyebrows up to the crown chakra, and down through all seven chakras to a point two inches below the navel.


title: Subtle body

text: Lati Rinbochay describes the subtle body as consisting of 72,000 channels, various winds and a white and a red drop whilst a further very subtle body is a wind abiding in a drop at the centre of the heart chakra. The central channel is then described as being squeezed by two channels that encircle it at each chakra and thrice at the heart chakra, ensuring the winds do not move upward or downward until death.


title: Subtle body

text: Buddhist tantras generally describe four or five chakras in the shape of a lotus with varying petals. For example, the Hevajra Tantra (8th century) states:In the Center [i.e. chakra] of Creation [at the sexual organ] a sixty-four petal lotus. In the Center of Essential Nature [at the heart] an eight petal lotus. In the Center of Enjoyment [at the throat] a sixteen petal lotus. In the Center of Great Bliss [at the top of the head] a thirty-two petal lotus.In contrast, the historically later Kalachakra tantra describes six chakras.


title: Subtle body

text: In Vajrayana Buddhism, liberation is achieved through subtle body processes during Completion Stage practices such as the Six Yogas of Naropa.


title: Subtle body

text: Other spiritual traditions teach about a mystical or divine body, such as "the most sacred body" ("wujud al-aqdas") and "true and genuine body" ("jism asli haqiqi") in Sufism, the meridian system in Chinese religion, and "the immortal body" ("soma athanaton") in Hermeticism.


title: Subtle body

text: The "body of light" is elaborated on according to various Western esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. Other terms used for this body include "body of glory", "spirit-body", "radiant body", "luciform body", "augoeides" ('radiant'), "astroeides" ('starry' or 'sidereal body'), and "celestial body".


title: Subtle body

text: The concept derives from the philosophy of Plato: the word 'astral' means 'of the stars'; thus the astral plane consists of the Seven Heavens of the classical planets. The idea is rooted in common worldwide religious accounts of the afterlife in which the soul's journey or "ascent" is described in such terms as "an ecstatic, mystical or out-of body experience, wherein the spiritual traveller leaves the physical body and travels in their body of light into 'higher' realms."


title: Subtle body

text: Neoplatonists Porphyry and Proclus elaborated on Plato's description of the starry nature of the human psyche. Throughout the Renaissance, philosophers and alchemists, healers including Paracelsus and his students, and natural scientists such as John Dee, continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. The concept of the astral body or body of light was adopted by 19th-century ceremonial magician Éliphas Lévi, Florence Farr and the magicians of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, including Aleister Crowley.


title: Subtle body

text: In the 19th century, H. P. Blavatsky founded the esoteric religious system of Theosophy, which attempted to restate Hindu and Buddhist philosophy for the Western world. She adopted the phrase "subtle body" as the English equivalent of the Vedantic "sūkṣmaśarīra", which in Adi Shankara's writings was one of three bodies (physical, subtle, and causal). Geoffrey Samuel notes that theosophical use of these terms by Blavatsky and later authors, especially C. W. Leadbeater, Annie Besant and Rudolf Steiner (who went on to found Anthroposophy), has made them "problematic" to modern scholars, since the Theosophists adapted the terms as they expanded their ideas based on "psychic and clairvoyant insights", changing their meaning from what they had in their original context in India.


title: Subtle body

text: The later theosophical arrangement was taken up by Alice Bailey, and from there found its way into the New Age worldview and the human aura. Other authors treated the subtle body in varying ways. Max Heindel divided the subtle body into the Vital Body made of Ether; the Desire body, related to the Astral plane; and the Mental body. Barbara Brennan's account of the subtle bodies in her books "Hands of Light" and "Light Emerging" refers to the subtle bodies as "layers" in the "Human Energy Field" or aura.


title: Subtle body

text: Subtle bodies are found in the "Fourth Way" teachings of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, which claim that one can create a subtle body, and hence achieve post-mortem immortality, through spiritual or yogic exercises. The "soul" in these systems is not something one is born with, but developed through esoteric practice to acquire complete understanding and to perfect the self. According to the historian Bernice Rosenthal, "In Gurdjieff's cosmology our nature is tripartite and is composed of the physical (planetary), emotional (astral) and mental (spiritual) bodies; in each person one of these three bodies ultimately achieves dominance." The ultimate task of the fourth way teachings is to harmoniously develop the four bodies into a single way.


title: Subtle body

text: Western scientists have started to explore the subtle body concept in relation to research on meditation. The subtle body model can be cross-referenced onto modern maps of the central nervous system, and applied in research on meditation.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Gonadotropins are glycoprotein hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary of vertebrates. This family includes the mammalian hormones follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), the placental/chorionic gonadotropins, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG), as well as at least two forms of fish gonadotropins. These hormones are central to the complex endocrine system that regulates normal growth, sexual development, and reproductive function. LH and FSH are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, while hCG and eCG are secreted by the placenta in pregnant humans and mares, respectively. The gonadotropins act on the gonads, controlling gamete and sex hormone production.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Gonadotropin is sometimes abbreviated "Gn". The alternative spelling "gonadotrophin" which inaccurately implies a nourishing mechanism is also used.


title: Gonadotropin

text: There are various preparations of gonadotropins for therapeutic use, mainly as fertility medication. There are also fad diet or quack preparations, which are illegal in various countries.


title: Gonadotropin

text: The two principal gonadotropins in vertebrates are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), although primates produce a third gonadotropin called chorionic gonadotropin (CG). LH and FSH are heterodimers consisting of two peptide chains, an alpha chain and a beta chain. LH and FSH share nearly identical alpha chains (about 100 amino acids long), whereas the beta chain provides specificity for receptor interactions. These subunits are heavily modified by glycosylation.


title: Gonadotropin

text: The alpha subunit is common to each protein dimer (well conserved within species, but differing between them), and a unique beta subunit confers biological specificity. The alpha chains are highly conserved proteins of about 100 amino acid residues which contain ten conserved cysteines all involved in disulfide bonds, as shown in the following schematic representation.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Intracellular levels of free alpha subunits are greater than those of the mature glycoprotein, implying that hormone assembly is limited by the appearance of the specific beta subunits, and hence that synthesis of alpha and beta is independently regulated.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Another human gonadotropin is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), produced by the placenta during pregnancy.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Gonadotropin receptors are embedded in the surface of the target cell membranes and coupled to the G-protein system. Signals triggered by binding to the receptor are relayed within the cells by the cyclic AMP second messenger system.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Gonadotropins are released under the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the arcuate nucleus and preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The gonads — testes and ovaries — are the primary target organs for LH and FSH. The gonadotropins affect multiple cell types and elicit multiple responses from the target organs. As a simplified generalization, LH stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes and the theca cells of the ovaries to produce testosterone (and indirectly estradiol), whereas FSH stimulates the spermatogenic tissue of the testes and the granulosa cells of ovarian follicles, as well as stimulating production of estrogen by the ovaries.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Although gonadotropins are secreted in a pulsatile manner (as a result of pulsatile GnRH release), unlike the case of GnRH and GnRH agonists, constant/non-pulsatile activation of the gonadotropin receptors by the gonadotropins does not produce functional inhibition. This can be seen during the first 7–10 weeks of pregnancy, where constantly high and progressively-increasing levels of hCG circulate and mediate production of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum until the placenta takes over the production of these hormones.


title: Gonadotropin

text: Gonadotropin deficiency due to pituitary disease results in hypogonadism, which can lead to infertility. Treatment includes administered gonadotropins, which, therefore, work as fertility medication. Such can either be produced by extraction and purification from urine or be produced by recombinant DNA.


title: Gonadotropin

text: LH insensitivity, which results in Leydig cell hypoplasia in males, and FSH insensitivity, are conditions of insensitivity to LH and FSH, respectively, caused by loss-of-function mutations in their respective signaling receptors. Another closely related condition to these is GnRH insensitivity.


title: Gonadotropin

text: There are various preparations of gonadotropins for therapeutic use, mainly as fertility medication. For example, the so-called menotropins (also called "human menopausal gonadotropins") consist of LH and FSH extracted from the urine of menopausal women. There are also recombinant variants. Besides the aforementioned legitimate pharmaceutical drugs, there are fad diet or quack preparations, which are illegal in various countries.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is approximately 1.625 m/s, about 16.6% that on Earth's surface or 0.166 . Over the entire surface, the variation in gravitational acceleration is about 0.0253 m/s (1.6% of the acceleration due to gravity). Because weight is directly dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% (= 1/6) of what they weigh on the Earth.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured by tracking the radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The principle used depends on the Doppler effect, whereby the line-of-sight spacecraft acceleration can be measured by small shifts in frequency of the radio signal, and the measurement of the distance from the spacecraft to a station on Earth. Since the gravitational field of the Moon affects the orbit of a spacecraft, one can use this tracking data to detect gravity anomalies.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: Most low lunar orbits are unstable. Detailed data collected has shown that for low lunar orbit the only "stable" orbits are at inclinations near 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86°. Because of the Moon's synchronous rotation it is not possible to track spacecraft from Earth much beyond the limbs of the Moon, so until the recent Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission the far-side gravity field was not well mapped.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The missions with accurate Doppler tracking that have been used for deriving gravity fields are in the accompanying table. The table gives the mission spacecraft name, a brief designation, the number of mission spacecraft with accurate tracking, the country of origin, and the time span of the Doppler data. Apollos 15 and 16 released subsatellites. The Kaguya/SELENE mission had tracking between 3 satellites to get far-side tracking. GRAIL had very accurate tracking between 2 spacecraft and tracking from Earth.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The accompanying table below lists lunar gravity fields. The table lists the designation of the gravity field, the highest degree and order, a list of mission IDs that were analyzed together, and a citation. Mission ID LO includes all 5 Lunar Orbiter missions. The GRAIL fields are very accurate; other missions are not combined with GRAIL.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: A major feature of the Moon's gravitational field is the presence of mascons, which are large positive gravity anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins. These anomalies significantly influence the orbit of spacecraft around the Moon, and an accurate gravitational model is necessary in the planning of both crewed and uncrewed missions. They were initially discovered by the analysis of Lunar Orbiter tracking data: navigation tests prior to the Apollo program showed positioning errors much larger than mission specifications.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: Mascons are in part due to the presence of dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill some of the impact basins. However, lava flows by themselves cannot fully explain the gravitational variations, and uplift of the crust-mantle interface is required as well. Based on Lunar Prospector gravitational models, it has been suggested that some mascons exist that do not show evidence for mare basaltic volcanism. The huge expanse of mare basaltic volcanism associated with Oceanus Procellarum does not cause a positive gravity anomaly. The center of gravity of the Moon does not coincide exactly with its geometric center, but is displaced toward the Earth by about 2 kilometers.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The gravitational constant "G" is less accurate than the product of "G" and masses for Earth and Moon. Consequently, it is conventional to express the lunar mass "M" multiplied by the gravitational constant "G". The lunar "GM" = 4902.8001 km/s from GRAIL analyses. The mass of the Moon is "M" = 7.3458 × 10 kg and the mean density is 3346 kg/m. The lunar "GM" is 1/81.30057 of the Earth's "GM".


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: For the lunar gravity field, it is conventional to use an equatorial radius of "R" = 1738.0 km. The gravity potential is written with a series of spherical harmonic functions "P". The gravitational potential "V" at an external point is conventionally expressed as positive in astronomy and geophysics, but negative in physics. Then, with the former sign,


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: where "r" is the radius to an external point with r ≥ "R", "φ" is the latitude of the external point, and λ is the east longitude of the external point. Note that the spherical harmonic functions "P" can be normalized or unnormalized affecting the gravity coefficients "J", "C", and "S". Here we will use unnormalized functions and compatible coefficients. The "P" are called Legendre polynomials and the "P" with "m"≠0 are called the Associated Legendre polynomials, where subscript "n" is the degree, "m" is the order, and "m" ≤ "n". The sums start at "n" = 2. The unnormalized degree-2 functions are


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: Note that of the three functions, only "P"(±1)=1 is finite at the poles. More generally, only "P"(±1)=1 are finite at the poles.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The unnormalized gravity coefficients of degree 2 and 3 that were determined by the GRAIL mission are given in Table 1. The zero values of "C", "S", and "S" are because a principal axis frame is being used. There are no degree-1 coefficients when the three axes are centered on the center of mass.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The "J" coefficient for an oblate shape to the gravity field is affected by rotation and solid-body tides whereas "C" is affected by solid-body tides. Both are larger than their equilibrium values showing that the upper layers of the Moon are strong enough to support elastic stress. The "C" coefficient is large.


title: Gravitation of the Moon

text: In January 2022 China was reported by the "South China Morning Post" to have built a small (60 centimeters in diameter) research facility to simulate low lunar gravity with the help of magnets. The facility was reportedly partly inspired by the work of Andre Geim (who later shared the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on graphene) and Michael Berry, who both shared the Ig Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for the magnetic levitation of a frog.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Alen Bokšić (; born 21 January 1970) is a former Croatian professional footballer. A forward who spent most of his career in France and Italy, he was renowned for his technique and power, and is regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the Croatia national football team.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: With Marseille Bokšić won the 1992–93 UEFA Champions League, and was voted fourth in the 1993 European Footballer of the Year poll. That same year he was named Croatian Footballer of the Year. He also won two Serie A titles in 1997 and 2000 with Juventus and Lazio respectively, and is regarded as one of the best foreign players in the history of Serie A since 1980.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Although selected for Yugoslavia squad at the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy, the 20-year-old Bokšić did not play in the tournament, with coach Ivica Osim preferring more experienced forwards in the lineup. Following Croatia's independence from Yugoslavia Bokšić became an integral part of Croatia's national team in the 1990s under coach Miroslav Blažević. He played for Croatia at the 1996 European Championship but was not included in the squad for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France due to an injury he suffered only weeks before the tournament. Bokšić finally made his World Cup debut at the age of 32 at the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan, appearing in all three of the team's group stage matches, before retiring only a year later in 2003.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Bokšić was born in Makarska and started his club career at Zmaj, from Makarska. As a young player he moved to Hajduk Split and was introduced into the first team (1987–91). With Hajduk, he won the Yugoslav Cup in 1987 and 1991. In 174 games for Hajduk, he scored 60 goals. Bokšić scored in the 1991 Yugoslavian Cup final against Red Star Belgrade for what proved to be the winning goal. It was the last ever goal scored in the Yugoslavian Cup as the country dissolved just few months after that.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Bokšić moved to AS Cannes in France (1991–92), but was plagued by injuries and played only one game for the entire season.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: In the summer of 1992, he was signed by French giants Olympique Marseille. In his only full season with Olympique Marseille (1992–93), he was the Ligue 1 top goalscorer, leading the charts with 23 goals. That season he won the French league, but Marseille were later stripped of the title. His biggest success with the club came in May 1993, when Olympique Marseille defeated A.C. Milan to win the 1993 UEFA Champions League Final. Bokšić was the club's joint top goalscorer in the competition alongside teammate Rudi Völler, as he scored 6 goals in the 1992–93 UEFA Champions League.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: He played another 12 league matches for the club at the beginning of the 1993–94 season, until December 1993, when he was transferred to Lazio. Bokšić left the club in the wake of one of the biggest football club scandals in history. In 1994, due to financial irregularities and a match fixing scandal involving then president Bernard Tapie, they suffered enforced relegation to the second division.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: After joining Lazio in Italy in 1993, Bokšić was voted fourth for the 1993 European Footballer of the Year, behind winner Roberto Baggio, Dennis Bergkamp, and Eric Cantona. In his first half-season with Lazio, Bokšić appeared in 21 Serie A matches, scoring 4 goals as Lazio ended 4th.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: In the 1994–95 season Lazio were managed by Zdeněk Zeman, and Bokšić played an important part in the club's best Serie A position since 1974, finishing 2nd. Bokšić was a part of a praised attacking trident formed by Bokšić, Giuseppe Signori and Pierluigi Casiraghi. He scored a total of 9 goals in the 1994–95 Serie A season.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: In the summer of 1996 Bokšić signed for Juventus, then managed by Marcello Lippi. During his one season with the club he managed to win three trophies, as Juventus won the 1996–97 Serie A, the 1996 Intercontinental Cup and the 1996 UEFA Super Cup. The club also reached the final of the 1996–97 UEFA Champions League but lost the match 3–1 against Borussia Dortmund. Bokšić played as a forward until the 88th minute of the match, alongside Christian Vieri, and provided the assist for Alessandro Del Piero's goal. Bokšić was the club's top goalscorer in the competition with 4 goals. He also netted 3 goals in 22 league appearances on their way to the Serie A title.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Bokšić returned to Lazio in 1997, now under new manager Sven-Göran Eriksson. In his first season back at the club, he scored 10 goals in Serie A, with Lazio finishing 7th in the league; this was a disappointing result for Lazio, but they managed to reach the final of the 1998 UEFA Cup and also won the Coppa Italia that year.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: In the 1998–99 season, Lazio won the Supercoppa Italiana, finished 2nd in the league and won the 1998–99 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. However, Bokšić made only 3 Serie A appearances due to injury.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: The 1999–2000 Season was Bokšić's most successful season with Lazio, as the club won the UEFA Super Cup, the 1999–2000 Serie A title and another Coppa Italia; Bokšić scored 4 goals en route to the scudetto. After six years of playing in Serie A, he decided to leave Italy at the end of the season.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: In 2010, Bokšić was voted number 32 on the list of the best foreign players in the history of Serie A.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Following his spell at Lazio, Bokšić surprised the footballing world by joining English Premier League club Middlesbrough for a transfer fee of £2.5 million. On his debut for Middlesbrough, Boksic scored twice and claimed an assist in a 3-1 win over Coventry City. At the time of his signing, some reports claimed that he had become the highest-paid player in English football, earning a reputed £63,000 per week. However, there are no documented sources for this claim, which was vehemently denied by manager Bryan Robson: "The wages quoted are a total nonsense. I got to hear about this long before anyone else and that's why we acted quickly and decisively. Talk of £63,000 a week is utter rubbish."


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Despite his injury problems, he went on to score 12 goals in his first season at Middlesbrough and was subsequently named their Player of the Year. He was less affected by injuries in the 2001–02 season, but could only muster eight goals in a Boro side short of goals and creativity throughout the entire side. Whilst a Middlesbrough player, he went to the 2002 World Cup finals with Croatia, but failed to score in his country's three group games.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: On 1 February 2003, Boksic announced his decision to retire from football, after a succession of injuries had restricted his appearances at the Riverside Stadium. Bokšić came to a mutual agreement with Middlesbrough to bring the curtain down on his illustrious career. His last match for Middlesbrough was on 11 January 2003, in a 2–2 draw with Southampton, while His final goal for the club had come in a memorable 3–1 win over Manchester United on Boxing Day 2002.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Twenty-year-old Bokšić was a member of the Yugoslavia national squad during 1990 World Cup, but coach Ivica Osim did not give him a single minute of action, preferring the more experienced Zlatko Vujović and Darko Pančev for places upfront.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: For the Croatia national team, Bokšić was capped 40 times, scoring 10 goals. He made his debut for them in a June 1993 friendly match against Ukraine and his final international was an October 2002 European Championship qualification match against Bulgaria. He played for his country at Euro 96. He missed Croatia's surprising third-place run in the 1998 FIFA World Cup due to injury. This was a devastating blow for the Croatian team as they could not pair him together with Davor Šuker. He finally made his World Cup playing debut in the 2002 World Cup at the age of 32.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Bokšić was a dynamic, well-rounded, physically strong, and prolific forward, who was renowned for his technique, skill, creativity, movement, power, stamina, and pace on the ball, which enabled him to open up defences and create space for his teammates and provide depth to his team with his attacking runs; despite his ability and consistent goalscoring rate throughout his career, he drew criticism at times in the Italian media for his occasional lack of accuracy in front of goal during his time in Serie A. He was also injury prone throughout his career.


title: Alen Bokšić

text: Bokšić married Ajda in 1990. The couple had three children (daughter Stella and sons Toni and Alen) before divorcing in 2000.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: The KAI KT-1 Woongbi (Hangul: KT-1 웅비) is a South Korean single-engined turboprop, basic training aircraft. It was jointly developed by Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) and the Agency for Defence Development (ADD). The KT-1 is the first completely indigenous Korean aircraft ever developed.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: The origins of the KT-1 can be found within the KTX programme, which had been launched during 1988 on behalf of the Republic of Korea Air Force (RKAF). The programme, which sought to develop an indigenously designed trainer aircraft, was a joint effort between aircraft manufacturer Korean Aerospace Industries (KAI) and government body Agency for Defence Development (ADD); the latter was responsible for overseeing the project, while the former performed the detailed design work as well as the majority of manufacturing activity. Unusually, CATIA computer aided design (CAD) software was used to produce the design, being the first use of such techniques for an aircraft in its class.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: A series of nine prototypes were constructed, the first being complete during June 1991. During November 1991, the maiden flight of the KT-1 took place, after which the flight testing programme formally commenced. During 1995, the aircraft was officially named 'Woongbi'. In 1998, it was announced that the final test flight had been performed. During the following year, an initial production contract was signed for eighty-five aircraft, with provisions for an additional twenty, between manufacturer Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) and the RKAF.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: During 2002, KAI revealed that they were working on the production of an upgraded and armed version of the KT-1 basic trainer. This variant, designated "KO-1", was intended to be used in the forward air control and counter-insurgency (COIN) roles. Development was conducted in cooperation with the Agency for Defence Development (ADD) and had been undertaken in response to an existing RKAF requirement for 20-40 aircraft. According to a KAI representative, the KO-1 is ideally suited for drug interdiction operations and that the company was pitching the variant towards countries in Latin America.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: On 8 March 2006, a KAI spokesperson announced that the company intended to export more than 150 improved versions of the KT-1 to various countries across both Central America and Southeast Asia. Furthermore, an improved export version of the KT-1, which was called "KT-1C", was also to be launched to support these ambitions. During 2005, KAI had begun marketing the KT-1 as one element of an integrated training package, having paired it with their newer jet-powered KAI T-50 Golden Eagle trainer. The company also stated that it believes a partnership with American aerospace company Lockheed Martin shall encourage confidence in its training platforms.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: The KT-1 can be equipped with either an analog or 'glass' cockpit configuration. Some variants feature additional avionics and systems, such as a night vision goggles (NVG)-compatible cockpit, head-up display (HUD), multi-function displays (MFD), GPS/inertial navigation system, mission computer, onboard oxygen generation system, a vapour-cycle environmental control system and hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible controls. Avionics are provided by various foreign companies, including Elbit, Flight Vision and Thales.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: For light attack missions, the aircraft can carry various types of guns, bombs, rockets and missiles dependent upon customer requirements. Other equipment can include external fuel tanks, a centrally mounted forward-looking infrared (FLIRA) sensor and a laser range finder.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: The Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) is the primary customer for the type. During 2000, the first KT-1 Woongbi was handed over to the ROKAF; deliveries had originally been scheduled to commence two years earlier. By the end of that year, eight aircraft had been delivered to the service; reportedly, a rate of production of two aircraft per month had been achieved by this point. By November 2003, the assembly line was reportedly about to be put on hold following the completion of the ROKAF's order; however, KAI aimed to restart production within two-three years based upon follow-on orders. However, a follow-on ROKAF order for 20 aircraft was received that same month. The majority of the ROKAF's fleet can be armed with both gun pods and rockets, which are intended to be used for weapons training.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: One of the first export customers for the KT-1 was Indonesia. During early 2001, Indonesia exchanged 8 CASA/IPTN CN-235 transport aircraft for 12 KT-1 trainers. On 25 April 2003, the first KT-1 was delivered to Indonesia, a move which represented the first Korean aircraft export; commenting at the time, KAI stated that it was presently in negotiations for a 13-trainer follow-on order. During early 2011, reported emerged that Indonesia was interested in further acquisitions, but South Korean officials denied that any further barter deals had been agreed. During November 2018, three additional KT-1B aircraft were ordered for the Indonesian Air Force (IAF).


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: In addition to its use as a basic trainer, the IAF have equipped their Jupiter Aerobatic Team with the KT-1. On 15 March 2015, a serious midair collision occurred during a practice session for Malaysia's Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition. Initial reports stated that all four pilots survived the collision.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: During June 2007, South Korea and Turkey successfully negotiated a contract for 40 (+15) KT-1s; this exchange involved the modular armor technology of the K2 Black Panther main battle tank (MBT), which Turkey hopes to use upon its own future indigenous Atlay MBT. The last of these aircraft, which were designated "KT-1T" and jointly manufactured by the two nations, was delivered during late 2012. During April 2015, it was announced that Turkey would procure a further 15 KT-1Ts as a stop-gap measure until development of its indigenous TAI Hürkuş trainer aircraft could be completed.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: On 6 November 2012, KAI and the Peruvian Air Force signed a contract for 20 KT-1Ps, comprising ten KT and ten KA versions as well as some offset and technology transfer arrangements, for an approximate amount of US$208 million. KAI was to provide the first four aircraft by the end of 2014, while the remainder were to be locally assembled by SEMAN, the maintenance air wing of the Peruvian Air Force. The type shall progressively replace the aging fleets of Aermacchi MB-339 and Embraer EMB 312 Tucano aircraft. During April 2015, the first locally manufactured KT-1P was delivered to the Peruvian Air Force.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: During November 2018, Spain proposed a barter deal to South Korea's Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) involving the KT-1 and other Korean aircraft, potentially involving up to 30 planes, which Spain wished to exchange for up to 6 Airbus A400M Atlas transport planes. If completed, this deal would be first export of the KT-1 to a European Union country.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: On 9 April 2021, a KT-1 trainer aircraft had crashed to the Aegean Sea. Both pilots were recovered by search and rescue teams tasked by the Turkish Air Force. While one of the pilots had ejected himself, the remaining pilot managed to crash-land the KT-1 and preserved the structural integrity of the aircraft.


title: KAI KT-1 Woongbi

text: On 1 April 2022, four ROKAF pilots were killed after a pair of KT-1s crashed into each other over a mountain northeast of Sacheon.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The United States Public Health Service (USPHS or PHS) is a collection of agencies of the Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health, containing nine out of the department's twelve operating divisions. The Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS. The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) is the federal uniformed service of the PHS, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: PHS had its origins in the system of marine hospitals that originated in 1798. In 1871 these were consolidated into the Marine Hospital Service, and shortly afterwards the position of Surgeon General and the PHSCC were established. As the system's scope grew to include quarantine authority and research, it was renamed the Public Health Service in 1912.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: A series of reorganizations in 1966–1973 began a shift where PHS' divisions were promoted into departmental operating agencies. PHS was established as a thin layer of hierarchy above them rather than an operating agency in its own right.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1995, PHS agencies were shifted to report directly to the Secretary of Health and Human Services rather the Assistant Secretary for Health, eliminating PHS as an administrative level in the organizational hierarchy.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Nine of the twelve operating agencies within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) are designated as part of the Public Health Service:


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The three other operating agencies of HHS are designated human services agencies and are not part of the Public Health Service. These are the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Administration for Children and Families, and Administration for Community Living.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) employs more than 6,000 uniformed public health professionals for the purpose of delivering public health promotion and disease prevention programs, and advancing public health science. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease and poor health conditions.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The mission of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the people of the United States. According to the PHSCC, this mission is achieved through rapid and effective response to public health needs, leadership and excellence in public health practices, and advancement of public health science.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: As one of the United States eight uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. The PHSCC includes officers drawn from many professions, including environmental and occupational health, medicine, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, psychology, social work, hospital administration, health record administration, nutrition, engineering, science, veterinary, health information technology, and other health-related occupations.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Officers of the Corps wear uniforms similar to those of the United States Navy with special PHSCC insignia, and the Corps uses the same commissioned officer ranks as the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps from ensign to admiral, uniformed services pay grades O-1 through O-10 respectively.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: According to , service in the PHSCC after June 30, 1960, is considered military service for retirement purposes. Under , active service in the PHSCC is considered active military service for the purposes of most veterans' benefits and for antidiscrimination laws.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Modern public health began developing in the 19th century, as a response to advances in science that led to the understanding of the source and spread of disease. As the knowledge of contagious diseases increased, means to control them and prevent infection were soon developed. Once it became understood that these strategies would require community-wide participation, disease control began being viewed as a public responsibility. Various organizations and agencies were then created to implement these disease preventing strategies. As the U.S. expanded, the scope of the governmental health agency expanded. Most of the Public health activity in the United States took place at the municipal level before the mid-20th century. There was some activity at the national and state level as well.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In the administration of the second president of the United States John Adams, Congress authorized the creation of hospitals for mariners through the 1798 Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen. They were initially located along the East Coast, and as the boundaries of the United States expanded, so too were marine hospitals. The Marine Hospital Service was placed under the Revenue Marine Service (a forerunner of the present-day Coast Guard) within the Department of the Treasury.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: A reorganization in 1871 converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. This reorganization established the Marine Hospital Service as its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury. The position of Supervising Surgeon (later titled the Surgeon General) was created to administer the Service, and John Maynard Woodworth was appointed as the first incumbent in 1871. He moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff; putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals. The commissioned officer corps was formally established by legislation after the fact in 1889, and signed by President Grover Cleveland.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, into control of infectious disease, collection of health statistics, and basic science research. Following cholera epidemics in the US in 1873, the National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service. Under the Public Health Act of 1879, this authority was temporarily shared with the U.S. Army and Navy through the National Board of Health, until 1883.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Given the prevalence of infectious disease among immigrants arriving from famine and war areas of Europe, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned to medically inspect immigrants at such sites as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. In 1878, an act of Congress enabled the Marine Hospital Service to collect data on communicable diseases and perform surveillance of the incidence and distribution of diseases; these programs would eventually become the National Center for Health Statistics. In 1887, the Hygienic Laboratory, the predecessor of the National Institutes of Health, began as a single-room laboratory for bacteriological investigation at the Staten Island Marine Hospital, and moved to Washington, D.C. in 1891.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1899, internal divisions were formed for the first time, specifically the Divisions of Marine Hospitals, Domestic Quarantine, Foreign Quarantine, Sanitary Reports and Statistics, Scientific Research, and Personnel and Accounts. These original divisions would remain through 1943, although there were minor name changes throughout this time, and a few new divisions would be created.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Because the Service took on broader responsibilities, in 1902 it was renamed as the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. In 1912, under new authorizing legislation, it was established as the Public Health Service (PHS) to express the enlarged scope of its work.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The 1912 PHS law () expanded the agency's mission from communicable to include non-communicable diseases. In 1913, the former Cincinnati Marine Hospital building was reopened as a Field Investigation Station for water pollution research. This was the beginning of the PHS Environmental Health Divisions, a precursor to the Environmental Protection Agency.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1914, the Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation, the direct predecessor of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, was founded at the Pittsburgh Marine Hospital. Both of these offices were within the Division of Scientific Research.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The Division of Venereal Diseases was established in 1918, and the Narcotics Division in 1929 (it eventually became the National Institute of Mental Health). In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was redesignated as the (singular) National Institute of Health (NIH) by the Ransdell Act; in 1937, it absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part, and in 1938 it moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland. In 1939, PHS as a whole was transferred from the Department of the Treasury into the new Federal Security Agency. In 1942, the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas was created, which in 1946 became the Communicable Disease Center, which would eventually become the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Beginning in the late 1920s and continuing through the New Deal era, a significant building campaign upgraded several marine hospitals into large, monumental buildings, in contrast with the smaller buildings common for the 19th-century buildings. PHS's headquarters were in the Butler Building, a converted mansion across the street from the United States Capitol, from 1891 until April 1929. It expanded into office space in Temporary Building C on the National Mall in July 1920, which became its temporary headquarters after the Butler Building was closed for demolition. In May 1933, the new Public Health Service Building opened on the National Mall.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: By 1943, PHS contained eight administrative divisions, plus the National Cancer Institute, St. Elizabeths Hospital, and Freedmen's Hospital under the direct supervision of the Surgeon General. These divisions often had overlapping scopes, which was seen as administratively unwieldy. Additionally, some of these had been created and specified through several pieces of legislation that were inconsistent in their scope, while some had been created internally by PHS or delegated from the parent Federal Security Agency.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1943, PHS's divisions were collected into three operating agencies by law (). The Bureau of State Services administered cooperative services to U.S. states through technical and financial assistance, the Bureau of Medical Services provided direct patient care through hospitals and clinics as well as foreign quarantine facilities, and the National Institute of Health remained independent to perform laboratory research activities. Additionally, all of the laws affecting the functions of the public health agencies were consolidated for the first time in the Public Health Service Act of 1944.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The mid-20th century was a time of expansion for both NIH and the PHS environmental health programs. In 1948, NIH's name was changed to the plural National Institutes of Health, and by the end of 1950 six new institutes had been created within it. The environmental health programs expanded from water pollution into air, industrial, and chemical pollution and radiological health research during and after World War II, and in 1954 they moved across town from the former Cincinnati Marine Hospital to the newly constructed Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: However, the period was one of decline for the marine hospital system. In 1943, the hospital system had reached its peak of 30 hospitals. During 1944–1953, a wave of closings eliminated nine of the ten Marine Hospitals that had not been upgraded since the 1920s, as well as three newer general hospitals and the tuberculosis sanatorium at Fort Stanton. However, PHS funded construction of hospitals by the states through the 1946 Hill–Burton Act.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1953 the Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions, including the PHS, were transferred to the newly formed Department of Health, Education and Welfare. In 1955 the Division of Indian Health was established upon transfer of these functions from the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Between 1966 and 1973, a series of reorganizations and realignments led to the end of the bureau structure. The reorganization by 1968 replaced PHS's old bureau structure with two new operating agencies: the Health Services and Mental Health Administration (HSMHA) and the Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service (CPEHS), with NIH remaining independent and less affected by the organization. In 1968, the position of Assistant Secretary for Health was created, supplanting the Surgeon General as the top leader of the Public Health Service, although the Surgeon General was retained in a subordinate role. Also in 1968, the Food and Drug Administration, which traced its origins to 1862, became part of the PHS. The goal of the reorganizations was to coordinate the previously fragmented divisions to provide a holistic approach to large, overarching problems.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Additionally, a second wave of hospital closings during 1965–1970 closed the three remaining general hospitals at inland locations along the Mississippi River and Great Lakes, as well as the 19th-century Savannah hospital. In addition, St. Elizabeths Hospital and the psychiatric hospitals at Lexington and Fort Worth were transferred to other agencies, and the Galveston hospital was replaced with one acquired by PHS in nearby Nassau Bay. This left eight general hospitals plus the National Leprosarium in the system.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The new agencies came to be seen as unwieldy and bureaucratic, and they would turn out to be short-lived. CPEHS was broken up in 1970, as much of it was transferred out of PHS to form the core of the new Environmental Protection Agency. Around the same time, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health was created out of the former Division of Industrial Hygiene by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. HSMHA was broken up into four successor agencies in 1973.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Since 1973, PHS has encompassed between six and nine operating agencies anchored by NIH, FDA, and CDC. The organizational changes since 1973 have been:


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The PHS hospital system had been the target of efforts to close the entire system since the mid-1970s. As the result of pressure from the Reagan administration, the PHS hospital system was abolished in 1981, with the last eight hospitals transferred to other organizations: five to non-governmental entities, two to the Department of Defense, and one to the State of Louisiana. PHS would however continue to operate the National Leprosarium until 1999.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1995, supervision of the agencies within PHS was shifted from the Assistant Secretary for Health to report directly to the Secretary of Health and Human Services, eliminating PHS as an administrative level in the organizational hierarchy, although the agencies and offices are still legally designated as part of PHS.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Public health worker Sara Josephine Baker, M.D. established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy, leading teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of Hell's Kitchen and teaching mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. Another key pioneer of public health in the U.S. was Lillian Wald, who founded the Henry Street Settlement house in New York. The Visiting Nurse Service of New York was a significant organization for bringing health care to the urban poor.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In the area of environmental protection and public health, a Public Health Service 1969 community water survey that looked at more than a thousand drinking water systems across the United States drew two important conclusions that supported a growing demand for stronger protections that were adopted in the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. The survey concluded, first, that the state supervision programs were very uneven and often lax, and, second, that the bacteriological quality of the water, particularly among small systems, was of concern.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The 1963 Clean Air Act gave the Public Health Service in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare the authority to take abatement action against industries if it could be demonstrated that they were polluting across state lines, or if a governor requested. Some of these actions involved the Ohio River Valley, New York, and New Jersey. The service also began monitoring air pollution. the 1967 Clean Air Act redirected attention to larger air quality control regions.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: In 1932, the Public Health Service, working with the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, began a study to record the natural history of syphilis in hopes of justifying treatment programs for blacks. It was titled the "Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male".


title: United States Public Health Service

text: The study initially involved 600 black men—399 with syphilis, 201 who did not have the disease. The study was conducted without the benefit of patients' informed consent. Researchers told the men they were being treated for "bad blood", a local term referring to several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. In exchange for taking part in the study, the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance. Although originally projected to last six months, the study actually went on for 40 years. Penicillin—which can be used to treat syphilis—was discovered in the 1940s. However, the study continued and treatment was never given to the subjects. Because of this, it has been called "arguably the most 'infamous' biomedical research study in U.S. history".


title: United States Public Health Service

text: A USPHS physician who took part in the 1932–1972 Tuskegee program, John Charles Cutler, was in charge of the U.S. government's syphilis experiments in Guatemala, in which in the Central American Republic of Guatemala, Guatemalan prisoners, soldiers, orphaned children, and others were deliberately infected with syphilis and other sexually-transmitted diseases from 1946 to 1948, in order to scientifically study the disease, in a project funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health of the United States in Bethesda, Maryland.


title: United States Public Health Service

text: Secretary of State Hillary Clinton apologized to the Republic of Guatemala for this program in 2010, in light of the serious ethical lapses in moral judgement which occurred.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: The McDonnell XF-85 Goblin is an American prototype fighter aircraft conceived during World War II by McDonnell Aircraft. It was intended to deploy from the bomb bay of the giant Convair B-36 bomber as a parasite fighter. The XF-85's intended role was to defend bombers from hostile interceptor aircraft, a need demonstrated during World War II. McDonnell built two prototypes before the Air Force (USAAF) terminated the program.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: The XF-85 was a response to a USAAF requirement for a fighter to be carried within the Northrop XB-35 and B-36, then under development. This was to address the limited range of existing interceptor aircraft compared to the greater range of new bomber designs. The XF-85 was a diminutive jet aircraft featuring a distinctive egg-shaped fuselage and a forked-tail stabilizer design. The prototypes were built and underwent testing and evaluation in 1948. Flight tests showed promise in the design, but the aircraft's performance was inferior to the jet fighters it would have faced in combat, and there were difficulties in docking. The XF-85 was swiftly canceled, and the prototypes were thereafter relegated to museum exhibits. The 1947 successor to the USAAF, the United States Air Force (USAF), continued to examine the concept of parasite aircraft under three related projects following the cancellation: MX-106 "Tip Tow", FICON, and "Tom-Tom."


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: During World War II, American bombers such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, and Boeing B-29 Superfortress were protected by long-range escort fighters such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and North American P-51 Mustang. These fighters could not match the range of the Northrop B-35 or Convair B-36, the next generation of bombers developed by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). The development cost for longer-ranged fighters was high, while aerial refueling was still considered risky and technologically difficult. Pilot fatigue had also been a problem during long fighter escort missions in Europe and the Pacific, giving further impetus to innovative approaches.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: The USAAF considered a number of different options including the use of remotely piloted vehicles before choosing parasite fighters as the most viable B-36 defense. The concept of a parasite fighter had its origins in 1918, when the Royal Air Force examined the viability of Sopwith Camel parasite fighters operating from their 23-class airships. In the 1930s, the U.S. Navy had a short-lived operational parasite fighter, the Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk, aboard the airships and . Starting in 1931, aircraft designer Vladimir Vakhmistrov conducted experiments in the Soviet Union as part of the Zveno project during which up to five fighters of various types were carried by Polikarpov TB-2 and Tupolev TB-3 bombers. In August 1941, these combinations flew the only combat missions ever undertaken by parasite fighters – TB-3s carrying Polikarpov I-16SPB dive bombers attacked the Cernavodă bridge and Constantsa docks, in Romania. After that attack, the squadron, based in the Crimea, carried out a tactical attack on a bridge over the river Dnieper at Zaporozhye, which had been captured by advancing German troops. Later in World War II, the "Luftwaffe" experimented with the Messerschmitt Me 328 as a parasite fighter, but problems with its pulsejet engines could not be overcome. Other late-war rocket-powered parasite fighter projects such as the Arado E.381 and Sombold So 344 were unrealized "paper projects".


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: On 3 December 1942, the USAAF sent out a Request for Proposals (RfP) for a diminutive piston-engined fighter. By January 1944, the Air Technical Service Command refined the RfP and, in January 1945, the specifications were further revised in MX-472 to specify a jet-powered aircraft. Although a number of aerospace companies studied the feasibility of such aircraft, McDonnell was the only company to submit a proposal to the original 1942 request and later revised requirements. The company's Model 27 proposal was completely reworked to meet the new specifications.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: The initial concept for the Model 27 was for the fighter to be carried half-exposed under the B-29, B-35, or B-36. The USAAF rejected this proposal, citing increased drag, and hence reduced range for the composite bomber-fighter configuration. On 19 March 1945, McDonnell's design team led by Herman D. Barkey, submitted a revised proposal, the extensively redesigned Model 27D. The smaller aircraft had an egg-shaped fuselage, three fork-shaped vertical stabilizers, horizontal stabilizers with a significant dihedral, and 37° swept-back folding wings to allow it to fit in the confines of a bomb bay. The diminutive aircraft measured long; the folding wings spanned . Only a limited fuel supply of was deemed necessary for the specified 30-minute combat endurance. A hook was installed along the aircraft's center of gravity; in flight, it retracted to lie flat in the upper part of the nose. The aircraft had an empty weight just short of . To save weight, the fighter had no landing gear. During the testing program, a fixed steel skid under the fuselage and spring-steel "runners" at the underside of the wingtips were installed in case of an emergency landing. Despite the cramped quarters, the pilot was provided with a cordite ejection seat, bail-out oxygen bottle, and high-speed ribbon parachute. Four machine guns in the nose made up the aircraft's armament.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: In service, the parasite fighter would be launched and retrieved by a trapeze. With the trapeze fully extended, the engine would be airstarted and the release from the mother ship was accomplished by the pilot pulling the nose back to disengage from the hook. In recovery, the aircraft would approach the mother ship from underneath and link up with the trapeze using the retractable hook in the aircraft's nose. The anticipated production shift would see a mixed B-36 fleet with both "fighter carriers" and bombers employed on missions. There were plans that, from the 24th B-36 onward, provisions would be made to accommodate one XF-85, with a maximum of four per bomber envisioned. Up to 10 percent of the B-36s on order were to be converted to fighter carriers with three or four F-85s instead of a bomb load.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: On 9 October 1945, the USAAF signed a letter of intent covering the engineering development for two prototypes (US serial numbers "46-523/4"), although the contract was not finalized until February 1947. After the successful conclusion of two reviews of a wooden mock-up in 1946 and 1947 by USAAF engineering staff, McDonnell constructed two prototypes in late 1947. The Model 27D was re-designated XP-85, but by June 1948, it was changed to XF-85 and given the name "Goblin". There were plans to acquire 30 production P-85s, but the USAAF took the cautious approach – if test results from the two prototypes were positive, production orders for more than 100 Goblins would be finalized later.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: During wind tunnel testing at Moffett Field, California, the first prototype XF-85 was accidentally dropped from a crane at a height of , causing substantial damage to the forward fuselage, air intake, and lower fuselage. The second prototype had to be substituted for the remainder of the wind tunnel tests and the initial flight tests.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: As a production series B-36 was unavailable, all XF-85 flight tests were carried out using a converted EB-29B Superfortress mother ship that had a modified, "cutaway" bomb bay complete with trapeze, front airflow deflector, and an array of camera equipment and instrumentation. Since the EB-29B, named "Monstro", was smaller than the B-36, the XF-85 would be flight tested half-exposed. To load the XF-85 into the host plane, a special "loading pit" was dug into the tarmac at South Base, Muroc Field, where all the flight tests originated. On 23 July 1948, the XF-85 flew the first of five captive flights, designed to test whether the EB-29B and its parasite fighter could fly "mated". The XF-85 was carried in a stowed position, but was sometimes tethered and extended into the airstream with the engine off, for the pilot to gain some feel for the aircraft in flight.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: McDonnell test pilot Edwin Foresman Schoch was assigned to the project, riding in the XF-85 while it was stowed aboard the EB-29B, before attempting a "free" flight on 23 August 1948. After Schoch was released from the bomber at a height of 20,000 ft (6,000 m), he completed a 10-minute proving flight at speeds between 180 and 250 mph (290–400 km/h), testing controls and maneuverability. When he attempted a hook-up, it became obvious the Goblin was extremely sensitive to the bomber's turbulence, as well as being affected by the air cushion created by the two aircraft operating in close proximity. Constant but gentle adjustments of throttle and trim were necessary to overcome the cushioning effect. After three attempts to hook onto the trapeze, Schoch miscalculated his approach and struck the trapeze so violently that the canopy was smashed and ripped free and his helmet and mask were torn off. He saved the prototype by making a belly landing on the reinforced skid at the dry lake bed at Muroc. All flight testing was suspended for seven weeks while the XF-85 was repaired and modified. Schoch used the down period to undertake a series of problem-free dummy dockings with a Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star fighter.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: After boosting the trim power by 50 percent, adjusting the aerodynamics, and other modifications, two further mated test flights were carried out before Schoch was able to make a successful release and hookup on 14 October 1948. During the fifth free flight on 22 October 1948, Schoch again found it difficult to hook the Goblin to the bomber's trapeze, aborting four attempts before hitting the trapeze bar and breaking the hook on the XF-85's nose. Again, a forced landing was successfully carried out at Muroc.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: With the first prototype's repairs completed, it also joined the flight test program, completing captive flights. While in flight, the Goblin was stable, easy to fly, and recoverable from spins, although initial estimates of a 648 mph (1,043 km/h) top speed proved optimistic. The first test flights revealed that turbulence during approach to the B-29 was significant, leading to the addition of upper and lower fins at the extreme rear fuselage, as well as two wingtip fins to compensate for the increased directional instability in docking. All the initial flights had the hook secured in a fixed position, but when the hook was stowed and later raised, the resulting buffeting added to the difficulty in attempting a hookup. To address the problem, small aerodynamic fairings were added to the hook well that reduced the buffeting when the hook was extended and retracted. When testing resumed, on the 18 March 1949 test flight, Schoch continued to have difficulty in hooking up, striking and damaging the trapeze's nose-stabilizing section, before resorting to another emergency belly landing. After repairs to the trapeze, Schoch flew the first prototype on 8 April 1949, completing a 30-minute free flight test, but after three attempts, abandoned his efforts and resorted to another belly landing at Muroc.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: Aware of the problems revealed in flight tests, McDonnell reviewed the program and proposed a new development based on a more conventional design promising a Mach 0.9 capability, using alternatively a 35° swept wing and delta wing. McDonnell also considered adding a telescoping extension to the docking trapeze that would extend the device below the turbulent air under the mother ship. Before any further work on the trapeze, other modifications to the XF-85, or continued design studies on its follow-up could be carried out, the USAF canceled the XF-85 program on 24 October 1949.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: Two main reasons contributed to the cancellation. The XF-85's deficiencies revealed in flight testing included a lackluster performance in relation to contemporary jet fighters, and the high demands on pilot skill experienced during docking revealed a critical shortcoming that was never fully corrected. The development of practical aerial refueling for conventional fighters used as bomber escort was also a factor in the cancellation. The two Goblins flew seven times, with a total flight time of 2 hours and 19 minutes with only three of the free flights ending in a successful hookup. Schoch was the only pilot who ever flew the aircraft.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: Despite cancellation of the XF-85, the USAF continued to examine the concept of parasite aircraft as defensive fighters through a series of projects. These included Project MX-106 "Tip Tow", Project FICON, and Project "Tom-Tom" – which involved fighter aircraft attached to bomber aircraft by their wingtips. Project FICON ("fighter conveyor") emerged as an effective Convair GRB-36D and Republic RF-84K Thunderflash combined bomber-reconnaissance-fighter, although the role was changed to that of strategic reconnaissance. Project FICON drew heavily on data from the abortive XF-85 project and closely followed McDonnell's recommendations in designing a more refined trapeze. A total of 10 converted B-36s and 25 reconnaissance fighters saw limited service with the Strategic Air Command in 1955–1956, before they were supplemented by more effective aircraft and satellite systems.


title: McDonnell XF-85 Goblin

text: After the program's termination, the two XF-85 prototypes were stored, before being surplussed and relegated to museum display in 1950.


title: Jeremy Davidson (actor)

text: Jeremy Davidson (born Jeremy Michael Greenberg; December 24, 1971) is an American actor, writer and director.


title: Jeremy Davidson (actor)

text: He has been featured as Jack Randall, Kitty's love interest in the television series "Brothers & Sisters". He appeared in five seasons of the Lifetime series "Army Wives" as MSG Chase Moran. He played recurring characters on the ABC TV 2011-12 series "Pan Am", the NBC TV 2013 series "Do No Harm", and of the USA Network series "Royal Pains".


title: Jeremy Davidson (actor)

text: Davidson is married to actress Mary Stuart Masterson; the couple has four children. They met in 2004 during a production of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" and married two years later. He was previously married to Shari Berkowitz.


title: Economic rent

text: In economics, economic rent is any payment (in the context of a market transaction) to the owner of a factor of production in excess of the cost needed to bring that factor into production. In classical economics, economic rent is any payment made (including imputed value) or benefit received for non-produced inputs such as location (land) and for assets formed by creating official privilege over natural opportunities (e.g., patents). In the moral economy of neoclassical economics, economic rent includes income gained by labor or state beneficiaries of other "contrived" (assuming the market is natural, and does not come about by state and social contrivance) exclusivity, such as labor guilds and unofficial corruption.


title: Economic rent

text: In the moral economy of the economics tradition broadly, economic rent is opposed to producer surplus, or normal profit, both of which are theorized to involve productive human action. Economic rent is also independent of opportunity cost, unlike economic profit, where opportunity cost is an essential component. Economic rent is viewed as unearned revenue while economic profit is a narrower term describing surplus income earned by choosing between risk-adjusted alternatives. Unlike economic profit, economic rent cannot be theoretically eliminated by competition because any actions the recipient of the income may take such as improving the object to be rented will then change the total income to contract rent. Still, the total income is made up of economic profit (earned) plus economic rent (unearned).


title: Economic rent

text: For a produced commodity, economic rent may be due to the legal ownership of a patent (a politically enforced right to the use of a process or ingredient). For education and occupational licensing, it is the knowledge, performance, and ethical standards, as well as the cost of permits and licenses that are collectively controlled as to their number, regardless of the competence and willingness of those who wish to compete on price alone in the area being licensed. In regard to labor, economic rent can be created by the existence of mass education, labor laws, state social reproduction supports, democracy, guilds, and labor unions (e.g., higher pay for some workers, where collective action creates a scarcity of such workers, as opposed to an ideal condition where labor competes with other factors of production on price alone). For most other production, including agriculture and extraction, economic rent is due to a scarcity (uneven distribution) of natural resources (e.g., land, oil, or minerals).


title: Economic rent

text: By contrast, in production theory, if there is no exclusivity and there is perfect competition, there are no economic rents, as competition drives prices down to their floor.


title: Economic rent

text: Economic rent is different from other unearned and passive income, including contract rent. This distinction has important implications for public revenue and tax policy. As long as there is sufficient accounting profit, governments can collect a portion of economic rent for the purpose of public finance. For example, economic rent can be collected by a government as royalties or extraction fees in the case of resources such as minerals and oil and gas.


title: Economic rent

text: Historically, theories of rent have typically applied to rent received by different factor owners within a single economy. Hossein Mahdavy was the first to introduce the concept of "external rent", whereby one economy received rent from other economies.


title: Economic rent

text: Late 1800s thinkers conceptualized economic rent as ""incomes analogous to land rents" in the sense of rewarding control over persistently scarce or monopolised assets, rather than labour or sacrifice." Over time, economists shifted their definition of the term. Neoclassical economists defined economic rent as "income in excess of opportunity cost or competitive price."


title: Economic rent

text: According to Robert Tollison (1982), economic rents are "excess returns" above the "normal levels" that are generated in competitive markets. More specifically, a rent is "a return in excess of the resource owner's opportunity cost".


title: Economic rent

text: Henry George, best known for his proposal for a single tax on land, defines rent as "the part of the produce that accrues to the owners of land (or other natural capabilities) by virtue of ownership" and as "the share of wealth given to landowners because they have an exclusive right to the use of those natural capabilities."


title: Economic rent

text: The law professors Lucian Bebchuk and Jesse Fried define the term as "extra returns that firms or individuals obtain due to their positional advantages."


title: Economic rent

text: In political economy, including physiocracy, classical economics, Georgism, and other schools of economic thought, land is recognized as an inelastic factor of production. Land, in this sense, means exclusive access rights to any natural opportunity. Rent is the share paid to freeholders for allowing production on the land they control.


title: Economic rent

text: David Ricardo is credited with the first clear and comprehensive analysis of differential land rent and the associated economic relationships (law of rent).


title: Economic rent

text: Johann Heinrich von Thünen was influential in developing the spatial analysis of rents, which highlighted the importance of centrality and transport. Simply put, it was density of population, increasing the profitability of commerce and providing for the division and specialization of labor, that commanded higher municipal rents. These high rents determined that land in a central city would not be allocated to farming but be allocated instead to more profitable residential or commercial uses.


title: Economic rent

text: Observing that a tax on the unearned rent of land would not distort economic activities, Henry George proposed that publicly collected land rents (land value taxation) should be the primary (or only) source of public revenue, though he also advocated public ownership, taxation, and regulation of natural monopolies and monopolies of scale that cannot be eliminated by regulation.


title: Economic rent

text: Neoclassical economics extends the concept of rent to include factors other than natural resource rents.


title: Economic rent

text: The labeling of this version of rent as "Paretian" may be a misnomer in that Vilfredo Pareto, the economist for whom this kind of rent was named, may or may not have proffered any conceptual formulation of rent.


title: Economic rent

text: Monopoly rent refers to those economic rents derived from monopolies, which can result from (1) denial of access to an asset or (2) the unique qualities of an asset. Examples of monopoly rent include: rents associated from legally enforced knowledge monopolies derived from intellectual property like patents or copyrights; rents associated with 'de facto' monopolies of companies like Microsoft and Intel who control the underlying standards in an industry or product line (e.g. Microsoft Office); rents associated with 'natural monopolies' of public or private utilities (e.g. telephone, electricity, railways, etc.); and rents associated with network effects of platform technologies controlled by companies like Facebook, Google, or Amazon.


title: Economic rent

text: The generalization of the concept of rent to include opportunity cost has served to highlight the role of political barriers in creating and privatizing rents. For example, a person seeking to become a member of a medieval guild makes a huge investment in training and education, which has limited potential application outside of that guild. In a competitive market, the wages of a member of the guild would be set so that the expected net return on the investment in training would be just enough to justify making the investment. In a sense, the required investment is a natural barrier to entry, discouraging some would-be members from making the necessary investment in training to enter the competitive market for the services of the guild. This is a natural "free market" self-limiting control on the number of guild members and/or the cost of training necessitated by certification. Some of those who would have opted for a particular guild may decide to join a different guild or occupation.


title: Economic rent

text: However, a political restriction on the number of people entering into the competitive market for services of the guild has the effect of raising the return on investments in the guild's training, especially for those already practicing, by creating an artificial scarcity of guild members. To the extent that a constraint on entrants to the guild actually increases the returns to guild members as opposed to ensuring competence, then the practice of limiting entrants to the field is a rent-seeking activity, and the excess return realized by the guild members is economic rent.


title: Economic rent

text: The same model explains the high wages in some modern professions that have been able to both obtain legal protection from competition and limit their membership, notably medical doctors, actuaries, and lawyers. In countries where the creation of new universities is limited by legal charter, such as the UK, it also applies to professors. It may also apply to careers that are inherently competitive in the sense that there is a fixed number of slots, such as football league positions, music charts, or urban territory for illegal drug selling. These jobs are characterised by the existence of a small number of rich members of the guild, along with a much larger surrounding of poor people competing against each other under very poor conditions as they "pay their dues" to try to join the guild. (Reference: "Freakonomics: Why do drug dealers live with their Moms?").


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Thiago Alves d'Araujo (; born 3 October 1983) is a Brazilian bare-knuckle fighter and former mixed martial artist. A 27-fight veteran of the Ultimate Fighting Championship, he competed in the promotion from 2005 until 2019. Aside from being a professional fighter, Alves has been a striking coach at the American Top Team since 2017.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Born and raised in Fortaleza, Brazil, Alves began training in Muay Thai at the age of 15 in order to get in better shape before transitioning to mixed martial arts at the age of 17. Alves won his first MMA bout as an amateur at just 15 years old, defeating a 25-year-old competitor by unanimous decision. At 19, Alves relocated from Brazil to Coconut Creek, Florida to train full-time at the prestigious American Top Team camp.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Alves, with a record of 8–3, received an invitation to make his UFC debut at Ultimate Fight Night 2 against fellow UFC newcomer Spencer Fisher. The fight would take place on Alves' twenty-second birthday. Despite having early success in the bout, especially on the ground, Alves fell victim to a triangle choke late in the second round.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Thiago returned to action on the undercard of UFC 56, defeating previously-undefeated Ansar Chalangov by TKO due to punches at 2:25 into the first round.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: At UFC 59, Thiago was matched up against Derrick Noble, a fighter he had previously lost to by (rear-naked choke). The two fighters were both aggressive on the feet, in which Alves was forced to cover up after getting rocked with a flurry by Noble. Looking to capitalize, Noble rushed in when Alves caught him with a perfectly timed counterpunch that dropped him and led to Alves scoring a TKO victory.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: At Ultimate Fight Night 5, Alves was matched up against fellow up-and-comer Jon Fitch. In a match-up of two future top welterweight contenders, Fitch defeated Alves via TKO at 4:37 into the second round after landing a flush upkick to the face of Alves which dropped him and led to Fitch finishing the fight with strikes.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Alves returned to his winning ways at Ortiz vs. Shamrock 3 - The Final Chapter, defeating veteran John Alessio by unanimous decision.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: "Pitbull" completed a busy 2006, during which he fought four times. At UFC 66, he dominated Tony DeSouza, knocking out the jiu-jitsu black belt with a knee in the second round. Following his victory, it was announced that Alves tested positive for a diuretic, spironolactone, which he supposedly used to help him lose water weight in order to make the 170-pound limit. As a result of the failed drug test, Alves was suspended eight months by the Nevada State Athletic Commission and fined $5,500.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Alves returned at UFC Fight Night 11, where he knocked out Japanese fighter Kuniyoshi Hironaka with a punch and knee in the second round. Less than two months later, Alves faced off against veteran contender Chris Lytle at UFC 78. After an exciting stand-up battle, doctors halted the bout at the end of the second round because of a cut above the eye of Lytle, declaring Alves the winner by doctor stoppage. The bout earned both fighters "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: In his first bout of 2008 at UFC Fight Night 13, Alves faced his biggest test to date, as he was matched up against welterweight contender Karo Parisyan. After resisting any attempts to grapple but failing to amount any significant offense during the stand-up exchanges throughout the first round, "The Pitbull" scored a knee to the head of Parisyan, knocking down the judo expert before finishing him on the ground with strikes.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Once again taking just two months between bouts, Alves accepted a fight against former UFC Welterweight Champion Matt Hughes, a fighter widely considered the most dominant champion in UFC history. The Welterweight bout, which served as the main event of UFC 85 in London, was scheduled as a late replacement after Chuck Liddell had to pull out of his headliner fight against Rashad Evans with a hamstring injury.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Prior to the bout, Alves surprised many by missing weight for the welterweight bout—coming in at 174 pounds. Despite his opponent missing the 170-pound limit, Hughes accepted the fight at a catchweight. Despite the pre-fight blunder, Alves shocked the crowd by dominating the heavily favored former champion. After picking apart Hughes standing and displaying vastly-improved takedown defense throughout the first round, "The Pitbull" knocked Hughes down with a flying knee and followed him to the ground with punches early in the second, earning a TKO stoppage. This win earned Alves his first "Knockout of the Night" bonus award. In the post fight interview, Alves attributed not making weight to spraining his ankle two weeks before the fight.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Next, Alves was slated to face Diego Sanchez at UFC 90, in what many believed would be a match for the number-one contender spot. Sanchez, however, would be forced to pull out of the bout just weeks before the event due to injury.


title: Thiago Alves (fighter)

text: Josh Koscheck, another top-contender and four-time NCAA wrestling All-American, stepped in for Sanchez on short notice. Alves controlled most of the fight and won via unanimous decision (30–27, 29–28, and 30–27). The Brazilian's improved takedown-defense was once again on display, as the American Top Team fighter forced Koscheck into a kick boxing battle. Alves' devastating leg kicks proved to be a factor throughout the bout, taking away much of Koscheck's mobility. He also managed to drop Koscheck several times during the 3-round bout, but Koscheck's quick recovery enabled him to survive the onslaughts.