text: In February 1966, the new air terminal was transferred into operation. In June of the same year, all services of united aviagroup relocated to the new airport. By 1969, the aircraft park of Tselinograd aviagroup was replenished with the first Antonov An-24 aircraft. With the arrival of the Antonov An-24, the volume of passenger, mail, and cargo transportation sharply increased. People began to fly to many cities of the former Soviet Union. In 1975, the Tupolev Tu-154 first landed in the airport. After that, regular flights by Tupolev Tu-154 on the Alma-Ata – Tselinograd – Moscow route were started. The historical mark for Akmola (Astana) aviators was the change of the capital in 1998. Airdrome reconstruction begun and finished in a relatively short time: the runway with artificial covering was extended for about 3500 meters; the taxiway and apron were also expanded. Lighting systems and radio navigation equipment were replaced. The VIP building was constructed, and the airport complex was reconstructed.


title: Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport

text: On February 2, 2005, a large-scale international airport reconstruction project was completed with the grand opening of the new 25,000 square-meter passenger terminal. The number of check-in counters was increased to 24 along with two luggage straps. Currently, the Terminal 2 is used to service domestic flights. On November 19, 2015, the grand opening of the 2,400 square-meter Business Aviation Terminal took place. The BAT area has a 200-passenger per hour capacity. The terminal building housed a lounge bar, a conference hall, rooms for negotiations, convenience for passengers with children, a duty-free shop, there are 52 parking spaces for guests.


text: Within the framework of the Infrastructure Development Program, a new passenger terminal for international flights was built in 2017. A new terminal of 47,000 square meters adds six new aircraft parking lots with landing sleeves and four bus landing routes to the airport infrastructure and also includes a variety of technologies and processes designed to improve the quality of service at the airport.


text: "N" stands for Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport, as well as the name of the Kazakh capital of Astana. "QZ" is an acronym for Qazaqstan according to the new version of Kazakh alphabet based on the Latin script.


text: The airport is the primary hub of Air Astana and is a primary operating base for SCAT Airlines, low-cost carrier – FlyArystan, Qazaq Air. It has two passenger terminals (T1 and T2), a business aviation terminal as well as cargo and maintenance facilities. In 2019, it served 5,099,391 passengers, an increase of 12.1% compared to 2018, making it the second-busiest airport in Kazakhstan. The busiest single destination in passenger numbers is Almaty.


text: The airport resides at an elevation of above mean sea level. The airport has a single active runway in use designated 04/22 with an asphalt/concrete surface measuring . The airport is equipped with a Category IIIA (both directions) Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach to guide landing aircraft safely under very poor weather conditions and also allowing planes to land in low visibility conditions, such as fog. The airport is able to accommodate jets the size of the Il-76, Antonov An-124 Ruslan, and Boeing 747-400F.


text: There are separate terminal buildings for domestic and international flights. Both terminals are adjacent, sharing a single car park and have a connecting corridor for transit passengers.


text: The new international terminal (labelled "T1") opened in June 2017. Plans for the new terminal show 5–6 new departure gates complementing the gates in the previously existing terminal building. 47,000 sq. M. and completed construction in time for the EXPO 2017, and took the role of T1 – International Terminal. The new terminal adds 6 new aircraft parking lots with landing sleeves and 4 bus landing routes to the Airport infrastructure, and also includes a variety of technologies and processes designed to improve the quality of service at the Airport. The new terminal has a public catering area of 1000 square meters, retail outlets occupy 1,300 square meters.


text: The concept of T2 - terminal building has been designed by the late Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. With the opening of the new international terminal, the old terminal (now labelled "T2") is now dedicated to departures and arrivals of domestic flights. T2 - was the original and only terminal when the airport was reconstructed in 2005. On 2 February 2005, the grand opening of the T2 passenger terminal of the airport took place. The terminal area is more than 25 thousand square meters. Number of check-in counters - 24, 2 luggage straps. The design of the airport is the fusion of eastern and western traditions. The building has five floors, panoramic elevators, escalators, aerobridges, lounges and the system of automatic check-in for passengers, airport shops, restaurants, cafes, a pharmacy, a call-center, Wi-Fi and other facilities.


text: On June 17, 1967, an Aeroflot Li-2 (CCCP-71220) operating from Tselinograd Airport (now Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport), in Astana to Karaganda airport (now Sary-Arka) stalled and crashed onto a runway at Tselinograd, killing 2 of its 3 crew, and 7 of its 31 passengers.


text: On October 4, 1989, an Aeroflot An-24 (CCCP-46525), skidded off a runway on approach to Tselinograd Airport due to its pilots landing at excessive speed. After landing, the plane crashed into a pillar of the airport's fence. The plane was written off as damaged beyond repair but none of the 4 pilots or 48 passengers were injured.


text: On December 25, 2012, an An-72 of the Kazakhstan Border Guards which had taken off from Astana International airport crashed short of the runway at Shymkent International Airport due to low visibility weather and technical malfunctions with the aircraft's barometer. All 27 people aboard the plane were killed.


text: No. 10 and 12 municipal bus lines connects the airport with the city centre of Astana. Service is available from 06:00 to 22:00 and run from the airport (just outside the airport) to the city center and vice versa with intermediate stops in between. The single fare is 150.


text: The airport is located on the Regional Road P3, about 16.7 kilometers (12 mi) from the city center and about 25 minutes drive, depending on traffic. There is extensive car and motorcycle parking space available. Taxis are also available directly outside the terminal building at the airport parking lot (Yandex.Taxi and inDriver). Many taxi companies offer a flat-rate for to/from Airport trips (the rate is usually 1,650), booked via mobile app.


title: Aleksander Krupa

text: Aleksander Krupa (born 18 March 1947), often credited as Olek Krupa, is a Polish actor, active in film and television roles and best known for playing villains and/or criminals, such as in "Eraser", "Blue Streak", "Home Alone 3" as Peter Beaupre and "The Italian Job" as Mashkov. He also notably portrayed a Bosnian Serb general engaged in genocide against Bosnian Muslims in 2001's "Behind Enemy Lines" and portrayed the President of Russia in 2010's action thriller film "Salt". Krupa continued to have minor roles in many Hollywood movies, such as "", "Hidden Figures", and "The Fate of the Furious."


title: Aleksander Krupa

text: Krupa first appeared in a Documentary in 1984 "Far from Poland." His first film debut was in the 1986 film "91/2 Weeks."


title: Aleksander Krupa

text: Married to Noa Ain, a Composer and painter. They have one child together, Julia Ain Krupa. They are divorced, but remained friends. She died in 2019.


title: Aleksander Krupa

text: He was nominated for Gold Derby Awards in the category Ensemble Cast for his movie 'Hidden Figures' in 2017.


title: War (band)

text: War (originally called Eric Burdon and War) is an American funk/rock/soul band from Long Beach, California, known for several hit songs (including "Spill the Wine", "The World Is a Ghetto", "The Cisco Kid", "Why Can't We Be Friends?", "Low Rider", and "Summer").


title: War (band)

text: Formed in 1969, War is a musical crossover band that fuses elements of rock, funk, jazz, Latin, rhythm and blues, psychedelia, and reggae. According to music writer Colin Larkin, their "potent fusion of funk, R&B, rock and Latin styles produced a progressive soul sound", while Martin C. Strong calls them "one of the fiercest progressive soul combos of the '70s". Their album "The World Is a Ghetto" was "Billboard"'s best-selling album of 1973. The band transcended racial and cultural barriers with a multi-ethnic line-up. War was subject to many line-up changes over the course of its existence, leaving member Leroy "Lonnie" Jordan as the only original member in the current line-up; four other members created a new group called the Lowrider Band.


title: War (band)

text: In 1962, Howard E. Scott and Harold Brown formed a group called The Creators in Long Beach, California. Within a few years, they had added Charles Miller, Morris "B. B." Dickerson, and Lonnie Jordan to the lineup. Lee Oskar and Papa Dee Allen later joined as well. They all shared a love of diverse styles of music, which they had absorbed living in the racially mixed Los Angeles ghettos. The Creators recorded several singles on Dore Records while working with Tjay Contrelli, a saxophonist from the band Love. In 1968, the Creators became Nightshift (named because Brown worked nights at a steel yard) and started performing with Deacon Jones, a football player and singer.


title: War (band)

text: The original War was conceived by record producer Jerry Goldstein ("My Boyfriend's Back", "Hang on Sloopy", "I Want Candy") and singer Eric Burdon (ex-lead singer of the British band the Animals). In 1969, Goldstein saw musicians who would eventually become War playing at the Rag Doll in North Hollywood, backing Deacon Jones, and he was attracted to the band's sound. Jordan claimed that the band's goal was to spread a message of brotherhood and harmony, using instruments and voices to speak out against racism, hunger, gangs, crimes, and turf wars, and promote hope and the spirit of brotherhood. Eric Burdon and War began playing live shows to audiences throughout Southern California before entering into the studio to record their debut album "Eric Burdon Declares "War"". The album's best known track, "Spill the Wine", was a hit and launched the band's career.


title: War (band)

text: Eric Burdon and War toured extensively across Europe and the United States. The subtitle of a 1970 review in the "New Musical Express" of their first UK gig in London's Hyde Park read: "Burdon and War: Best Live Band We've Ever Seen". Their show at Ronnie Scott's Club in London on September 16, 1970, is historically notable for being the last public performance for Jimi Hendrix, who joined them onstage for the last 35 minutes of Burdon and War's second set; a day later he was dead. A second Eric Burdon and War album, a two-disc set titled "The Black-Man's Burdon" was released in 1970, before Burdon left the band in the middle of its European tour. They finished the tour without him and returned to record their first album as War.


title: War (band)

text: "War" (1971) met with only modest success, but later that year, the band released "All Day Music" which included the singles "All Day Music" and "Slippin' into Darkness". The latter single sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in June 1972. In 1972, they released "The World Is a Ghetto" which was even more successful. Its second single, "The Cisco Kid" shipped gold, and the album attained the number one spot on "Billboard" 200, and was "Billboard" magazine's Album of the Year as the best-selling album of 1973.


title: War (band)

text: "Deliver the Word" (1973), the next album, contained the hits "Gypsy Man" and a studio version of "Me and Baby Brother" (previously issued as a live recording), which peaked at No. 8 and #15 on the Billboard chart. The album went on to sell nearly 2 million copies. The album "Why Can't We Be Friends?" was released in 1975. It included "Low Rider" and the title track, which were among the band's bigger hits.


title: War (band)

text: In 1976, War released a greatest hits record that contained one new song "Summer", which, as a single, went gold and peaked at number 7 on the "Billboard" chart. Also released that year were "Love Is All Around" by Eric Burdon and War, containing mostly unreleased recordings from 1969 and 1970, and "Platinum Jazz", a one-off album for jazz label Blue Note. The latter double album had cover art to match the greatest hits album, and was half new material and half compilation, focusing on (but not restricted to) instrumental music. The group continued to attain success with their next album "Galaxy" (1977), and its title single was inspired by "Star Wars". War's next project was a soundtrack album for the movie "Youngblood" in 1978.


title: War (band)

text: In 1979, following the departure of B.B. Dickerson during recording sessions for their next album (replaced by Luther Rabb on bass who completed the album), the band considered changing their name to The Music Band, but decided at the last minute to continue as War, and use "The Music Band" as the title of a series of albums. The series originally consisted of two studio albums ("The Music Band", "The Music Band 2", both in 1979) and a live album ("The Music Band Live", 1980), but after the band left MCA in 1981 and had already made records for other labels, MCA expanded the series with a compilation ("The Best of the Music Band", 1982) and a third original album of left-over material ("The Music Band – Jazz", 1983).


title: War (band)

text: The group lost another member when Charles Miller (saxophone) was murdered in 1980. He had already been replaced by Pat Rizzo (ex Sly and the Family Stone) in 1979. Other new members joining at this time were Alice Tweed Smith (credited as "Tweed Smith" and "Alice Tweed Smyth" on various albums) on percussion and vocals (giving the band its first female vocalist), and Ronnie Hammon as a third drummer.


title: War (band)

text: After making the one-off single "Cinco de Mayo" for LAX Records in 1981 (Jerry Goldstein's own label, which also reissued "Eric Burdon Declares "War"" under the title "Spill the Wine" the same year), War signed with RCA Victor Records and recorded "Outlaw" (1982) which included the single plus additional singles "You Got the Power", "Outlaw", and "Just Because". It was followed by "Life (is So Strange)" (1983) from which the title track was also a single. War's records from 1979 to 1983 were not as successful as those from the preceding decade, and after the two RCA albums, the band's activities became sporadic. They did not record another full album until a decade later. The 1987 compilation album "The Best of War ...and More" included two new tracks, "Livin' in the Red" and "Whose Cadillac Is That?", and a remixed version of "Low Rider" (in addition to the original version). Papa Dee Allen died of a brain aneurysm which struck him onstage in 1988.


title: War (band)

text: Sampling of War by hip hop artists was prevalent enough to merit the compilation album "Rap Declares War" in 1992, which was sanctioned by the band.


title: War (band)

text: In 1993, War reformed with most surviving previous members (including original members Brown, Jordan, Oskar, and Scott, and later members Hammon and Rizzo), augmented by a large line-up of supporting musicians and still under the management and production of Jerry Goldstein, and released a new album, "☮" in 1994.


title: War (band)

text: In 1996, the group attempted to gain independence from Goldstein, but were unable to do so under the name "War" which remains a trademark owned by Goldstein and Far Out Productions. In response, Brown, Oskar, Scott, and a returning B.B. Dickerson (who had not worked with War since 1979) adopted a name which referenced one of War's biggest hits: Lowrider Band. They have yet to record a studio album.


title: War (band)

text: Lonnie Jordan opted to remain with Goldstein and create a new version of War with himself as the only original member. Some other musicians who had joined between 1983 and 1993 were also part of the new line-up. Both the "new" War and the Lowrider Band are currently active as live performance acts.


title: War (band)

text: 1996 also saw the release of a double CD compilation, "Anthology (1970–1994)", later updated in 2003 with a few track substitutions, as "The Very Best of War". Another CD compilation from 1999, "Grooves and Messages", included a second disc of remixes done by various producers.


title: War (band)

text: On April 21, 2008, Eric Burdon performed "Spill the Wine" with War in concert at the London Royal Albert Hall, released as "Greatest Hits Live" on Avenue / Rhino Records, who also reissued much of War's back catalogue that year.


title: War (band)

text: War were unsuccessfully nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2009 and 2014.


title: War (band)

text: In 2014, War released a new studio album, "Evolutionary" as a double CD, the second disc being a reissue of their "Greatest Hits" album from 1976.


title: William Gates (basketball)

text: William Gates (born December 28, 1971) is an American former Chicago-area high school and college basketball player. Gates was the subject of the 1994 Kartemquin Films documentary film "Hoop Dreams" along with another Chicago-area high school basketball player, Arthur Agee.


title: William Gates (basketball)

text: Gates was a young man from the Cabrini–Green housing projects. He and Arthur Agee, from West Garfield Park, hoped to have their basketball talent turned into professional careers with the NBA. The documentary "Hoop Dreams" followed them through their recruitment by St. Joseph High School. During high school, he worked hard to improve his basketball skills and his academics to the best of his ability, though he initially struggled with a low reading level. He struggled to get the required score of an 18 on the ACT exam needed to earn a scholarship at Marquette University and eventually managed a 17.5 aggregate score, which was rounded up to 18. At St. Joseph, Gates suffered a knee injury which limited his playing and recruitment offers. He played three seasons for Marquette from 1991 to 1995. He appeared in 80 games, making 29 starts and scoring 399 points. He graduated from Marquette with a communications degree. In 2001, Gates worked out with NBA star Michael Jordan in preparation for Jordan's comeback and was offered a tryout with the Washington Wizards but injured his foot. His brother, Curtis Gates, also seen in the film, was murdered on September 10, 2001, after being caught in a love triangle.


title: William Gates (basketball)

text: After the end of his basketball career, Gates got a Bible degree at Moody Bible Institute in Chicago and became pastor at Living Faith Community Center in Cabrini–Green, a position he held until July 2012, when he relocated his family to the San Antonio, Texas, area. Gates' eldest son (William Gates Jr.) followed in his father's basketball footsteps, averaging 23.5 points a game his senior season at Samuel Clemens High School in Schertz, Texas, and receiving a full scholarship to Furman University in South Carolina. In 2021 Gates connected with his Hoop Dreams co-star Arthur Agee and Producer, Matt Hoffar, to launch Hoop Dreams The Podcast in partnership with the Unlearning Network a Vancouver, B.C. based media company.


title: River City Ransom

text: River City Ransom, later released as Street Gangs in the PAL regions, is an open world action role-playing beat 'em up video game originally for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It was developed by Technōs Japan and originally released in Japan on April 25, 1989. It is the third game in Technos' "Kunio-kun" series released for the console, preceded by "Renegade" and "Super Dodge Ball". Like its predecessors, "River City Ransom" underwent great changes in its storyline and graphical presentation during its localization in order to make the game more palatable in the Western market. It was one of the first console games published by North American subsidiary American Technos.


title: River City Ransom

text: Remakes of the game have been released for the Sharp X68000, PC-Engine Super CD-ROM², and Game Boy Advance (GBA). The NES version was re-released for the Nintendo Wii Virtual Console in 2007 as well as the Nintendo Wii U Virtual Console in October 2015. It was also released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in the PAL Regions on July 25, 2013 and in North America on November 14. It was released again on the Nintendo Switch Online service on its launch day, September 18, 2018.


title: River City Ransom

text: The plot follows high school students Alex and Ryan as they cross River City in an attempt to reach River City High and rescue Ryan's girlfriend Cyndi from the clutches of a villain called "Slick". Along the way, they battle with gangs of students (with names such as "The Generic Dudes", "The Frat Guys", "The Jocks" or "The Squids") and several gang leaders which act as bosses or sub-bosses.


title: River City Ransom

text: "River City Ransom" is a beat 'em up game with action role-playing elements. The game is non-linear, allowing players to explore an open world, in a sandbox manner. The fighting style is very similar to "Double Dragon", in that the player can move freely around the screen while pressing buttons to punch, kick, or jump. Objects such as brass knuckles, steel pipes, and trash cans can be used as melee weapons or thrown at enemies. However, the characters' effectiveness in battle is determined by several statistics and their knowledge of fighting techniques, such as Grand Slam, Stone Hands, and Dragon Feet, which are purchased as books in shops throughout the city using funds recovered from defeated gang members. This loot may also be spent on various food items and spa treatments which serve to not only revitalize the player's stats, but may also permanently increase attributes like "Punch" and "Kick" (Foods and items offer varying levels of improvement).


title: River City Ransom

text: The player can input passwords that keep track of their character's stats, skills, possessions, money, and defeated bosses. There are a total of nine gangs in the original NES version (which are distinguished by the color of their t-shirts) whom the player will encounter during the course of the game, each with their own characteristics and attacking patterns.


title: River City Ransom

text: "River City Ransom" is an English localization of the video game "Downtown Nekketsu Monogatari", which is the third title starring Technōs Japan's mascot character Kunio, who previously appeared in "Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun" and "Nekketsu Kōkō Dodgeball Bu" (the Japanese versions of "Renegade" and "Super Dodge Ball" respectively). This is the first game in the series where Kunio teams up with his rival Riki, who fought against Kunio in the previous games. The gangs the players fight in the Famicom version are all students from different high schools and many of the characters introduced in this game would reappear in subsequent "Kunio-kun" games (particularly those that were directed by Sekimoto and Yoshida).


title: River City Ransom

text: In addition to anglicizing all of the characters' and locations' names, as well as the game's dialog in the English translation, the characters' sprites were also redrawn, replacing their Japanese school uniforms with t-shirts and jeans.


title: River City Ransom

text: The number of difficulty settings was reduced from three to two (the easiest difficulty setting was removed and the Medium setting in the Famicom version became the Novice setting in the NES version) and an alternative 2-player mode (2P Play B) which disables player-against-player damage was removed too. In addition to a Password feature, the Japanese version also features support for the Turbo File, a peripheral released only in Japan that allows the player to save and load game data.


title: River City Ransom

text: "River City Ransom" was the first console game localized by Technōs Japan's U.S. subsidiary, American Technos Inc. Although most of Technōs Japan's previous games (such as "Renegade" and "Double Dragon") were released in North America as well, they were licensed out to other publishers. The second and final NES game released by American Technos was "", which was also a "Kunio-kun" game.


title: River City Ransom

text: Another localization, called Downtown Nekketsu Story, was released, which more closely resembled the original Japanese Famicom version than River City Ransom, with a more accurate English translation. Along with other "Kunio-kun" Famicom games that were fully translated, this version was released as part of "Double Dragon & Kunio-kun Retro Brawler Bundle" for PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch, which was released on February 20, 2020 in North America.


title: River City Ransom

text: "Downtown Nekketsu Monogatari" was ported to the Sharp X68000, a Japanese computer platform, and released in April 1990. This version of the game, which was developed by SPS and published by Sharp, features several enhancements to the Famicom original, such as displaying three enemy characters on-screen instead of just two, slightly more colorful graphics, an expanded game world, and new items and special techniques for the player (including some that were only used by certain enemy characters in the Famicom version, such as the headbutt and the whirlwind kick). The new locations includes several new shops (such as a dojo) and the schools of each enemy gang, each featuring two new bosses. In addition to the player's regular stats, the player also has individual stats for all the special techniques their character has acquired. The more frequently a special move is used to finish off enemies, the stronger that particular move becomes. Unlike the Famicom version, the X68000 does not feature adjustable difficulty settings. The player can save and load their progress in one of ten save files provided by the game itself.


title: River City Ransom

text: The PC Engine Super CD-ROM² version of "Downtown Nekketsu Monogatari", released on December 24, 1993, was published by Naxat Soft and developed by KID, the same team that did the PC Engine versions of "Nekketsu Kōkō Dodgeball" ("Super Dodge Ball"), "", and "Downtown Nekketsu Kōshinkyoku". This version features enhanced graphics, an arranged redbook soundtrack and fully voiced characters, with the voices of Kunio and Riki performed by Ryō Horikawa and Nobutoshi Canna respectively. The player's progress is saved in this version on the PC Engine's backup memory. The rest of the game is almost identical to the Famicom version.


title: River City Ransom

text: A GBA version of the game, titled was released in Japan on March 5, 2004 and in North America on May 26. This remake was developed by Million and published by Atlus. The most notable change from the original version is the loss of a true cooperative mode. Instead, the game can be played with an AI-controlled partner, and players may exchange the data of their own characters to fight alongside each other. The GBA version also includes a vast number of configurable options that can adjust game play on the fly, such as changing AI behaviour, the number of enemies in one map area, and shop item reshuffling frequency. The password system is replaced by battery backup, which allows saving up to 12 characters. Character's appearances, keystrokes for learned techniques, even enemy characters can be customized and saved using secret shop items. A saved game does not store story progress or reputation, but it does store the player's statistics, techniques, current items and money, player's name, and customized appearances. The player can gain additional computer-controlled allies and form a "posse" who helps the player on his adventure. Some of these boss characters are from the original NES version, while others are taken from later "Downtown Nekketsu" games. The player can be accompanied by up to three AI-controlled partners.


title: River City Ransom

text: Many years after the original NES version was released, it was digitally ported to four more Nintendo systems: the Wii, Nintendo 3DS, Wii U and Nintendo Switch.


title: River City Ransom

text: The first digital port of "River City Ransom" was released on the Wii Virtual Console in Japan on October 23, 2007, in PAL regions on February 21, 2008, and in North America on April 21. The western NES titles, graphics, and storylines for the latter two releases were left intact. "Ransom" was next released on the 3DS Virtual Console available through the 3DS eShop in Japan on November 28, 2012, PAL region on July 25, 2013 and North America on November 14. Like other 3DS Virtual Console games, the user is able to create a restore point in the game. It also features a two player mode via download play. Only one person needs to own a copy of the game in order to play, and restore points are disabled during two player mode. Three years later "Ransom" was then made available on the Wii U Virtual Console, and another three years later, it was also released on the NES emulator available through the Nintendo Switch Online service worldwide on September 18, 2018, complete with HD graphics and the ability to create save states, like the other NES games offered.


title: River City Ransom

text: Outside Japan, "River City Ransom" was not highly successful when initially released. However, due to its unique gameplay and sense of humor, it is today considered a cult classic. This cult following, combined with the game's character and humor, inspired parallel works.


title: River City Ransom

text: It initially received mixed reviews upon release. Japanese magazine "Famitsu" reviewed the game under its original Japanese title of "Downtown Nekketsu Monogatari" and gave it a generally positive review, stating that it is a fighting game which skillfully incorporates RPG elements, scoring it 28 out of 40. French magazine "" reviewed the game under its European localised title of "Street Gangs" and gave it a highly positive review, concluding that it is not to be missed and scoring it 93%. UK television programme "GamesMaster" generally panned "Street Gangs", with one reviewer saying he "would rather sit in a vat of horse manure than play this game, give it to your worst enemies", with an overall score of 32%.


title: River City Ransom

text: Retrospective reviews have been very positive. IGN said that the fighting mechanics are exceptionally achieved, and that the RPG-esque elements give the game a depth and replayability, ultimately scoring it 9 out of 10. In 2006, "Play" contributing editor Eric Patterson listed the game's cover art, along with "Groove on Fight", as his favorite game covers of all time. In 2008, Nintendo Life gave it 8 out of 10. EuroGamer gave it an 8 out of 10. In 2009, IGN ranked it the 15th best NES game in their Top 100 NES Games list. In 2012, GamesRadar ranked it the seventh best NES game ever made. The staff felt that it was more memorable than "Ghosts 'n Goblins", "Legend of Kage", and "Double Dragon", and is still influential. In 2014, GamesRadar ranked it the eleventh best NES game of all time. In 2017, Paste ranked it 16th in their 100 Best NES Games list. Also in 2017, Polygon ranked it 461st in their 500 best games of all time list. In 2021, Retro Gamer included the game in their Top Ten NES Games list.


title: River City Ransom

text: The Japanese version, "Downtown Nekketsu Monogatari", was considered highly successful and would be followed by several spin-offs (including seven subsequent Famicom installments) until Technos Japan's closure in 1996. Of these seven games, "Downtown Special: Kunio-kun no Jidaigeki dayo Zen'in Shugo" features the same gameplay system as "Monogatari", with the main difference being that the characters are re-enacting a jidaigeki play.


title: River City Ransom

text: In 2002, an aspiring game designer, tester for Atari, and longtime fan of the game obtained the title's trademark and began work on a sequel aptly titled "River City Ransom 2". The project was halted when it was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2003 that "River City Ransom EX" was to be released the following year. A true sequel to the game, , was developed by Miracle Kidz for a Japanese release on WiiWare in 2011. An online PC version was due out in 2012, but was put on hold due to an announcement that the developers were freezing development to focus on making completely original games.


title: River City Ransom

text: In 2013, the Canadian independent developer, Conatus Creative, began development on an officially licensed follow-up game, named "River City Ransom: Underground", originally scheduled for Windows in August 2014. In September, Conatus Creative launched a campaign on the crowdfunding site, Kickstarter, seeking CA$180,000 in funding for the game. They successfully reached their funding goal, ending it on October 9, having collected $217,643, approximately 120% of the original goal. After years of development and negotiations with Arc System Works (which, as Technōs Japan's parent company, currently own the rights for the "Kunio-kun" franchise), the game was released on Steam for Windows, OS X and Linux on February 27, 2017.


title: River City Ransom

text: "" was released for the Nintendo 3DS on August 8, 2013 in Japan, December 29, 2015 in Korea, and September 27, 2016 in the United States. "River City Girls", which was being developed by Wayforward, was released on PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and PC on September 5, 2019.


title: River City Ransom

text: Kunio, Riki, Gouda, and the Hattori Brothers make an appearance in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" as fighting spirits.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Richard Douglas Fosbury (born March 6, 1947) is an American retired high jumper, who is considered one of the most influential athletes in the history of track and field. Besides winning a gold medal at the 1968 Olympics, he revolutionized the high jump event with a "back-first" technique, now known as the Fosbury Flop, adopted by almost all high jumpers today. His method was to sprint diagonally towards the bar, then curve and leap backwards over the bar, which gave him a much lower center of mass in flight than traditional techniques. He continues to be involved in athletics and serves on the executive board of the World Olympians Association.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In 2014, Fosbury unsuccessfully challenged Steve Miller for a seat in the Idaho House of Representatives. Fosbury ran for Blaine County Commissioner against incumbent Larry Schoen in 2018, won the seat, and took office in January 2019.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Born in Portland, Oregon, Fosbury started experimenting with a new high-jumping technique at age 16, while attending Medford High School. Fosbury had difficulty competing using the dominant high-jumping techniques of the period. In his sophomore year, he failed to complete jumps of , the qualifying height for many high-school track meets. This dominant technique, the straddle method, was a complex motion where an athlete went over the high-jump bar facing down, and lifted his legs individually over the bar. Fosbury found it difficult to coordinate all the motions involved in the straddle method, so he began to experiment with other ways of doing the high jump.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury later recalled, "I knew I had to change my body position and that's what started first the revolution, and over the next two years, the evolution." At first, he tried to use a technique known as the upright scissors method. In this method, a jumper runs upright towards the bar, facing forward, and during his jump lifts his straight legs one at a time over the bar. High-jump rules stipulate only that competitors must jump off one foot at takeoff; there is no rule governing how a competitor crosses the bar, so long as he or she goes over it.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: As he began to experiment with this technique, he gradually adapted it to make himself more comfortable and to get more height out of it. Nonetheless, it was nowhere near as coordinated as a well-performed straddle method jump, and one historian has referred to Fosbury's early attempts as an "airborne seizure"; however, during the latter part of his sophomore year and the beginning of his junior year, it began to produce results, and he gradually was able to clear higher jumps.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Gradually, Fosbury shifted his positioning during the jump, such that by his senior year he had begun to go over the bar backwards, head-first, curving his body over the bar and kicking his legs up in the air at the end of the jump. This required him to land on his back, but, prior to his junior year, his high school had replaced its wood chip landing pit with a softer material, so he was able to land safely.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Luckily for Fosbury, replacement of landing surfaces with foam rubber was becoming common across the United States in the early 1960s. Sawdust, sand, or woodchip surfaces had been usable previously because jumpers using the scissors technique were able to clear the bar while upright and then land on their feet, while those using the Western Roll or Straddle made a three-point landing on their hands and lead leg. In the late 1950s, American colleges began to use bundles of soft foam rubber, usually held together by a mesh net. These bundles were not only much softer but were also elevated about off the ground. By the early 1960s, American high schools were following the lead of the colleges in acquiring foam rubber landing pits. With the new, softer, elevated landing surface, Fosbury was able to land safely.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury did, however, compress a couple of vertebrae in the mid-1960s because not all high schools could afford the new foam material. Fosbury recovered from this injury.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury's coaches at first encouraged him to continue practicing the straddle method, but they abandoned that idea when his marks continued to improve. In his junior year, he broke his high-school record with a jump, and the next year took second place in the state with a jump.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: The technique gained the name the "Fosbury Flop" when in 1964 the "Medford Mail-Tribune" ran a photo captioned "Fosbury Flops Over Bar," while in an accompanying article a reporter wrote that he looked like "a fish flopping in a boat." Others were even less kind, with one newspaper captioning Fosbury's photograph, "World's Laziest High Jumper".


title: Dick Fosbury

text: After graduating from Medford High School in 1965, he enrolled at Oregon State University in Corvallis. The school's coach, Berny Wagner, believed that Fosbury would eventually achieve greater results using the western roll and convinced him to continue practicing the old technique through his freshman year, although he was allowed to use the "flop" in freshman meets. The debate over technique ended during Fosbury's sophomore year, however, when he cleared in his first meet of the season, shattering the school record.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: After the meet, Berny came up to me and said, "That's enough." That was the end of Plan A, on to Plan B. He would study what I was doing, film it, and even start to try to experiment and teach it to the younger jumpers.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: The national sports media began to take notice of the jumper from Oregon with the unusual style. He was on the cover of "Track and Field News's" February 1968 issue. Fosbury won the 1968 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) title using his new technique—the first of two consecutive titles—as well as the United States Olympic Trials.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury continued to refine his technique, developing a curved, J-shaped approach run. This allowed him to increase his speed, while the final "curved" steps served to rotate his hips. As his speed increased, so did his elevation. Fosbury made little to no use of his arms at takeoff, failing to "pump" them upwards, keeping them down, close to his body: the next generation of floppers would add an arm pump. Fosbury's key discovery was the need to adjust his point of takeoff as the bar was raised. His flight through the air described a parabola: as the bar went up in height, he needed more "flight time" so that the top of his arc was achieved as his hips passed over the bar. To increase "flight time," Fosbury moved his takeoff farther and farther away from the bar (and the pit). Jumpers have a natural tendency to be drawn in closer to the bar and it requires mental discipline to move out, rather than in. By way of comparison, classic straddle jumpers plant their take-off foot in the same place every time, less than one foot away from a line parallel with the bar. Photographs of Fosbury attempting heights above show him taking off nearly out from the bar.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In the 1968 outdoor season, Fosbury won the Pac-8 Conference title and went on to win the NCAA championship at Berkeley, California in mid-June with a jump of . He duplicated those wins the following year.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fresh off his NCAA win in mid-June, Fosbury went on to win the U.S. Olympic Trials two weeks later in Los Angeles with a jump of . Despite the win, his place on the Olympic team was not assured because the US Olympic Committee was worried that the results at sea-level Los Angeles might not be replicated at the high altitude in Mexico City. Another competition was held in September at the Olympic camp at Echo Summit near South Lake Tahoe, California. At that competition, Fosbury was one of four men to clear , but he was in fourth place because of misses. The bar was raised to , a height none of the four had ever cleared. However, Olympic veteran Ed Caruthers, high schooler Reynaldo Brown, and Fosbury all cleared on their first attempts. When the fourth man, John Hartfield, another high schooler who had been leading the competition, missed all three of his attempts, the Olympic team of three jumpers was set.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: At the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City, Fosbury took the gold medal and set a new Olympic record at , displaying the potential of the new technique. Despite the initial skeptical reactions from the high-jumping community, the "Fosbury Flop" quickly gained acceptance. In the Finals competition, only three jumpers cleared , and Fosbury was in the lead by virtue of having cleared every height on his first attempt. At the next height, , Fosbury again cleared the bar on his first jump. His teammate, Ed Caruthers, cleared on his second effort, while Valentin Gavrilov of the Soviet Union missed on all three attempts and earned the bronze medal (third place). The bar was raised to , which would be new Olympic and United States records. Fosbury missed on his first two attempts, but cleared on his third, while Caruthers missed on all three of his attempts. Having won the gold medal and broken the American record, Fosbury asked the bar to be raised to , hoping to break Valeriy Brumel's five-year-old world record of . However, none of his attempts at 2.29 m came close to clearing.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: At the next Olympics in 1972 at Munich, 28 of the 40 competitors used Fosbury's technique, although gold medalist Jüri Tarmak used the straddle technique. By 1980, 13 of the 16 Olympic finalists used it. Of the 36 Olympic medalists in the event from 1972 through Athletics at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's high jump|2000]], 34 used "the Flop". Today it is the most popular technique in modern high jumping.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In 1988, Fosbury competed in the Masters Outdoor Nike World Games and taught at the jump clinic held during the meet.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In 2013, Fosbury's high jump appeared in a Mazda commercial portraying "Game Changers" and, with current-day Fosbury himself, in an ad for Wuaki TV.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In 2015, Avicii released the music video for "Broken Arrows" (with lyrics by Zac Brown) that is loosely based on Fosbury's high-jumping story and personal life.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In 2020, SuperWest Sports included Fosbury in its list of The Greatest Pac-12 Male Track and Field Athletes of All Time, naming him the best-ever at Oregon State University.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In fall 2014, Fosbury ran as a Democrat for a seat in the Idaho House of Representatives against incumbent Republican Representative Steve Miller. Miller won the election.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury graduated from Oregon State University in 1972 with a degree in civil engineering and is the co-owner of Galena Engineering, Inc. in Ketchum, Idaho, where he has lived since 1977.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: In March 2008, Fosbury was diagnosed with stage one lymphoma. He had surgery a month later to remove a cancerous tumor engulfing his lower vertebra. Due to concerns about the tumor's proximity to the spine, it was not completely removed and he was put on a chemotherapy regimen. In March 2009, Fosbury announced that he was in remission. In March 2014 he declared in an interview with the "Corvallis Gazette-Times" that he was "doing well" and was "clear of cancer."


title: Dick Fosbury

text: During the 2008 edition of "Sport Movies & TV – Milano International FICTS Fest" Fosbury was awarded with the Excellence Guirlande d'Honneur and entered in the FICTS "Hall of Fame".


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury is today a member of the "Champions for Peace" club, a group of 54 famous elite athletes committed to serving peace in the world through sport, created by Peace and Sport, a Monaco-based international organization.


title: Dick Fosbury

text: Fosbury and fellow Olympians Gary Hall and Anne Cribbs are founders of World Fit, a non-profit organization that promotes youth fitness programs and Olympic ideals.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Jean Paul Gustave Ricœur (; ; 27 February 1913 – 20 May 2005) was a French philosopher best known for combining phenomenological description with hermeneutics. As such, his thought is within the same tradition as other major hermeneutic phenomenologists, Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Gabriel Marcel. In 2000, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for having "revolutionized the methods of hermeneutic phenomenology, expanding the study of textual interpretation to include the broad yet concrete domains of mythology, biblical exegesis, psychoanalysis, theory of metaphor, and narrative theory."


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Paul Ricœur was born in 1913 in Valence, Drôme, France, to Léon "Jules" Ricœur (23 December 1881 – 26 September 1915) and Florentine Favre (17 September 1878 – 3 October 1913), who were married on 30 December 1910 in Lyon. He came from a family of devout Huguenots (French Protestants), a religious minority in France.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Paul's father Jules, who served as a sergeant in the 75th Infantry Regiment of the French army during World War I, went missing in Perthes-lès-Hurlus near the beginning of the Second Battle of Champagne (25 September – 6 November 1915). On 26 September 1915, French military authorities declared that Jules had probably been killed in the battle. His body was not found until 1932, when a field was being ploughed, and the body was identified by its tags. Some writers have stated that before World War I began, Paul's father (Léon "Jules" Ricœur) was a professor of English at the Lycée Emile Loubet in Valence. However, it was a different person — Jules Paul Ricœur (1887–1918) — who held that position. Paul's father's death occurred when Paul was only two years old. Subsequently, Paul was raised in Rennes, France by his paternal grandparents Louis Ricœur (1856–1932) and his wife Marie Sarradet (1856–1928), and by his father's sister Juliette "Adèle" Ricœur (20 December 1892 – 1968), with a small stipend afforded to Paul as a war orphan.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Paul, whose penchant for study was fueled by his family's Protestant emphasis on Bible study, was bookish and intellectually precocious. He discovered philosophy while attending the Lycée de Rennes (now ), where he studied under Roland Dalbiez (1893–1976), who was professor of philosophy at the lycée. Ricœur received his bachelor's degree in 1932 from the University of Rennes and began studying philosophy, and especially phenomenology, at the Sorbonne in 1933–34, where he was influenced by Gabriel Marcel. In 1934 he completed a DES thesis ("", roughly equivalent to an M.A. thesis) titled "Problème de Dieu chez Lachelier et Lagneau" ("The Problem of God in Lachelier and Lagneau"), concerning some of the theological views of French philosophers Jules Lachelier (1832–1918) and Jules Lagneau (1851–1894). In 1935, Paul was awarded the second-highest agrégation mark in the nation for philosophy, presaging a bright future.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: On 14 August 1935, in Rennes, Paul married Simone Lejas (23 October 1911 – 7 January 1998), with whom he had five children: Jean-Paul (born 15 January 1937), Marc (born 22 February 1938), Noëlle (born 30 November 1940), Olivier (10 July 1947 – 22 March 1986), and Etienne (born 1953). In 1936–37, he fulfilled his military service.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: World War II interrupted Ricœur's career, and he was drafted to serve in the French army in 1939. His unit was captured during the German invasion of France in 1940 and he spent the next five years as a prisoner of war in Oflag II-D. His detention camp was filled with other intellectuals such as Mikel Dufrenne, who organized readings and classes sufficiently rigorous that the camp was accredited as a degree-granting institution by the Vichy government. During that time he read Karl Jaspers, who was to have a great influence on him. He also began a translation of Edmund Husserl's "Ideas I".


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Ricœur taught at the University of Strasbourg between 1948 and 1956, the only French university with a Protestant faculty of theology. In 1950, he received his State doctorate, submitting (as is customary in France) two theses: a "minor" thesis translating Husserl's "Ideas I" into French for the first time, with commentary, and a "major" thesis that he published the same year as "Philosophie de la Volonté I: Le Volontaire et l'Involontaire" ("Philosophy of the Will I: The Voluntary and the Involuntary"). Ricœur soon acquired a reputation as an expert on phenomenology, then the ascendent philosophy in France.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: In 1956, Ricœur took up a position at the Sorbonne as the Chair of General Philosophy. This appointment signaled Ricœur's emergence as one of France's most prominent philosophers. While at the Sorbonne, he wrote three works that cemented his reputation: "Fallible Man" and "The Symbolism of Evil" published in 1960, and "Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation" published in 1965. Jacques Derrida was an assistant to Ricœur during that time (early 1960s).


title: Paul Ricœur

text: From 1965 to 1970, Ricœur was an administrator at the newly founded University of Nanterre in suburban Paris. Nanterre was intended as an experiment in progressive education, and Ricœur hoped that he could create a university in accordance with his vision, free of the stifling atmosphere of the tradition-bound Sorbonne and its overcrowded classes. Nevertheless, Nanterre became a hotbed of protest during the student uprisings of May 1968 in France. Ricœur was derided as an "old clown" ("vieux clown") and tool of the French government.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Disenchanted with French academic life, Ricœur taught briefly at the Université catholique de Louvain in Belgium, before taking a position at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, where he taught from 1970 to 1985. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. His study culminated in "The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language" published in 1975 and the three-volume "Time and Narrative" published in 1983, 1984, 1985 Ricœur gave the Gifford Lectures in 1985/86, published in 1990 as "Oneself as Another". This work built on his discussion of narrative identity and his continuing interest in the self.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: "Time and Narrative" secured Ricœur's return to France in 1985 as a notable intellectual. His late work was characterised by a continuing cross-cutting of national intellectual traditions; for example, some of his latest writing engaged the thought of the American political philosopher John Rawls. In 1995 he received an honorary doctorate from the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: In 1999, he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Philosophy, the citation being "[f]or his capacity in bringing together all the most important themes and indications of 20th-century philosophy, and re-elaborating them into an original synthesis which turns language – in particular, that which is poetic and metaphoric – into a chosen place revealing a reality that we cannot manipulate, but interpret in diverse ways, and yet all coherent. Through the use of metaphor, language draws upon that truth which makes of us that what we are, deep in the profundity of our own essence". That same year, he and his co-author André LaCocque (professor emeritus of Hebrew Bible at Chicago Theological Seminary) were awarded the Gordon J. Laing Award by the University of Chicago's Board of University Publications for their book "Thinking Biblically: Exegetical and Hermeneutical Studies".


title: Paul Ricœur

text: On 29 November 2004, he was awarded with the second John W. Kluge Prize for Lifetime Achievement in the Human Sciences (shared with Jaroslav Pelikan).


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Ricœur died on 20 May 2005, aged 92, at his home in Châtenay-Malabry, France, of natural causes. French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin declared that "the humanist European tradition is in mourning for one of its most talented exponents". Paul Ricœur was buried in the Châtenay-Malabry New Cemetery, Châtenay-Malabry, Department des Hauts-de-Seine, Île-de-France, France.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: One of Ricœur's major contributions to the field of hermeneutics was the entwining of hermeneutical processes with phenomenology. In this union, Ricœur applies the hermeneutical task to more than just textual analysis, but also to how each self relates to anything that is outside of the self. For Ricœur, hermeneutics is understanding the link between the self and the symbol—neither things in themselves, but the dialectical engagement between the two. Moreover, Ricœur, on the goal of hermeneutics, puts emphasis upon self-understanding as the outcome of the hermeneutical process: "In proposing to relate symbolic language to self-understanding, I think I fulfill the deepest wish of hermeneutics. The purpose of all interpretation is to conquer a remoteness, a distance between the past cultural epoch to which the text belongs and the interpreter himself. By overcoming this distance, by making himself contemporary with the text, the exegete can appropriate its meaning to himself: foreign, he makes it familiar, that is, he makes it his own. It is thus the growth of his own understanding of himself that he pursues through his understanding of others. Every hermeneutics is thus, explicitly or implicitly, self-understanding by means of understanding others."Ricoeur maintains that the hermeneutical task is a coming together of the self and an other, in a meaningful way. This explication of self-meaning and other-meaning is principally bound up and manifested in existence itself. Thus, Ricoeur depicts philosophy as a hermeneutical activity seeking to uncover the meaning of existence through the interpretation of phenomena (which can only emerge as) embedded in the world of culture: "This is why philosophy remains a hermeneutics, that is, a reading of the hidden meaning inside the text of the apparent meaning. It is the task of this hermeneutics to show that existence arrives at expression, at meaning, and at reflection only through the continual exegesis of all the significations that come to light in the world of culture. Existence becomes a self – human and adult – only by appropriating this meaning, which first resides "outside," in works, institutions, and cultural movements in which the life of the spirit is justified."Furthermore, the process of hermeneutics, and extracting meaning, is a reflective task. The emphasis is not on the external meaning, but the meaning or insight of the self which is gained through encountering the external text—or other. The self-knowledge gained through the hermeneutical process is, thus, indirectly attained. This is in opposition to the Cartesian cogito, "which grasps itself directly in the experience of doubt," and is "a truth as vain as it is invincible." In point of fact, the difference Ricœur aims to distinguish is the means by which the self is discovered, which for him is only by means of interpreting the signified.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: According to Ricœur, the aim of hermeneutics is to recover and to restore the meaning. The French philosopher chooses the model of the phenomenology of religion, in relation to psychoanalysis, stressing that it is characterized by a concern on the object. This object is the sacred, which is seen in relation to the profane.


title: Paul Ricœur

text: Ricœur's hermeneutical work "Freud and Philosophy" contains the famous assertion that Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud are masters of the school of suspicion ("maîtres du soupçon"/"école du soupçon"). Marx is reductionist, because he reduces society to economy, particularly to means of production; Nietzsche is a reductionist, because he reduces man to the 'will-to-power' and an arbitrary concept of superman; Freud is a reductionist because he reduces human nature to sexual instinct. Ricœur's theory has been particularly influential to postcritique, a scholarly movement in literary criticism and cultural studies that seeks for new forms of reading and interpretation that go beyond the methods of critique, critical theory, and ideological criticism. The literary critic Rita Felski, for instance, argues that he is a crucial figure in the history of this tradition. She claims that his influential analysis of the "hermeneutics of suspicion" "invites us to think about how we read and to what end."


title: Paul Ricœur

text: In "The Rule of Metaphor" and in "Time and Narrative", vol. 1, Ricœur argues that there exists a linguistic productive imagination that generates/regenerates meaning through the power of metaphoricity by way of stating things in novel ways and, as a consequence, he sees language as containing within itself resources that allow it to be used creatively.


title: Vasa Museum

text: The Vasa Museum () is a maritime museum in Stockholm, Sweden. Located on the island of Djurgården, the museum displays the only almost fully intact 17th-century ship that has ever been salvaged, the 64-gun warship "Vasa" that sank on her maiden voyage in 1628. The Vasa Museum opened in 1990 and, according to the official website, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. Together with other museums such as the Stockholm Maritime Museum, it belongs to the Swedish National Maritime Museums (SNMM).


title: Vasa Museum

text: From the beginning of 1961 to 1983, "Vasa" was housed in a temporary structure called Wasavarvet ("The Vasa Shipyard") where she was treated with polyethylene glycol. Visitors could only view the ship from two levels and the maximum distance was only 5 m (17 ft). In 1981, the Swedish government decided that a permanent "Vasa" museum was to be constructed and a competition for the design of the museum building was organized. A total of 384 architects sent in models of their ideas and the final winners were Marianne Jakobbäck and Göran Månsson with "Ask" ("box"). The construction of the new building began on and around the dry dock of the old naval yard with an inauguration ceremony hosted by Prince Bertil on 2 November 1987. "Vasa" was towed into the flooded dry dock under the new building in December 1987, and during the summer of 1989, when visitors were allowed onto the construction site, 228,000 people visited the half-finished museum. The museum was officially opened on 15 June 1990. So far, "Vasa" has been seen by over 25 million people. In 2017, the museum had a total of 1,495,760 visitors.


title: Vasa Museum

text: The main hall contains the ship itself, and various exhibits related to the archaeological findings of the ships and early 17th-century Sweden. "Vasa" has been fitted with the lower sections of all three masts, a new bowsprit, winter rigging, and has had certain parts that were missing or heavily damaged replaced. The replacement parts have not been treated or painted and are therefore clearly visible against the original material that has been darkened after three centuries under water.


title: Vasa Museum

text: The new museum is dominated by a large copper roof with stylized masts that represent the actual height of "Vasa" when she was fully rigged. Parts of the building are covered in wooden panels painted in dark red, blue, tar black, ochre yellow and dark green. The interior is similarly decorated, with large sections of bare, unpainted concrete, including the entire ceiling. Inside the museum the ship can be seen from six levels, from her keel to the very top of the sterncastle. Around the ship are numerous exhibits and models portraying the construction, sinking, location, and recovery of the ship. There are also exhibits that expand on the history of Sweden in the 17th century, providing background information for why the ship was built. A movie theatre shows a film in alternating languages on the recovery of the "Vasa".


title: Vasa Museum

text: The museum is in the process of publishing an 8-volume archaeological report to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the salvage. "Vasa I: The Archaeology of a Swedish Warship of 1628" was published at the end of 2006. Subsequent volumes will be published annually.


title: Vasa Museum

text: The museum also features four other museum ships moored in the harbour outside: the ice breaker "Sankt Erik" (launched 1915), the lightvessel "Finngrundet" (1903), the torpedo boat "Spica" (1966) and the rescue boat "Bernhard Ingelsson" (1944).


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: Last mile in supply chain management and transportation planning is the last leg of a journey comprising the movement of people and goods from a transportation hub to a final destination. "Last mile" was adopted from the telecommunications industry which faced difficulty connecting individual homes to the main telecommunications network. Similarly, in supply chain management last-mile describes the difficult last part in the transportation of people and packages from hubs to final destinations. Last-mile delivery is an increasingly studied field as the number of business-to-consumer (b2c) deliveries grow especially from e-commerce companies in freight transportation, and ride-sharing companies in personal transportation. Some challenges of last-mile delivery include minimizing cost, ensuring transparency, increasing efficiency, and improving infrastructure.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: "Last mile" was originally used in the telecommunications industry to describe the difficulty of connecting end users' homes and businesses to the main telecommunication network. The last "mile" of cable or wire is only used by one customer. Therefore the cost of installing and maintaining this infrastructure can only be amortized over one subscriber, compared to many customers in the main "trunks" of the network.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: In supply chain management last-mile describes a similar problem for transporting either people or freight. In freight networks, parcels can be delivered to a central hub efficiently via ship, train or other means, but they must then be loaded into smaller vehicles for delivery to individual customers. In transportation networks, "last mile" describes the rising marginal cost of getting people from a transportation hub such as an airport or train station to their final destination.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: Transporting goods via freight rail networks and container ships is often the most efficient and cost-effective manner of shipping. However, when goods arrive at a high-capacity freight station or port, they must then be transported to their final destination. This last leg of the supply chain is often less efficient, comprising up to 53% of the total cost to move goods. This has become known as the "last mile problem." The last mile problem can also include the challenge of making deliveries in urban areas. Deliveries to retail stores, restaurants, and other merchants in a central business district often contribute to congestion and safety problems.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: A related last mile problem is the transportation of goods to areas in need of humanitarian relief. Aid supplies are sometimes able to reach a central transportation hub in an affected area but cannot be distributed due to damage caused by a natural disaster or a lack of infrastructure.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: One challenge faced in last-mile delivery is unattended packages. Shipping companies, like UPS, FedEx, USPS, DHL and others, leave a parcel unattended at a business or home which exposes the item(s) to weather, and the chance of theft by "porch pirates" (a person who steals packages off of customers' porches or front door areas). One solution to this problem is setting up lockers in urban centers. Amazon in the United States has deployed lockers where customers can pick up packages rather than them being left at their home. This protects them from theft and damage as well as allowing companies to deliver to one location, rather than a number of individual homes or businesses. Similarly, in Taiwan, some online vendors offer the option of delivery to a convenience store of the customer's choice, for pickup from the store by the customer. Not only does this reduce the chance of theft and consolidate packages but also pay for the purchase at the store may also be offered.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: To reduce cost retailers have researched using autonomous vehicles to deliver packages. US-based Amazon and China-based Alibaba have researched deploying drones for delivering goods to consumers. In Europe, Germany, Britain, and Poland have experimented with services that provide automated parcel delivery.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: "Last mile" also describes the difficulty in getting people from a transportation hub, especially railway stations, bus depots, and ferry berths, to their final destination. When users have difficulty getting from their starting location to a transportation network, the scenario may alternatively be known as the "first-mile problem." In the United States, land-use patterns have moved jobs and people to lower-density suburbs that are often not within walking distance of existing public transportation options. Therefore, transit use in these areas is often less practical. Critics claim this promotes a reliance on cars, which results in more traffic congestion, pollution, and urban sprawl.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: Solutions to the last mile problem in public transit have included the use of feeder buses, bicycling infrastructure, and urban planning reform. Other methods of alleviating the last mile problem such as bicycle sharing systems, car sharing programs, pod cars (personal rapid transit), and motorized shoes have been proposed with varying degrees of adoption. Late in 2015, the Ford Motor Company received a patent for a "self-propelled unicycle engagable with vehicle", which is intended as a last mile commuter solution. Bicycle sharing programs have been successfully implemented in Europe and Asia, and are beginning to be implemented in North America. Starting in late 2017, micro-mobility services that provide shared vehicles such as dockless electric kick scooters or electric-assist bikes entered the marketplace. Dual-mode vehicles, which can operate on infrastructure and outside of infrastucture, are also considered as a solution to the first-mile and last-mile problem. The same dual-mode vehicle can make the journey to a station and from the station on using infrastructure.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: Due in part to demand on retailers and product manufacturers to provide expedited (same and next day) deliveries, tech-enabled last-mile technology platforms have emerged. Increased demand for last-mile fulfillment has put pressure on shippers to manage many types of delivery companies, which range from traditional parcel carriers, to couriers, to on-demand service providers that execute an "Uber for delivery" model utilizing contractors.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: Matching the supply of delivery with the demand that has been created by shippers is a problem that is being addressed by several last-mile technology platforms. These companies connect shippers to delivery service providers to facilitate final mile deliveries. These last-mile technology platforms allow real-time data to be received by the shipper and the receiver which enables managers to act immediately when exceptions such as late delivery, address error, or product damage occurs.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: As Amazon strengthens its last-mile logistics capabilities, competing retailers have become more interested than ever in last-mile technologies to compete. The fear of Amazon has compelled CEOs of major transportation and logistics companies to seek alternative strategies.


title: Last mile (transportation)

text: A number of companies are actively using small delivery robots to do the last-mile delivery of small packages such as food and groceries just using the pedestrian areas of the road and travelling at speed comparable with a fast walking pace, companies actively delivering include:


title: Tissue culture

text: Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium separate from the parent organism. This technique is also called micropropagation. This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar. Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with the more specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants. The term "tissue culture" was coined by American pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows.


title: Tissue culture

text: In 1885 Wilhelm Roux removed a section of the medullary plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in a warm saline solution for several days, establishing the basic principle of tissue culture. In 1907 the zoologist Ross Granville Harrison demonstrated the growth of frog embryonic cells that would give rise to nerve cells in a medium of clotted lymph. In 1913, E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R. A. Lambert grew vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1996, the first use of regenerative tissue was used to replace a small length of urethra, which led to the understanding that the technique of obtaining samples of tissue, growing it outside the body without a scaffold, and reapplying it, can be used for only small distances of less than 1 cm.


title: Tissue culture

text: Gottlieb Haberlandt first pointed out the possibilities of the culture of isolated tissues, plant tissue culture. He suggested that the potentialities of individual cells via tissue culture as well as that the reciprocal influences of tissues on one another could be determined by this method. Since Haberlandt's original assertions, methods for tissue and cell culture have been realized, leading to significant discoveries in biology and medicine. His original idea, presented in 1902, was called totipotentiality: “Theoretically all plant cells are able to give rise to a complete plant.”


title: Tissue culture

text: In modern usage, "Tissue culture" generally refers to the growth of cells from a multicellular organism "in vitro". These cells may be cells isolated from a donor organism (primary cells) or an immortalised cell line. The cells are bathed in a culture medium, which contains essential nutrients and energy sources necessary for the cells' survival. Thus, in its broader sense, "tissue culture" is often used interchangeably with "cell culture". On the other hand, the strict meaning of "tissue culture" refers to the culturing of tissue pieces, i.e. explant culture.


title: Tissue culture

text: Tissue culture is an important tool for the study of the biology of cells from multicellular organisms. It provides an "in vitro" model of the tissue in a well defined environment which can be easily manipulated and analysed. In animal tissue culture, cells may be grown as two-dimensional monolayers (conventional culture) or within fibrous scaffolds or gels to attain more naturalistic three-dimensional tissue-like structures (3D culture). Eric Simon, in a 1988 NIH SBIR grant report, showed that electrospinning could be used to produced nano- and submicron-scale polymeric fibrous scaffolds specifically intended for use as "in vitro" cell and tissue substrates. This early use of electrospun fibrous lattices for cell culture and tissue engineering showed that various cell types would adhere to and proliferate upon polycarbonate fibers. It was noted that as opposed to the flattened morphology typically seen in 2D culture, cells grown on the electrospun fibers exhibited a more rounded 3-dimensional morphology generally observed of tissues "in vivo".


title: Tissue culture

text: Plant tissue culture in particular is concerned with the growing of entire plants from small pieces of plant tissue, cultured in medium.


title: Tissue culture

text: Animal tissue culture. There are three ways are used in common to initiate a  cell culture from animals the first is organ culture; where a whole organs from embryos or partial adult organs are used to initiate organ culture in vitro. These cells in the organ culture maintain their differentiated character, and their functional activity. The second one is the primary explant culture; where a fragments exercised from animal tissue is being adhered to a surface aided by an extracellular matrix (ECM) constituent, such as collagen or a plasma clot. This culture is known as a primary explant, and migrating cells are known as outgrowth. This has been used to analyze the growth characteristics of cancer cells in comparison to their normal counterparts.The third one is the “cell culture which is of three types: (1) precursor cell culture, which is undifferentiated cells committed to differentiate. (2) differentiated cell culture, which is completely differentiated cells that have lost the capacity to further differentiate; and (3) stem cell culture, which is undifferentiated cells that go on to develop into any type of cell.”


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: "The Puerto Rican Day" is the 176th episode of the NBC sitcom "Seinfeld". It aired on May 7, 1998, and was the 20th episode of the ninth and final season. It was the show's second-highest-rated episode of all time, with 38.8 million viewers, only behind the series finale. The episode aired one week before the two-part clip show and the two-part series finale aired. It was a rare late-series return to a "plot about nothing" style and filmed in real-time, a format more often seen in early seasons. The episode follows the cast's misadventures as they try to escape from the traffic surrounding the Puerto Rican Day Parade.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: This episode of "Seinfeld" has more writer credits (ten) than any other episode. As co-creator Larry David was returning to write the finale, this was the final episode for the active "after Larry David" writing staff and thus was a group effort.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Because of controversy surrounding a scene in which Cosmo Kramer accidentally burns and then stomps on the Puerto Rican flag, NBC apologized and had it banned from airing on the network again. Also, it was not initially part of the syndicated package. In the summer of 2002, the episode started to appear with the flag-burning sequence intact.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Jerry, George, Elaine, and Kramer head back to Manhattan after leaving a Mets game early, but have an altercation with a driver in a maroon Volkswagen Golf. George boasts about the comment ("That's gotta hurt!") he made during a new movie about the Hindenburg disaster titled "Blimp". As they approach Fifth Avenue, traffic is blocked by the annual Puerto Rican Day Parade. They head towards a one-way side street, but are blocked by the maroon Golf, whose driver refuses to let them cross over.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Elaine gets out of the car and gets a taxi. George leaves the car to see the movie "Blimp" in a nearby theater and repeat his funny comment for a new audience. When George makes the comment, nobody laughs. George blames a man with a laser pointer for upstaging him, and derisively calls him a prop comic. The man retaliates by shining the laser on him.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Jerry makes an apologetic wave to the maroon Golf driver, who lets him by. As they pass, Jerry taunts the driver, only to find himself blocked by the taxi Elaine is in. George returns to the car, but the laser pointer is still shining on him. George can't see the man holding the laser and worries he will go blind if it touches his eye.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Elaine tries to get past traffic by walking underneath the viewing stands, leading a group of similarly distressed people trying to find their way out to a dead end. They scream for help to the people above, but there is no access to the street from their location.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Kramer becomes desperate for a restroom and spots an apartment for sale. To access its restroom, he poses as H.E. Pennypacker, a wealthy industrialist interested in the property. While there he sees the Mets game on the television. He tells Jerry, who visits the apartment to watch, posing as Kel Varnsen.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: George thinks he spots the laser guy and launches a sneak attack, grabbing and breaking what he thinks is the laser pointer only to discover it is a pen. Back outside, Kramer accidentally sets the Puerto Rican flag on fire with a sparkler, prompting a mob of people to attack him. He runs back into the apartment. George also enters the apartment, as Art Vandelay, to wash the ink from his hands. Jerry realizes that with all three of them in the apartment, nobody is watching the car. They look out the window to find it surrounded by the mob. George tells Jerry that the Mets lost.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: When the parade is finally over, Jerry finds his car stuck in a stairwell. Elaine arrives, her clothes and hair filthy. They start walking home. George still has the laser dot on his lower backside.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: Since it was already planned for the "Seinfeld" finale to be written by series co-creator Larry David, the "Seinfeld" team decided to make "The Puerto Rican Day" the series finale for the post-David "Seinfeld". Initial plans for the finale were to have all the staff write the story and script in a collaborative jam and to shoot on location in the real New York City; both of these plans were modified to some extent. The writers' jam proved to be too chaotic, so the "Seinfeld" writers split up into two groups working in separate rooms; one group wrote the first act, the other group wrote the second act, and then the two groups switched scripts, with each group proofreading and editing the other group's act.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: The basic plot was inspired by writer David Mandel's experience getting caught in parade traffic. The Elaine subplot is a parody of "The Poseidon Adventure". On the day of the shoot, director Andy Ackerman came up with the idea of Elaine kissing another member of the party. The impetus for George's subplot was a group of "Seinfeld" writers going to see the movie "While You Were Sleeping". When one of the characters said "Do you know what love is?" someone else in the theater shouted in reply "Yes!", making the entire audience burst into laughter.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: The "Seinfeld" crew determined that filming in New York City would not be practical, due to the difficulty of securing the locations against intrusions by the show's fans, so the episode was instead filmed on a Universal Studios backlot. The episode was nonetheless extremely challenging to shoot, due to the need to move around the many cars and the logistics of the story all taking place on the same day (meaning the scenery and daylight needed to remain consistent in every shot). Sequences which were in the script but either not filmed or deleted before broadcast include Lamar explaining his anger at Jerry (their altercation caused the pasta Lamar was eating to slip off his lap onto his car's floor) and the crowd on the viewing stands stomping to "Rico Suave", causing food to spill onto Elaine and her companions.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: The scene where Kramer accidentally burns the Puerto Rican flag, an angry mob of parade-goers damages Jerry's car, and Kramer says, "It's like this every day in Puerto Rico" drew complaints from Puerto Rican activists, as well as Fernando Ferrer, the borough president of the Bronx. President of the National Puerto Rican Coalition Manuel Mirabal said that "It is unacceptable that the Puerto Rican flag be used by "Seinfeld" as a stage prop under any circumstances." The episode sparked angry letters and protests outside NBC's Rockefeller Center in New York. NBC formally apologized for the episode, and later pulled it from summer repeats. It was also omitted from the syndicated rerun package.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: The "Seinfeld" cast and crew found the objections to the episode unreasonable, noting that they started before the episode even aired, seemingly based on its title alone. Jerry Seinfeld recalled that when he asked a protest leader how he could know there was anything objectionable in the episode without having seen it, he replied, "We assume that it's offensive." Two of the episode's writers, Steve Koren and David Mandel, later remarked that despite the title, the episode essentially has nothing to do with Puerto Ricans, and that they could have moved the setting to any of the many annual parades held in New York City without significantly changing the story or dialogue.


title: The Puerto Rican Day

text: The episode was added to the syndication package with the flag-burning scene unedited in August 2002, as Sony Pictures Television, which distributes the series, said that enough time had passed since the initial furor to merit its inclusion.


title: Audy Item

text: Item is the youngest of three children born to jazz musician Jopie Item, and Evie Aquanthie Aziz. Her oldest brother, Stevie Item, is a guitarist in . She is married to Iko Uwais and they have two daughters.


title: Audy Item

text: Audy signed a recording contract with Sony BMG Music Indonesia and releasing debut studio album "18" which took from her age. Her debut single "Janji Diatas Ingkar (Mendua)" was released in 2002 and became a success in Indonesian music charts. Other singles were produced, such as "Bila Saja", "Menangis Semalam" and "Arti Hadirmu". The album has seen success and became best-selling in the market, including some singles, and making her winning many awards at other annual awards, Most Favorite Female at the 2003 MTV Indonesia Awards, four awards at the Anugerah Musik Indonesia, including Best Pop Album, etc.


title: Audy Item

text: Her second studio album "20-02" was released in 2004 and got back successful with single "Lagu Sendu" and "Dibalas Dengan Dusta" which manage earning for Favorite Artist Indonesia at the 2004 MTV Asia Awards in Singapore. Audy had listed by MURI for most signature in album during two hours. In 2005, Audy returning released repackaged version and adding new single, "Temui Aku", "Pertama Kali", and other.


title: Audy Item

text: After her "20-02", Audy returning released third studio album "23-03" and produced first single "Untuk Sahabat" with Indonesian singer and actress Nindy, which was used in a commercial for Olay. She had collaboration with Canadian pop duo Same Same "Without You" for her Indonesian version. Previously, never collaboration with used version in other countries, like Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines and China.


title: Audy Item

text: After four years vacuum, Audy released fourth studio album "Selalu Terdepan", which became her last album in music career. First single "Lama Lama Aku Bosan" is her comeback in music industry. Her album also released in Malaysia after two years ago.


title: Armenian dram

text: The dram (; sign: ֏; abbreviation: դր.; ISO code: AMD) is the currency of Armenia, and is also used in the neighboring unrecognized Republic of Artsakh. It was historically subdivided into 100 luma (). The Central Bank of Armenia is responsible for issuance and circulation of dram banknotes and coins, as well as implementing the monetary policy of Armenia.


title: Armenian dram

text: The word "dram" translates into English as "money" and is cognate with the Greek drachma and the Arabic dirham, as well as the English weight unit dram. The first instance of a dram currency was in the period from 1199 to 1375, when silver coins called dram were issued.


title: Armenian dram

text: On 21 September 1991, a national referendum proclaimed Armenia as a republic independent from the Soviet Union. The Central Bank of Armenia, established on 27 March 1993, was given the exclusive right of issuing the national currency.


title: Armenian dram

text: In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union attempts were made to maintain a common currency (the Russian rouble) among CIS states. Armenia joined this rouble zone. However it soon became clear that maintaining a currency union in the unstable political and economical circumstances of the post-Soviet states would be very difficult. The Rouble Zone effectively collapsed with the unilateral monetary reform in Russia, 1993. As a result, the states that were still participating (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Moldova, Armenia and Georgia) were 'pushed out' and forced to introduce separate currencies. Armenia was one of the last countries to do so when it introduced the dram on 22 November 1993.


title: Armenian dram

text: After its proclamation of independence, Armenia put into circulation its own national currency, the Armenian Dram; this required a monetary sign. As the result of common business practice and the unique pattern of Armenian letters, the shape of the sign and its variations appeared in the business scratches (daybooks). Until the official endorsement of the sign a number of artists and businessmen developed and offered various shapes for it. Now the dram symbol is included in the Armenian standard for the national characters and symbols and in the Armenian computer fonts. The current standard sign for the Armenian dram (֏, image: ; ; code: AMD) was designed in 1995. In Unicode, it is encoded at .


title: Armenian dram

text: In 1994, a first series of aluminium coins was introduced in denominations of 10, 20, and 50 luma, 1, 3, 5, and 10 drams.


title: Armenian dram

text: In 2003 and 2004, a second series consisting of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 dram coins was introduced to replace the first series.


title: Armenian dram

text: The Central Bank has also issued a great number of commemorative coins intended for sale to collectors. A listing can be found at the authorized central bank distributors.


title: Armenian dram

text: In 1994, a first series of aluminium coins was introduced in denominations of 10, 20, and 50 luma, 1, 3, 5, and 10 drams. The other coins are officially in circulation but rarely used because of their low nominal value.


title: Armenian dram

text: In 2003 and 2004, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 drams.


title: Armenian dram

text: Banknotes of ֏50, ֏100, and ֏500 are rarely seen in circulation. Coins of ֏50, ֏100, and ֏500 are used instead.


title: Armenian dram

text: A commemorative ֏50,000 note was issued on 4 June 2001 in commemoration of the 1,700th anniversary of the adoption of Christianity in Armenia.


title: Armenian dram

text: A third series of Armenian dram banknotes were issued in 2017, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Armenia's national currency. All denominations for this series are the same as its previous issues, with the 2,000 dram banknote as a newly introduced denomination, the 50,000 dram banknote re-issued for this series and the omission of the 50, 100, and 100,000 dram banknotes for this issue. The new series are printed on hybrid substrates of Louisenthal.


title: Armenian dram

text: The first three denominations, ֏10,000, ֏20,000 and ֏50,000, were issued on November 22, 2018. The final three denominations, ֏1,000, ֏2,000 and ֏5,000 were issued on December 25, 2018.


title: Armenian dram

text: The modern dram came into effect on 22 November 1993, at a rate of Rbls 200 = 1 dram (US$1 = 404 drams). The dram is not pegged to or by any currency other than the Artsakh dram.


title: Ground state

text: The ground state of a quantum-mechanical system is its stationary state of lowest energy; the energy of the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system. An excited state is any state with energy greater than the ground state. In quantum field theory, the ground state is usually called the vacuum state or the vacuum.


title: Ground state

text: If more than one ground state exists, they are said to be degenerate. Many systems have degenerate ground states. Degeneracy occurs whenever there exists a unitary operator that acts non-trivially on a ground state and commutes with the Hamiltonian of the system.


title: Ground state

text: According to the third law of thermodynamics, a system at absolute zero temperature exists in its ground state; thus, its entropy is determined by the degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as a perfect crystal lattice, have a unique ground state and therefore have zero entropy at absolute zero. It is also possible for the highest excited state to have absolute zero temperature for systems that exhibit negative temperature.


title: Ground state

text: Consider the average energy of a state with a node at ; i.e., . The average energy in this state would be


title: Ground state

text: Now, consider a small interval around formula_5; i.e., formula_6. Take a new (deformed) wave function to be defined as formula_7, for formula_8; and formula_9, for formula_10; and constant for formula_6. If formula_12 is small enough, this is always possible to do, so that is continuous.


title: Ground state

text: Note that the kinetic-energy densities hold formula_17 everywhere because of the normalization. More significantly, the average kinetic energy is lowered by formula_18 by the deformation to .


title: Ground state

text: Now, consider the potential energy. For definiteness, let us choose formula_19. Then it is clear that, outside the interval formula_6, the potential energy density is smaller for the because formula_21 there.


title: Ground state

text: lower, but still of the same lower order formula_26 as for the deformed state , and subdominant to the lowering of the average kinetic energy.


title: Ground state

text: Therefore, the potential energy is unchanged up to order formula_27, if we deform the state formula_28 with a node into a state without a node, and the change can be ignored.


title: Ground state

text: We can therefore remove all nodes and reduce the energy by formula_18, which implies that cannot be the ground state. Thus the ground-state wave function cannot have a node. This completes the proof. (The average energy may then be further lowered by eliminating undulations, to the variational absolute minimum.)


title: Ground state

text: As the ground state has no nodes it is "spatially" non-degenerate, i.e. there are no two stationary quantum states with the energy eigenvalue of the ground state (let's name it formula_30) and the same spin state and therefore would only differ in their position-space wave functions.


title: Ground state

text: The reasoning goes by contradiction: For if the ground state would be degenerate then there would be two orthonormal stationary states formula_31 and formula_32 — later on represented by their complex-valued position-space wave functions formula_33 and formula_34 — and any superposition formula_35 with the complex numbers formula_36 fulfilling the condition formula_37 would also be a be such a state, i.e. would have the same energy-eigenvalue formula_30 and the same spin-state.


title: Ground state

text: But formula_47 i.e., formula_39 is "a node" of the ground state wave function and that is in contradiction to the premise that this wave function cannot have a node.


title: Ground state

text: Note that the ground state could be degenerate because of different "spin states" like formula_49 and formula_50 while having the same position-space wave function: Any superposition of these states would create a mixed spin state but leave the spatial part (as a common factor of both) unaltered.


title: Fordson

text: Fordson was a brand name of tractors and trucks. It was used on a range of mass-produced general-purpose tractors manufactured by Henry Ford & Son Inc from 1917 to 1920, by Ford Motor Company (U.S.) and Ford Motor Company Ltd (U.K.) from 1920 to 1928, and by Ford Motor Company Ltd (U.K.) from 1929 to 1964. The latter (Ford of Britain) also later built trucks and vans under the Fordson brand.


title: Fordson

text: After 1964, the Fordson name was dropped and all Ford tractors were simply badged as Fords in both the UK and the US.


title: Fordson

text: Between 1917 and 1922, the Fordson was for tractors somewhat like the Ford Model T was for automobiles—it captured the public's imagination and widely popularized the machine, with a reliable design, a low price affordable for workers and farmers, a widespread dealership network, and a production capacity for large numbers. Just as the Model T helped the public to appreciate how soon cars and trucks might replace most horses in transport, the Fordson helped people to appreciate how soon tractors might replace most horses in farming (advancing the mechanisation of agriculture). As with cars, Ford never had the market to itself, but it dominated the market for tractors, roughly 1917–1925, and again 1946-1953. Ford was the only automotive firm to sell cars, trucks and tractors simultaneously from 1917 to 1928.


title: Fordson

text: For a decade between 1928 and 1939, Ford of the U.S. left the tractor business. During that decade, Ford of Britain continued to build Fordsons and to develop new variants, which it exported widely. In 1939 Ford of the U.S. reentered the tractor market with an all-new model, this time with the Ford brand. Ford of Britain continued to use the Fordson brand until 1964.


title: Fordson

text: Fordson production took place in the U.S. (1917–1928); Cork, Ireland (1919–1923 and 1928–1933); and at Dagenham, Essex, England (1933–1964). Tens of thousands of Fordsons, most from the U.S. and some from Ireland, were exported to the Soviet Union from 1920 to 1927. Soviet Fordson clones were also built at Leningrad from 1924 and at Stalingrad from 1930.


title: Fordson

text: Henry Ford grew up in an extended family of farmers in Wayne County a few miles from Detroit, Michigan in the late 19th century. At the time, farm work was extremely arduous, because on the typical farm virtually nothing could get done without manual labour or animal labour as the motive power. As his interest in automobiles grew, he also expressed a desire to "lift the burden of farming from flesh and blood and place it on steel and motors." In the early 20th century, he began to build experimental tractors from automobile components. Four years after founding the Ford Motor Company in 1903, Ford finished his first experimental tractor in 1907 on Woodward Avenue in Detroit, referring to it as the "Automobile Plow". Approximately 600 gasoline-powered tractors were in use on American farms in 1908. Fordson tractor design was headed by Eugene Farkas and József Galamb, both involved in the design of the successful Ford Model T automobile.


title: Fordson

text: Traction engines had been around for a while, but they were large, heavy, expensive machines suited to prairie grain farming more than to small family farms in other regions. In the early 1910s, North America and Europe were hungry for small, inexpensive tractors, and many people seized on the Model T as a platform with which to create them. Clearly the idea of an auto-like tractor, made using auto-like parts and methods or by conversion from autos, was ripe.


title: Fordson

text: American engineer, inventor, and businessman Henry Ford built experimental tractors from automobile components during the early 20th century, and launched a prototype known as the Model B in August 1915. Further prototypes, with a dedicated tractor design, followed in 1916. With World War I raging in Europe, the first regular-production Henry Ford & Son tractors were exported to the U.K. in 1917 to expand British agriculture. In 1918, exports continued, the tractors began to be labeled as Fordsons, and U.S. domestic sales began. Sales boomed in 1918 and 1919.


title: Fordson

text: Henry Ford experimented with both auto-plows and heavier tractors. In August 1915, at a plowing demonstration in Fremont, Nebraska, he introduced a newly designed tractor known as the Model B. It used a 16 horsepower, two-cylinder, horizontally opposed engine, a spur gear transmission and three wheels - two front drivers and one rear steerer. The Model B was never produced, but did gain enough publicity to let the world know Ford was interested in developing a tractor.