title: Heroines Run the Show

text: The anime project was announced on August 28, 2021. It is produced by Lay-duce and directed by Noriko Hashimoto, with Yoshimi Narita overseeing the series' scripts, Kaori Ishii designing the characters and serving as chief animation director, and Moe Hyūga composing the music. The series aired from April 7 to June 23, 2022, on Tokyo MX, BS Fuji, MBS, and AT-X. The opening theme song is "Julietta" by the in-story group LIP×LIP, while the ending theme song is "Tokyo Sunny Party" by Inori Minase, Ayane Sakura, and Saori Hayami. Crunchyroll has licensed the series.


title: Heroines Run the Show

text: On April 11, 2022, Crunchyroll announced that the series would receive an English dub, which premiered on April 21 and is produced by the in-house cast in Texas.


title: Infinity Watch

text: The Infinity Watch is the name of three fictional organizations appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first version of Infinity Watch was gathered in "Warlock and the Infinity Watch" #1, and starred in that series until it ended with issue #42. The six members were the self-appointed guardians of the Infinity Stones, which were each given to a single member in order to safeguard against anyone else assembling them into the Infinity Gauntlet.


title: Infinity Watch

text: When Adam Warlock obtains possession of the all-powerful Infinity Gauntlet (that contained the six Infinity Gems) from Thanos, he is ordered by the Living Tribunal to separate the Gems so that they might never be used in conjunction again. Warlock forms the Infinity Watch, entrusting each member with an Infinity Gem to protect (keeping the identity of the sixth member a secret even from his fellow Infinity Watch-members). Under the Gauntlet's influence, Warlock is not in his right mind, and even he wondered if he had made the right choices later on.


title: Infinity Watch

text: Initially, Warlock did not intend for the Watch to become a team; he believes the gems would be safer if they were all kept separately, but Warlock's old enemy, the Man-Beast, abducts four Infinity Watch members and manipulated their gems in an attempt to destroy Warlock. After the Man-Beast is defeated, the Infinity Watch chose to stay together as a heroic team, except for Thanos. However, Thanos, having undergone a period of humility after the Infinity Gauntlet affair, did not abuse his gem, but kept it safe.


title: Infinity Watch

text: Warlock negotiates a deal with the Mole Man to use a castle on Monster Island as the Watch's base. With help from The Avengers and Warlock, the United Nations recognize the Mole Man's sovereignty of Monster Island (after a fatality-free battle with the Watch). The Infinity Watch goes on to deal with many other foes, most of them interested in the power the Gems could confer on their owner. Other opponents had personal interests in the Infinity Watch members.


title: Infinity Watch

text: An amnesic man appears on Monster Island and was taken in by the Watch despite Gamora's warnings. Gamora, holding the Time Gem, has visions of this man killing Adam Warlock. The Watch names the man Maxam after a symbol found on his belt and he joins the Watch, despite a violent outburst against Warlock.


title: Infinity Watch

text: The Watch also becomes involved in the events of the "Infinity War" and the "Infinity Crusade", both stemming from the events of the "Infinity Gauntlet".


title: Infinity Watch

text: A while later Gamora leaves the team after an argument with Adam Warlock. Maxam became the new Guardian of the Time Gem. This causes his memories to return; he is under the belief that Warlock is a danger to his homeworld. Under Moondragon's telepathic influence, Maxam believes that he had broken Warlock's neck and returned to his own world.


title: Infinity Watch

text: Meanwhile, the being known as Rune steals all the Infinity Gems and took them to the Ultraverse. With Gamora, Maxam and the gems gone, the Watch disbands. Although the gems are eventually returned to the Marvel Universe, the Watch has not been fully reestablished yet; however, Adam Warlock, Gamora, and Pip were shown attempting to overthrow the Champion of the Universe's rule of the planet Skardon in the 2004–2005 "She-Hulk" series, and at one point recruited Drax to aid in their efforts.


title: Infinity Watch

text: At the end of the "Infinity Countdown" storyline, Doctor Strange used a magic spell to speak to the holders of the Infinity Gems and requested a parley to reform the Infinity Watch. He states to Adam Warlock, Black Widow's clone, Captain Marvel, Star-Lord, and Turk Barrett that they need to safeguard them from such calamities even if one of them is Thanos.


title: Infinity Watch

text: In order to retrieve her soul piece that was trapped in the Soulworld, Gamora using the alias of Requiem, stole the Infinity Stones from Doctor Strange's Infinity Watch, but ended being corrupted by her father's influence and the seductive power of the Infinity Stones. She uses the Infinity Stones, and the Soul Stone, in particular, to not only recover her missing soul but also fold the universe into itself, combining every two souls into a single being. This resulted in the creation of “warped” characters with Loki to be the only one who wasn't merged with another character since he was beside Requiem, nevertheless, before he was placed into this new reality afterward, he was able to lightly influence her while she was committing the act so he could dupe his own version of the Infinity Watch within the Soul World.


title: Infinity Watch

text: To prevent the Infinity Stones from being stolen, Adam Warlock gave them a free will so they can choose their own Infinity Watch. The Soul Stone created the Mergiverse, a pocket multiverse that is home of the Secret Warps; the Time Stone chose Hector Bautista / Overtime, an inmate convicted for murder; the Reality Stone chose Ripley Ryan / Star, a former journalist turned supervillainess; and the Space Stone chose Quantum, a test subject used by the Assessor. The remaining members are still unrevealed.


title: Infinity Watch

text: Many members of the Infinity Watch were chosen for their inability or unwillingness to use their assigned Gem's full potential.


title: Infinity Watch

text: A team called the Infinity Watch exists in the year 3193, first appearing in "Uncanny Avengers" #16. Led by Immortus, it includes Captain Marvel, Silver Surfer, Martinex, Yondu, Starhawk, Adam Warlock, and the Vision with the power of The Phoenix.


title: Infinity Watch

text: In the 2017 video game "", in a scheme concocted by Jedah Dohma and Mistress Death to combine both the Marvel Universe and the Capcom multiverse to bring about equilibrium, utilizing the Infinity Stones, they enlist the help of Thanos and Ultron in infiltrating Abel City. However, he is intercepted by Sigma, and they form an alliance, betraying Thanos and utilizing the Space Stone and Reality Stone to fuse into Ultron-Sigma, and succeeds in combining the Marvel and Capcom realities. After defeating Ultron-Sigma by the end of the game, the Reality Stone is cracked, thus rendering the restoration and separation of the combined realities impossible. Now with no choice but live on the unified world, the heroes resolve to individually protect the Stones one by one to prevent them from ever being used again, as to avert a similar disaster from happening ever again, paralleling the Infinity Watch's purpose.


title: I Am... (TV series)

text: I Am... is a female-led drama anthology series of standalone stories created by Dominic Savage for Channel 4. Each episode is developed and written by Dominic Savage in collaboration with the leading actress.


title: I Am... (TV series)

text: Created, written and directed by filmmaker Dominic Savage, each episode of "I Am..." centres on a titular character which the episode is named after. Each standalone story was developed in a creative partnership with the leading actor, with improvised dialogue and themes including relationships, mental health, and empowerment.


title: I Am... (TV series)

text: Filming for the first series took place in 29 days, effectively 10 days per episode. According to "I Am..."s producer Krishnendu Majumdar, the filmmakers wanted an intimate but cinematic look for the episodes. Majumdar said the whole series was shot hand-held "as though we are eavesdropping on the characters", in order to add to the documentary feel of the drama.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Native American slave ownership refers to the ownership of enslaved Africans and Native Americans by Native Americans from the pre-colonial period to the U.S. Civil War. Waves of European colonization (and the concurrent Atlantic slave trade) brought enslaved Africans to North America. Following this development many indigenous tribes began to acquire Africans as slaves. Many prominent people from the "Five Civilized Tribes" purchased slaves from their white neighbors and became members of the planter class.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The 1863 Emancipation Proclamation only applied to States in rebellion, and did not legally affect slavery in Indian areas that fought for the Confederacy. All slaves in the United States were legally emancipated upon the ratification of the 13th Amendment on December 6, 1865, just after the American Civil War.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In practice, slavery continued in Indian territories. The federal government negotiated new treaties with the "Five Civilized Tribes" in 1866, in which they agreed to end slavery.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Holding humans in slavery was not a new concept to indigenous American peoples - in inter-Native American conflict tribes often kept prisoners-of-war, and these captives often replaced slain tribe-members.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Native-American versions of slavery prior to European contact sometimes differed from European concepts of slavery in that Native Americans did not originally distinguish between groups of people based on skin-color, but rather traditions.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: African Americans and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native-American and African contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to be held and work in slavery. Some scholars argue that because of similarities between some African and Native American cultural artifacts, the two groups likely had transatlantic encounters before European discovery of the Americas - this cannot however be proved. By the 18th century, Africans held captive in slavery by and with Native Americans had become a commonplace in colonial America.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Native Americans and Africans had many interactions as parallel oppressed communities. Before the jump-start of the Atlantic slave trade, European settlers enslaved many Native Americans, and major European-held colonies such as Virginia and South Carolina enslaved thousands (30,000-53,000) of Native Americans in the late 1600s through the 1700s with the occurrence of enslavement continuing into the 1800s.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Andrés Reséndez estimates that between 147,000 and 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in North America, excluding Mexico. According to the National Park Service, "Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried." Because of a shortage of men due to warfare, many tribes encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier children from the unions.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: However, Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. Because of European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans, the colonists encouraged hostility between the ethnic groups: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests." In 1751, South Carolina law stated:


title: Native American slave ownership

text: "The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided."


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. The "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader." To gain favor with Europeans, the Cherokee exhibited the strongest color-prejudice of all Native Americans.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Native Americans were rewarded if they returned people who had escaped from slavery, and African-Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th-century Indian Wars.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Africans held in slavery replaced Native American enslavement and eventually many Native Americans were forced off their land and forced to move westward. There are many examples of this forced removal, but one of the most famous was the Trail of Tears (1830s and 1840s) that forced people of the Cherokee nation and other tribes to move westward to present-day Oklahoma.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: There are conflicting theories as to what caused the shift between traditional Native American servitude, to the oppressive racialized enslavement adopted by the Five Civilized tribes. One theory is the civilized tribes adopted slavery as means to defend themselves from federal pressure, believing that it would help them maintain their southern lands. In this effort to avoid removal, some Native American tribes attempted to assimilate into white European society through strategies such as formal schooling, adopting Christianity, moving off the reservation, or even owning slaves. They were the most receptive to white pressures to adopt European cultures.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In the nineteenth century, European Americans began to migrate west from the coastal areas, and encroach on tribal lands, sometimes in violation of existing treaties. Bands along the frontier, in closer contact with traders and settlers, tended to become more assimilated, often led by chiefs who believed they needed to change to accommodate a new society; indeed, some chiefs were mixed-race and were related to elected American officials. Other chiefs had been educated in American schools, and had learned American language and culture.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Educated individuals mixed with European heritage were the most likely to become slaveholders and adopt other European practices. Others of their people, often located at more of a distance, held to more traditional practices, and such cultural divisions were the cause of conflict, for instance the Creek Wars (1812–1813) and similar tensions suffered by other Southeast tribes.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Another narrative postulates that Native Americans began to feed into the European belief that Africans were somehow inferior to whites and themselves. Some indigenous nations such as the Chickasaws and the Choctaws began to embrace the concept that African bodies were property, and equated blackness to hereditary inferiority. In either case "The system of racial classification and hierarchy took shape as Europeans and Euro-Americans sought to subordinate and exploit Native Americans' and Africans' land, bodies, and labor. Whether strategically or racially motivated the trade of humans promoted interactions between the "Five Civilized Tribes" and Africans held in slavery which led to new power relations among Native societies, elevating groups such as the Five Civilized Tribes to power and serving, ironically, to preserve native order.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The writer William Loren Katz suggests that Native Americans treated the people they held in slavery better than European Americans in the Southeast. Travelers reported enslaved Africans "in as good circumstances as their masters." A white Indian Agent, Douglas Cooper, upset by the Native Americans failure to practice a harsher form of bondage, insisted that Native Americans invite white men to live in their villages and "control matters." One observer in the early 1840s wrote, "The full-blood Indian rarely works himself and but few of them make their slaves work. A slave among wild Indians is almost as free as his owner." Frederick Douglass stated in 1850, "the slave finds more of the milk of human kindness in the bosom of the savage Indian, than in the heart of his Christian master. But references to Indian kindness were generally to the sanctuary offered by underground railroads operated by non-slaveholding Indians -- not to Indian who kept people in slavery.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In contrast to whites who profited from keeping people enslaved for labor, Native Americans who enslaved people didn't use justifications for slavery nor maintain a fictional view of seeing the enslaved people they held captive as part of the family. However, the status of enslaved individuals could change if captors adopted or married an enslaved African American, but enslaved people as a whole had always been linked to their lack of kin ties. In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or runaway African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. Records show that many Native American women "bought" captive African men but, unknown to the European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. When African men married or had children by a Native American woman, their children were born free, because the mother was free (according to the principle of partus sequitur ventrum, which the colonists incorporated into law.)


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In the 1790s, Benjamin Hawkins was assigned as the US agent to the southeastern tribes. He encouraged the major Southeast tribes to adopt chattel slavery in order to have labor for plantations and large-scale agricultural production, as part of their assimilation of European-American ways. He thought their traditional form of slavery, which had looser conditions, was less efficient than chattel slavery. However, the adoption and adaptation of Euro-American institutions did nothing to shield Native Americans from U.S. domination and created divisions within the tribes themselves. The pressures from European Americans and the U.S government to assimilate as well as the economic shift of furs and deerskins led to them adopting an economy based on agriculture.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Katz thought that enslaving humans for profit contributed to divisiveness among tribes of the Southeast and promoted a class hierarchy based on "white blood." Some historians believe that class division was related more to the fact that several of the leadership clans accepted mixed-race chiefs, who were first and foremost on these tribes, and promoting assimilation or accommodation. The Choctaw and Chickasaw nations were also exceptions to the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations; as these tribes abolished slavery immediately after the end of the Civil War the Chickasaw and Choctaw didn't free all of the people they held in slavery until 1866.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Tensions varied between African American and Native Americans in the south, as by the early 1800s sanctuary for people who escaped slavery changed. Sometimes people who had escaped slavery had a 50% chance that Native Americans may capture them and return them to the white people who enslaved them or even re-enslave them. Though some Native Americans had a strong dislike of slavery they lacked political power and a paternalist culture that pervaded the non-Indian south; as white men were seen as absolute masters in their households. It is unclear if Native American slaveholders sympathized with African American slaves as fellow people of color, class more than race may be a more useful prism through which to view masters of color.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Christianity emerged as an important fault line separating some Native Americans and African Americans as most African Americans by the early 1800s had accepted the teachings of missionaries while few Native Americans particularly the Choctaw and Chickasaw in the south converted and still practiced traditional spiritual beliefs. Many Native Americans saw the attempts of missionization as a part U.S. expansion.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: European colonists often required the return of runaway slaves--people who escaped those who held them in slavery--to be included as a provision in treaties with American Indians. In 1726, the governor of New York, William Burnet, exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all people who had escaped their captors. In the mid-1760s, the colonial government of New York requested the Huron and Delaware to return those people who had managed to escape slavery, but there was no record of those people having been returned. Colonists placed ads about "runaway slaves".


title: Native American slave ownership

text: While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and enslaved them, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, paying to "own" and use captive African American people for profit, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3% of Native Americans kept others in slavery, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that those in the tribe who held people in slavery were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took the people they enslaved into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures interacted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture. Native Americans in the South shared some experiences with Africans, especially during the period, primarily in the 17th and 18th centuries, when both were enslaved. The colonists along the Atlantic Coast had begun enslaving Native Americans to ensure a source of labor. At one time the trade of people held captive for profit was so extensive that it caused increasing tensions with the various Algonquian tribes, as well as the Iroquois Confederacy. Based in New York and Pennsylvania, they had threatened to attack colonists on behalf of the related Iroquoian Tuscarora before they migrated out of the South in the early 1700s.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In the 19th century, some members of these tribes who were more closely associated with settlers, began to purchase African-American slaves for workers. They adopted some European-American ways to benefit their people.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Among the Five Civilized Tribes, mixed-race slaveholders were generally part of an elite hierarchy, often based on their mothers' clan status, as the societies had matrilineal systems. As did Benjamin Hawkins, European fur traders and colonial officials tended to marry high-status women, in strategic alliances seen to benefit both sides. The Choctaw, Creek and Cherokee believed they benefited from stronger alliances with the traders and their societies. The women's sons gained their status from their mother's families; they were part of hereditary leadership lines who exercised power and accumulated personal wealth in their changing Native American societies. The chiefs of the tribes believed that some of the new generation of mixed-race, bilingual chiefs would lead their people into the future and be better able to adapt to new conditions influenced by European Americans.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Proposals for Indian Removal heightened the tensions of cultural changes, due to the increase in the number of mixed-race Native Americans in the South. Full bloods, who tended to live in areas less affected by colonial encroachment, generally worked to maintain traditional ways, including control of communal lands. While the traditional members often resented the sale of tribal lands to Anglo-Americans, by the 1830s they agreed it was not possible to go to war with the colonists on this issue.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: With the US increasing pressure for Indian Removal, tensions became higher. Some chiefs believed removal was inevitable and wanted to negotiate the best terms possible to preserve tribal rights, such as the Choctaw Greenwood LeFlore. Others believed they should resist losing ancestral lands. For instance, members of the Cherokee Treaty Party, who believed removal was coming, negotiated cessions of land which the rest of the tribe repudiated.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: This conflict was carried to Indian Territory, where opponents assassinated some of the signatories of the land cession treaty, for alienating communal land. The tensions among the Native Americans of the Southeast was principally about land and assimilation rather than slavery. Most chiefs agreed that armed resistance was futile. The Five Civilized Tribes took African-Americans they held in slavery with them to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) when they were removed from the American Southeast by the US Government.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Missionaries and supporters of the American Board vociferously denounced Indian removal as cruel, oppressive, and feared such actions would push Native Americans away from converting.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In 1850 the U.S. Fugitive Slave Law was created and in both ways divided Native Americans in Indian Territory. Runaway slaves in Indian Territory was exceptionally debatable among Native Americans and the U.S. government. Native Americans heavily felt U.S. lawmakers were overstepping their boundaries reaching over federal authority.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: An example of this would be a town on the eastern part of the Choctaw Nation was home to a diverse community that included free African Americans as well as people of mixed African-Choctaw descent. In Indian Territory these communities were not a rarity and complicated the taking of censuses commissioned by the U.S. government. In 1832, census takers commissioned by the U.S. government in Creek country struggled to categorize the diverse group of people who resided there; unsure how to count African American wives of Creek men, nor where to place people of mixed African-Native descent.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The "Five Civilized Tribes", centered in Georgia, had acquired African Americans for use in slavery as plunder from Patriot slave owners during the Revolutionary War, which was allowed by their British allies. The Five Civilized Tribes, coached by Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins, acquired additional enslaved workers and became planters, like their white neighbors.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The federal government's expulsion of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek (Muscogee) tribes opened the door to the rapid growth of plantation slavery across the "Deep South", but Indian removal also pushed chattel slavery westward, setting the stage for more conflicts. Unlike other tribes that were physically forced to move out of the "Deep South" the government actively sought to have the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations forcefully unified governmentally. The Choctaw and Chickasaw saw each other as different people and were bitter enemies in the 1700s, but in 1837 a treaty was made unifying the two tribes.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The two tribes agreed to the union but a treaty made in 1855 allowed the two tribes to separate as different governments. Native Americans and African Americans had mostly positive interactions through the centuries. This positive interaction was not the case in post-Civil War Indian Territory. Racial antagonism, intensified by the abolition of slavery among the Five Civilized Tribes and the new pressures brought on by the influx of land-hungry white settlers, combined to create bitter hostility and in a few instances violent conflicts between the two peoples who had previously lived in relative harmony.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The evolution of this changing Native American and African American relationship can be traced to the American Civil War. President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation had a major impact on the Five Civilized Tribes even though the tribes were individually allowed to decide on the fate of their freedmen.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Cherokee was the tribe that held the most people in slavery. In 1809, they held nearly 600 enslaved Africans. This number increased to almost 1,600 in 1835, and to around 4,000 by 1860, after they had removed to Indian Territory. Cherokee populations for these dates are: 12,400 in 1809; 16,400 in 1835; and 21,000 in 1860. The proportion of Cherokee families who held others in slavery did not exceed ten percent, and was comparable to the percentage among white families across the South, where an "elite" group of people held most of the people who were enslaved for labor and profit.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In the 1835 census, only eight percent of Cherokee households contained people in slavery, and only three Cherokee owned more than 50 people held in slavery. Joseph Vann had the most, owning 110 like other major planters. Of the Cherokee who held people in slavery, 83 percent held fewer than 10 people in slavery. Of the families who held people in slavery, 78 percent claimed some white ancestry.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In 1827 the Cherokee developed a constitution, which was part of their acculturation. It prohibited those held in slavery and their descendants (including mixed-race) from owning property, selling goods or produce to earn money, and marrying Cherokee or European Americans. It imposed heavy fines on those holding people in slavery if the people they enslaved consumed alcohol. No African Americans, even if free and of partial Cherokee heritage, could vote in the tribe. If a mother was of partial African descent, her children could not vote in the tribe, regardless of the father's heritage; the Cherokee also prohibited any person of Negro or mulatto parentage from holding an office in the Cherokee government.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Such laws reflected state slavery laws in the Southeast, but Cherokee laws did not impose as many restrictions on those enslaved nor were they strictly enforced. However the narrative that the Cherokee practiced a less harsh form of slavery has increasingly been challenged, with historians such as Dr. Arica L. Coleman going so far as to call it “demolished” by recent scholarship showing “slavery in the Indian Territory became a mirror-image of slavery in the White South." In the Cherokee constitution, the Cherokee council made strong efforts to regulate the marrying of Cherokee women to white men, but made little effort to control whom Cherokee men chose to marry or have a union with.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: It was not uncommon for Cherokee men, like white men, to have unions with African-American women who were held in slavery, but there was little incentive for them to legalize the union as children born to captive enslaved women or any woman of African descent were not seen as Cherokee citizens at the time due to the rule of the Cherokee Constitution. Some sexual relationships between Cherokee men and African-American women were also informal, so prohibitions on marriage wouldn't affect them. The lack of legal prohibitions on such unions points to the unwillingness of lawmakers, many of whom belonged to families holding people in slavery, to infringe on the prerogatives of those who held people in slavery over the people they held captive or to constrain the sexual behavior of men in the tribe.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Cherokee government in the majority of cases did not recognize marriages between African Americans and Cherokee citizens and declared people of African descent as forbidden marriage partners in an effort to discourage unions, and also to attempt to keep a divide between the two racial groups. Though a few cases on record indicate such unions did occur; in 1854 a Cherokee named Cricket was charged with taking a colored wife, and for unclear reasons the Cherokee courts tried him and acquitted him. It is speculated that maybe the court was attempting to express disapproval, the relationship may have been considered less formal, or etc.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The "1855 Act" made no room for formal relationships between African Americans and Cherokee citizens and was partially derived from the "1839 Act" preventing amalgamation with colored persons, which was still in effect but did not prevent such unions from occurring. By 1860 the population held in slavery in the Cherokee nation made up 18% of the entire population of the nation with most people enslaved being culturally Cherokee, only spoke the Cherokee language, and were immersed in Cherokee traditions. The Cherokee also had no laws on the manumission of those held in slavery; manumission was given for numerous reasons.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Cherokee freed their slaves in 1863 in accordance to the Emancipation Proclamation; however, under the provisions of the post-war treaty only those freedmen and free African Americans residing in the Cherokee nation before the war and who remained in 1866 were declared citizens and entitled to vote and hold office. All other Cherokee freedmen wanting citizenship had to return to the nation within six months of the treaty signing.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Consequently, a number of former Cherokee slaves who had fled during the Civil War but returned after 1867 were not allowed Cherokee citizenship, and this category of non-citizen "intruders" often included husbands, wives, and children of Cherokee citizens. Some tribal leaders such as Chief Lewis Downing, made legislative attempts to correct this enumeration mistake, however the National Council and the Cherokee national legislature disregarded these measures and called on federal authorities to eject those categorized as "intruders".


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Chickasaw also held similar laws mimicking the culture of the American south. After the Revolutionary War the Chickasaw like many other tribes were the targets of assimilation, they were pressed into giving up their trading of deerskins, and communal hunting grounds. The secretary of war Henry Knox under George Washington set two interrelated goals: peaceful land acquisitions and programs focused on assimilating Native Americans in the south. The Chickasaw became familiarized with chattel slavery through contact with European colonists, and began to adopt this form of slavery in the early 19th century.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The heavy decline of the white-tailed deer population aided in the pressure for the Chickasaw to begin enslaving people for labor as "chattel", the Chickasaw conceded that they could no longer rely primarily on hunting. It is unclear when the Chickasaw began to think of themselves as potential slave owners of African and African Americans as people they could enslave as property. The shift toward buying, selling, and exploiting slave labor for material gain accompanied broader, ongoing changes in the ways Chickasaw acquired and valued goods. The Chickasaw excelled in the production of cotton, corn, livestock, and poultry to not only feed their families, but to sell to American families.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: U.S. Indian agents tracked Chickasaw acquisition of slaves and didn't discourage it, federal officials believed the exploiting of slave labor might enhance Native Americans' understandings of the dynamics of property ownership and commercial gain. The Chickasaw obtained many slaves born in Georgia, Tennessee, or Virginia . In 1790 Major John Doughty wrote to Henry Knox, Chickasaws owned a great many horses & some families have Negroes & cattle. Among the Chickasaw who were slaveholders many had European heritage mostly through a white father and a Chickasaw mother.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The continued assimilation heavily came through intermarriage as some assimilationists viewed intermarriage as another way to expedite natives' advancement toward civilization, and supported the underlying belief in white superiority. A number of Chickasaw with European heritage rose to prominence because they were related to already politically powerful members of the tribe, not because of racial makeup. Though the Chickasaw did not necessarily prize Euro-American ancestry they did embrace a racial hierarchy that degraded those with African heritage and associated it with enslavement.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: A further cultural change among the Chickasaw was to have enslaved men work in the fields along with enslaved women, within the Chickasaw tribe agricultural duties belonged to the women. Chickasaw legislators would later condemn sexual relationships between Chickasaw and black people; Chickasaws were punished for publicly taking up with an African Americans held in slavery with fines, whippings, and ultimately expulsion from the nation. This legislation was also an attempt to keep boundaries between race and citizenship within the tribe. The Chickasaw were also unique among the other civilized tribes as they saw their control over enslaved people as a particular form of power that could, and should be enacted through violence. The Chickasaw in some cases also practiced the separation of families something not practiced among the other tribes.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Choctaw enslaved many people who were already enslaved in Georgia. The Choctaw held laws in their constitution which also mirrored the "Deep South". The Choctaw in Indian Territory did not allow anyone with African heritage to hold office even if they were of partial heritage. The Choctaw 1840 constitution also didn't allow freed African Americans to settle in the Choctaw nation meaning they were not allowed to own or obtain land, but white men could get permission in writing from the Chief or the United States Agent to reside in the Choctaw nation.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Choctaw nation further barred those of partial African heritage from being recognized as Choctaw citizens, but a white man married to a Choctaw woman would be eligible for naturalization. In response to proslavery ideology in the Native American nations creating a climate of animosity toward free African Americans, the Choctaw General Council enacted legislation in October 1840 that mandated the expulsion of all free black people "unconnected with the Choctaw & Chickasaw blood" by March 1841. Those who remained were at risk of being sold at an auction and enslaved for life.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: W.P.A. interviews conducted varied among formerly enslaved people of the Choctaw tribe, the formerly enslaved Edmond Flint asserted that his bondage by the Choctaw didn't differ from being enslaved under a white household, but indicated that within the Choctaw there were humane and inhumane enslavement. Choctaw who kept people in slavery and those who did not were a major focus for missionaries wanting to convert those who weren't Christian. One Methodist newspaper in 1829 stated,


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Choctaw did allow the people they enslaved to worship at Christian missions. For Africans rebuilding their religious lives in the Native American nations sustained a sense of connection to the kin and communities that had been left behind. Missionaries were able to establish mission churches and school in the Choctaw lands with permission from the tribe's leaders, but the issues of slavery created aversion between the Choctaw and the missionaries. The missionaries argued that human bondage didn't reflect a Christian society, and believed it highlighted native people's laziness, cruelty, and resistance to "civilization."


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In the 1820s a heated debate over whether to allow slaveholding Choctaw into mission churches occurred, but a final decision was made with missionaries not wanting to alienate slaveholding Native Americans as potential converts and so received them at prayer meetings and granted church membership with the hope of enlightening them through discussion and prayer. During this time, missionaries did see Choctaws and African Americans as racially and intellectually inferior; converted Africans were regarded as intellectually and morally sounder than non-Christian Native Americans.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Cyrus Kingsbury, a leader of the American Board, believed that missionaries had brought civilization to the Choctaw whom he deemed as uncivilized people. A few Choctaw slaveholders believed that having their slaves learn how to read the Bible would cause them to become spoiled slaves, and this added to the persistent mistrust the Choctaw had for missionaries. One Choctaw slaveholder, Israel Folsom, informed Kingsbury that the Folsom family would no longer attend Kingsbury's church because of its antislavery position. Tiring of the missionaries condescending attitudes or questioning their pedagogical approach toward both Native American pupils and African worshippers, the Choctaw withdrew their children, slaves, and financial support from the mission schools and churches.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Choctaw masters, whether they converted to Christianity or not, did not rely on religion as a weapon of control in interactions with their slaves, but did regulate where enslaved peoples could have religious gatherings. In 1850 the U.S. Congress made its most dramatic legislative move against free African Americans in the United States with its approval of the Fugitive Slave Act, which added to the tensions free African Americans felt in the Choctaw Nation. However, even with Choctaw lawmakers determined measures to separate the Choctaw from free African Americans, some free African Americans remained in the nation undisturbed.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In 1860 census takers from Arkansas documented several households in the Choctaw nation that were predominantly African American. The kidnappings of free African Americans by white men became a serious threat, even for those in Native American nations. Though paternalism sometimes motivated prominent Native Americans to protect freed black people, political leaders and enslavers generally viewed free African Americans as magnets for white thieves and thus a menace to people who kept slaves and national security.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In 1842 Choctaw Peter Pitchlynn wrote to the U.S. secretary of war, complaining about the "armed Texans" who charged into Choctaw country and kidnapped the Beams family; citing it as evidence of white American disregard for Native American sovereignty. The Beams family case went on from the 1830s to 1856 when the Choctaw court ruled that the family was indeed a free black family.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: In Creek society before the arrival of Europeans and Africans in Creek country, those held in slavery were simply war captives. Noncombatant women and young children were enslaved and clans who had lost members on the battlefield took the captives into their extended matrilineal households and most of these "slaves" eventually became part of the family unit. When trade between Europeans began the Creek's traditional ways of determining a war captive's fate drastically changed, and the Creek began to sell them to Europeans. The best-known victims of the Creeks in this Indian trade of enslaved people were the Apalachee tribe.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: It is unclear when the Creek first met Sub-Saharan Africans; during the colonial period Creek people primarily encountered Africans as refugees seeking protection from the oppression of slavery, as employees or servants of deerskin traders, or as laborers for white settlers. For the Creeks, their most frequent contact with Africans came from day-to-day interactions with traders' slaves, but there were intermittent efforts by colonial and imperial authorities to limit the use of Africans in the deerskin trade though this policy was often ignored. White slaveholders attempted to deceive Africans held in slavery into believing the Creek would harm them to discourage them from trying to escape to the Creek.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Creek often saw African men laboring at what was considered women's work in Creek culture; this reinforced the notion that African men were their inferiors, in the eyes of Creek warriors at least. Creeks could, and often did visit the plantations of the white men; sometimes the Creek only came to look around the plantations, sometimes the Creek brought deerskins and fresh meat to trade with white people. White people would often make the Africans they enslaved cross over into Creek territory even when the boundaries were known, and the Creek would often complain that white people were encroaching on their hunting grounds. These conflicts lead to the Creek attacking white settlements on Creek territory, and lead to the enslavement of white women and children whose bondate was mostly sold back to government authorities.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: By the early 1700s the Creek began to have more interracial relationships with runaway slaves, and the purchase of African slaves lead to interracial relationships. This led to mixed race children and children born to a Creek mother were considered Creek regardless of the father's race. Prior to 1763 many slaves had hoped to find refuge in Native American communities, and in Georgia it didn't take slaves long to find Creek settlements. The obvious solution to this perceived threat was for white settlers from the Southern Colonies to reward Creek hunters for returning runaway slaves.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Creek would sometimes return slaves to their white slaveholders, or enslave black men for themselves and absorb them into Creek society. The population of Africans and African Americans drastically increased in Creek society during the American revolution. Even after the American Revolutionary War the Americans tried to continue the same awards for runaway slaves. This system did not always work exactly as planned, since many Creeks, for a variety of reasons, were hesitant to force slaves to return to their former masters.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: At times, traders and government officials attempted to capture runaway slaves who were seen "sculking" in various Creek towns which caused conflict between White Americans and the Creek. By the 1750s most traders living in the Creek country had at least one person in slavery. By the 1770s the far majority of Creeks didn't own black slaves. /> In 1860, about 30 years after their removal to Indian Territory from their home in the Southeast, and Creek citizens kept 1,532 people in slavery (10 percent of their total population). /> Enslaved African Americans were allowed more freedom than their counterparts enslaved by white people.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Furthermore, enslaved blacks were not housed in separate villages or communities but lived in close contact with the Creek who held them captive, and were often used as interpreters speaking both Creek and English. Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins was very frustrated with the Creek because they wouldn't practice slavery as "chattel" slavery--managing enslaved people as work animals rather than enslaved humans--even when he introduced new techniques and tools. Mixed-blood Creek (those with European heritage) from mostly the Upper Creek that held their white parent's economic and social values, including patrilineal descent, and private land ownership; soon began to have major conflicts with traditionalists whom had slaves participate in the communal subsistence-level horticulture that reflected Creek culture rather than chattel slavery.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: As a result, political upheaval, economic distress, and a spiritual awakening caused civil war among the Creeks in 1813 leading the Creek War, and soon after the Creek would be forced down the Trail of Tears. The Creek took the African Americans enslaved with them on the Trail of Tears into Indian Territory, and some Creek remained in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida resisting removal or assimilating into American culture. The only option for the Creek to be successful in the southern states was to become a white person culturally; those who refused to do so were either murdered, removed, or enslaved themselves.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Seminoles took a unique path compared to the other four civilized tribes. The Seminoles targeted and held African American in captivity, but did not codify racial slavery. Instead they kept to their traditions to absorb outsiders. Drawing on the chiefly political organization of their ancestors, Seminoles welcomed African Americans, but this increasingly isolated the Seminoles from the rest of the South and even from other Native Americans leading to them being seen as major threats to the plantation economy.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The Seminoles were also unique because they absorbed the remaining Yuchis population. African Americans who escaped their captors began to seek refuge in Florida with the Seminoles in the 1790s. One plantation owner in Florida, Jesse Dupont, declared that the people he held in captivity began to escape around 1791, when two men ran away to Seminole country he also stated:


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Seminole country quickly became the new locus of black freedom in the region. While the other major Southern Native American nations began to pursue black slavery, political centralization and a new economy, Seminoles drew on culturally conservative elements of native culture and incorporated African Americans as valued members of their communities. Together, they created a new society, one that increasingly isolated them from other southerners. Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the extremet form of "chattel" slavery then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation since African Americans among the Seminole generally lived in their own communities. In exchange for paying an annual tribute of livestock and crops and hunting and war party obligations, black prisoners or enslaved people found sanctuary among the Seminole. Seminoles, in turn, acquired an important strategic ally.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Like other Southern Native Americans, Seminoles accumulated private property, and elites passed down enslaved African Americans and their descendants to relatives. The Seminoles maintained traditional captivity practices longer than other Native Americans, and continued to capture white Americans. The practice of capturing white Americans decreased in the early 19th century with the First Seminole War producing the regions last white captives. Though later to do so than other Native Americans in the south, Seminoles too narrowed their captivity practices. They grew pessimistic about incorporating non-natives into their families as adoptees and almost exclusively targeted people of African descent during their 19th century wars against American expansion.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: When General Thomas Jesup enumerated the origins of African Americans among the Seminoles to the secretary of war in 1841, he began with "descendants of negroes taken from citizens of Georgia by the Creek confederacy in former wars." When a group of Seminole warriors pledged to join the British in the American Revolution, they stipulated that "Whatever horses or slaves or cattle we take we expect to be our own." Out of the sixty-eight documented captives in the Mikasuki War (1800-1802), 90% were African Americans. The Seminoles repeatedly took up arms to defend their land.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: They fought in three major conflicts, the Patriot War, the First Seminole War, and the Second Seminole War and were in countless skirmishes with slave catchers. The Seminoles were at war with the United States far longer than other Southern Native American nations, the Seminoles continued to take black captives, and encouraged African Americans to join them in their fight against the invading Americans. The Seminoles continued to destroy and raid plantations.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Throughout 1836, Seminole warriors continued to best U.S. troops, but more alarming to white Americans was the relationship between Seminoles and African Americans. They feared that the alliance grew with each passing day, as the Seminoles captured slaves and enticed others to escape. After witnessing the unrest among Creeks forced to emigrate, General Thomas Jesup believed that the Second Seminole War could ignite the entire South in a general uprising, wherein people of color might destroy the region's plantation economy as well as their white oppressors.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: The traditional relationship between Seminole blacks and natives changed following the Second Seminole War when the Seminole were relocated to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture. Conflict arose in the Territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the Creek, who had a practice of chattel slavery. There was increasing pressure from both Creek and pro-Creek Seminole for the adoption of the Creek model of slavery for the Black Seminoles. Creek slavers and those from other Indian groups, and whites, began raiding the Black Seminole settlements to kidnap and enslave people. The Seminole leadership would become headed by a pro-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery. These threats led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Tensions varied between African American and Native Americans in the south, as each nation dealt with the ideology behind the enslavement of Africans differently. In the late 1700s and 1800s, some Native American nations gave sanctuary to people who escaped enslavement while others were more likely to capture them and return them to their white captors or even re-enslave them. Others incorporated those who escaped into their societies, sometimes resulting in intermarriage between the Africans and the Native Americans, which was a commonplace among the Creek and Seminole.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Although some Native Americans had a strong dislike of slavery, because they too were seen as a people of a subordinate race than white men of European descent, they lacked the political power to influence the racialistic culture that pervaded the Non-Indian South. It is unclear if Native Americans who held slaves sympathized with African Americans as fellow people of color; class, more than race, may be a more useful prism through which to view masters of color. Missionary work was an efficient method the United States used to persuade Native Americans to accept European methods of living.


title: Native American slave ownership

text: Missionaries vociferously denounced Indian removal as cruel and oppressive, and feared such actions would push Native Americans away from converting. Some Native Americans who were against slavery saw the Civil War as an opportunity to ultimately end the institution. Prior to 1861 anti-slavery Creeks and Seminoles allowed people who escaped slavery from surrounding states to take refuge on their lands and some Cherokees maintained the Keetoowah Society, a secret abolitionist organization.


title: 22 (number)

text: 22 is a palindromic number and the eighth semiprime; its proper divisors are 1, 2, and 11. It is the second Smith number, the second Erdős–Woods number, and the fourth . It is also a Perrin number, from a sum of 10 and 12.


title: 22 (number)

text: 22 is the fourth pentagonal number, the third hexagonal pyramidal number, and the third centered heptagonal number.


title: 22 (number)

text: The maximum number of regions into which five intersecting circles divide the plane is 22. 22 is also the quantity of pieces in a disc that can be created with six straight cuts, which makes 22 the seventh central polygonal number.


title: 22 (number)

text: formula_1 is a commonly used approximation of the irrational number , the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, where in particular 22 and 7 are "consecutive" hexagonal pyramidal numbers. Also,


title: 22 (number)

text: Natural logarithms of integers in binary are known to have Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe type formulae for formula_3 for all integers formula_4.


title: 22 (number)

text: 22 is the number of partitions of 8, as well as the sum of the totient function over the first eight integers, with for 22 returning 10.


title: 22 (number)

text: 22 can read as "two twos", which is the only fixed point of John Conway's look-and-say function. In other words, "22" generates the infinite repeating sequence "22, 22, 22, ..."


title: 22 (number)

text: There is an elementary set of 22 single-orbit convex tilings that tessellate two dimensional space with face-transitive, edge-transitive, and/or vertex-transitive properties: 11 of these are regular and semiregular Archimedean tilings, while the other 11 are their dual Laves tilings. 22 edge-to-edge star polygon tilings exist in the second dimension that incorporate regular convex polygons: 18 involve specific angles, while 4 involve angles that are adjustable. Finally, there are also 22 regular complex apeirohedra of the form {a}{b}: 8 are self-dual, while 14 exist as dual polytope pairs; 21 belong in formula_5 while one belongs in formula_6.


title: 22 (number)

text: There are 22 different subgroups that describe full icosahedral symmetry. Three groups are generated by particular inversions, five groups by reflections, and nine groups by rotations, alongside three mixed groups, the pyritohedral group, and the full icosahedral group.


title: 22 (number)

text: There are 22 finite semiregular polytopes through the eighth dimension, aside from the infinite families of prisms and antiprisms in the third dimension and inclusive of 2 enantiomorphic forms. Defined as vertex-transitive polytopes with regular facets, there are:


title: 22 (number)

text: The number 22 appears prominently within sporadic groups. Mathieu group M is one of 26 such sporadic finite simple group, defined as the 3-transitive permutation representation on 22 points. It is the monomial of the McLaughlin sporadic group, McL, and the unique index 2 subgroup of the automorphism group of Steiner system S(3,6,22). Mathieu group M contains M as a point stabilizer, and has a minimal irreducible complex representation in 22 dimensions, like McL. M has two rank 3 actions on 253 points, with 253 equal to the sum of the first 22 non-zero positive integers, or the 22nd triangular number. Both M and M are maximal subgroups within Mathieu group M, which works inside the lexicographic generation of Steiner system S(5,8,24) W, where single elements within 759 octads of 24-element sets occur 253 times throughout its entire set. On the other hand, the Higman–Sims sporadic group HS also has a minimal faithful complex representation in 22 dimensions, and is equal to 100 times the group order of M, . Conway group Co and Fischer group Fi both have 22 different conjugacy classes.


title: 22 (number)

text: The extended binary Golay code formula_8, which is related to Steiner system W, is constructed as a vector space of "F" from the words:


title: 22 (number)

text: The extended ternary Golay code [12, 6, 6], whose root is the ternary Golay code [11, 6, 5] over "F", has a complete weight enumerator value equal to:


title: 22 (number)

text: The 22nd unique prime in base ten is notable for having starkly different digits compared to its preceding (and latter) unique primes, as well as for the similarity of its digits to those of the reciprocal of 7 formula_18 Being 84 digits long with a period length of 294 digits, it is the number:


title: Acinetobacter

text: Acinetobacter is a genus of gram-negative bacteria belonging to the wider class of Gammaproteobacteria. "Acinetobacter" species are oxidase-negative, exhibit twitching motility, and occur in pairs under magnification.


title: Acinetobacter

text: They are important soil organisms, where they contribute to the mineralization of, for example, aromatic compounds. "Acinetobacter" species are a key source of infection in debilitated patients in the hospital, in particular the species "Acinetobacter baumannii".


title: Acinetobacter

text: Species of the genus "Acinetobacter" are strictly aerobic, nonfermentative, Gram-negative bacilli. They show mostly a coccobacillary morphology on nonselective agar. Rods predominate in fluid media, especially during early growth.


title: Acinetobacter

text: The morphology of "Acinetobacter" species can be quite variable in Gram-stained human clinical specimens, and cannot be used to differentiate "Acinetobacter" from other common causes of infection.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Most strains of "Acinetobacter", except some of the "A. lwoffii" strain, grow well on MacConkey agar (without salt). Although officially classified as not lactose-fermenting, they are often partially lactose-fermenting when grown on MacConkey agar. They are oxidase-negative, catalase-positive, indole-negative, nonmotile, and usually nitrate-negative.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Bacteria of the genus "Acinetobacter" are known to form intracellular inclusions of polyhydroxyalkanoates under certain environmental conditions (e.g. lack of elements such as phosphorus, nitrogen, or oxygen combined with an excessive supply of carbon sources).


title: Acinetobacter

text: "Acinetobacter" is a compound word from scientific Greek [α + κίνητο + βακτηρ(ία)], meaning nonmotile rod. The first element "acineto-" appears as a somewhat baroque rendering of the Greek morpheme ακίνητο-, commonly transliterated in English is "akineto-", but actually stems from the French "cinetique" and was adopted directly into English.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Identification of "Acinetobacter" species is complicated by lack of standard identification techniques. Initially, identification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as growth temperature, colony morphology, growth medium, carbon sources, gelatin hydrolysis, glucose fermentation, among others. This method allowed identification of "A. calcoaceticus–A. baumannii" complex by the formation of smooth, rounded, mucoid colonies at 37 °C. Closely related species could not be differentiated and individual species such as "A. baumannii" and "Acinetobacter" genomic species 3 could not be positively identified phenotypically.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Because routine identification in the clinical microbiology laboratory is not yet possible, "Acinetobacter" isolates are divided and grouped into three main complexes:


title: Acinetobacter

text: Different species of bacteria in this genus can be identified using fluorescence-lactose-denitrification to find the amount of acid produced by metabolism of glucose. The other reliable identification test at genus level is chromosomal DNA transformation assay. In this assay, a naturally competent tryptophan auxotrophic mutant of "Acinetobacter baylyi" (BD4 trpE27) is transformed with the total DNA of a putative "Acinetobacter" isolate and the transformation mixture is plated on a brain heart infusion agar. The growth is then harvested after incubation for 24 h at 30 °C, plating on an "Acinetobacter" minimal agar (AMA), and incubating at 30 °C for 108 h. Growth on the AMA indicates a positive transformation assay and confirms the isolate as a member of the genus "Acinetobacter". "E. coli" HB101 and "A. calcoaceticus" MTCC1921T can be used as the negative and positive controls, respectively.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Some of the molecular methods used in species identification are repetitive extragenic palindromic sequence-based PCR, ribotyping, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), random amplified polymorphic DNA, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), restriction and sequence analysis of tRNA and 16S-23S rRNA gene spacers and amplified 16S ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA). PFGE, AFLP, and ARDRA are validated common methods in use today because of their discriminative ability. However, most recent methods include multilocus sequence typing and multilocus PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, which are based on amplification of highly conserved housekeeping genes and can be used to study the genetic relatedness between different isolates.


title: Acinetobacter

text: "Acinetobacter" species are widely distributed in nature, and commonly occur in soil and water. Their ability to survive on moist and dry surfaces, as well as to survive exposure to various common disinfectants, allows some "Acinetobacter" species to survive in a hospital environment. Furthermore, "Acinetobacter" species can grow at a broad range of temperatures, allowing them to survive in a broad array of environments.


title: Acinetobacter

text: "Acinetobacter" is frequently isolated in nosocomial infections, and is especially prevalent in intensive care units, where both sporadic cases and epidemic and endemic occurrences are common. "A. baumannii" is a frequent cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia, especially of late-onset, ventilator-associated pneumonia. It can cause various other infections, including skin and wound infections, bacteremia, and meningitis, but "A. lwoffi" is mostly responsible for the latter.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Of the "Acinetobacter", "A. baumannii" is the greatest cause of human disease, having been implicated in a number of hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), secondary meningitis, infective endocarditis, and wound and burn infections. In particular, "A. baumannii" is frequently isolated as the cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to the intensive care unit. Risk factors include long-term intubation and tracheal or lung aspiration. In most cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the equipment used for artificial ventilation such as endotracheal tubes or bronchoscopes serve as the source of infection and result in the colonization of the lower respiratory tract by "A. baumannii". In some cases, the bacteria can go on to enter the bloodstream, resulting in bacteremia with mortality rates ranging from 32% to 52%. UTIs caused by "A. baumannii" appear to be associated with continuous catheterization, as well as antibiotic therapy. "A. baumannii" has also been reported to infect skin and soft tissue in traumatic injuries and postsurgical wounds. "A. baumannii" commonly infect burns and may result in complications owing to difficulty in treatment and eradication. Though less common, some evidence also links this bacterium to meningitis, most often following invasive surgery, and, in very rare cases, to community-acquired primary meningitis wherein the majority of the victims were children. Case reports also link "A. baumannii" to endocarditis, keratitis, peritonitis, and very rarely fatal neonatal sepsis.


title: Acinetobacter

text: The clinical significance of "A. baumannii" is partially due to its capacity to develop resistance against many available antibiotics. Reports indicate that it possesses resistance against broad-spectrum cephalosporins, β-lactam antibiotics, aminoglycosides, and quinolones. Resistance to carbapenems is also being increasingly reported. "A. baumannii" can survive on the human skin or dry surfaces for weeks and is resistant to a variety of disinfectants, making it particularly easy to spread in a hospital setting. Antibiotic resistance genes are often plasmid-borne, and plasmids present in "Acinetobacter" strains can be transferred to other pathogenic bacteria by horizontal gene transfer.


title: Acinetobacter

text: In healthy individuals, "Acinetobacter" colonies on the skin correlate with low incidence of allergies; "Acinetobacter" is thought to be allergy-protective.


title: Acinetobacter

text: "Acinetobacter" species are innately resistant to many classes of antibiotics, including penicillin, chloramphenicol, and often aminoglycosides. Resistance to fluoroquinolones has been reported during therapy, which has also resulted in increased resistance to other drug classes mediated through active drug efflux. A dramatic increase in antibiotic resistance in "Acinetobacter" strains has been reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the carbapenems are recognised as the gold-standard and treatment of last resort. "Acinetobacter" species are unusual in that they are sensitive to sulbactam, which is commonly used to inhibit bacterial beta-lactamase, but this is an example of the antibacterial property of sulbactam itself. Recently sulbactam-durlobactam, a new antibacterial combination undergoing phase 3 trial, has demonstrated good "in vitro" activity also against carbapenem-resistant "A. baumannii" isolates (92% susceptibility).


title: Acinetobacter

text: In November 2004, the CDC reported an increasing number of "A. baumannii" bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the Iraq/Kuwait region during Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom were treated. Most of these were multidrug-resistant. Among one set of isolates from Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 13 (35%) were susceptible to imipenem only, and two (4%) were resistant to all drugs tested. One antimicrobial agent, colistin (polymyxin E), has been used to treat infections with multidrug-resistant "A. baumannii"; however, antimicrobial susceptibility testing for colistin was not performed on isolates described in this report. Because "A. baumannii" can survive on dry surfaces up to 20 days, they pose a high risk of spread and contamination in hospitals, potentially putting immunocompromised and other patients at risk for drug-resistant infections that are often fatal and, in general, expensive to treat. Trials to implement vaccines to prevent Acinetobacter infections were documented.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Gene-silencing antisense oligomers in a form called peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers have also been reported to inhibit growth in tests carried out in animals infected with antibiotic-resistant "A. baumannii".


title: Acinetobacter

text: The frequency of nosocomial infections in British hospitals prompted the National Health Service to research the effectiveness of anions for air purification, finding that repeated airborne "Acinetobacter" infections in a ward were eliminated by the installation of a negative air ioniser—the infection rate fell to zero.


title: Acinetobacter

text: Bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterium through the intervening liquid medium. Recipient bacteria must first enter a special physiological state termed competence to receive donor DNA. "A. calcoaceticus" is induced to become competent for natural transformation by dilution of a stationary culture into fresh nutrient medium. Competence is gradually lost during prolonged exponential growth and for a period after entrance into the stationary state. The DNA taken up may be used to repair DNA damage or as a means to exchange genetic information by horizontal gene transfer. Natural transformation in "A. calcoaceticus" may protect against exposure to DNA-damaging conditions in the natural environment of these bacteria, as appears to be the case for other bacterial species capable of transformation.


title: Diospyros

text: Diospyros is a genus of over 700 species of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs. The majority are native to the tropics, with only a few species extending into temperate regions. Individual species valued for their hard, heavy, dark timber, are commonly known as ebony trees, while others are valued for their fruit and known as persimmon trees. Some are useful as ornamentals and many are of local ecological importance. Species of this genus are generally dioecious, with separate male and female plants.


title: Diospyros

text: The generic name "Diospyros" comes from a Latin name for the Caucasian persimmon ("D. lotus"), derived from the Greek διόσπυρος : dióspyros, from "diós" () and "pyrós" (). The Greek name literally means "Zeus's wheat" but more generally intends "divine food" or "divine fruit". Muddled translations sometimes give rise to curious and inappropriate interpretations such as "God's pear" and "Jove's fire".


title: Diospyros

text: The genus is a large one and the number of species has been estimated variously, depending on the date of the source. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, list has over 1000 entries, including synonyms and items of low confidence. Over 700 species are marked as being assigned with high confidence.


title: Diospyros

text: The oldest fossils of the genus date to the Eocene, which indicate by that time "Diospyros" was widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Diospyros

text: The leaves of "Diospyros blancoi" have been shown to contain isoarborinol methyl ether (also called cylindrin) and fatty esters of α- and β-amyrin. Both isoarborinol methyl ether and the amyrin mixture demonstrated antimicrobial activity against "Escherichia coli", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Candida albicans", "Staphylococcus aureus", and "Trichophyton interdigitale". Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties have also been shown for the isolated amyrin mixture.


title: Diospyros

text: "Diospyros" species are important and conspicuous trees in many of their native ecosystems, such as lowland dry forests of the former Maui Nui in Hawaii, Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, Khathiar–Gir dry deciduous forests, Louisiade Archipelago rain forests, Madagascar lowland forests, Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests, New Caledonian sclerophytic vegetation, New Guinea mangroves or South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The green fruits are rich in tannins and thus avoided by most herbivores; when ripe they are eagerly eaten by many animals however, such as the rare Aders' duiker ("Cephalophus adersi").


title: Diospyros

text: An economically significant plant pathogen infecting many "Diospyros" species – "D. hispida", kaki persimmon ("D. kaki"), date-plum ("D. lotus"), Texas persimmon ("D. texana"), Coromandel ebony ("D. melanoxylon") and probably others – is the sac fungus "Pseudocercospora kaki", which causes a leaf spot disease.


title: Diospyros

text: The genus includes several plants of commercial importance, either for their edible fruit (persimmons) or for their timber (ebony). The latter are divided into two groups in trade: the pure black ebony (notably from "D. ebenum", but also several other species), and the striped ebony or calamander wood (from "D. celebica", "D. mun" and others). Most species in the genus produce little to none of this black ebony-type wood; their hard timber (e.g. of American persimmon, "D. virginiana") may still be used on a more limited basis.


title: Diospyros

text: Leaves of the Coromandel ebony ("D. melanoxylon") are used to roll South Asian beedi cigarettes. Several species are used in herbalism, and "D. leucomelas" yields the versatile medical compound betulinic acid. Extracts from "Diospyros" plants have also been proposed as novel anti-viral treatment. Though bees do not play a key role as pollinators, in plantations "Diospyros" may be of some use as honey plants. "D. mollis", locally known as "mặc nưa", is used in Vietnam to dye the famous black "lãnh Mỹ A" silk of Tân Châu district.


title: Diospyros

text: The reverence of these trees in their native range is reflected by their use as floral emblems. In Indonesia, "D. celebica" (Makassar ebony, known locally as "eboni") is the provincial tree of Central Sulawesi, while ajan kelicung ("D. macrophylla") is that of West Nusa Tenggara. The emblem of the Japanese island of Ishigaki is the "Yaeyama kokutan" ("D. ferrea"). The Gold apple ("D. decandra"), called "Trái thị" in Vietnamese, is a tree in the Tấm Cám fable. It is also the provincial tree of Chanthaburi as well as Nakhon Pathom Provinces in Thailand, while the black-and-white ebony ("D. malabarica") is that of Ang Thong Province. The name of the Thai district Amphoe Tha Tako, literally means "District of the "Diospyros" pier", the latter being a popular local gathering spot.


title: Shut the box

text: Shut the box (also called canoga, batten down the hatches or trick-track) is a game of dice for one or more players, commonly played in a group of two to four for stakes. Traditionally, a counting box is used with tiles numbered 1 to 9 where each can be covered with a hinged or sliding mechanism, though the game can be played with only a pair of dice, pen, and paper. Variations exist where the box has 10 or 12 tiles.


title: Shut the box

text: In 2018 the game had a renaissance in Liverpool, England, when it became the house game at Hobo Kiosk pub on the Baltic Triangle. It was popularized by DJ duo Coffee and Turntables and became the most played board game in Merseyside for 4 years in a row.


title: Shut the box

text: During the game, each player plays in turn. A player begins their turn by throwing or rolling the die or dice into the box. If all of the remaining tiles show 6 or lower, the player may roll only one die. Otherwise, the player must roll both dice.


title: Shut the box

text: After throwing, the player adds up (or subtracts) the pips (dots) on the dice and then "shuts" (closes, covers) one of any combination of open numbers that sums to the total number of dots showing on the dice. For example, if the total number of dots is 8, the player may choose any of the following sets of numbers (as long as all of the numbers in the set are available to be covered):


title: Shut the box

text: The player then rolls the dice again, aiming to shut more numbers. The player continues throwing the dice and shutting numbers until reaching a point at which, given the results produced by the dice, the player cannot shut any more numbers. At that point, the player scores the sum of the numbers that are still uncovered. For example, if the numbers 2, 3, and 5 are still open when the player throws a one, the player's score is 10 (2 + 3 + 5 = 10). Play then passes to the next player.


title: Shut the box

text: If a player succeeds in closing all of the numbers, that player is said to have "Shut the Box"the player wins immediately and the game is over.


title: Shut the box

text: In English pubs, "Shut the Box" is traditionally played as a gambling game. Each player deposits an agreed amount of money into a pool at the beginning of the game, and the winner of the game collects the money in pool at the end of the game and in some cases the box as well.


title: Shut the box

text: "Shut the box" is a traditional game, and there are many local and traditional variations in the rules. In addition, due to the game's growing popularity, many variations of the game have developed in recent years.


title: Shut the box

text: It is also possible to play extended versions in which each game is a "round" of a longer game. Examples of such versions include:


title: Shut the box

text: Dominoes can also be used for the tilesthis also provides the option of using up to six dice if a Double 18 domino set is used. A deck of cards can also be used as tiles, and if so desired a complete conventional Western deck with the jokers (54 cards) can provide for the use of up to nine dice.


title: Shut the box

text: Unconfirmed histories of the game suggest a variety of origins, including 12th century Normandy (northern France) as well as the mid 20th century Channel Islands (Jersey and Guernsey), which one source credits to a man known as 'Chalky' Towbridge. A 1967 edition of "Brewing Review" describes the game as being native to the Channel Islands, and records it being played in Manchester pubs in the mid-1960s.


title: Shut the box

text: Taylor in "Pub Games" from 1976 mentions a claim that the game dates back to at least Napoleonic times. He reports a revival in the United Kingdom in "the last fifteen years or so", that is from the 1960s. Canada Dry distributed them to many pubs as a publicity novelty "some years" prior to 1976.


title: Shut the box

text: Shut the Box is the basis of the American television quiz show "High Rollers", which ran from 1974 to 1976 and 1978 to 1980 on NBC with Alex Trebek as the host. The show resurfaced from 1987 to 1988, this time hosted by Wink Martindale.


title: Blue House raid

text: The Blue House raid (also known in South Korea as the January 21 Incident) was a raid launched by North Korean commandos to assassinate the President of South Korea, Park Chung-hee, in his residence at the Blue House, on January 21, 1968. All 31 Korean People's Army (KPA) soldiers were killed, captured or forced to flee. President Park was unharmed.


title: Blue House raid

text: Park Chung-hee seized power in a 1961 coup d'état and ruled as a military strongman until his election and inauguration as the President of South Korea in 1963. The attack at the Blue House took place in the context of the Korean DMZ Conflict (1966–69), which in turn was influenced by the Vietnam War.


title: Blue House raid

text: Following the 1967 South Korean presidential election and the legislative election, the North Korean leadership concluded that Park Chung-hee's domestic opposition no longer constituted a serious challenge to his rule. On June 28 – July 3, the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea held an extended plenum at which North Korean leader Kim Il-sung called on the cadres "to prepare to give assistance to the struggle of our South Korean brethren."


title: Blue House raid

text: In July 1967, a special squad of the recently established Unit 124 of the Korean People's Army (KPA) was entrusted with the task of assassinating Park. This decision was probably facilitated by the fact that in 1967, the Vietnam War entered a new stage of escalation, under which circumstances the U.S. military forces, preoccupied as they were with Vietnam, could not easily take retaliatory measures against North Korea. In 1965–1968, North Korea-North Vietnam relations were very close, and North Korea provided substantial military and economic assistance to North Vietnam.


title: Blue House raid

text: North Korean propaganda sought to depict the post-1966 commando raids as a South Korean guerrilla movement akin to the Viet Cong.


title: Blue House raid

text: Thirty-one men were handpicked from the elite all-officer KPA Unit 124. This special operation commando unit trained for two years and spent their final 15 days rehearsing action on the objective in a full-scale mockup of the Blue House.


title: Blue House raid

text: These specially selected men were trained in infiltration and exfiltration techniques, weaponry, navigation, airborne operations, amphibious infiltration, hand-to-hand combat (with emphasis on knife fighting), and concealment.


title: Blue House raid

text: Kim Shin-jo, one of only two known survivors, said "It made us fearless—no one would think to look for us in a graveyard." Their training was rigorous and often in adverse conditions, such as running at a speed of 13 km/h (8 mph) with 30 kg (66 pound) rucksacks over broken and unforgiving terrain, which sometimes resulted in injuries such as lost toes and feet from frostbite.


title: Blue House raid

text: On January 16, 1968, Unit 124 left their garrison at Yonsan. On January 17, 1968, at 11 p.m., they infiltrated the DMZ by cutting through the fencing of the U.S. Army's 2nd Infantry Division's sector. By 2 a.m. the next day they had set up camp at Morae-dong and Seokpo-ri. On January 19, at 5 a.m., after having crossed the Imjin River, they set up camp on Simbong Mountain.


title: Blue House raid

text: At 2 p.m., four brothers named Woo from Beopwon-ri were out cutting firewood and stumbled across the unit's camp. After a fierce debate over whether to kill the brothers, it was decided instead to try to indoctrinate them on the benefits of communism and they were released with a stern warning not to notify the police. However, the brothers immediately reported the presence of the unit to the Changhyeon police station in Beopwon-ri.


title: Blue House raid

text: The unit broke camp and increased their pace to more than 10 km/h, carrying 30 kg of equipment each, crossing Nogo Mountain and arriving at Bibong Mountain on January 20 at 7 a.m. Three battalions from the South Korean 25th Infantry Division began searching Nogo Mountain for the infiltrators, but they had already left the area. The unit entered Seoul in two- and three-man cells on the night of January 20 and regrouped at the Seungga-sa Temple, where they made their final preparations for the attack.


title: Blue House raid

text: Meanwhile, the ROK (Republic of Korea) High Command added the 30th Infantry Division and Airborne Corps to the search and police began searching along Hongje-dong, Jeongreung, and Bukak Mountain. Given the increased security measures that had been implemented throughout the city and realizing their original plan had little chance of success, the team leader improvised a new plan.


title: Blue House raid

text: Changing into Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) uniforms of the local 26th Infantry Division, complete with the correct unit insignia (which they had brought with them), they formed up and prepared to march the last kilometre to the Blue House, posing as ROKA soldiers returning from a counter-infiltration patrol. The unit marched along Segeomjeong Road near Jahamun toward the Blue House, passing several National Police and ROKA units en route.


title: Blue House raid

text: At 10 p.m. on January 21, 1968, the unit approached the Segeomjeong–Jahamun checkpoint less than 100 meters from the Blue House, where Jongro police chief Choi Gyushik approached the unit and began to question them. When he grew suspicious of their answers, he drew his pistol and was shot by members of the unit who started firing and throwing grenades at the checkpoint. After several minutes of shooting, the unit dispersed, with some heading off to Inwang Mountain, Bibong Mountain, and Uijeongbu. Police Chief Choi and Assistant Inspector Jung Jong-su were killed in the firefight; one commando was captured but managed to commit suicide.


title: Blue House raid

text: On January 22, 1968, the ROK Army's 6th Corps began a massive sweep operation to capture or kill any members of the unit. Soldiers from the 92nd Regiment, 30th Infantry Division captured Kim Shin-jo, who had been hiding in a civilian's house near Inwang Mountain. The 30th Battalion, Capital Defense Command, killed four commandos in Buam-dong and on Bukak Mountain.


title: Blue House raid

text: On January 23, the 26th Infantry Division's Engineer Battalion killed one commando on Dobong Mountain. On January 24, 1968, the 26th Infantry Division and 1st Infantry Division soldiers killed 12 commandos near Seongu-ri. On January 25, three commandos were killed near Songchu. On January 29, six commandos were killed near Papyeong Mountain.


title: Blue House raid

text: During the course of this assassination attempt, South Korean casualties totaled 26 killed and 66 wounded, including about 24 civilians. Four Americans also were killed in attempts to block the escaping infiltrators from crossing the DMZ. Of the 31 members of Unit 124, 29 were killed; one, Kim Shin-jo, was captured, and the other one, Pak Jae-gyong escaped to North Korea. The bodies of the members of Unit 124 killed in the raid were subsequently buried in the Cemetery for North Korean and Chinese Soldiers.


title: Blue House raid

text: On January 22, the United Nations Command (UNC) requested that a Military Armistice Commission (MAC) meeting be held to discuss the raid. The UNC requested the meeting for January 23, but the North Koreans asked for a day's delay. On January 23, the USS "Pueblo" (AGER-2), a technical research ship of the United States Navy, was captured by North Korea. Consequently, the MAC meeting held on January 24 had to deal not only with the raid but also with the "Pueblo"s capture. To a considerable extent, the seizure of the "Pueblo" diverted U.S. and international attention from the Blue House raid.


title: Blue House raid

text: The Blue House raid occurred on the same day when the Battle of Khe Sanh started in Vietnam and on January 31 the Tet Offensive broke out across South Vietnam, making any U.S. support for South Korean retaliation unlikely. In Saigon, Viet Cong guerrillas attempted to assassinate President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu at the Independence Palace but were quickly beaten back. Some writers have suggested that due to the similarities of both attacks by a similar number of commandos (31 in Seoul and 34 in Saigon, respectively) that the North Korean leaders had a certain insight into Vietnamese Communist military operations, and wanted to take advantage of the Vietnam War. President Johnson regarded the seizure of the "Pueblo" and the timing of the Tet Offensive to have been coordinated to divert U.S. resources away from Vietnam and to force the South Koreans to withdraw their two Divisions and Marine Brigade from South Vietnam. Unlike President Johnson, General Bonesteel saw no such connection. He regarded the Blue House Raid as having been planned at the highest levels in North Korea, while the seizure of the "Pueblo" seemed merely opportunistic and the timing of the Tet Offensive as helpful but coincidental.


title: Blue House raid

text: In response to the assassination attempt, the South Korean government organized the ill-fated Unit 684. This group was intended to assassinate the leader of North Korea, Kim Il-sung. However, following an improvement in intra-Korean relations, the unit's assassination mission was cancelled and in 1971 the unit revolted and most of its members were killed.


title: Blue House raid

text: In May 1972, Kim Il-sung expressed regret and claimed that the Blue House raid "was entirely plotted by extreme leftists and did not reflect my intent or that of the Party" to the head of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) Lee Hu-rak during their meeting in Pyongyang.


title: Blue House raid

text: After surviving several other attempts on his life, Park Chung-hee was shot dead in 1979 by Kim Jae-gyu, the director of the KCIA. It is unclear whether this was a spontaneous act or part of a pre-arranged attempted coup by the intelligence service.


title: Scroll

text: A scroll (from the Old French "escroe" or "escroue"), also known as a roll, is a roll of papyrus, parchment, or paper containing writing.


title: Scroll

text: A scroll is usually partitioned into pages, which are sometimes separate sheets of papyrus or parchment glued together at the edges. Scrolls may be marked divisions of a continuous roll of writing material. The scroll is usually unrolled so that one page is exposed at a time, for writing or reading, with the remaining pages rolled and stowed to the left and right of the visible page. Text is written in lines from the top to the bottom of the page. Depending on the language, the letters may be written left to right, right to left, or alternating in direction (boustrophedon).


title: Scroll

text: Scrolls were the first form of editable record keeping texts, used in Eastern Mediterranean ancient Egyptian civilizations. Parchment scrolls were used by the Israelites among others before the codex or bound book with parchment pages was invented by the Romans, which became popular around the 1st century AD. Scrolls were more highly regarded than codices until well into Roman times.


title: Scroll

text: The ink used in writing scrolls had to adhere to a surface that was rolled and unrolled, so special inks were developed. Even so, ink would slowly flake off of scrolls.


title: Scroll

text: Shorter pieces of parchment or paper are called "rolls" or "rotuli", although usage of the term by modern historians varies with periods. Historians of the classical period tend to use "roll" instead of "scroll". Rolls may still be many meters or feet long, and were used in the medieval and Early Modern period in Europe and various West Asian cultures for manuscript administrative documents intended for various uses, including accounting, rent-rolls, legal agreements, and inventories. A distinction that sometimes applies is that the lines of writing in rotuli run across the width of the roll (that is to say, are parallel with any unrolled portion) rather than along the length, divided into page-like sections. Rolls may be wider than most scrolls, up to perhaps 60 cm or two feet wide. Rolls were often stored together in a special cupboard on shelves.


title: Scroll

text: A special Chinese form of short book, called the "whirlwind book," consists of several pieces of paper bound at the top with bamboo and then rolled up.


title: Scroll

text: In Scotland, the term "scrow" was used from about the 13th to the 17th centuries for scroll, writing, or documents in list or schedule form. There existed an office of Clerk of the Scrow ("Rotulorum Clericus") meaning the Clerk of the Rolls or Clerk of the Register.


title: Scroll

text: The codex form of the book—that is, folding a scroll into pages, which made reading and handling the document much easier—appears during the Roman period. Stemming from a passage in Suetonius' "Divus Julius" (56.6), legend has it that Julius Caesar was the first to fold scrolls, concertina-fashion, for dispatches to his forces campaigning in Gaul. But the precise meaning of the passage is by no means clear. As C. H. Roberts and T. C. Skeat point out, the idea that "Julius Caesar may have been the inventor of the codex... is indeed a fascinating proposition; but in view of the uncertainties surrounding the passage, it is doubtful whether any such conclusion can be drawn". What the evidence of surviving early codices does make clear is that Christians were among the earliest to make widespread use of the codex. Several Christian papyrus codices known to us date from the second century, including at least one generally accepted as being no later than A.D. 150. "All in all, it is impossible to believe that the Christian adoption of the codex can have taken place any later than circa A.D. 100 (it may, of course, have been earlier)". There were certainly practical reasons for the change. Scrolls were awkward to read if a reader wished to consult material at opposite ends of the document. Further, scrolls were written only on one side, while both sides of the codex page were used.


title: Scroll

text: Eventually, the folds were cut into sheets, or "leaves," and bound together along one edge. The bound pages were protected by stiff covers, usually of wood enclosed with leather. "Codex" is Latin for a "block of wood": the Latin "liber", the root of "library," and the German "Buch", the source of "book," both refer to wood. The codex was not only easier to handle than the scroll, but it also fit conveniently on library shelves. The spine generally held the book's title, facing out, affording easier organization of the collection. The surface on which the ink was applied was kept flat, not subjected to weakening by the repeated bending and unbending that scrolls undergo as they are alternately rolled up for storage and unrolled for reading, which creates physical stresses in both the papyrus and the ink of scrolls.


title: Scroll

text: The term "codex" technically refers only to manuscript books — those that, at one time, were handwritten. More specifically, a codex is the term used primarily for a bound manuscript from Roman times up through the Middle Ages.


title: Scroll

text: From the fourth century on, the codex became the standard format for books, and scrolls were no longer generally used. After the contents of a parchment scroll were copied in codex format, the scroll was seldom preserved. The majority that did survive were found by archaeologists in burial pits and in the buried trash of forgotten communities.


title: Scroll

text: The oldest complete Torah scroll was discovered stored in an academic library in Bologna, Italy, by Professor Mauro Perani in 2013. It had been mislabeled in 1889 as dating from the 17th century, but Perani suspected it was actually older as it was written in an earlier Babylonian script. Two tests conducted by laboratories at Italy's University of Salento and at the University of Illinois confirmed that the scroll dates from the second half of the 12th century to the first quarter of the 13th century. Ancient Torah scrolls are rare because when they are damaged they stop being used for liturgies and are buried.


title: Scroll

text: The scroll is made up of 58 sections of soft sheep leather. It is 36 meters long and 64 centimeters wide.