title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: Two years after losing the Punjab Assembly elections in 1969, Chohan moved to the United Kingdom to start his campaign for creation of Khalistan. In 1971, he went to Nankana Sahib in Pakistan to attempt to set up a Sikh government. Chohan was invited by Pakistani army dictator Yahya Khan and was proclaimed as a Sikh leader. Certain Sikh relics that were in Pakistan were handed down to him and taken to UK. The relics had helped Chohan to gather Sikh supporters and followers. He then visited the United States at the invitation of his supporters among the Sikh diaspora.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: On 13 October 1971, he paid for an ad in the "New York Times" claiming an Independent Sikh state. Advertisement of Khalistan enabled him to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: In later part of 1970s, Chohan was in touch with the Pakistani diplomatic mission in Pakistan with objective of encouraging Sikh youths to travel to Pakistan for pilgrimage and indoctrination for separatist propaganda.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: On 12 April 1980, he declared the formation of a "National Council of Khalistan", at Anandpur Sahib. He declared himself the President of the Council and Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: In 1977, he returned to India. Chohan travelled to Britain in 1979, and established the Khalistan National Council.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: In May 1980, Jagjit Singh Chohan travelled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan. A similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu, in Amritsar, who released stamps and currency of Khalistan. Operating from a building termed "Khalistan House", he remained in contact with the Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale who was campaigning for a Sikh theocratic homeland. Chohan also maintained contacts among various groups in Canada, the US, and Germany. He visited Pakistan as a guest of leaders like Chaudhuri Zahoor Elahi. Chohan declared himself president of the "Republic of Khalistan", named a Cabinet, and issued symbolic Khalistan "passports", "postage stamps", and "Khalistan dollars".


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: It is reported that with the assistance of a wealthy Californian supporter, a peach magnate, he opened an Ecuadorian bank account to support his operation.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: In June 1983, Bhindranwale was asked: "If Jagjit Singh Chohan attacks India with assistance from England, America, and Canada, whom will you help?" Bhindranwale hedged and did not indicate his support.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: On 12 June 1984, in London Chohan was interviewed by BBC. The interviewer asked: "Do you actually want to see the downfall of Mrs Gandhi's Government?" Chohan answered: "..within a few days you will have the news that Mrs Gandhi and her family have been beheaded. That is what Sikhs will do..". After this interview, the Thatcher government curtailed Chohan's activities.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: On 13 June 1984, Chohan announced a government in exile. On 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: Chohan visited Punjab in 1989 and hoisted the flag of Khalistan at a gurdwara in Anandpur Sahib. Chohan's Indian passport was cancelled on 24 April 1989. India protested when he was allowed to enter USA using the canceled passport. Vancouver fundamentalists Talwinder Singh Parmar and Surjan Singh Gill were at one time aligned with Chohan.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: He had assisted the Tamil Tigers International Federation in setting up the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. The Nanavati Commission considered him a co-conspirator in the assassination.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: Chohan gradually softened his stance. He supported India's attempts to defuse the tension by accepting surrenders by the militants. Other organizations, mainly in UK and North America, continue to work for a Khalistan. The Indian government first permitted his wife to return and after he was pardoned by the Atal Bihari government, he was allowed to return to India in June 2001, after having been exiled for 21 years. The government decided to overlook his past activities.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: After his return, in an interview Chohan said he would keep the Khalistan movement alive democratically and pointed out that he has always been against violence.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: After Chohan returned to India, he started a political party in 2002 named the Khalsa Raj Party and became its president. The stated aim of the political party was to continue his campaign for Khalistan. Chohan could not attract the support from the new generation of Sikhs. The Pioneer (newspaper) stated that his party was a 'Letterhead organization'.


title: Jagjit Singh Chohan

text: Chohan withdrew himself from the public life in his later years. He died on 4 April 2007, aged 78 due to heart attack at his native village Tanda in Hoshiarpur District of Punjab.


title: E. 1999 Eternal

text: E. 1999 Eternal is the second studio album by American hip hop group Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, released July 25, 1995, on Ruthless Records. The album was released four months after the death of rapper Eazy-E, the group's mentor and the executive producer of the album. Both the album and single "Tha Crossroads" are dedicated to him. Following up on the surprise success of their breakthrough single "Thuggish Ruggish Bone", it became a popular album and received positive reviews from music critics, earning praise for the group's melodic rapping style. The album title is a portmanteau of Cleveland's eastside neighborhood centering on East 99th Street and St. Clair Avenue where the group is based and the then-future year 1999.


title: E. 1999 Eternal

text: The album sold 307,000 copies in the first week. "E. 1999 Eternal" became the group's best-selling album, with four million copies sold in the United States. It topped the US "Billboard" 200 for two consecutive weeks. The album was nominated for the inaugural Grammy Award for Best Rap Album, ultimately losing to Naughty by Nature's "Poverty's Paradise" at the 1996 Grammy Awards. In 2015, the group toured in support of the 20th anniversary of the album, performing it in its entirety for the first time.


title: E. 1999 Eternal

text: Upon release, "E. 1999 Eternal" was met with critical acclaim. Cheo H. Coker of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the group "has raised the stakes of the gangsta rap game, not only in terms of pure, gritty excess, but also in rhyme-style, cadence and delivery", concluding: "This is the kind of album that starts out good and gets better with repeated listenings—as the dark, subliminal references clear up. Easily one of the most worthwhile rap purchases of the year."


title: E. 1999 Eternal

text: Retrospectively, Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic described "E. 1999 Eternal" as "an impressive debut full-length that dismisses any notion that the group was merely a one-hit wonder", adding that it "maintains a consistent tone, one that's menacing and somber, produced entirely by DJ U-Neek, a Los Angeles-based producer who frames the songs with dark, smoked-out G-funk beats and synth melodies." "The Source" hailed "E. 1999 Eternal" as one of The Top 100 Rap Albums of 1990s.


title: E. 1999 Eternal

text: In a second thought review in "Stylus Magazine", the album was described as "Lyrically speaking, Bone Thugs have much in common with countless mainstream rap acts. The themes running throughout E.1999 Eternal are familiar—drugs, violent crime and death make regular appearances. It's the manner in which the lyrics are framed and delivered that makes the group such a bizarre proposition. Bone Thugs had a melodic flow—frequently delivered in unison—that bordered on singing. They could rap together at a lightning fast pace, without losing their sweetness." "Stylus" also praised producer DJ U-Neek for his production style on the album stating "The album was entirely produced by DJ U-Neek (although he did collaborate on some tracks), endowing cohesiveness to the unique Bone Thugs sound. U-Neek was, like the vocal group members of Bone Thugs, unorthodox in the rap field. It wouldn't be far off to describe him as a songwriter as well as a producer. He was always keen to flesh out interesting sounds—usually based around rumbling piano chords, mellotron and synthesised strings. Yet, the focus was largely on song craft and melody—the album frequently strays into gloomy territory, but never loses its sense of tunefulness. The beats were not particularly striking—usually low-key and sluggish, but the album's strengths are not rhythm-related."


title: People's Crusade

text: The People's Crusade was the beginning phase of the First Crusade whose objective was to retake the Holy Land, and Jerusalem in particular, from Islamic rule. After in 1095 the head of the Roman Catholic Church Pope Urban II started to urge faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the People's Crusade was conducted for roughly six months from April to October 1096. It is also known as the Peasants' Crusade, Paupers' Crusade or the Popular Crusade as it was executed by a mainly untrained peasant army prior to the main church-organized crusade. It was led primarily by Peter the Hermit with forces of Walter Sans Avoir. The peasant army of this crusade was destroyed by the forces of the Seljuk Turks under Kilij Arslan at the Battle of Civetot in northwestern Anatolia.


title: People's Crusade

text: The People's Crusade was the first, largest, and best documented of the popular crusades. The start of the more official and fully church-backed crusade, also called the "Princes' Crusade", started a few months later and was better organized, better armed, and better funded.


title: People's Crusade

text: Calling for a crusade at the Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope Urban II planned the departure of the crusade for 15 August 1096. Nevertheless, a number of unexpected bands of peasants and low-ranking knights organized and set off for Jerusalem on their own. The peasant population had been afflicted by drought, famine, and disease for many years before 1096, and some of them seem to have envisioned the crusade as an escape from these hardships. Spurring them on had been a number of meteorological occurrences beginning in 1095 that seemed to be a divine blessing for the movement: a meteor shower, aurorae, a lunar eclipse, and a comet, among other events. An outbreak of ergotism had also occurred just before the Council of Clermont. Millenarianism, the belief that the end of the world was imminent, popular in the early 11th century, experienced a resurgence in popularity. The response was beyond expectations: while Urban might have expected a few thousand knights, he ended up with a migration numbering up to 100,000 Crusaders of mostly unskilled fighters, including women and children.


title: People's Crusade

text: A charismatic monk and powerful orator named Peter the Hermit of Amiens was the spiritual leader of the movement. He was known for riding a donkey and dressing in simple clothing. He had vigorously preached the crusade throughout northern France and Flanders. He claimed to have been appointed to preach by Christ himself (and supposedly had a divine letter to prove it), and it is likely that some of his followers thought he, not Urban, was the true originator of the crusading idea. It is often believed that Peter's army was a band of illiterate, incompetent peasants who had no idea where they were going, and who believed that every city of any size they encountered on their way was Jerusalem itself; this may have been true for some, but the long tradition of pilgrimages to Jerusalem ensured that the location and distance of the city were well known. While the majority were unskilled in fighting, there were some well-trained minor knights leading them, such as Walter Sans-Avoir (also mistakenly known as Walter the Penniless), who was experienced in warfare. A list of known members of Peter's army can be found in Riley-Smith, et al., "A Database of Crusaders to the Holy Land".


title: People's Crusade

text: In the late spring and summer of 1096, crusaders destroyed most of the Jewish communities along the Rhine in a series of unprecedentedly large pogroms in France and Germany in which thousands of Jews were massacred, driven to suicide, or forced to convert to Christianity. Twelve Jews were murdered in Speyer, where the Bishop saved the rest of the Jews, but in the Worms massacre some 800 were murdered. In Mainz, over 1,000 Jews were murdered, as well as more in Trier, Metz, Cologne, and elsewhere. Others were subjected to forced baptism and conversion. The preacher Folkmar and Emicho of Flonheim were the main inciters and leaders of the massacre. The major chroniclers of the 1096 killings are Solomon bar Simson and Albert of Aachen.


title: People's Crusade

text: Estimates of the number of Jewish men, women, and children murdered or driven to suicide by crusaders vary, ranging from 2,000 to 12,000. Norman Cohn puts the number at between 4,000 and 8,000 from May to June 1096. Gedaliah ibn Yahya estimated that some 5,000 Jews were killed from April to June 1096. Edward H. Flannery's estimate is that 10,000 were murdered over the longer January-to-July period, "probably one-fourth to one-third of the Jewish population of Germany and Northern France at that time." The clergy and nobility of Europe condemned the killing of Jews, and forbade it on subsequent crusades.


title: People's Crusade

text: Peter gathered his army at Cologne on 12 April 1096, planning to stop there and preach to the Germans and gather more crusaders. The French, however, were not willing to wait for Peter and the Germans and under the leadership of Walter Sans Avoir, a few thousand French crusaders left before Peter and reached Hungary on 8 May, passing through Hungary without incident and arriving at the river Sava at the border of the Byzantine territory at Belgrade. The Belgrade commander was taken by surprise, having no orders on what to do with them, and refused entry, forcing the crusaders to pillage the countryside for food. This resulted in skirmishes with the Belgrade garrison and, to make matters worse, sixteen of Walter's men had tried to rob a market in Zemun across the river in Hungary and were stripped of their armor and clothing, which was hung from the castle walls. Eventually the crusaders were allowed to carry on to Niš, where they were provided with food and waited to hear from Constantinople.


title: People's Crusade

text: Peter and the remaining crusaders left Cologne about 20 April. About 40,000 Crusaders departed immediately. Another group would follow soon after; this group committed the Rhineland massacres against Jewish populations and is sometimes referred to as the "German Crusade of 1096". When they reached the Danube, part of the army decided to continue on by boat down the Danube, while the main body continued overland and entered Hungary at Sopron. There it continued through Hungary without incident and rejoined the Danube contingent at Zemun on the Byzantine frontier.


title: People's Crusade

text: In Zemun, the crusaders became suspicious, seeing Walter's sixteen suits of armor hanging from the walls, and eventually a dispute over the price of a pair of shoes in the market led to a riot, which then turned into an all-out assault on the city by the crusaders, in which 4,000 Hungarians were killed. The crusaders then fled across the river Sava to Belgrade, but only after skirmishing with Belgrade troops. The residents of Belgrade fled, and the crusaders pillaged and burned the city. Then they marched for seven days, arriving at Niš on 3 July. There, the commander of Niš promised to provide escort for Peter's army to Constantinople as well as food, if he would leave right away. Peter obliged, and the next morning he set out. However, a few Germans got into a dispute with some locals along the road and set fire to a mill, which escalated out of Peter's control until Niš sent out its entire garrison against the crusaders. The crusaders were completely routed, losing about 10,000 (a quarter of their number), the remainder regrouping further on at Bela Palanka. When they reached Sofia on 12 July they met their Byzantine escort, which brought them safely the rest of the way to Constantinople by 1 August.


title: People's Crusade

text: Byzantine emperor Alexius I Komnenus, not knowing what else to do with such an unusual and unexpected army, quickly ferried all 30,000 across the Bosporus by 6 August. It has since been debated whether he sent them away without Byzantine guides knowing full well that they could be slaughtered by the Turks, or whether they insisted on continuing into Asia Minor despite his warnings. In any case, it is known that Alexius warned Peter not to engage the Turks, whom he believed to be superior to Peter's motley army, and to wait for the main body of crusaders, which was still on the way.


title: People's Crusade

text: Peter was rejoined by the French under Walter Sans Avoir and a number of bands of Italian crusaders who had arrived at the same time. Once in Asia Minor, they began to pillage towns and villages until they reached Nicomedia, where an argument broke out between the Germans and Italians on one side and the French on the other. The Germans and Italians split off and elected a new leader, an Italian named Rainald, while for the French, Geoffrey Burel took command. Peter had effectively lost control of the crusade.


title: People's Crusade

text: Even though Alexius had urged Peter to wait for the main army, Peter had lost much of his authority and the crusaders spurred each other on, moving more boldly against nearby towns until finally the French reached the edge of Nicaea, a Seljuk stronghold and provincial capital, where they pillaged the suburbs. The Germans, not to be outdone, marched with 6,000 crusaders on Xerigordos and captured the fortress to use as a base to raid the countryside. In response, the Turks, led by one of Kilij Arslan's generals, defeated the crusaders at the Siege of Xerigordos, many of whom were forced to drink the blood of donkeys and their own urine during the siege, since their water supply was cut. Some of the crusaders who were captured converted to Islam and were sent to Khorasan, while others who refused to abandon their faith were killed.


title: People's Crusade

text: Back at the main crusaders' camp, two Turkish spies had spread rumors that the Germans who had taken Xerigordos had also taken Nicaea, which caused excitement to get there as soon as possible to share in the looting. The Turks were waiting on the road to Nicaea. Peter the Hermit had gone back to Constantinople to arrange for supplies and was due back soon, and most of the leaders argued to wait for him to return (which he never did). However, Geoffrey Burel, who had popular support among the masses, argued that it would be cowardly to wait, and they should move against the Turks right away. His will prevailed and, on the morning of 21 October, the entire army of 20,000 marched out toward Nicaea, leaving women, children, the old and the sick behind at the camp.


title: People's Crusade

text: Three miles from the camp, where the road entered a narrow, wooded valley near the village of Dracon, the Turkish army was waiting. When approaching the valley, the crusaders marched noisily and were immediately subjected to a hail of arrows. Panic set in immediately and within minutes, the army was in full rout back to the camp. Most of the crusaders were slaughtered, including Walter Sans Avoir; however, women, children, and those who surrendered were spared. Three thousand, including Geoffrey Burel, were able to obtain refuge in an abandoned castle. Eventually the Byzantines under Constantine Katakalon sailed over and raised the siege; these few thousand returned to Constantinople, the only survivors of the People's Crusade.


title: Darwin's tubercle

text: Darwin's tubercle (or auricular tubercle) is a congenital ear condition which often presents as a thickening on the helix at the junction of the upper and middle thirds.


title: Darwin's tubercle

text: This atavistic feature is so called because its description was first published by Charles Darwin in the opening pages of "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex", as evidence of a vestigial feature indicating common ancestry among primates which have pointy ears. However, Darwin himself named it the Woolnerian tip, after Thomas Woolner, a British sculptor who had depicted it in one of his sculptures and had first theorised that it was an atavistic feature.


title: Darwin's tubercle

text: The feature is present in approximately 10.4% of the Spanish adult population, 40% of adults in India, and 58% of Swedish school children. This acuminate nodule represents the point of the mammalian ear. The trait can potentially be bilateral, meaning present on both ears, or unilateral, where it is present on only one ear. There is mixed evidence in regard to whether the bilateral or unilateral expression is related to population, or other factors. Some populations express full bilateral, while others may express either unilateral or bilateral. However, bilateral appears to be more common than unilateral as it pertains to the expression of the trait.


title: Darwin's tubercle

text: The gene for Darwin's tubercle was once thought to be inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with incomplete penetrance, meaning that those who possess the allele (version of a gene) will not necessarily present with the phenotype. However, genetic and family studies have demonstrated that the presence of Darwin's tubercle may be more likely to be influenced by one's environment or developmental accidents than it is by genetics alone. There is no clear argument for whether the trait has significance in sexual dimorphism studies or age related studies. In some studies, there is clear data that Darwin's tubercle is not associated with sex. In contrast, others indicate that there is a correlation with sexual dimorphism between men and women, where men tend to have the tubercle more than women in some populations. Two studies indicate that older men tend to have greater expression of Darwin's tubercle than do older women.


title: Collector (character)

text: Collector (Taneleer Tivan) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Don Heck, the character first appeared in "The Avengers" #28 (May 1966), during the Silver Age of Comic Books, and has been a recurring antagonist in various storylines over the course of the ensuing decades.


title: Collector (character)

text: Different versions of the character have been adapted into various feature films, animated television series, video games, and other properties. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, the character was portrayed by Benicio del Toro in the films "" (2013), "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014), and "" (2018), and in the Disney+ television series "What If...?"


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector first appeared in "The Avengers" #28 (May 1966), and was created by Stan Lee and Don Heck.


title: Collector (character)

text: Taneleer Tivan is one of the Elders of the Universe and is close to his fellow Elder En Dwi Gast (the Grandmaster). He apparently came to self-awareness billions of years ago, on the planet Cygnus X-1. He is an enormously powerful being who wielded the Power Primordial and, though at first he took the appearance of an old human, his true form is a powerful alien.


title: Collector (character)

text: For millions of years, the Collector lived on an unknown world with his wife and child, spending his days in thought and contemplation. Over three billion years ago, when his wife, Matani Tivan, lost the will to live and relinquished her immortality, the Collector realized he would need a hobby to maintain his own sanity, and began collecting interesting artifacts and life forms from around the universe. Eventually, his obsession reached such heights he collected anything he considered rare or valuable often just for the sake of collecting. As such, he has a wide variety of rare or unique items at his disposal.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector also had the power of prophecy, allowing him to foresee the rise of a being powerful enough to pose a threat to the Elders: Thanos. To protect life in the universe, the Collector created a massive museum of countless life forms to keep them safe from Thanos. For a time, he even possessed one of the six Infinity Gems, unaware of its true power, until Thanos took it.


title: Collector (character)

text: At some point over his billions of years of life he came into contact with other beings who, like him, are the sole survivors of the first species in the universe. He often refers to these fellow elders as brothers though they usually only work together if they have a common goal.


title: Collector (character)

text: In the modern era, the Collector eventually traveled to Earth. He captured the Wasp and sought to "collect" the other Avengers with help from the Beetle, but was defeated by them. He later enslaved Thor, then captured the Wasp and the other Avengers. He restored Goliath's size-change powers, but was then defeated by the Avengers again. He next compelled Iron Man to serve as his pawn against the warrior Val-Larr. He attempted to "collect" the Avengers once more, in Rutland, Vermont.


title: Collector (character)

text: In "The Incredible Hulk" vol. 2 issues #197 ("...And Man-Thing makes three!") and #198 ("The Shangri-La syndrome!"), the Collector uses the previously captured Man-Thing and the Glob to capture the Hulk. After capturing the Hulk, the Collector muses on capturing the rest of the original Avengers. The Hulk escapes freeing several of the Collectors exhibits. The newly free exhibits die from old age because they are no longer artificially preserved by the power of the Collector's ship. Man-Thing also escapes disappearing into the Swamp. The Glob remains aboard the ship and though it is not shown, it is suggested that the Glob kills the Collector. The lines from the comic book are "What the Glob wants here is quite simple: He wants the Collectors life! The Collector's anguished scream fades long before it can filter through the museum-ships long corridors. For several seconds silence reigns both within the ship and without--"


title: Collector (character)

text: In the 1978 storyline "The Korvac Saga", after Thanos was defeated by Earth's superheroes, the Collector foresees another major threat: Korvac the Machine Man, a cyborg monstrosity from the 31st century of a divergent timeline, taking the form of a man named Michael in 20th century New York. The Avengers were also aware of a new threat but did not know his identity. In an attempt to protect them, the Collector added some of them to his collection and was probably planning to enlist their aid, when a second group of Avengers appeared and defeated him in combat. After the defeat, the Collector remained in seclusion until a human named Peter Tran of Avondale summoned him to Earth.


title: Collector (character)

text: Sensing that his end was at hand, the Collector revealed that having learned of Korvac, he had made his own daughter Carina into a spy and living weapon to use against the Machine Man, imbuing her with the Power Primordial. Just as he was about to tell the heroes who their enemy was, Michael learned of his duplicity and used his cosmic powers to blast the Collector into atoms, proving the prediction of the aged scholar's own end to be correct.


title: Collector (character)

text: In the 1982 miniseries "Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions", the Elder known as the Grandmaster plays a game called the Contest of Champions with Death, which resulted in Death resurrecting his fellow Elder the Collector. The Collector captured Marrina, then battled Alpha Flight and Spider-Man. He aided the Grandmaster by tricking the Avengers into entering Death's realm.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector assisted his fellow elders in a plot to kill Galactus and recreate the universe, but he was thwarted by the Silver Surfer and consumed by Galactus. Since Death had vowed that the Elders could no longer die, they caused Galactus to have "cosmic indigestion" until they were forced out of him by Master Order and Lord Chaos. The Collector was one of the four Elders who aided the Silver Surfer and Nova in helping Galactus to defeat the In-Betweener. Once the battle was over the five Elders used their Infinity Gems to instantaneously travel very far away from Galactus and his vengeance. He later gave his Infinity Gem to Thanos in exchange for the Runner, who Thanos had recently captured and de-aged. Once released from Thanos's prison, the Runner returned to his true age and began to beat the Collector up for daring to try to imprison him.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector re-appeared when the Avengers fought Thane Ector and the Brethren, who were noted to have escaped from the Collector's collection. It was then noted later that the Collector had planned all of this, intending the Brethren to lay waste to the Earth so that he could "collect" the surviving humans. It was at this point he showed his true form to the Avengers and was noted to be very powerful; enough to subdue Thane Ector. The Collector was eventually thwarted by the Avengers, and the Brethren's Uni-Mind.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector uses the Collection Agency and the Silver Surfer as pawns to capture a virus that caused insanity.


title: Collector (character)

text: In a 2007 story, the Collector becomes involved with Galactus once again when the latter entity wished to devour one of the worlds that held many of the entities the Collector had taken. Among them were the Starjammers and Wolverine.


title: Collector (character)

text: In a 2009 story, the Grandmaster makes a bet with the Collector who sets his team of Defenders (Hulk, Doctor Strange, Namor, and the Silver Surfer) against the Grandmaster's team of Offenders (which comprises the Red Hulk, Baron Mordo, Tiger Shark, and Terrax). The game results in Hulk claiming victory and the Collector complies with the terms of the game, giving the Hulk the lifeless body of Jarella.


title: Collector (character)

text: Eight months after the events of the 2015 storyline "Secret Wars", the Collector is shown in charge of Battlerealm, the small surviving portion of Battleworld. He engages in a new Contest of Champions with the Grandmaster, with the prize being an ancient cosmic artifact called the Iso-Sphere.


title: Collector (character)

text: In a 2017 story, when the hammer of the Earth-1610 Thor falls to Asgard after, and the Collector finds that he cannot lift it, he takes all of the abandoned Asgard into his possession. When Thor searches for the hammer, the Collector takes him prisoner, threatening to kill other aliens in his collection unless Thor tells him the secret of how to bypass the worthiness enchantment. He then encounters Proxima Midnight and Black Swan, who were sent by Thanos to retrieve the hammer. After Odinson, Beta Ray Bill, Odinson's pet goat Toothgnasher and the Helhound Thori escape and battle his army, the Collector tries to recapture Odinson, only for him to break free and grab the hammer. Odinson chooses not to claim the hammer, but he and Bill are able to channel its power to return Asgard to its true place, simultaneously decimating the Collector's forces, prompting him to kill his last soldier so that he can have the pleasure of destroying something unique.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector possesses the ability to manipulate cosmic energy for a variety of effects, including projecting concussive force beams, and the increasing of his size and mass (and hence physical strength) at will. He also possesses limited shape-changing abilities. His precognitive abilities give him brief visions of alternate future, although he must meditate for long periods to identify the individuals he sees in the vision and its apparent point in time. He has telepathic abilities that enable him to make limited contact with the minds of other Elders. Due to a vow by Death, the Collector and all the Elders cannot die and are effectively immortal.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector has a vast knowledge and comprehension of the advanced science and technology of numerous alien worlds, as well as a collection of devices and artifacts from those worlds. His armored battle-suit is made of the alien metal etherion, which amplifies the wearer's strength to superhuman levels, and it has jets that permit flight. He uses various weapons from many time periods and different worlds. Among his arsenal from Earth's past are catapults, Tibetan crystal balls that emit mystical rays, and magic beans that can conjure up warrior giants. He possesses a magic lamp that can summon a four-headed djinn with mystical powers. His "boxes" are rectangular "interdimensional traps" that can weaken a victim's strength or sanity. Other weapons include gigantic robot guards, a stun beam, and stasis beams. The Collector also has zoos of alien beasts which he can release to attack his adversaries. Among this is Snake-Eyes, an enormous alien serpent with hypnotic powers. Other items in his collection include the Obedience Potion, with which the Collector can compel a human victim to do his bidding; the Cosmic Viewer, with which he can monitor events on various worlds; a Kymellian translation/control device resembling a flute, with which he can communicate with other living beings; and a time probe enabling him to find and procure artifacts from other time periods. He uses starships holding museums of his collections, a Temporal Assimilator that allows time travel, Persian "flying carpets" and a "flying cape" that allowed flight. He formerly possessed the Infinity Gem that could control reality, but he did not understand its power.


title: Collector (character)

text: Taneleer Tivan / The Collector appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), portrayed by Benicio del Toro.


title: Collector (character)

text: The Collector appears in the attraction at Disney California Adventure, with Benicio del Toro reprising his role from the MCU franchise.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus (c. 148922 January 1557) was a Scottish nobleman active during the reigns of James V and Mary, Queen of Scots. He was the son of George, Master of Angus, who was killed at the Battle of Flodden, and succeeded as Earl of Angus on the death of his grandfather, Archibald.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Through his daughter, Margaret, he was the grandfather of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and therefore the great-grandfather of James VI and I.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: In 1509, Douglas married Margaret Hepburn, daughter of the Earl of Bothwell. After her death, and that of his father, in 1513, on 6 August 1514 the new Earl of Angus married the dowager queen and regent, Margaret Tudor, widow of James IV, mother of two-year-old James V, and elder sister of Henry VIII of England. The marriage stirred up the jealousy of the nobles and the opposition of the faction supporting French influence in Scotland. Civil war broke out, and Margaret lost the regency to John Stewart, Duke of Albany.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he joined Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for London, returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland on Albany's departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency. Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence, Angus had become involved with a daughter of the Laird of Traquair. Angus had a daughter named Lady Janet Douglas with Lady Jane of Traquair and seized some property belonging to his then wife, Margaret Tudor, an estate at Newark and proceeded to live in it openly with his wife and illegitimate child. Margaret, however, was more annoyed with Douglas over his seizure and usage of her dower income as dowager queen of Scotland than the birth of his illegitimate daughter. Margaret avenged his neglect by refusing to support his claims for power and by secretly trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh, Angus held his own against the attempts of the Earl of Arran, to dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom Margaret now sided against her husband, deprived him of power. The regent took the government into his own hands, Angus was charged with high treason in December and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France, whence he succeeded in escaping to London in 1524.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: He returned to Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII, with whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, Angus forced his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated to Tantallon Castle.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: He now organized a large party of nobles against Margaret with the support of Henry VIII, and in February 1525 they entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a Lord of the Articles, was included in the Council of regency, bore the king's crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held the chief power.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus was appointed Lord Warden of the Marches in 1526, and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. He had contracted a treaty for three years of peace with England on 10 October 1525 at Berwick upon Tweed, but was unable to return to Berwick to exchange papers as arranged on 13 January 1526 because he had to deal with his political opponents at Linlithgow. Instead, he sent a delegation of commissioners including Adam Otterburn to Berwick to conclude the treaty.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: The terms of the treaty included abstinence from war, safe-conducts for legitimate travellers, redress for cross-border robbery and rendition of criminals. Trade by sea was assured according to the previous treaty made by Edward IV and James III in 1464. Among the provisions was the traditional clause, that neither side should dismantle or rebuild the "fishgarth", where the River Esk meets the Solway. A new clause addressed the issue of border people robbing trees and timber from across the marches. It was hoped that during the three years Scottish commissioners would come to London to negotiate a new treaty of Perpetual Peace. Henry VIII signed on 17 August.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: In July 1526 the guardianship of the King James V was entrusted to him for a fixed period till 1 November, but he refused at its close to retire, and advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: He now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining over some of his antagonists, including Arran and the Hamiltons, and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming Chancellor. According to the chronicle of Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, "None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor Douglas's man".


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: The young king James V, now fourteen, was far from content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded, and several attempts to free him were foiled. Angus defeated John Stewart, 3rd Earl of Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with 10,000 men in August at the Battle of Linlithgow Bridge, and he subsequently took Stirling. After his military successes, he reconciled with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528 was busy in restoring order through the country.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: On 11 March 1528, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover, Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however, James escaped from Angus's custody, took refuge with Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately took revenge by proscribing Angus and all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his person. This did not include his half-sister, Margaret, who James, even at sixteen, could see was innocent and was allowed to be with them - though, as she was in England, the twosome would never actually meet.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus, having fortified Tantallon, was attainted and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts by James to subdue the fortress by siege failed, and on one occasion Angus's men captured the royal artillery. Angus based himself at Coldingham Priory. At length, Tantallon was given up as a condition of a truce between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus sought refuge with Henry VIII in England. He obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, with Henry's promise to make his restoration a condition of peace.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus had been largely guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir George Douglas of Pittendreich, Master of Angus, (died 1552), a far more clever diplomat than himself. George's life and lands were also declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie (died 1535), known by the nickname of "Greysteil", who had been a friend of King James. These men fled into exile.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: James avenged himself on such Douglases remaining in Scotland as he could. Angus's third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer a charge of communicating with her brothers, and when she failed to appear, her estates were forfeited. In 1537, she was tried for conspiring against the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the Castle Hill, Edinburgh on 17 July 1537. Her innocence has been generally assumed, but the historian Patrick Fraser Tytler considered her guilty. In 1540, James Hamilton of Finnart was executed for conspiring with the Douglases to assassinate James in 1528.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus remained in England until 1542, joining in the attacks upon his countrymen on the border, while James refused all demands from Henry VIII for his restoration, and kept firm to his policy of suppressing the Douglas faction. However, despite his remaining in England and the fact that he was her father, Henry VIII kept guardianship of Douglas's daughter, Margaret, who was raised in the royal household.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: On James V's death in 1542, Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions from Henry to negotiate a marriage between Mary, Queen of Scots, and Edward VI. His forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored and he was made a privy councillor and lieutenant-general.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: In 1543, he successfully negotiated a peace treaty and the marriage, and the same year he married Margaret, daughter of Robert Maxwell, 5th Lord Maxwell. Shortly afterwards, a struggle between Angus and the regent Arran broke out, and in April 1544 Angus was captured and imprisoned in Blackness Castle.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: The same year Lord Hertford's marauding expedition, which did not spare the lands of Angus, made him join the anti-English party. Angus was released from ward when Hertford's army landed at Granton near Edinburgh. Angus made a bond with Arran and others to maintain their allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the mission sent to France to offer the latter's hand to the Dauphin. In July 1544 he was appointed lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished himself on 27 February 1545 in the victory over the English at Ancrum Moor. Following this victory, Angus was invested with the insignia of a Knight of the Order of St Michael by Francis II of France.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: He still corresponded with Henry VIII, but nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and peace treaty, and on 10 September 1547 commanded the van in the great defeat of Scotland at Pinkie, when he again won fame. Early in October 1547, Angus tried to recapture the island of Inchcolm from the English with five ships. However, he kept up a secret correspondence with Andrew Dudley, the English commander at Broughty Castle, and wrote that he had made excuses to Regent Arran and prevented his retainers from joining the siege of Broughty.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: In February 1548 an attempt to capture him and punish him for his duplicity failed. His son-in-law, the Earl of Lennox, and the English border warden Thomas Wharton marched from Dumfries to intercept Angus at Drumlanrig Castle. Angus surprised and cut off a part of the force led by Wharton's son Henry while they were burning Durisdeer. Wharton claimed that when his forces were reunited they killed 500 men, some drowned in the Nith. Meanwhile, his stores at Dumfries were robbed and spoiled, and he was driven back to Annan and back to Carlisle.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus escaped his English would-be captors again after the capture of Dalkeith Palace by Grey of Wilton in June 1548. He sailed from Tantallon Castle to Edinburgh, while George Douglas of Pittendreich escaped by a secret way with only a single companion.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Under the regency of Mary of Guise his restless and ambitious character and the number of his retainers gave cause for frequent alarms to the government. On 31 August 1547 he resigned his earldom, obtaining a re-grant, "sibi et suis haeredibus masculis et suis assignatis quibuscumque" ("to him and his male heirs and their assignees").


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: His career was a long struggle for power and for the interests of his family, to which national considerations were completely subordinate. He died in January 1557


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, and was the mother of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley who was the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Angus outlived his illegitimate daughter Janet Douglas who died around 1552. Janet had married Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven and produced several children and the main Ruthven line. Angus also had an illegitimate son George Douglas, who became Bishop of Moray.


title: Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus

text: Since his only legitimate son, James Douglas, by his wife Margaret Maxwell died young, he was succeeded by his nephew David, the son of George Douglas of Pittendreich.


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: The Liga 3 is the third-level football league in the Portuguese football league system, starting in 2021–22. It is a professional national league organized by the Portuguese Football Federation (FPF).


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: The creation of this league is part of a restructuring of the Portuguese third tier, with Campeonato de Portugal, which saw the number of teams reduced, being relegated to fourth tier and the top teams competing there advancing to this new competition. In its first season, a total of 24 teams competed in the Liga 3, 2 of which were relegated from 2020–21 Liga Portugal 2 and 22 others which were promoted from 2020–21 Campeonato de Portugal. This number is set to be reduced to 20 teams for the 2023–24 season.


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: This competition consists of a first stage with all the teams then proceed to a promotion or relegation series depending on their performance.


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: In the first stage, the 24 clubs are divided in two series (Serie A and B) of 12 teams, according to geographic criteria. In each series, teams play against each other in a home-and-away double round-robin system. The four best-placed teams of the two series will advance to the promotion series and bottom 8 teams will proceed to the relegation series.


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: The eight qualified teams are divided in two series of 4 teams, playing against each other in a home-and-away double round-robin system. The winners of each series will be automatically promoted to Liga Portugal 2 and will face each other in a neutral venue to determine the champion. The second best placed teams will face each other in a playoff, whose winner will face the 16th placed of Liga Portugal 2 for the last spot in Liga Portugal 2. On this stage teams will be divided as follows.


title: Liga 3 (Portugal)

text: The bottom 8 teams are divided in four series of 4 teams, playing against each other in a home-and-away double round-robin system. To account for their performance in the first stage, teams will start with bonification points, with 5th placed teams starting with 8 points and 12th placed teams starting with 1. The bottom teams of each series will be relegated to Campeonato de Portugal.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Autumn Sonata () is a 1978 drama film written and directed by Ingmar Bergman, and starring Ingrid Bergman (in her final film role), Liv Ullmann and Lena Nyman. Its plot follows a celebrated classical pianist and her neglected daughter who meet for the first time in years, and chronicles their painful discussions of how they have hurt each other. It was the first and only collaboration by Ingrid Bergman and Ingmar Bergman.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: "Autumn Sonata" was the last of Ingmar Bergman's films to be made for theatrical exhibition; all of his films made after it, even those screened in theatres, were television productions.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Eva (Liv Ullmann), wife of the village pastor, invites her mother Charlotte (Ingrid Bergman) for a visit to her village. She has not seen her for over seven years. Her mother is a world-renowned pianist, somewhat eccentric, aging, and has survived several husbands. Eva is not as talented as the mother (despite the fact that she has written two books and plays the piano passably). Eva's main concern is to be the mistress of her home, wife, mother, and loving sister. It is gradually learned through her dialogue with her mother that her life has had a large number of unfortunate setbacks: a husband Viktor (Halvar Björk) she respects, but does not really have affection for, their son Erik who drowned when only 4 years old, and Charlotte never appears to have loved Eva as a mother normally loves a daughter. As part of her day-to-day life, Eva takes care of her disabled and paralyzed sister Helena (Lena Nyman), whom she has taken out of the hospital into her own home. She appears to be the only person who can understand her sister's limited speech ability.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: The presence of Helena in Eva's house is shocking to the aging mother. She makes a gift of her own wrist watch to Helena, and listens to Eva playing Prelude No. 2 in A minor by Chopin. She immediately re-performs the same prelude after Eva finishes in her own preferred interpretation of the music. Before going to bed, Charlotte decides to make a gift of her own car to her daughter. She plans to take a flight home, and buy a new car for herself, as a measure of her altruism. At night, Charlotte wakes up from a nightmare: it seems that Eva is choking her. She gets up, goes into the living room followed by Eva, who had heard her mother screaming from the nightmare.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Mother and daughter begin an impassioned rediscovery and clarification of their past relationship. Eva's husband overhears this unexpectedly heightened exchange, but wisely decides not to participate and interfere. Hearing this impassioned exchange, her disabled younger sister painfully forces herself out of her bed and starts crawling up to the stairs to where Eva and Charlotte are arguing. Upon reaching the landing she starts shouting, "Mama, come!"


title: Autumn Sonata

text: In the morning Charlotte prepares for her departure. Eva goes to the grave of her departed son, and her husband ineffectively tries to soothe her ailing sister. Charlotte asks for a friend to escort her away by train. While speaking to her agent Paul on the train, she begins to question the unfortunate fate of her disabled and paralyzed daughter, asking the unanswerable question: "Why couldn't she die?" Her older daughter sends her mother a letter starting with: "I realize that I wronged you." The mother apparently reads the letter that concludes by leaving open the possibility of a future reconciliation, though the closing shot is of Viktor putting the letter in the envelope, leaving the possibility that he, or Eva, merely envisioned Charlotte reading the letter.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Due to his battle with the Swedish tax authorities at the time, Ingmar Bergman produced "Autumn Sonata" through his West German company, Personafilm GmbH, with main financing from Lew Grade's British ITC Film, and shot the film in an old film studio outside Oslo in Norway. Although formally a German production (with the German title, "Herbstsonate", being the official original title), the dialogue is in Swedish, most of the crew and actors were Swedish, and the world premiere was in Stockholm.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Peter Cowie in the notes to the Criterion DVD edition of the film summarizes the production, stating: "Shot in Norway, with British and American backing, and featuring Swedish dialogue, "Autumn Sonata" emerged from one of the darkest spells in Ingmar Bergman’s life. In 1976 he had gone into voluntary exile in Munich after being accused of evading tax on the income from certain films... Autumn Sonata... marks the swan song of Ingrid Bergman’s career, fulfilled her long-held desire to make a film with her namesake."


title: Autumn Sonata

text: The piano piece in the film is Frédéric Chopin's Prelude No. 2 in A minor played by Käbi Laretei, whose hands are shown whenever Ingrid Bergman is depicted playing the piano.


title: Autumn Sonata

text: In the "Chicago Reader", Dave Kehr opined that "Autumn Sonata" "makes good chamber music: it's a crafted miniature with Bergman's usual bombast built, for once, into the plot requirements." Conversely, Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" felt that its story was "a dubious variation on familiar neurotic themes" in Bergman's work, but also wrote that "one can be impressed by Bergman's instrumentalists while rejecting his composition. ... "Autumn Sonata" enjoys instant status as an acting showcase." Film critic Roger Ebert ranked the film at No. 5 in his list of "10 Best Films of 1978".


title: Autumn Sonata

text: Retrospective evaluation is favorable. In 2002, Keith Phipps of "The A.V. Club" wrote, "When it was released in 1978, Ingmar Bergman's "Autumn Sonata" received positive to indifferent reviews, written off by many as a minor work from a great director. ... With the burden of high expectations lifted, "Autumn Sonata" can finally be seen as an austerely beautiful meditation on death and the not-always-realized possibility of reconciliation across generations." The film has an 87% rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 30 reviews with the consensus: "A melancholy meditation on the unresolvable tension between parent and child, "Autumn Sonata" is a fitting swan song for the great Ingrid Bergman."


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The Housing & Development Board (HDB) (; ; ) or often referred to as the Housing Board, is a statutory board under the Ministry of National Development responsible for Singapore's public housing. Founded in 1960 as a result of efforts in the late 1950s to set up an authority to take over the Singapore Improvement Trust's (SIT) public housing responsibilities, the HDB focused on the construction of emergency housing and the resettlement of kampong residents into public housing in the first few years of its existence.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: This focus shifted from the late 1960s, with the HDB building flats with improved fittings and offering them for sale. From the 1970s, it initiated efforts to improve community cohesion in its estates and solicit resident feedback. In the 1990s and 2000s, the HDB introduced upgrading and redevelopment schemes for mature estates, as well as new types of housing intended to cater to different income groups in partnership with private developers. The HDB was reorganised in 2003 to better suit Singapore's housing market in the 2000s. Efforts to engage residents with upgrading schemes increased in the 2000s and 2010s, and the HDB also began solar panel installation works from the early 2010s.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB consists of a 12-member board and three departments, the Building, Estate and Corporate departments. Besides the provision of public housing, the HDB handles land reclamation works in Singapore and maintains the infrastructure of Singapore's national resource stockpiles.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB is also major purchaser of State Land from the Government with the purchase price payable by HDB going into the Past Reserves.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: By the 1940s and 1950s, Singapore experienced rapid population growth, with the population increasing to 1.7 million from 940,700 between 1947 and 1957. The living conditions of people in Singapore worsened, with many people living in informal settlements or cramped shophouses. Moreover, the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT), which was then responsible for public housing in Singapore, faced many problems in providing public housing, with the rents for flats being too low to be financially sustainable but unaffordable for many of the poorer people in Singapore. Delays in approval for new housing developments greatly slowed housing construction by 1958.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: In the mid-1950s, in light of the findings of the Committee on Local Government, the government initiated efforts to set up a new housing authority in place of the SIT. These efforts culminated in the Housing and Development Bill, which was read to the Legislative Assembly in 1958 and passed the next year. With the bill's passing, the HDB was formed in February 1960, taking over the SIT's public housing responsibilities.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: On the Housing & Development Board (HDB)'s formation, it announced plans to build over 50,000 flats, mostly in the city, under a five-year scheme, and found ways to build flats as cheaply as possible so that the poor could afford to stay in them. The HDB also continued the SIT's efforts in building emergency flats in Tiong Bahru, which were mostly used to rehouse people displaced by the Bukit Ho Swee fire in May 1961. After the fire, the HDB focused its efforts on Bukit Ho Swee's redevelopment, rapidly designing and constructing a public housing estate on the fire's site, with people displaced by urban renewal projects and kampong fires rehoused in the estate's flats. Their occupants disliked the one-room emergency flats, so by the mid-1960s, the HDB had moved on to building larger flats, especially around the Central Area. Nevertheless, the Bukit Ho Swee estate marked the beginning of the HDB's resettlement efforts, and kampong dwellers were swiftly rehoused in public housing. By 1965, 54,430 flats had been built, with an increasing proportion of the population living in HDB dwellings.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The rehousing of kampong dwellers allowed the HDB to pursue its redevelopment plans for the Central Area, and the Urban Renewal Department was formed within the HDB in 1966 to manage the redevelopment works. This department also handled the construction of new amenities in the Central Area and collaborated with private enterprises in constructing new buildings on cleared sites. However, by the 1970s, the urban renewal projects proved too large for the department to handle alone, so the Urban Redevelopment Authority, a statutory board, replaced the department in 1974.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: With the construction of the Bukit Ho Swee estate, the HDB also sought to change how estate residents behaved, and to give the state greater control over their lives. Moreover, with the new housing estates not segregated by race, the HDB facilitated the formation of multiracial communities in place of racially divided ones. Nevertheless, by the 1980s, racial divisions within HDB estates became increasingly pronounced, so to mitigate possible ethnic tensions, the Ethnic Integration Policy, which capped the racial proportions of residents in HDB estates, was introduced in 1989.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB began offering flats for purchase in 1964, but as many flat dwellers at the time could not afford to do so, it was initially not very successful. Applicants could use their Central Provident Fund (CPF) contributions to pay for their flats beginning in 1968. The take-up rate for flat purchase increased such that by the 1980s, most flat applicants were opting to purchase them. From the late 1960s onwards, the HDB designed flats and estates with improved amenities and fittings to improve the quality of life. To further these efforts, in the 1970s and 1980s, the HDB introduced residents committees in its housing estates to promote community cohesion, loosened regulations on flat modifications, and engaged in upgrading works. These works included the expansion of old one-room flats and the construction of new amenities in older estates. In addition, the HDB started soliciting feedback from residents through the Sample Household Surveys (SHS) from 1975.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: In 1982, control over the Housing and Urban Development Company (HUDC) was transferred to the HDB. With the prices of HUDC flats approaching those of private housing, and the middle class being able to purchase HDB flats, the HDB stopped building HUDC flats in 1985.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: In a bid to encourage younger people to continue living in older public housing estates, the HDB announced a large-scale upgrading scheme for those estates in 1989. Known as the Main Upgrading Programme, it attempted to improve these estates by adding new facilities to these estates, improved fittings in flats and to vary the looks of the housing blocks in different precincts. In addition, the HDB initiated a redevelopment programme, the Selective En bloc Redevelopment Scheme (SERS) in 1995, in which selected housing blocks were razed and their residents compensated. SERS carried out renewal schemes in town centres in several older estates in the late 1990s. There have been a total of 81 SERS sites as of 2018.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: Along with the upgrading schemes, the HDB introduced several new housing schemes in the 1990s. These included the Design and Build and Design Plus schemes, with flats designed in collaboration with private architects and built to a higher standard than other flats, and executive condominiums, with amenities similar to private housing. Further schemes were introduced in the 2000s, such as Build-to-Order, in which construction of flats began only after applicants had applied for them, and the Design, Build and Sell Scheme, in which the flats were developed and sold by private developers.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: Nevertheless, the HDB was unable to adapt to the changes in Singapore's housing market fast enough in the early 2000s. To determine and redefine its position in the housing market, the HDB was reorganised, transferring the provision of flat loans to private banks, and corporatising its Building and Development Division to form a new subsidiary, HDB Corp.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB increased efforts to engage residents in its provision of public housing in the 2000s. These efforts included public consultation schemes and the Neighbourhood Renewal Programme, in which facilities within multiple adjacent precincts were improved or upgraded, and residents were able to provide feedback on the planned improvements. Efforts to foster more extensive resident participation were made in 2013 with the Building Our Neighbourhood Dreams! project, in which residents could propose neighbourhood improvements instead of just providing feedback, but the initial projects were not well received.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB began installation of solar panels on public housing blocks and in its properties in the 2010s. In 2014, together with the Economic Development Board, it initiated the SolarNova programme to handle solar panel installation on government properties and buildings.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: Under the Housing and Development Act, the HDB is tasked to plan and carry out the construction or upgrading of any building, clear slums, manage and maintain the estates and buildings that it owns, and to provide loans to people to buy land or public housing. The HDB also carries out land reclamation works and handles the infrastructure for Singapore's national resource stockpiles.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB consists of a chairman and 11 other members, along with three departments, the Building, Estate and Corporate departments, under the purview of a chief executive officer, who is a member of the board. Each department is further subdivided into different groups. The Research and Planning, Development and Procurement, Building Quality and Building and Infrastructure groups and the Building and Research Institute are under the Building department; the Estate Administration and Property, Housing Management, Community Relations and Properties and Land groups under the Estate department; and the Corporate Development, Corporate Communications, Finance, Information Services and Legal groups under the Corporate department.


title: Housing and Development Board

text: The HDB also controls 75% of EM Services, a company handling the upkeep of the HDB's housing estates and properties, and the properties of other public organisations. HDB employees are organised under a house union, the HDB Staff Union (HDBSU).


title: Arilus cristatus

text: Arilus cristatus, also known as the North American wheel bug, is a species of large assassin bug in the family Reduviidae and the only species of wheel bug found in the United States. It is one of the largest terrestrial true bugs in North America, reaching up to in length in its adult stage. It is sexually dimorphic, in that males are somewhat smaller than the females. A characteristic structure is the wheel-shaped pronotal armor. North American wheel bugs prey on caterpillars and beetles, such as Japanese beetles, the cabbage worm, orange dogs, tent caterpillars, and the Mexican bean beetle, all of which they pierce with their beak to inject salivary fluids that dissolve soft tissue. The North American wheel bug is most active in daylight, but may engage in predatory behaviors at night in areas illuminated by lights. Because most of its prey are pests, the wheel bug is considered beneficial.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: It is camouflaged and very shy, residing in leafy areas and hiding whenever possible. Specifically, habitats of the North American wheel bug include sunflowers, goldenrod, cotton, trunks of locust trees, and various fruit and tree groves. It has membranous wings, allowing for clumsy, noisy flight which can easily be mistaken for the flight of a large grasshopper. The adult is gray to brownish gray in color and black shortly after molting, but the nymphs (which do not yet have the wheel-shaped structure) have bright red or orange abdomens. It was described in 1763 by Carl Linnaeus. Despite the prevalence of the North American wheel bug in many habitats, the information compiled concerning the species is haphazard and incomplete.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: Like other species of wheel bugs, "A. cristatus" have a characteristic dorsal crest, shaped like a wheel or cog. They move and fly slowly, and in flight produce a noisy buzzing sound. As with other assassin bugs, the proboscis arises from the anterior end of its long, tubular head and unfolds forward when feeding.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: "A. cristatus" possesses two scent glands (red-orange in color) that can be ejected from its abdomen, usually in reaction to being disturbed. The scent produced by it is not as powerful as that produced by stink bugs, but is still strong enough to be detected by humans.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: North American wheel bugs exhibit armored forewings and membranous hind wings which allow this species to take flight. As a result of its inability to move swiftly, "A. cristatus" rely heavily upon camouflage, the effect of their bite, or the production of unpleasant odors in order to avoid predation.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: North American wheel bugs are most common in eastern Canada and the United States, and their range extends into Mexico and Guatemala. Among the five extant species of "Arilus", a western hemisphere genus, only "A. cristatus" is found in the United States.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: North American wheel bugs initiate predation by gripping and pinning their prey with their front legs. The bug plunges its beak into its victim before injecting it with enzymes, paralyzing it and dissolving its insides, and proceeds to drain the resulting fluids.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: "A. cristatus" is also noted to be very aggressive in the wild, and cannibalistic behaviors between them have been noted; for example, nymphs may prey on one another and the female may feed on the male after mating is concluded.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: Additionally, like many reduviids, the species is capable of producing audible sound by rubbing the tip of its proboscis in a groove under its thorax. The purpose of this sound is unknown and may serve as a means of communication between members of the species.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: The reproductive cycle of "A. cristatus" initiates in autumn. After mating, the female will lay 40 to 200 small, brown, cylindrical eggs, and eventually die. Females lay eggs on trees, bushes, twigs, and other objects. Secreted glue serves as an adhesive which maintains the cluster formation of the eggs. The eggs will hatch in the following spring into eight-millimeter-long, red nymphs, which will undergo five molts until they reach the adult stage the following summer.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: After the nymphs hatch, the average length of each molt is roughly 18.8 days, though the interval of the 5th and final molt prior to the adult stage is the longest. Eggs generally hatch in the beginning of May and finally mature into adults by July. Overall, it takes roughly 94 days for nymphs to reach maturity. However, the phenology of this life cycle varies, based upon the climate which the population occupies. For instance, communities in warm climates may not overwinter as eggs.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: In a laboratory test conducted at Southern Illinois University in 1997 and 1998, research revealed that the species’ eggs may be attacked by parasitic wasps, such as "Ooencyrtus johnsoni". Of the 12 clusters of eggs monitored in the lab, 10 were ravaged by parasites which prevented the eggs from hatching normally.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: "A. cristatus" is predatory immediately upon hatching, but the distinctive wheel unique to the species derives only after the bug reaches the adult stage following the final molt.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: North American wheel bugs are highly regarded by organic gardeners because they consume a variety of insects and their presence indicates a healthy, pesticide-free ecosystem. "They're the lion or the eagle of your food web," Dr. Michael J. Raupp, an entomologist at the University of Maryland, notes. "They sit on top. When you have these big, ferocious predators in your landscape, that tells me that this is a very healthy landscape, because all these other levels in your food web are intact."


title: Arilus cristatus

text: Although "A. cristatus" is a welcome agent of pest control, this species also preys on several ecologically beneficial species, such as lady beetles and honey bees.


title: Arilus cristatus

text: The species is generally indifferent concerning the presence and interruption of humans. Although evidence suggests that "A. cristatus" can seemingly be domesticated in controlled environments, if provoked or mishandled, they may attack in an act of defense. Their bite is generally considered to be of greater severity in terms of the level and duration of pain than the sting of common insects, such as wasps. The resulting wound is documented to be extremely painful, lasting, and lingering, accompanied by numbness which can persist for days. These effects can be avoided by handling the docile insect with gloves. The bite is not considered highly venomous, so it is not serious in the short term. Furthermore, the vicinity of the injury is known to become heated and irritated. A white crust sometimes forms around the wound during the healing process, though it eventually deteriorates, leaving the small puncture wound visible. Discomfort may persist for two weeks and up to six months in some cases. However, the latter timeline is frequently attributed to allergic reactions or recurrent infections of the original wound.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: Elijah J. McCoy (May 2, 1844 – October 10, 1929) was a Canadian-American engineer of African-American descent who invented lubrication systems for steam engines. Born free on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie to parents who fled enslavement in Kentucky, he traveled to the United States as a young child when his family returned in 1847, becoming a U.S. resident and citizen. His inventions and accomplishments were honored in 2012 when the United States Patent and Trademark Office named its first regional office, in Detroit, Michigan, the "Elijah J. McCoy Midwest Regional Patent Office".


title: Elijah McCoy

text: Elijah McCoy was born in 1844 in Colchester, Ontario, to George and Mildred Goins McCoy. At the time, they were fugitive slaves who had escaped from Kentucky to Ontario via helpers through the Underground Railroad. George and Mildred arrived in Colchester Township, Essex County, in what was then called Upper Canada in 1837 via Detroit. Elijah McCoy had eleven siblings. Ten of the children were born in Ontario from Alfred (1836) to William (1859).


title: Elijah McCoy

text: Upper Canadian schools were segregated under the Common Schools Act as amended in 1850, and McCoy was educated in black schools of Colchester Township. At age 15, in 1859, Elijah McCoy was sent to Scotland. While there he was apprenticed and, after studying at the University of Edinburgh, certified as a mechanical engineer. Based on 1860 Tax Assessment Rolls, land deeds of sale, and the 1870 US Census it can be determined George McCoy's family moved to Ypsilanti, Michigan in the United States in 1859–60; by the time Elijah returned, his family had established themselves on the farm of John and Maryann Starkweather in Ypsilanti. George used his skills as a tobacconist in order to establish a tobacco and cigar business.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: When Elijah McCoy arrived in Michigan, he could find work only as a fireman and oiler at the Michigan Central Railroad. In a home-based machine shop in Ypsilanti, McCoy also did more highly skilled work, such as developing improvements and inventions. He invented an automatic lubricator for oiling the steam engines of locomotives and ships, patenting it in 1872 as "Improvement in Lubricators for Steam-Engines" ().


title: Elijah McCoy

text: Similar automatic oilers had been patented by him previously; one is the displacement lubricator, which had already attained widespread use and whose technological descendants continued to be widely used into the 20th century. Lubricators were a boon for railroads, as they enabled trains to run faster and more profitably with less need to stop for lubrication and maintenance. By 1899, the Michigan Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics reported that the McCoy lubricator was in use on almost all North American railroads.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: McCoy continued to refine his devices and design new ones, and was noted in periodicals of the time, including the Railroad Gazette. Most of his patents dealt with lubricating systems, including a further patent in 1898 which added a glass 'sight-feed' tube to monitor the rate of lubricant delivery ().


title: Elijah McCoy

text: After the turn of the century, he attracted notice among his Black contemporaries. Booker T. Washington, in "Story of the Negro" (1909), recognized him as having produced more patents than any other Black inventor up to that time. This creativity gave McCoy an honored status in the Black community that has persisted to this day. He continued to invent until late in life, obtaining as many as 57 patents; most related to lubrication, but others also included a folding ironing board and a lawn sprinkler. Lacking the capital with which to manufacture his lubricators in large numbers, he usually assigned his patent rights to his employers or sold them to investors. In 1920, near the end of his career, he formed the Elijah McCoy Manufacturing Company.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: This popular expression, typically meaning "the real thing", has been attributed to Elijah McCoy's oil-drip cup invention. One theory is that railroad engineers looking to avoid inferior copies would request it by name, and inquire if a locomotive was fitted with "the real McCoy system". This theory is mentioned in Elijah McCoy's biography at the National Inventors Hall of Fame.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: The expression "The real McCoy" was first published in Yorkville (now part of Toronto), Ontario, in 1881. Later, the December 1966 issue of "Ebony", in an advertisement for Old Taylor bourbon whiskey made mention of Elijah McCoy: "But the most famous legacy McCoy left his country was his name." Other possibilities for its origin have been proposed, including it being a corruption of the Scottish name "Reay Mackay" and while it has undoubtedly been applied as an epithet to many other McCoys, its association with Elijah has become iconic in American parlance.


title: Elijah McCoy

text: He married for the second time in 1873 to Mary Eleanora Delaney. The couple moved to Detroit when McCoy found work there. Mary McCoy (died 1923) helped found the Phillis Wheatley Home for Aged Colored Men in 1898. Elijah McCoy died in the Eloise Infirmary in Nankin Township, now Westland, Michigan, on October 10, 1929, at the age of 85, as a result of injuries suffered in a car accident seven years earlier in which his wife Mary died. He is buried in Detroit Memorial Park East in Warren, Michigan.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven is a small, simple, lightweight, two-seater, open-top, open-wheel, sports car produced by the British manufacturer Lotus Cars (initially called Lotus Engineering) between 1957 and 1972.


title: Lotus Seven

text: It was designed by Lotus founder Colin Chapman and has been considered the embodiment of the Lotus philosophy of performance through low weight and simplicity. The original model was highly successful with more than 2,500 cars sold, due to its attraction as a road legal car that could be used for clubman racing.


title: Lotus Seven

text: After Lotus ended production of the Seven, Caterham bought the rights and today Caterham makes both kits and fully assembled cars based on the original design known as the Caterham 7.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven design has spawned a host of imitations on the kit car market, generally called "Sevens" or "Sevenesque" roadsters.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven was launched in 1957 to replace the Mark VI as the 'entry-level' Lotus model, The Seven name was left over from a model that was abandoned by Lotus, which would have been a Riley-engined single-seater that Lotus intended to enter into the Formula Two in 1952 or 1953. However, the car was completed on Chapman's chassis as a sports car by its backers and christened the Clairmonte Special.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Externally similar to Chapman's earlier Lotus Mark VI, but with a different tubular frame similar to the Lotus Eleven, the Seven was powered by a Ford Side-valve 1,172 cc inline-four engine. It was used both on the road and for club racing (750 motor club in the UK).


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven S2 followed in 1960 and was supplemented by the Lotus Super Seven S2 from 1961. The Super Seven initially used the larger Cosworth modified 1,340cc Ford Classic engine and later examples were fitted with 1,498cc or 1,599cc engines. The Seven S3 was released in 1968. In 1970, Lotus radically changed the shape of the car to create the slightly more conventional sized Series 4 (S4), with a squarer fibreglass shell replacing most of the aluminium bodywork. It also offered some luxuries as standard, such as an internal heater matrix.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Between 1970 and 1975, following a representation agreement, Lotus Argentina SA obtained the licence to manufacture the Lotus Seven in Argentina. This production reached approximately 51 units. These vehicles were not replicas but built under licence and branded as Lotuses.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Under the Purchase Tax system of the time cars supplied as a kit did not attract the tax surcharge that would apply if sold in assembled form. Tax rules specified assembly instructions could not be included. However, once the UK joined the EEC on 1 January 1973, the VAT system was adopted instead so the tax advantage of the kit-built Lotus Seven came to an end.


title: Lotus Seven

text: In 1973, Lotus decided to shed fully its "British tax system"-inspired kit car image. As part of this plan, it sold the rights to the Seven to its only remaining agents Caterham Cars in England and Steel Brothers Limited in New Zealand.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Caterham ran out of the Lotus Series 4 kits in the early 1970s. When this occurred and in accordance with their agreement with Lotus, Caterham introduced its own brand version of the Series 3. They have been manufacturing the car ever since as the Caterham Seven. Steel Brothers Limited in Christchurch, New Zealand, assembled Lotus Seven Series 4s until March 1979 when the last of the 95 kits provided by Lotus was used up. Steel Brothers had a much wider range of factory options than the UK models with carpet, centre console glove-box, radio, window-washer and hardtop. Sold largely to competition enthusiasts, the NZ cars also had engine modifications, close-ratio gears, and adjustable suspension as factory options. As such, they were very successful in local racing. With officially licensed production stopping in 1979, the last Lotus badged Seven, a Series 4, was therefore produced in New Zealand.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Steel Brothers Limited attempted to make a wider, modernised version of the Series 4, the Lotus Super 907, using the twin cam Lotus 907 engine. In the spring of 1978 it was announced that this was to be sold in the United States - but the American importer had no funds and the project came to naught. The single finished Super 907 was moved from New Zealand to the United States in 2010 to undergo a full restoration.


title: Lotus Seven

text: A car with a tuned Ford 1172 cc engine and close-ratio gearbox was tested by the British magazine "The Motor" in 1958. It was found to have a top speed of , could accelerate from 0- in 6.2 seconds and had a fuel consumption of . The test car cost £1,157 including taxes of £386. They commented that car could be bought in component form and then it would have cost £399 for the parts from Lotus, £100 for the Ford engine and gearbox and £27 for the BMC rear axle.


title: Lotus Seven

text: A Seven's top speed greatly depends upon the body configuration, engine power and gearing. Early models with low-powered engines had difficulty exceeding , although a race-prepared Seven was clocked at whilst driven by Brausch Niemann through a speed-trap at the 1962 Natal Grand Prix. In addition, clamshell style wings tend to create drag and generate lift at higher speeds. Cycle wings help alleviate this tendency, and low height Brookland aeroscreens or the lighter Perspex variants that can replace the windscreen help improve top end speed. Sevens do suffer from front end lift at high speed – the nose creates more lift than downforce at speeds over around , although retro fitted "winglets" may counter this.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Nearly all Sevens, due to their extremely light weight (around 10cwt / 500 kg) have excellent acceleration, especially up to , depending on power. The original late 1950s Sevens could beat most contemporary saloon cars—and by the early 1960s, with improved Ford-Cosworth engines could take on most high-performance sports cars with 0–60 mph time in the low 7 seconds.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The less powerful early models had drum brakes all around, in common with most road cars of the time. Later models had front disc brakes. Physics favours small cars in braking and Sevens have excellent stopping distances.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The highest part of the car is about three feet (900 mm) from the road and it has a cloth top and side curtains with plastic back and side windows. The supports for the top and the windshield frame are aluminium. The lower chassis tubes are five inches (127 mm) from the road, while the wet-sump, bell housing, and one chassis tube are lower, meaning the centre of gravity is very low.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The front/rear weight distribution is nearly equal and the lack of a boot and small petrol tank assure that it remains fairly constant. It is, however, more front-heavy than more modern high-performance cars.


title: Lotus Seven

text: In the original Seven, the front lower A-arm (or "wishbone") of the double wishbone suspension is traditional, but for the purpose of reducing weight, the upper suspension integrated an anti-roll (anti-sway) bar into a horizontal suspension arm. This approach formed a pseudo-wishbone which was semi-independent in nature. This approach worked well with early cross-ply tyres, but with later radials, the configuration seriously affected its adjustability.


title: Lotus Seven

text: For the rear suspension, Lotus originally used a live axle (or solid axle). This approach was very cost-effective since most production saloon cars up to the 1980s used these components. A mixture of Ford, Standard Motor Company and Austin components was used. One disadvantage of live axles is higher unsprung weight, affecting handling and ride on rough surfaces.


title: Lotus Seven

text: In general, cars with non-optimised aerodynamics tend to be free of adverse aerodynamic effects on handling, but the front wheel arches, of all but the Series I, cause lift at high speeds. Like the good straight-line performance, the car's nimble handling is limited in the speed range, and this is not usually important in a car intended for public roads.


title: Lotus Seven

text: While the car's frontal area is small, the Lotus Seven has a drag coefficient (formula_1) among the highest of any known production car - ranging from 0.65 to 0.75, depending on the bodywork.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Additionally, the clamshell front wings develop lift. This is accentuated by the slight natural lift caused by rotating wheels. Consequently, Sevens have exhibited understeer at high speeds.


title: Lotus Seven

text: It is a stressed skin construction, in which the flat aluminium body panels, and especially the floor, stiffen and effectively triangulate the largely rectangular steel tubular frame structure. This gives a rigid frame with few tubes and very little bodyweight that does not contribute to the frame stiffness. The flat panels avoid difficulties in shaping aluminum sheet into smooth compound curves. On the downside, it does not allow attractive curves or streamlining.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Series 1 seven usually used the English Ford sidevalve (L head or flathead) engine with 49 hp (37 kW), although both BMC series A and FWA s.o.h.c. Coventry Climax engines could be fitted. The series 2 typically used Ford Kent engines of 1,340 cc or 1,500 cc. These were often Cosworth modified; the Cosworth 1,340 cc "Super Seven" delivered and the 1,500 cc "Super Seven 1500" . Some late S2 and most S3 sevens were fitted with the later crossflow Kent engine of 1,599 cc; a limited number of cars used the Lotus twin cam engine. The S4 seven could be supplied with 1298 or 1599 cc Kent engines or the twin cam.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven was designed with racing in mind, and lightness was of primary concern to Chapman. A front-mounted engine driving the rear wheels (a similar layout to most cars of the day) and a very lightweight steel spaceframe was covered with stressed aluminium panel bodywork. The body panels were mainly flat to avoid the expense of more elaborate curved bodywork, and the simple cloth lined plastic doors were hinged from the windscreen. The nose-cone and wheel arches were originally aluminium parts, but these were replaced in the later S2 and S3 models with painted or self-coloured fibreglass.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Early Lotus Sevens weighed around 1,100 lb (10cwt/500 kg). Although the weight crept upward as production progressed, it remained remarkably low for a production car of over a litre displacement.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The front was by "A" arms and coil springs with an anti-roll bar serving as the front half of the top A-arm. The rear had trailing arms, a triangular centre locating member, and a solid rear axle.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The Lotus Seven has spawned many books, test reports, and articles, many of which are still in print.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Edited by R.M. Clarke, Brooklands Books, 1980, , Test reports and articles from magazines around the world.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Edited by R.M. Clarke, Brooklands Books, 1982, , Test reports and articles from magazines around the world.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Edited by R.M. Clarke, Brooklands Books, 1989, , Test reports and articles from magazines around the world.


title: Lotus Seven

text: edited by R.M. Clarke, Brooklands Books, 1996, , , Test reports and articles from magazines around the world


title: Lotus Seven

text: Peter Egan's books are collections of his Road & Track column Side Glances many of which feature his Lotus Sevens.


title: Lotus Seven

text: The building of a Caterham Seven from a Club perspective, it includes much on the owners of Lotus Sevens.


title: Lotus Seven

text: Because of the Seven's relatively simple design, over 160 companies have offered replicas or Seven-type cars over the years. Many have been challenged over the years by the UK rights-holder, Caterham. Such cars are often referred to as "sevenesque" or simply a "seven" or "se7en". Sometimes they are also called clubmans or "locost". Some examples are:


title: You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook

text: You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook () is a South Korean talk show and live music television program airing from April 24 2009 until July 22nd 2022. It was hosted by You Hee-yeol, also known as his one-man band, Toy. The program has aired since April 24, 2009.


title: You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook

text: On July 18, 2022, it was announced the show would end after 13 years, with the final episode being filmed the following day.


title: You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook

text: You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook aired on KBS2 every Friday at 11:20pm KST and has a running time of about 80 minutes. Each week, musicians (usually 3–4) appear as guests to perform and talk with the MC You Hee-yeol for 10–15 minutes.


title: Myristicin

text: Myristicin is a naturally occurring compound found in common herbs and spices, the most well known being nutmeg. It is an insecticide, and has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of other insecticides in combination. Myristicin is also a precursor for substituted amphetamine derivative compounds structurally related to MMDA and MDMA; it was believed to be metabolized in the liver into MMDA, but unlikely since no MMDA was found in urine, in the body it produces hallucinogenic effects, and can be converted to MMDMA in controlled chemical synthesis. It interacts with many enzymes and signaling pathways in the body, is cytotoxic to living cells, and may also have chemoprotective properties.


title: Myristicin

text: Isolated myristicin has proven an effective insecticide against many agricultural pests, including "Aedes aegypti" mosquito larvae, "Spilosoma obliqua" (hairy caterpillars), "Epilachna varivestis" (Mexican bean beetles), "Acyrthosiphon pisum" (pea aphids), mites, and "Drosophila melanogaster" (fruit flies). Myristicin was shown to be an effective repellant, and to cause mortality via direct and systemic exposure. It also displayed a synergistic effect when administered to insects in combination with existing insecticides.


title: Myristicin

text: The structure of myristicin closely resembles that of amphetamine compounds, and it is capable of producing psychotropic effects similar to MDMA compounds. Because of this, it can be used in synthetic synthesis to create amphetamine derivatives, and create designer drugs like MMDMA that are similar in structure and effect to MDMA. Out of the common spices that contain myristicin, nutmeg has the highest relative concentration of the compound. Therefore, it is used most frequently to isolate myristicin or exploit its effects.


title: Myristicin

text: Furthermore, myristicin interferes with multiple signaling pathways and enzyme processes in the body. It is toxic to cells and also may have chemoprotective properties, making it an interesting topic for further pharmacological or therapeutic research. [See Pharmacology, Toxicity]


title: Myristicin

text: Myristicin can be found in nutmeg, black pepper, and many members of the "Umbelliferae" family including anise, carrots, parsley, celery, dill, and parsnip.


title: Myristicin

text: Trace amounts have also been isolated from a variety of plant species including "Ridolfia segetum" (harvest fennel), species of the "Oenanthe" genus (water dropworts), species of the "Lamiaceae" family (mint, sage, or deadnettle families), "Cinnamomum glanduliferum ("Nepal camphor tree), and "Piper mullesua" ("Hill Pepper").


title: Myristicin

text: Depending on the conditions of growth and storage of the plant, a high quality nutmeg ("Myristica fragrans)" seed can contain up to 13 mg of myristicin per 1 gram, or 1.3%. In the isolated essential oils, myristicin constitutes on average 13.24% of nutmeg oil, 6.32% of parsley leaf oil, 7.63% of dill herb oil, and 0.18% of celery seed oil.


title: Myristicin

text: There is more research needed on the exact mechanism of action of myristicin in the body. A 400 mg dose of myristicin has been shown to produce “mild cerebral stimulation” in 4 out of 10 human subjects. Myristicin is most commonly consumed in nutmeg, and 400 mg would be contained in approximately 15 g of nutmeg powder. However, at a minimum dose of about 5 g of nutmeg powder, symptoms of nutmeg intoxication can begin to emerge, indicating the interaction of other compounds contained in nutmeg. elemicin, eugenol, and safrole are also components of nutmeg that, while at lower concentrations than myristicin, are thought to contribute to the hallucinogenic and physiological symptoms of nutmeg intoxication.


title: Myristicin

text: Nutmeg, in terms of effects, feels very similar to THC, if not identical in some ways (nutmeg is a cannabinoid, which explains this), except for feeling more sedating, tiring, heavy, and an overall more 'matured' high with bad physical side effects such as previously mentioned above. In higher doses where hallucinations are present, in which the main nutmeg high consists of mostly a deeper weed like feeling, the hallucinations are very similar to Diphenhydramine except you're not overly sedated and delirious, you see everything glitch all around you, breath and morph. You might also get some closed eye visuals. Overall, nutmeg is more alike to that of a cannabinoid than a hallucinogenic until you get into high doses.


title: Myristicin

text: Myristicin is additionally known to be a weak inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO), a liver enzyme in humans that metabolizes neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine). It lacks the basic nitrogen atom that is typical of MAO inhibitors (MAOIs), potentially explaining a weaker inhibitory effect.


title: Myristicin

text: While smaller concentrations of MAOIs may not cause problems, there are additional warnings regarding drug interactions. Those taking antidepressants that are MAOIs (such as phenelzine, isocarboxazid, tranylcypromine or selegiline) or taking selective serotonin re-uptake inhibiting (SSRI) antidepressants should avoid essential oils rich in myristicin, such as that of nutmeg or anise.


title: Myristicin

text: Myristicin has been noted to be enzymatically hydroxylated into 1'-hydroxymyristicin and enzymatically formed 5-allyl-1-methoxy-2,3-dihydroxybenzene (oxidation of the methylenedioxy group). Myristicin is also formed into demethylenylmyristicin, dihydroxymyristicin, and elemicin is formed into O-demethylelemicin, O-demethyldihydroxyelemicin, and safrole to demethylenylsafrole.


title: Myristicin

text: It was initially hypothesized that elemicin and myristicin can form known hallucinogenic drugs following amination processes (formation of 3,4-methylenedioxy-5-methoxyamphetamine from myristicin and mescaline from elemicin) since the only structural modification is said amination; this pathway was initially doubted to occur and has not been demonstrated in vivo. Other studies on the metabolism of myristicin or elemicin, either in vitro or in vivo, have failed to detect either mescaline or amphetamine-like compounds and measuring human urine following nutmeg ingestion has failed to find the aforementioned amphetamine derivative. Research on breakdown of myristicin.