title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about The Talkative Man, a recurring character in several short stories. Some hunters bring a dead tiger into town, and The Talkative Man tells a story to some children. When he was a fertilizer salesman, he stayed in a tiny village overnight in their train station. He left the door cracked because it got too hot to sleep. A tiger barged in and woke him up in the middle of the night. He barricaded himself behind a lot of furniture, so the tiger could only reach in one paw. The man used his knife to cut off three toes before the tiger retreated. Back in the town, the children ask to see the tiger's paw; sure enough, three toes are missing. The hunters say some tribesmen like to take tiger cubs and cut off three toes as good luck charms.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about a man named Iswaran who failed his intermediate college exams nine years in a row. After taking the exams a tenth time, the day scores are reported has arrived. Instead of viewing his scores, Iswaran goes to the cinema. When other boys come in to the theater celebrating their own success, Iswaran becomes self-loathing and is sure he failed again. He decides to drown himself in the river. He writes a suicide note and leaves it in his jacket on the shore. But wanting to know for sure, he checks his score. Not only did he pass, but with second-class honors. In his excitement, he leaps into the river. His body and suicide note are discovered the next day.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about a sculptor who finishes a statue after five years of labor. It is a statue of the god Nataraja, and everyone insists its form is perfect; so perfect that if the people saw it, the glory of the god would consume them. The priest asks the sculptor to break off its little toe so that it will be safe to view, but the sculptor won't do it. The priest thus refuses to consecrate it in the temple. The sculptor turns his house into a temple to have it consecrated there. The god then comes to life and rattles the region with every kind of natural disaster. The people beg the sculptor to mar the statue's perfection after so many people died, but he won't. He ran to the overflowed lake to drown himself as an offering to the god, but on the way, a tree falls on his house. He returns to see the statue was unharmed except for a severed little toe. The imperfect statue is consecrated at the temple, and the sculptor gives up his trade.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about Swami, a character from his first novel "Swami and Friends". Swami oversleeps on Monday and convinces his mother to let him stay home from school. His father insists he still go to school with a "headache," so Swami lies and says his teacher Samuel beats children severely for lateness or any small offense. His father writes a letter for Swami to deliver to the headmaster and sends him to school. The letter will surely get Samuel fired, maybe even imprisoned. At school, Swami provokes Samuel to do something deserving of getting fired. But Samuel only canes his hands a few times, which Swami doesn't even react to. When he tries to deliver the letter to the headmaster, he is on leave all week. The assistant headmaster could accept it, but it's Samuel. Swami runs home without delivering the letter. His father thinks he was lying about the headmaster being on leave and says he deserves Samuel.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about the Talkative Man. A group of men leave a concert hall having enjoyed the performance, but the Talkative Man looked tortured. He says taste has sunk and tells his story. He studied the bamboo flute with a master musician (who is so obscure his name is unknown, of course). A beggar interrupts the Talkative Man's practice at night and asks him for food. He declines the beggar even the right to come in and listen to him practicing. The beggar curses him, saying this was his last day of music. Later that night, a massive cobra comes and listens to him play. It gets agitated when he stops or plays anything other than the snake-song. After playing the same song all night, he throws himself prostrate and begs the snake to spare him. When he looks up, it is gone. The Talkative Man says he gave up his flute, but if he could find the beggar and ask forgiveness, he would take up his flute again.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: Another story about the Talkative Man. A carnival comes to town, and he wins a road engine (steam-powered tractor). Not knowing even how to drive or power the road engine, he simply leaves it in the park. The city starts to fine him for the parking space at over double his home rent. He arranges to move it, but it crashes in a wall instead, leaving him to pay for the damages. A swami comes to town, eating glass, burying himself alive, etc. The swami asks for a road engine for his assistant to run over his chest, but the city magistrate refuses to allow it. After a massive earthquake, the road engine lodges in a well owned by the same man whose wall was destroyed. He thanks the Talkative Man, as the city was going to fine him for the dirty water if it wasn't sealed. Of course, you can't see the engine lodged in the well anymore, as it is now sealed with concrete.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about a daughter, Shanta, and her father, Venkat Rao. Shanta is a primary school student who is eager to go home from school early, as her father has promised to take her to the cinema. At home, she gets dressed up and waits for her father. When he doesn't come home by the time he said he would, she tries to find his office, but gets lost. A servant leads her back home. We flash back to that morning and follow Venkat Rao's day. He feels guilty that he stays at work until after his daughter goes to bed, seven days a week. So when Shanta asks to be taken to the cinema, he promises to take her. That afternoon, he asks his boss for personal leave or else he resigns. His boss tells him nothing is more urgent than work, so he goes back to working. Fed up with being bought for forty rupees a month, he writes a letter of resignation. His boss tells him he got a raise to forty-five rupees a month, so he tears up his letter. Venkat Rao gets home after his daughter falls asleep and tells his wife he can't take Shanta out at all since he got a raise.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about Rama Rao, a man who had just lost his gramophone business as the only factory in the region closed down. Rama Rao looks for a local job, to no success. The family lay off their servants and rent out the house they built to live in a smaller abode. With no more job prospects, Rama Rao enters a magazine crossword contest, where everyone who gets every answer right wins 4000 rupees. After seeing how badly he lost, he lays down on the train tracks to die. After waiting too long, he finds a crowd at the station and hears that a derailment has delayed all trains three more hours. Recognizing his good fortune, he goes home and his wife tells him the renters want to buy their house. He is excited to sell for 4500 rupees and will use some of the money to go to Madras and get a job there.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about a friendly dog named Attila, after the "Scourge of Europe". After the neighborhood experienced a number of break-ins, a family buys a dog for security. He is friendly with everyone and does not stop thieves from taking their garden flowers, so the family keep him inside at night. One night, a thief named Ranga does break in to steal jewels. Attila is so excited to meet this new friend that he follows Ranga into the open street. The family assumes the dog was stolen too, but they see Attila run to catch him. Ranga gets scared and runs, but trips over the dog, spilling the jewels he stole. The police arrest Ranga, and Attila is praised for being a master detective.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: A story about Velan, who an astrologer predicted would live in a three-story house. Velan came from the poorest family in his village. At age 18, his father slapped his face in public, and he left. After a few days of walking and begging, he got a job as a gardener for an old man. The plot of land was large and they built a three-story mansion on it, but Velan lived in his hut on the grounds. After being awed by the mansion's construction, he grips a margosa's stem in his fingers and tells it to grow up big and worthy of the house or he will pluck it out. It does grow, and his master's great-grandchildren play under it and hundreds of birds live in its branches. Velan's master dies and the house trades hands with family members for some years until wear and tear make the house look haunted and no one will live in it, except Velan when he is given the keys. Some years later, a man arrives to say the plot has been bought and will be cleared for small housing. One morning, Velan awakes to the sound of men chopping the margosa tree with axes. He begs them to stop until he has gathered his belongings and gone out of earshot.


title: Malgudi Days (short story collection)

text: Another story about the Talkative Man. Just after India's independence, there was a flurry of patriotism. The municipality renamed streets from English things to Indian names. There was a statue of a Sir Frederick Lawley in town, and when the street bearing his name was changed, the municipality voted to remove the statue. The people also researched Lawley and found he had been a British tyrant over the Indians. When the city failed to find anyone to remove it within budget, the Talkative Man is offered the chance to take it for himself. He does and lodges it halfway inside his house with great difficulty. When he writes in the news how he got the statue, historical societies across India are outraged, as there are two Sir Lawleys, and the statue celebrated a kind man who founded Malgudi and even died to save Indians. The public protests the removal of the statue, but now neither the city nor the Talkative Man have funds to move it again. An election is coming, and if the statue problem is not returned to the city, the whole council will be voted out. The Chairman of Malgudi buys the Talkative Man's house with his private fund\\\


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: Lyon–Saint Exupéry Airport (), formerly known as "Lyon Satolas Airport" , is the international airport of Lyon, the third-biggest city in France and an important transport facility for the entire Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. It lies in Colombier-Saugnieu, southeast of Lyon's city centre. The airport is directly linked to Lyon-Part-Dieu Business District thanks to the Rhônexpress shuttle's 30-minute ride.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: The airport was inaugurated by President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing on 12 April 1975 and opened to passengers a week later. It was designed to replace the old Lyon–Bron Airport, which is now only used for general aviation.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: In 1994 the LGV Rhône-Alpes high-speed rail line brought TGV service to the airport, providing direct trains to Paris and Marseille. The fan-shaped canopy of the Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry, designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, is the airport's most notable architectural feature.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: The airport was originally named "Lyon Satolas Airport", after the nearby eponymous village, but in 2000 the airport and train station were renamed in honour of Lyonnais aviation pioneer and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, on the centenary of his birth. He was a native of Lyon, and a laureate of the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française, and died in World War II.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: In 2013, the airport served 8,562,298 passengers, an increase of 1.3% over the previous year. Air freight increased by 22.7% to 44,820 tonnes, although overall aircraft movements dropped by 2.8% to 113,420.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: The airport consists of passenger terminals "1" and "2" which are interconnected on the landside by a central building that itself has a foot-bridge to the nearby Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry high-speed railway station and the Rhônexpress terminus. The airport also features two runways as well as cargo facilities. A total of 16,000 car spaces in four car parks (P2-P5) are available. Two of the parks are underground (P2 and P3) while the long-stay parks (P4 and P5) are located at a distance from the terminals behind the railway station.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: Terminal 1 consists of two parts: The older one is a two-storey, slightly curved brick shape building contains the check-in areas 11, 12, 14, 18 and 19 as well as departure areas G and F on the upper level with the arrivals on the ground level. In 2014, Aéroports de Lyon started the construction of a new terminal expansion, which doubled the capacity and the area, with 70,000 m. Four groups took part in the tender process to design and develop the expanded Terminal 1. The bid was won by the GFC Construction company in partnership with Quille Construction (Bouygues) and Bouygues Energies & Services. The architectural practice was Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners led by Graham Stirk, Chabanne and Partners, engineers Technip TPS and Cap Ingélec, and Inddigo. The expanded Terminal 1 opened in June 2018. It has a circular shape with check-in area 10 and additional arrivals facilities on the ground level and departure gates B and C on both upper levels. It is also connected by a tunnel to a small satellite building containing the D gates, now mainly used by easyJet and Transavia France, while the other areas serve Star Alliance carriers and Emirates, among others.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: Terminal 2 is a duplicate of the older part of Terminal 1, containing check-in areas 20 and 21 with boarding areas Q and P on the upper and arrivals facilities on the lower level. This terminal area is mainly used by Air France.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: The former Terminal 3 was a very basic facility used by low-cost carriers. It was demolished during Terminal 1 expansion. The satellite building is still open, however; it now houses the ‘D’ gates for low cost airlines such as easyJet.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: The Rhônexpress tramway began operations in August 2010 and links Gare de Lyon-Part-Dieu east of Lyon's city centre with Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry next to the airport in approximately 30 minutes using and sharing existing tracks of the Lyon tramway as well as a newly constructed route. This tramway replaced the former coach shuttle services (Satobus) that operated beforehand leaving the airport with no other public connections to the city centre.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: Coach links connect the airport with the centre of other towns in the area including Grenoble (at least once an hour), Saint-Étienne and Chambéry. Bus operators also offer a coach shuttle service to the surrounding French ski resorts, including Tignes, Val d'Isere, Val Thorens and more.


title: Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport

text: - The bus 47, from Meyzieu, connecting with Tram line 3 (from Gare Part-Dieu) to Saint-Laurent-de-Mure, connecting with Bus line 1E (from Grange Blanche) via the airport. The line operates 7 days a week, from 5:30am to 11:45pm, every 30 minutes.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: The timeline of the Casey Anthony case chronicles the events surrounding the death of Caylee Marie Anthony and the trial of her mother, Casey Anthony.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 9, 2008 – Casey Anthony and her daughter, Caylee, move out of Casey's parents' - Cindy and George Anthony - home, and in with her ex-boyfriend, Ricardo Morales, and friend, Amy Huizenga.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 15, 2008 – Caylee is videotaped visiting an assisted living facility with grandmother Cindy Anthony that morning, who is visiting her father. Cindy swims with Caylee in the Anthonys' pool later that day, afterwards removing the ladder and closing the gate.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 16, 2008 – Caylee is last seen alive at the Anthony family residence. According to the defense, Caylee drowned in the family's above-ground swimming pool sometime during this day and both Casey and George Anthony panicked upon finding the body and covered up her death. The timeline of that day follows:


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 17, 2008 – George and Cindy Anthony notice that the gate to the swimming pool is open and the ladder is next to the pool.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 18 or 19, 2008 – At 1:30 p.m. Casey Anthony approached neighbor Brian Burner and asked if she could borrow a shovel, she needed to dig up a bamboo root she had been tripping over. Gave shovel, she took it in garage, where her car was backed in, he took shower, and Casey Anthony returned shovel around 2:30.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 20, 2008 – Casey Anthony is captured in various photos partying at the Fusion nightclub and participating in a "hot body contest".


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 23, 2008 – Anthony Lazzaro testified that he helped Casey break into the shed at her parents' home to take gas cans for Casey's car, which had run out of gas. Lazarro said he watched Casey open the trunk of her car. Although he did not see the inside of the trunk, he said there was no odor that he could detect.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 24, 2008 – George Anthony called police to report the break-in and report the gas cans missing. Later this day, he saw Casey at the Anthony residence and confronted her about taking them. George said that when he went to get them out of his daughter's car, she ran past him, quickly opened the trunk and retrieved the gas cans herself, yelling, "Here's your fucking gas cans!" George testified that he smelled gasoline in the car, but did not detect any other odors.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 30, 2008 – Casey's car is towed from a parking lot after being there for several days; her purse and a child's car seat are found in the car's back seat.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 2, 2008 – Casey gets a tattoo on her back saying "Bella Vita" which means "beautiful life" in Italian.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 15, 2008 – George and Cindy Anthony pick up Casey's car from the impound yard. George Anthony observes a strong odor emanating from the vehicle. An inspection of the car trunk reveals a plastic bag containing trash. Distressed because Casey has not brought Caylee home in a month, Cindy tracks down and meets with Amy Huizenga who takes Cindy to the apartment where Casey is staying and makes Casey come home. Casey tells her parents that she hasn't seen Caylee in a month and that a babysitter named Zenaida Fernandez Gonzalez ("Zanny") may have kidnapped her. Cindy Anthony immediately calls 911 and reports her granddaughter Caylee missing.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 16, 2008 – Police investigators discover Casey Anthony has been lying about her place of employment and where she says her nanny lives. As a result, Casey is arrested and charged with child neglect, making false official statements, and obstructing an investigation.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 17, 2008 – Casey appears in court, during which time the judge denies bail, saying she showed a "woeful disregard for the welfare of her child." The policemen from the Sheriff's Office search Casey's car and takes several items of evidence.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 18, 2008 – Casey Anthony hires Jose Baez as her legal attorney, who writes a letter to Orange County Sheriff's Office about Casey's willingness to cooperate with law enforcement.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 22, 2008 – Because of police testimony about allegedly incriminating evidence from the car, Circuit Court Judge Stan Strickland sets Casey Anthony's bail at $500,000.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 29, 2008 – Judge denies defense motion to ban the release to the media all jailhouse recordings, 911 tapes and visitor logs. Florida public records law mandates record requests by media be honored promptly. Over the next three years thousands of pages of audio, video, forensic information and legal documents detailing the criminal investigations will be released.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 5, 2008 – The State Attorney's Office files formal charges against Casey Anthony for one felony count of child neglect.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 8, 2008 – WFTV reports that investigators suspect Caylee may have drowned in the family swimming pool on June 16.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 11, 12, 13 – Meter reader Roy Kronk reports suspicious bag to police. A police officer meets Kronk at the scene and Kronk tells him he had seen a skull and bones in a bag. However, the officer was rude and conducted only a cursory search.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 21, 2008 – After bail bondsman Leonard Padilla pays Casey Anthony's $500,000 bail she is fitted with an electronic monitoring device and released.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 29, 2008 – Casey Anthony is arrested again on charges of writing four checks worth nearly $650 on Amy Huizenga's checking account without permission. Orange County police said the charges are "unrelated to the investigation." Prosecutors offer Casey a limited immunity deal related to "the false statements given to law enforcement about locating her child." She refuses it soon after. (The offer is renewed on August 25 and again refused.)


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 5, 2008 – Casey Anthony's parents post a $500,000 bond and she is released from county jail into their custody after being fitted with an electronic tracking device.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 6, 2008 – Deputies seize a handgun from the trunk of George Anthony's car because having a gun on the property violates Casey's bail. George says he planned to use it to force Casey's friends to tell him what happened to Caylee.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 10, 2008 – The whole family allegedly refuses to take a lie detector test offered by both the FBI and local authorities.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 15–16, 2008 – Casey Anthony turns herself in on new check fraud charges, fraudulent use of identification, and petty theft. She is released the next day on $1,250 bond, and again fitted with an electronic tracking device.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 25, 2008 – Zenaida Fernandez-Gonzalez, the woman Casey Anthony reportedly named as an alleged baby sitter and suspect in the case, files a defamation lawsuit against her.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: October 14, 2008 – Casey Anthony is indicted by a grand jury on charges of first degree murder, aggravated child abuse, aggravated manslaughter of a child, and four counts of providing false information to police. She is arrested later that day. Judge John Jordan orders that she be held without bond. Because it is a capital crime, Casey Anthony faces possible death penalty.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: October 21, 2008 – Charges of child neglect are dropped against Casey Anthony on assumption the child is dead. On October 28 Casey Anthony is arraigned and pleads not guilty to all charges.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: November 8–9, 2008 – Texas EquuSearch leads hundreds of volunteers in a search of a grid for Caylee, but when nothing is found they suspend their search.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: November 15, 2008 – The Anthony family's private investigator, Dominic Casey, searches the area where Caylee's remains later are found. The search is videotaped. The family's attorney denies asking Dominic Casey to search there. The defense questioned who sent him to the area; he said that a psychic gave him the tip. According to the prosecution, the area was under several inches of water at the time.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: December 5, 2008 – The state initially says it will not seek the death penalty against Casey Anthony.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: December 11, 2008 – After yet a fourth tip from Roy Kronk, skeletal remains of what appeared to be a small child are found one-quarter mile from the Anthony home. Orange County Sheriff's Office obtains warrant and searches Anthony residence.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: January 23, 2009 – Police discover George Anthony, who had been text messaging family members, despondent and possibly under the influence of alcohol and medication in a hotel room. Police also discovered a lengthy suicide note.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: January 29, 2009 – Judge Stan Strickland orders Casey Anthony to appear at all court hearings in her case.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: April 14, 2009 – The State of Florida reverses self and will seek the imposition of the death penalty.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 17, 2009 – Casey Anthony's defense team files a motion to dismiss the murder charges against her because the state allegedly failed to preserve evidence in the case. The motion is denied.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: November 24, 2009 – Defense attorneys accuse Texas EquuSearch's Tim Miller of lying to the court in their claim that only 32 people searched in the area where Caylee's remains were eventually found and that the number was much higher.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: December 18, 2009 – Judge Stan Strickland denies a request to take the death penalty off the table in the prosecution of Casey Anthony.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: January 26, 2010 – Casey pleads guilty for 13 fraudulent check charges, takes responsibility for her actions, and makes full restitution. The judge sentences her to time served.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: April 19, 2010 – Judge Stan Strickland steps down after Casey Anthony's defense team files a motion accusing him of having inappropriate conversations with a writer, Dave Knechel, who blogged about the case. Strickland granted the motion because the accusation would "generate renewed allegations of bias". Judge Belvin Perry, Jr. is appointed to take over the case.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 14, 2010 – Cindy Anthony appears as a guest on the "Today" Show where she calls Casey a victim, and also claims she's not involved with what happened to Caylee's remains.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 16, 2010 – George and Cindy Anthony's attorney, Brad Conway, steps down because he disputes a Jose Baez motion claiming Conway was given unrestricted access to documents belonging to Texas EquuSearch to which he was not given the same access.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: January 4, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry postpones ruling on over two dozen defense motions to exclude evidence from the trial. Over the next several months Perry rules for or against these various motions to exclude evidence. He admonishes, and later financially sanctions, defense attorney Jose Baez for failing to turn over expert witness discovery information to prosecutors before a certain deadline.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: April 1, 2011 – After numerous outbursts by lawyers in court over what is and is not scientific evidence, Judge Perry ruled more such behavior would result in a fine of $100 per outburst, with the proceeds to go to the United Way.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 20, 2011 – After eleven days of jury selection, Judge Perry swears in a jury of five men and seven women, plus three men and two women as alternate jurors.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 24, 2011 – Trial begins in Orlando, Florida. The prosecution states Casey Anthony used duct tape to suffocate Caylee Anthony. The defense contends the child actually drowned in her grandparents' swimming pool, that Casey's father George Anthony warned Casey she would be imprisoned for life for child neglect and then covered up the death; thus she failed to report the incident for 31 days. Also, because George Anthony had sexually molested Casey as a child she had a habit of hiding her pain and lying. Baez admits Casey had fabricated the story of the nanny named Zenaida Fernandez-Gonzales. Baez also questions whether Roy Kronk, who found the remains, actually removed them from elsewhere and questioned police motivations for pursuing a murder investigation. Prosecutors call George Anthony as their first witness and he denies to them having ever sexually abused his daughter Casey or covering up the death of Caylee.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 25, 2011 – The prosecution calls various friends of Casey Anthony who testify about her fabricated stories during June and July 2008 of having a job and employing a nanny for Caylee. A neighbor testifies that in mid-June 2008 Casey and a boyfriend borrowed a shovel from him to dig up a bamboo root.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 26, 2011 – Former boyfriend testifies Casey told him her brother, Lee Anthony, sexually groped her. George Anthony is called back to the witness stand where he says that he did not smell decomposition in Casey's car on June 24, 2008 and states he put duct tape over a hole in one of the plastic gas cans she had returned to him.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 27, 2011 – A tow truck company manager and George Anthony testify that from their experience the smell from Casey's car resembled human decomposition. During cross-examination, George Anthony tells Jose Baez that he did not sexually abuse Casey.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 28, 2011 – Former boyfriend testifies about Casey's normal behavior on June 16, 2008. Cindy Anthony testifies that they swam that day and that Caylee could get up the ladder into the pool. She also believed Casey worked at Universal Studios Orlando Resort and had a babysitter named Zanny.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: May 31, 2011 – Cindy Anthony says her description of Casey's car smelling "like someone died" was just a "figure of speech." She tried to get rid of the smell by spraying Febreze household odor eliminator. She says she found the pool ladder in the pool the evening of June 16. Casey's friend Amy Huizenga talks of Casey's frustration about getting help with Caylee and reveals that on June 27, Casey texted her about a dead animal on the frame of the car.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 1, 2011 – The first officers to arrive at the Anthony home on July 16, 2008 testify that they did not smell human decomposition in Casey's car and admit they did not search the other two family cars. They also testify about Casey going to Universal Orlando Resort with Casey that day, where she confessed she no longer worked there and did not have a nanny named Zenaida Fernandez-Gonzalez.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 2, 2011 – Video tapes are shown of Casey lying to her parents in jail and denying to an officer on July 16, 2008 that Caylee had drowned in the pool, as he suggested.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 3, 2011 – Investigators describe evidence collection from Casey's car and obtaining from the towing yard the plastic garbage bag that had been in it. One investigator states he smelled human decomposition.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 4, 2011 – An FBI forensic scientist testifies the single hair removed from the car trunk was similar to a hair from Caylee's hair brush and had "root-banding" consistent with that from a decomposing body.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 6, 2011 – Dr. Arpad Vass of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory describes using a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer to find signs of human decomposition and a high level of chloroform in the trunk of Casey's car. The defense challenges Vass' financial motivation and the chain of evidence.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 7, 2011 – FBI forensic chemist confirms chloroform residue in trunk of Casey's car, but also states that household cleaning products leave traces of chloroform. A dog handler describes dog alerting to human decomposition in the trunk, as well as Caylee's playhouse.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 8, 2011 – Second dog handler says his dog smelled decomposition in back yard. Computer analysts confirm a search for "chloroform" on Casey's computer March 17, 2008 and "how to make chloroform" on March 21, 2008.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 9, 2011 – Software analyst John Bradley states someone used the Anthony computer to search the website Sci-spot.com for "chloroform" 84 times on March 21, 2008. During cross-examination, he admits that automatic page reloading could account for that number and there was no way of knowing who performed the searches. Investigators show photographs of the remains, including of duct tape that appears to be over the mouth area. One admits that duct tape might not originally have been on the mouth and could have shifted position as he collected remains. Casey Anthony becomes ill looking at the photographs and the jury is dismissed for the day.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 10, 2011 – Medical examiner states that the death is ruled a homicide because of the delay in reporting the disappearance, the fact the body was hidden, and the existence of duct tape, but states under cross-examination she did not know how the child died. Crime scene investigators describe similar maggots found in the car trunk and at the crime scene.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 11, 2011 – An expert in forensic entomology states he found flies related to decomposition in the trunk of Casey's car. Orange County, Florida crime scene investigators identify a piece of Henkel brand duct tape found at the scene and testify it is the same brand as George Anthony put on the red gas can. One states that no Henkel brand tape was found elsewhere in the Anthonys' home.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 13, 2011 – FBI examiner states a hair from the child's skull is consistent with but not identical to the single hair found in the trunk. FBI agent could not find any fingerprints on duct tape found near the remains but initially did find adhesive in the shape of a heart on a corner of a piece of duct tape; later she could not find it again.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 14, 2011 – FBI quality assurance specialist says the hair found in trunk could have come from any member of the Anthony family. A crime scene investigator says heart shaped stickers were found in Casey's room but did not link them to the one alleged to be on the duct tape. Testimony about and photo of Casey's "Bella Vita" tattoo made on July 2, 2008.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 15, 2011 – Prosecution rests its case. Defense makes a motion to acquit based on insufficient evidence a murder was committed, which the judge denies based on previous case rulings.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 16, 2011 – Defense begins its case, often recalling state witnesses for further testimony. Crime scene investigator says no blood was found in Casey's car or incriminating stains on her clothes. FBI analyst states no DNA evidence was found in the car or at the crime scene. She states FBI did a paternity test that showed Lee Anthony was not Caylee's father. Crime scene investigator and forensics supervisor state a heart-shaped sticker was found far from the body. An FBI forensic document examiner found no evidence of a heart shaped sticker on the duct tape found near the remains.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 17, 2011 – Forensic entomologist called by the defense states if there was a body in the trunk, there should have been hundreds or even thousands of blow flies trapped in the trunk as well.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 18, 2011 – Defense calls a new witness, Dr. Werner Spitz, who questions the medical examiner's autopsy, including the failure to open the skull, and says there was no indication the death was a homicide. He believes the duct tape was placed on the skull after decomposition and that the crime scene photos of the position of the hair on the skull were staged, possibly by the medical examiner.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 21, 2011 – A defense-called forensic botanist challenges the prosecution's theory of when the body was placed at the crime scene. An expert in analytical chemistry who works with Dr. Vass challenges the process of testing for the presence of chloroform.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 22, 2011 – An FBI forensic examiner says no dirt from the crime scene was found on shoes at the Anthony home or a neighbor's borrowed shovel. FBI forensic toxicologist found no toxins in the hair from Caylee Anthony's skull. A scientist who worked with Dr. Vass who testifies tests did not conclusively prove there was a body in the trunk. The FBI's forensic chemist examiner could not find traces of chloroform in the car. The FBI forensics expert found no hair in the trunk liner showing signs of decomposition. She also testified the duct tape at the crime scene was dissimilar to that in the Anthony home.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 23, 2011 – An FBI hair and fiber expert says only one hair from the car trunk had a sign of decomposition. There is a long debate among prosecutors and defense over the reliability of "root banding." An expert in forensic toxicology testifies Dr. Vass's test "lacked organization and planning" and had "minimal standards of quality control." He also mentions that chloroform is a byproduct of chlorinated swimming pool water.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 24, 2011 – Cindy Anthony is recalled to the stand where the defense shows her a photograph of Caylee on the pool ladder and she again mentions the ladder was in the pool on June 16 when she returned home from work that evening, adding that she called George to ask about it since she took out the ladder from the pool on the previous day after swimming there with Caylee. The defense also showed the jury a picture of Caylee appearing to open a sliding-glass door at her home. Cindy says Caylee was capable of opening the sliding door to the back yard and the pool.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: Lee Anthony states he was not told Casey was pregnant until days before Caylee's birth. Search volunteer testifies about duct tape being used at search headquarters.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 25, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry, Jr. temporarily halts proceedings after defense motion to determine if Anthony was competent to proceed with trial, based on a privileged communication from Casey Anthony.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 27, 2011 – Casey Anthony is found competent to continue after psychological evaluation. June 27 also is the date the prosecution states it discussed with defense attorney Jose Baez software analyst John Bradley's post-testimony admission to prosecutors that there was only one search for chloroform, not 84. In testimony, the lead detective admits cadaver dogs had not searched inside the Anthonys' home, or in two other Anthony cars. A professor of chemistry called by the defense says there is no scientifically valid instrument that can identify decomposition, that there is no consensus on what chemicals are typical of human decomposition and that chemical compounds identified by Dr. Vass in air samples can be found in household products and garbage. Three witnesses discuss the November 2008 videotaped search by Anthony family private investigators in the woods where Caylee's body later was found.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 28, 2011 – A Texas EquuSearch team letter discusses their November search for Caylee of the site where the body later was found. George Anthony denies he had an affair with Krystal Holloway, borrowed money from her, or told her Caylee's death was "an accident that snowballed out of control." He admits going to her home and sending her a text message. He testifies he bought a gun to threaten Casey's friends into telling him where Caylee was, even though he knew having one violated Casey's bail. Cindy Anthony denies she sent private investigators to search the site where Caylee's body later was found; her son Lee Anthony and the case's lead detective then testify she did so, after talking to a psychic. Roy Kronk testifies about his calls to police and finding the body. He denies he told his son finding the body would make him rich and famous, but admits he did receive $5,000 after Caylee's remains were identified. Judge Perry does not allow jury to hear Casey's ex-fiancée say that Casey told him Lee had once tried to grope her while she was sleeping.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 29, 2011 – Cindy Anthony says Casey's response to the media theory that Caylee drowned was "Surprise. Surprise." Baez asks George Anthony about his suicide attempt in January 2009 and the next day the judge allows the jury to see the suicide note. Roy Kronk's son states that Kronk did say that finding Caylee Anthony would make him rich and famous. Kronk testifies about why he changed his story about lifting the skull. An expert on grief and trauma testifies that pretending nothing had happened and partying was one of many different ways people, especially young people, express grief.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 30, 2011 – Casey Anthony tells Judge Perry she does not want to testify. Perry will not allow the jury to sniff air samples from the car trunk. Defense calls search volunteer Krystal Holloway who states that she had an affair with George Anthony. She states that George Anthony told her that Caylee's death was "an accident that snowballed out of control." Under cross-examination, she also agreed with her earlier statement to police in which she said George Anthony did not say he knew it was an accident. After Holloway steps down, Judge Perry tells jurors that her testimony could be used to impeach George Anthony's credibility, but that is not the proof of how Caylee died. George, Cindy and Lee Anthony all testify that their pets had been buried in the back yard. Cindy calls it a "tradition" to wrap them in blankets and a plastic bag; duct tape was used to keep the plastic bags from opening. After this final witness, the defense rests. The prosecutor rebuttal begins with showing the jury photographs of Caylee's clothes and George's suicide note.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 1, 2011 – The prosecution continues rebuttal with two representatives of Cindy Anthony's former employer explaining why their computer login system shows Cindy was at work the afternoon she said she went home early and searched her computer for information about chloroform. A police computer analyst says someone had purposely searched online for "neck + breaking." Another analyst testifies she did not find evidence that Cindy Anthony had searched certain terms she claimed to have searched. An anthropology professor is recalled to rebut a defense witness on the need to open a skull during an autopsy. The lead detective states that there were no phone calls between Cindy and George Anthony during the week of June 16, 2008, but admits he did not know that George had a second cell phone.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 3, 2011 – Judge Perry rules that during closing arguments the defense could argue there was a drowning involved in the death of Caylee because there was sufficient evidence of that, but could not argue George had sexually abused Casey. Prosecution does an hour and a half of closing arguments, offering a timeline of events and asserting that Casey intentionally suffocated Caylee to death by putting three pieces of duct tape place over her face. The alleged motive was that the child interfered with her partying lifestyle and spending time with her boyfriend. The prosecution states the defense' story that Caylee drowned and George encouraged Casey to cover up the accident made no sense. The defense counters with four hours of arguments insisting there was no proof of how Caylee died, challenging the prosecutors' most important evidence as "fantasy," and emphasizing the reasonable doubt that Casey killed Caylee. It again insists that after the child drowned, Casey panicked and George Anthony made the death look like a murder and that he was the one who put the body in the nearby woods.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 4, 2011 – Prosecutors Jeff Ashton and Linda Drane Burdick present a rebuttal to the defense closing, telling jurors their forensic evidence had proved their case, while the defense made claims they did not prove. The case then goes to the jury. Judge Belvin Perry, Jr. issues final instructions to the jury.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 5, 2011 – After about ten hours of deliberation, the jury acquits Casey Anthony of all felony charges (i.e., of first-degree murder, aggravated manslaughter, and aggravated child abuse), but convicts her of all four misdemeanor charges of giving false information to a law enforcement officer.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 7, 2011 – Judge Perry sentences Casey Anthony to one year in county jail and $1,000 in fines for each of the four misdemeanor counts of providing false information to a law enforcement officer. The judge orders all sentences to run consecutive to each other, with credit for time served. Based on three years credit for time served plus additional credit for good behavior, her release date is set for July 17, 2011. Judge Perry announces he will not release the juror's names for seven days saying some people "disagree with their verdict" and "would like to take something out on them."


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 13, 2011 – Texas EquuSearch, which assisted in the search for Caylee, sues Casey Anthony for the costs of the search.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 15, 2011 – Casey Anthony appeals convictions of providing false information to a law enforcement officer.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 19, 2011 – Prosecutors write a letter responding to a New York Times article about alleged withholding of exculpatory evidence about the chloroform searches and says they were about to give the jury a Notice of Supplemental Discovery but did not do so because jurors had reached a verdict.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: July 26, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry, Jr. rules juror names will remain secret until October 2011, citing public "outrage and distress" over the not guilty verdict. He also appeals to Florida legislators to bar the release of juror's names in some cases "in order to protect the safety and well-being of those citizens willing to serve."


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 1, 2011 – Orange County, Florida Circuit Judge Stan Strickland signs amended court documents that order Casey Anthony to return to Orlando within 72 hours to serve one year of supervised probation for the check fraud charge that Anthony pleaded guilty to in January 2010. Jose Baez accuses Strickland of bias in the ruling. Strickland recuses himself from the case.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 5, 2011 – Baez obtains an emergency hearing with Judge Perry arguing Anthony already had served her probation and that Strickland no longer had jurisdiction over her. Perry postpones a decision calling the situation "a maze."


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 10, 2011 – The Florida Department of Children and Families releases report concluding that Casey Anthony failed to protect Caylee, and that Casey's actions or lack of actions resulted in the death of the child. The finding has little legal relevance.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 12, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry upholds Judge Strickland's order, ruling that Casey Anthony must return to Orlando to serve one year's probation for check fraud, reporting no later than noon on August 26. The judge declares that her residential information during the probation period may be kept confidential because of threats made against her life.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: August 23, 2011 – After defense attorneys file motion to appeal Judge Perry's probation ruling, the Florida Fifth District Court of Appeals upholds it. Casey Anthony reports for probation at a secret location on August 24.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 15, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry rules Casey Anthony must pay $97,000 of the $517,000 the state of Florida wanted her to pay for investigative and prosecution costs to the state under a provision of Florida sentencing law. He ruled she only had to pay those costs directly related to lying to law enforcement about the death of Caylee, i.e., search costs up to September 30, 2008, when the Sheriff's Office stopped investigating a missing-child case. In earlier arguments Attorney Cheney Mason had called the prosecutors' attempts to exact the larger sum "sour grapes" because the prosecution lost its case. He told reporters that Anthony is indigent.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: September 23, 2011 – Judge Belvin Perry rules Casey Anthony must pay an additional $119,000 for the recalculated costs of the sheriff's search for Caylee Anthony, for a total of $217,000.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: October 8, 2011 – Casey Anthony answers a few questions and takes the Fifth Amendment repeatedly in a video deposition regarding the Zenaida Fernandez-Gonzales lawsuit.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: June 11, 2012 – Casey motions for a new trial to have convictions of counts of lying to police overturned.


title: Timeline of the Casey Anthony case

text: November 20, 2012 – WKMG-TV television in Orlando reported that police never investigated Firefox browser information on Casey Anthony's computer the day of Caylee's death; they only looked at Internet Explorer evidence. The station learned about this information from Casey Anthony's attorney Jose Baez who mentioned it in his book on the case.


title: Diep.io

text: Diep.io is a multiplayer action game available for web browsers, Android, and iOS, created by Brazilian developer Matheus Valadares. Players control tanks and earn points by destroying shapes and killing other players in a 2D arena. The mobile version of the game was released in 2016 by Miniclip. In 2021, it was acquired by the gaming website Addicting Games.


title: Diep.io

text: In "Diep.io", the main objective for the player is to earn points by destroying different polygon objects and killing other players by firing bullets with their tank. By earning points, the tank levels up. Leveling up allows the player to invest a skill point into tank characteristics such as movement speed and bullet damage, allowing players to get an advantage over other players. Players can also upgrade their tank to more powerful classes every 15 levels up until level 45, giving them abilities other tanks may not have. "Diep.io" features various maps for different game modes, featuring team mechanics such as Free-For-All, Domination, and Tag. The player cannot level up higher than level 45, and players cannot change their tank after selecting their level 45 tank, unless the player is playing the Sandbox gamemode.


title: Diep.io

text: "Diep.io" is often praised for its diverse gameplay through its different game modes and tank upgrades.


title: Diep.io

text: Maddy Cohen of "Screen Rant" ranked "Diep.io" as the best video game using the .io domain, stating that the game is "truly the creme de la creme of .io games," and that it can keep players online for hours. Cohen complimented the game's diverse gameplay offered by its different game modes and tank customization. Anthony Coyle of "Gazette Review" listed "Diep.io" as one of the top five games similar to "Slither.io", a 2016 massively multiplayer online game. John Corpuz of "Tom's Guide" listed "Diep.io" as the third best ".io" game, behind "Slither.io" and "Agar.io", praising its "reasonably involved upgrade system", "good replay value", and "reasonable depth." Arjun Sha of "Beebom" ranked "Diep.io" as one of the twelve best alternative games to Agar.io, praising the game's teaming features and recommending the game for readers. Disha of "Player.One" described "Diep.io" as "very simple, yet extremely addictive," stating that the game's success is not a coincidence.


title: Diep.io

text: "Agar.io", "Slither.io", and "Diep.io" are popular ".io games," and have been mentioned together by John Corpuz of "Tom's Guide" and Disha of "Player.One".


title: Diep.io

text: The ability to upgrade tanks as well as stats allows many different game strategies and playing styles.


title: Diep.io

text: There have been remakes such as arras.io and scenexe.io, which try to introduce a new take to the game.


title: Turgor pressure

text: It is also called "hydrostatic pressure", and is defined as the pressure in a fluid measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria. The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls. This system is not seen in animal cells, as the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a volume with a low solute concentration to one with a higher solute concentration is called osmotic flow. In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell into the cell's vacuole.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Osmosis is the process in which water flows from a volume with a low solute concentration (osmolarity), to an adjacent region with a higher solute concentration until equilibrium between the two areas is reached. It is usually accompanied by a favorable increase in the entropy of the solvent. All cells are surrounded by a lipid bi-layer cell membrane which permits the flow of water into and out of the cell while limiting the flow of solutes. When the cell is in a hypertonic solution, water flows out of the cell, which decreases the cell's volume. When in a hypotonic solution, water flows into the membrane and increases the cell's volume, while in an isotonic solution, water flows in and out of the cell at an equal rate.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgidity is the point at which the cell's membrane pushes against the cell wall, which is when turgor pressure is high. When the cell has low turgor pressure, it is flaccid. In plants, this is shown as wilted anatomical structures. This is more specifically known as plasmolysis.The volume and geometry of the cell affects the value of turgor pressure and how it can affect the cell wall's plasticity. Studies have shown that smaller cells experience a stronger elastic change when compared to larger cells.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgor pressure also plays a key role in plant cell growth when the cell wall undergoes irreversible expansion due to the force of turgor pressure as well as structural changes in the cell wall that alter its extensibility.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgor pressure within cells is regulated by osmosis and this also causes the cell wall to expand during growth. Along with size, rigidity of the cell is also caused by turgor pressure; a lower pressure results in a wilted cell or plant structure (i.e. leaf, stalk). One mechanism in plants that regulate turgor pressure is the cell's semipermeable membrane, which only allows some solutes to travel in and out of the cell, which can maintain a minimum amount of pressure. Other mechanisms include transpiration, which results in water loss and decreases turgidity in cells. Turgor pressure is also a large factor for nutrient transport throughout the plant. Cells of the same organism can have differing turgor pressures throughout the organism's structure. In higher plants, turgor pressure is responsible for apical growth of features such as root tips and pollen tubes.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Transport proteins that pump solutes into the cell can be regulated by cell turgor pressure. Lower values allow for an increase in the pumping of solutes, which in turn increases osmotic pressure. This function is important as a plant response under drought conditions (seeing as turgor pressure is maintained), and for cells which need to accumulate solutes (i.e. developing fruits).


title: Turgor pressure

text: It has been recorded that the petals of "Gentiana kochiana" and "Kalanchoe blossfeldiana" bloom via volatile turgor pressure of cells on the plant's adaxial surface. During processes like anther dehiscence, it has been observed that drying endothecium cells cause an outward bending force which leads to the release of pollen. This means that lower turgor pressures are observed in these structures due to the fact that they are dehydrated. Pollen tubes are cells which elongate when pollen lands on the stigma, at the carpal tip. These cells undergo tip growth rather quickly due to increases in turgor pressure. The pollen tube of lilies can have a turgor pressure of 0–21 MPa when growing during this process.


title: Turgor pressure

text: In fruits such as "Impatiens parviflora", "Oxalia acetosella" and "Ecballium elaterium", turgor pressure is the method by which seeds are dispersed. In "Ecballium elaterium", or squirting cucumber, turgor pressure builds up in the fruit to the point that aggressively detaches from the stalk, and seeds and water are squirted everywhere as the fruit falls to the ground. Turgor pressure within the fruit ranges from .003 to 1.0 MPa.


title: Turgor pressure

text: The action of turgor pressure on extensible cell walls is usually said to be the driving force of growth within the cell. An increase of turgor pressure causes expansion of cells and extension of apical cells, pollen tubes, and other plant structures such as root tips. Cell expansion and an increase in turgor pressure is due to inward diffusion of water into the cell, and turgor pressure increases due to the increasing volume of vacuolar sap. A growing root cell's turgor pressure can be up to 0.6 MPa, which is over three times that of a car tire. Epidermal cells in a leaf can have pressures ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 MPa. These high pressures can explain why plants can grow through asphalt and other hard surfaces.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgidity is observed in a cell where the cell membrane is pushed against the cell wall. In some plants, cell walls loosen at a faster rate than water can cross the membrane, which results in cells with lower turgor pressure.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgor pressure within the stomata regulates when the stomata can open and close, which plays a role in transpiration rates of the plant. This is also important because this function regulates water loss within the plant. Lower turgor pressure can mean that the cell has a low water concentration and closing the stomata would help to preserve water. High turgor pressure keeps the stomata open for gas exchanges necessary for photosynthesis.


title: Turgor pressure

text: It has been concluded that loss of turgor pressure within the leaves of "Mimosa pudica" is responsible for the plant's reaction when touched. Other factors such as changes in osmotic pressure, protoplasmic contraction and increase in cellular permeability have been observed to affect this response. It has also been recorded that turgor pressure is different in the upper and lower pulvinar cells of the plant, and the movement of potassium and calcium ions throughout the cells cause the increase in turgor pressure. When touched, the pulvinus is activated and exudes contractile proteins, which in turn increases turgor pressure and closes the leaves of the plant.


title: Turgor pressure

text: As earlier stated, turgor pressure can be found in other organisms besides plants and can play a large role in the development, movement, and nature of said organisms.


title: Turgor pressure

text: In fungi, turgor pressure has been observed as a large factor in substrate penetration. In species such as "Saprolegnia ferax, Magnaporthe grisea" and "Aspergillus oryzae," immense turgor pressures have been observed in their hyphae. The study showed that they could penetrate substances like plant cells, and synthetic materials such as polyvinyl chloride. In observations of this phenomenon, it is noted that invasive hyphal growth is due to turgor pressure, along with the coenzymes secreted by the fungi to invade said substrates. Hyphal growth is directly related to turgor pressure, and growth slows as turgor pressure decreases. In "Magnaporthe grisea", pressures of up to 8 MPa have been observed.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Some protists do not have cell walls and cannot experience turgor pressure. These few protists use their contractile vacuole to regulate the quantity of water within the cell. Protist cells avoid lysing in hypotonic solution by utilizing a vacuole which pumps water out of the cells to maintain osmotic equilibrium.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgor pressure is not observed in animal cells because they lack a cell wall. In organisms with cell walls, the cell wall prevents the cell from being lysed by high turgor pressure.


title: Turgor pressure

text: In diatoms, the Heterokontophyta have polyphyletic turgor-resistant cell walls. Throughout these organisms' life cycle, carefully controlled turgor pressure is responsible for cell expansion and for the release of sperm, but not for processes such as seta growth.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Gas-vaculate cyanobacterium are the ones generally responsible for water-blooms. They have the ability to float due to the accumulation of gases within their vacuole, and the role of turgor pressure and its effect on the capacity of these vacuoles has been reported in varying scientific papers. It is noted that the higher the turgor pressure, the lower the capacity of the gas-vacuoles in different cyanobacteria. Experiments used to correlate osmosis and turgor pressure in prokaryotes have been used to show how diffusion of solutes into the cell affects turgor pressure within the cell.


title: Turgor pressure

text: When measuring turgor pressure in plants, many factors have to be taken into account. It is generally stated that fully turgid cells have a turgor pressure that is equal to that of the cell and that flaccid cells have a value at or near zero. Other cellular mechanisms to be taken into consideration include the protoplast, solutes within the protoplast (solute potential), transpiration rates of the cell and the tension of cell walls. Measurement is limited depending on the method used, some of which are explored and explained below. Not all methods can be used for all organisms, due to size or other properties. For example, a diatom does not have the same properties as a plant, which would place limitations on methods that could be used to infer turgor pressure.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Units used to measure turgor pressure are independent from the measures used to infer its values. Common units include bars, MPa, or newtons per square meter. 1 bar is equal to 0.1 MPa.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Turgor pressure can be deduced when the total water potential, Ψ, and the osmotic potential, Ψ, are known in a water potential equation. These equations are used to measure the total water potential of a plant by using variables such as matric potential, osmotic potential, pressure potential, gravitational effects and turgor pressure. After taking the difference between Ψ and Ψ, the value for turgor pressure is obtained. When using this method, gravity and matric potential are considered to be negligible, since their values are generally either negative or close to zero.


title: Turgor pressure

text: The pressure bomb technique was developed by Scholander et al., reviewed by Tyree and Hammel in their 1972 publication, in order to test water movement through plants. The instrument is used to measure turgor pressure by placing a leaf (with stem attached) into a closed chamber where pressurized gas is added in increments. Measurements are taken when xylem sap appears out of the cut surface and at the point which it doesn't accumulate or retreat back into the cut surface.


title: Turgor pressure

text: Atomic force microscopes use a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM). Small probes are introduced to the area of interest, and a spring within the probe measures values via displacement. This method can be used to measure turgor pressure of organisms. When using this method, supplemental information such as continuum mechanic equations, single force depth curves and cell geometries can be used to quantify turgor pressures within a given area (usually a cell).


title: Turgor pressure

text: This machine was originally used to measure individual algal cells, but can now be used on larger-celled specimens. It is usually used on higher plant tissues but was not used to measure turgor pressure until Hüsken and Zimmerman improved the method. Pressure probes measure turgor pressure via displacement. A glass micro-capillary tube is inserted into the cell and whatever the cell exudes into the tube is observed through a microscope. An attached device then measures how much pressure is required to push the emission back into the cell.


title: Turgor pressure

text: These are used to accurately quantify measurements of smaller cells. In an experiment by Weber, Smith and colleagues, single tomato cells were compressed between a micro-manipulation probe and glass to allow the pressure probe's micro-capillary to find the cell's turgor pressure.


title: Turgor pressure

text: It has been observed that the value of Ψ decreases as the cell becomes more dehydrated, but scientists have speculated whether this value will continue to decrease but never fall to zero, or if the value can be less than zero. There have been studies which show that negative cell pressures can exist in xerophytic plants, but a paper by M. T. Tyree explores whether this is possible, or a conclusion based on misinterpreted data. He concludes that claims of negative turgor pressure values were incorrect and resulted from mis-categorization of "bound" and "free" water in a cell. By analyzing the isotherms of apoplastic and symplastic water, he shows that negative turgor pressures cannot be present within arid plants due to net water loss of the specimen during droughts. Despite this analysis and interpretation of data, negative turgor pressure values are still used within the scientific community.


title: Turgor pressure

text: A hypothesis presented by M. Harold and colleagues suggests that tip growth in higher plants is amoebic in nature, and is not caused by turgor pressure as is widely believed, meaning that extension is caused by the actin cytoskeleton in these plant cells. Regulation of cell growth is implied to be caused by cytoplasmic micro-tubules which control the orientation of cellulose fibrils, which are deposited into the adjacent cell wall and results in growth. In plants, the cells are surrounded by cell walls and filamentous proteins which retain and adjust the plant cell's growth and shape. It is concluded that lower plants grow through apical growth, which differs since the cell wall only expands on one end of the cell.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: "Bad Reputation" is a rock song co-written and recorded by Joan Jett from her debut album of the same name. Though it was initially only released as a single in Germany, it remains one of her signature songs.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: In 2009, it was named the 29th best hard rock song of all time by VH1. It is the highest-ranked song by a woman on the list. In 2021, it was listed at No. 249 on Rolling Stone's "Top 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: A music video was made in 1982 after the huge success of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll". The video, directed by David Mallet, is a re-enactment of 23 record labels rejecting Jett's first solo album and her subsequent rise to the top of the charts with "I Love Rock 'n' Roll". Kenny Laguna, cofounder of Blackheart Records, appears in a cameo as the Warner Bros. executive.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: However, the song can be heard played loudly on a jukebox in a bar at the beginning of the "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" music video.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: "Bad Reputation" was the opening theme to the television series "Freaks and Geeks", in the romantic comedy film "10 Things I Hate About You", and was also used in the opening credits of the "Discovery Channel" series "American Chopper".


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: Ronda Rousey first used the song in 2013 as her entrance music when she was Ultimate Fighting Championship's Women's Bantamweight Champion at the pay-per-view event UFC 157, and continuously used the song as her entrance music throughout her UFC career. In 2018, Rousey made her debut in WWE and would continue to use the song as her entrance music.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: Jett performed the song live at WrestleMania 35 as Rousey entered the ring for her match to defend her WWE Raw Women's Championship in the first ever woman's main event at WrestleMania 35.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: In the 2001 film "Shrek", the song is featured in a fight scene parodying professional wrestling. While the original Jett recording is heard in the film, a cover version by Halfcocked appears on the soundtrack album.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: The song was also featured in "Buried Pleasure" (season 1, episode 13 of "The Cleveland Show") and the 2010 film "Kick-Ass".


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: "Bad Reputation" is a promotional single from Canadian singer Avril Lavigne from the "" soundtrack, released on 11 December 2012. The song was originally featured in a video montage interval during Lavigne's "The Best Damn Tour" in 2008, before appearing as bonus tracks on her fourth and fifth studio albums, "Goodbye Lullaby" (2011) and "Avril Lavigne" (2013). On 17 October 2012, it was announced that Lavigne would be contributing two songs to the "One Piece Film: Z" soundtrack, being "Bad Reputation" and a cover of the 2001 Nickelback song "How You Remind Me". An exclusive promotional CD single was released in Japan on 12 December 2012.


title: Bad Reputation (Joan Jett song)

text: "Bad Reputation" charted moderately upon release, ultimately peaking at number eight on the "Billboard" Japan Hot 100.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Nicholas Fredrick Riewoldt ( ; born 17 October 1982) is a former Australian rules footballer who played for the St Kilda Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). He was the first draft selection in the 2000 AFL draft. He was the captain of St Kilda in 2005 and from 2007 to 2016. Riewoldt holds the all-time record for most marks in VFL/AFL history, surpassing Gary Dempsey in late 2017.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Born in Hobart, Tasmania to father Joerg ("Joe") (former Clarence Football Club player) and mother Fiona, Riewoldt and his family moved to the Gold Coast, Queensland, when he was 9 years old. He attended Robina State Primary School from Grade 5 and became the school's vice captain and UNICEF representative. He later switched to All Saints Anglican School during his high school years. Australian rules football was not offered in many Queensland schools at the time but he made a name for himself as an overall sportsman, participating in the school's athletics, cross country, cricket, soccer and touch football teams at a high level. Academically, he also excelled in the studies of physics and chemistry.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt played his junior and early senior football at the Broadbeach Cats before moving to the Southport Sharks where he was identified as an outstanding junior talent. He played a big part in Southport's historic fourth consecutive QAFL premiership in 2000. After being kept virtually touchless for the first half, he was moved into the ruck and kicked two important goals in the 11-point grand final victory.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Growing up, Riewoldt supported the Hawthorn Football Club. He is the first cousin of footballer Jack Riewoldt, who also plays as a forward.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt was the No. 1 Draft Pick in the 2000 AFL Draft and made his debut in 2001. He won the AFL Rising Star Award in 2002, earning his nomination in round 5 for his efforts in a drawn match against .


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: His breakout season was 2004 when he took an AFL record 256 marks and also finished in the top ten for both the Coleman and Brownlow medals. He received the AFL Players Association Most Valuable Player Award, the Leigh Matthews Trophy and was selected in the 2004 All-Australian Team for the first time.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt was rewarded for his 2004 efforts when St Kilda named him club captain for 2005 as part of their rotating captaincy policy. His 2005 season began badly as he broke his collarbone in the third quarter of the first game of the season against the Brisbane Lions. This drew controversy as he was then bumped after the injury by Lions players Chris Scott and Mal Michael. The pair were not asked to face the AFL tribunal on charges of misconduct for targeting an injured player as it was ruled that they would not have known that Riewoldt was injured, that Riewoldt had waved away a trainer that was attending to the injury and that the bumps did not contribute to the injury.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Early in the 2006 season, Riewoldt returned close to his best form, kicking five goals against former powerhouse Brisbane in Round 3. This match seemed to have put Riewoldt's kicking "yips" to bed, but they returned during the Round 7 match against Geelong when he missed a simple but critical goal from 15 metres out. This miss was forgotten the next week when Riewoldt kicked 9 goals against Carlton and took many contested marks. Riewoldt also took a match saving mark for the Saints against Sydney in Round 11, a match the Saints won in wet conditions, and one that kept their finals hopes alive.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt topped off the 2006 season by winning his third Trevor Barker Award. In achieving this feat, Riewoldt has already emulated some of the Saints greatest players such as the 1966 premiership captain Darrel Baldock, former skipper Nathan Burke and past champions Wells Eicke, Jack Davis and Jim Ross. Riewoldt was recognised for his season with selection in the 2006 All-Australian Team as a forward player, his second career All-Australian Team award.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: At the beginning of the 2007 season, Lyon appointed Riewoldt Co-Captain of the St Kilda Football Club, along with Luke Ball and Lenny Hayes, both former captains themselves. Back and hamstring injuries forced Riewoldt to miss the first three matches of the season. Riewoldt started the season well, with eight goals in his first two matches. In Round 7, Riewoldt dominated against the Sydney Swans, which kick started another outstanding year. Despite the Saints missing the finals, Riewoldt enjoyed a better year statistically than 2004, narrowly winning St Kilda's best and fairest Trevor Barker Award ahead of defender Sam Fisher.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt played in St Kilda's 2008 NAB Cup winning side – the club's third pre-season cup win. Riewoldt had a consistent 2008 season, coming second in the AFL for marks (behind Matthew Richardson) and kicking 57 home and away season goals (63 all up) to finish ninth in the competition. This performance earned him his third All-Australian selection, his first at centre-half-forward. He was also selected to play in the Hall of Fame Tribute Match, but was ultimately unable to play due to a knee injury.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Early in the season Riewoldt became a target for the fledgling Gold Coast Football Club, which was awarded the 17th licence to enter the AFL in 2011. However, he knocked back their offer to remain at St Kilda.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt took the most marks of any player in the league, averaging 9.7 a game and kicking 65 goals in the home and away season, averaging 3.3 a game.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: He was a significant player in a St Kilda team that went through the home and away season with 20 wins and 2 defeats.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt played in 21 of 22 matches in the 2009 home-and-away rounds in which St Kilda qualified in first position for the finals series, winning the club's third minor premiership.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt was recognised for his season with selection in the 2009 All-Australian Team as a forward player. He was also named captain of the 2009 All-Australian Team, his fourth All-Australian Team award.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: In the preliminary final against the Western Bulldogs, Riewoldt kicked four goals, one of which was in the final minutes..


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: St Kilda qualified for the 2009 AFL Grand Final after qualification and preliminary finals wins but were defeated by Geelong by 12 points. Riewoldt kicked one goal.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt won the 2009 Trevor Barker Award for St Kilda's best and fairest player, setting a new club record of five career best and fairest awards. He was also St Kilda's leading goal kicker in 2009.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: During St Kilda's 28-point Round 3 win over Collingwood, on 9 April 2010, Riewoldt experienced a high-grade hamstring tear. He underwent surgery and made his return in Round 15, playing 15 games in the season for 39 goals.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt would play in the drawn 2010 AFL Grand Final and its subsequent replay, also against Collingwood.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: In the first game, Riewoldt kicked two goals and was among St Kilda's best players. After the game, the two captains, Riewoldt and Nick Maxwell of Collingwood, both stated that they would have preferred an extra time period. Ultimately, this would be the last grand final to be replayed, as a provision for extra time in the case of a draw was introduced in 2016.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: In the second game, however, Riewoldt was infamously chased down and tackled to prevent an otherwise certain goal from point-blank range by Collingwood's Heath Shaw. St Kilda ultimately lost the replay by 56 points.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: On 1 September 2016, at the Saints' best-and-fairest awards night, Riewoldt announced that he would stand down as St Kilda captain.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: On 31 July 2017, Riewoldt announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He played the final game of his career in Round 23 when he had 15 disposals, 8 marks and 1 goal in a loss to the Richmond Tigers, his cousin's team. In Round 17, it was thought Riewoldt had beaten Gary Dempsey's supposed tally of 2,906 marks, but research not long after by veteran statistician Col Hutchinson revealed that there were possession stats missing from a game from Dempsey's career, with only his goal in that game being counted towards his stats. Nevertheless, Riewoldt broke the record beyond all reasonable doubt before the end of his final season, taking 38 more marks than Dempsey's recorded tally. For reference, Brian Lake holds the post-1999 record for most marks in a game, with 24.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: On 20 December 2010, a photo with a nude image of Riewoldt was posted on the social networking site Facebook by a 17-year-old girl. The girl, whose name was initially withheld in the media due to her age, stated that her actions were a result of unfair treatment at the hands of the AFL regarding an incident earlier in the year, in which she claimed she had become pregnant as a result of having sex with two St Kilda players following a school football clinic. Another nude photo, of fellow Saints player Nick Dal Santo, was also posted. In a subsequent press conference Riewoldt claimed to have never met the girl and that the photo had been taken over a year prior, during an end-of-season trip, in Miami, Florida, by teammate Sam Gilbert, and that he had asked Gilbert to immediately delete the photo. Gilbert stated that the photos had been stolen from his own personal computer, describing the incident as a "significant breach of privacy without my knowledge or consent". The girl disputed Gilbert's statement, saying that she had taken the photos and was in possession of at least 19 more images of other AFL players. The girl later admitted this to be a lie, stating that she fabricated this claim of ownership so as not to get into any trouble. She then claimed to have been sent the photos by an unnamed St Kilda player in April of that year. On 24 December 2010, a Federal Court granted a permanent injunction on the images, supporting Riewoldt and Gilbert's statement that the photos had been stolen from Gilbert's laptop computer without consent. Justice Shane Marshall ordered the images and any others be deleted from the girl's computer, with mediation between her and the St Kilda Football Club scheduled to take place on 28 January 2011.


title: Nick Riewoldt

text: Riewoldt is married to Catherine Heard. The pair married in October 2012 at her parent's property in Waco, Texas, United States. They have three sons, born in 2014, 2016 and 2019. His sister Madeleine died of aplastic anaemia, a rare bone marrow condition, in February 2015 at the age of 26. Riewoldt and his family established Maddie Riewoldt's Vision to raise funds for research into new treatments for blood cancers. Once a year during the AFL season, when the St Kilda Saints (Nick Riewoldt's team) and the Richmond Tigers (his cousin Jack Riewoldt's) are scheduled to play against each other, it has become known as "Maddie's Match" and acts as a fundraiser to find new and improved treatments for aplastic anaemia.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Germanic heroic legend () is the heroic literary tradition of the Germanic-speaking peoples, most of which originates or is set in the Migration Period (4th-6th centuries AD). Stories from this time period, to which others were added later, were transmitted orally, traveled widely among the Germanic speaking peoples, and were known in many variants. These legends typically reworked historical events or personages in the manner of oral poetry, forming a heroic age. Heroes in these legends often display a heroic ethos emphasizing honor, glory, and loyalty above other concerns. Like Germanic mythology, heroic legend is a genre of Germanic folklore.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Heroic legends are attested in Anglo-Saxon England, medieval Scandinavia, and medieval Germany. Many take the form of Germanic heroic poetry (): shorter pieces are known as heroic lays, whereas longer pieces are called Germanic heroic epic (). The early Middle Ages preserves only a small number of legends in writing, mostly from England, including the only surviving early medieval heroic epic in the vernacular, "Beowulf". Probably the oldest surviving heroic poem is the Old High German "Hildebrandslied" (c. 800). There also survive numerous pictorial depictions from Viking Age Scandinavia and areas under Norse control in the British Isles. These often attest scenes known from later written versions of legends connected to the hero Sigurd. In the High and Late Middle Ages, heroic texts are written in great numbers in Scandinavia, particularly Iceland, and in southern Germany and Austria. Scandinavian legends are preserved both in the form of Eddic poetry and in prose sagas, particularly in the legendary sagas such as the "Völsunga saga". German sources are made up of numerous heroic epics, of which the most famous is the "Nibelungenlied" (c. 1200).


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The majority of the preserved legendary material seems to have originated with the Goths and Burgundians. The most widely and commonly attested legends are those concerning Dietrich von Bern (Theodoric the Great), the adventures and death of the hero Siegfried/Sigurd, and the Huns' destruction of the Burgundian kingdom under king Gundahar. These were "the backbone of Germanic storytelling." The common Germanic poetic tradition was alliterative verse, although this is replaced with poetry in rhyming stanzas in high medieval Germany. In early medieval England and Germany, poems were recited by a figure called the "scop", whereas in Scandinavia it is less clear who sang heroic songs. In high medieval Germany, heroic poems seem to have been sung by a class of minstrels.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The heroic tradition died out in England after the Norman conquest, but was maintained in Germany until the 1600s, and lived on in a different form in Scandinavia until the 20th c. as a variety of the medieval ballads. Romanticism resurrected interest in the tradition in the late 18th and early 19th century, with numerous translations and adaptations of heroic texts. The most famous adaptation of Germanic legend is Richard Wagner's operatic cycle "Der Ring des Nibelungen", which has in many ways overshadowed the medieval legends themselves in the popular consciousness. Germanic legend was also heavily employed in nationalist propaganda and rhetoric. Finally, it has inspired much of modern fantasy through the works of William Morris and J.R.R. Tolkien, whose "The Lord of the Rings" incorporates many elements of Germanic heroic legend.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Germanic heroic legend is a somewhat amorphous subject, and drawing clear distinctions between it and similar legendary material can be difficult. Victor Millet refers to three criteria to define Germanic heroic legend: 1) it either originates in the Migration Period or it is (vaguely) set in the Migration Period, which plays the role of a "heroic age;" 2) the legends mythologize the heroic age, so that it no longer is concretely fixed in history, allowing persons who in reality never met to interact; 3) the characters of Germanic legend do not or seldom interact with characters from other legendary cycles, such as the Matter of Britain or the history of the settlement of Iceland. Heroic legends originate and develop as part of an oral tradition, and often involve historical personages.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The heroic legends are traditionally defined according to the geographic location that scholars believe first produced the legend: there is thus continental heroic legend from Germany and the European continent, North Germanic (Scandinavian) heroic legend, and English heroic legend originating in Anglo-Saxon England. The legends are not always attested in their place of origin: thus the Old Norse material about Sigurd originates on the continent and the Old English poem "Beowulf" portrays a legend that originates in Scandinavia. Material of originally East Germanic Gothic and Burgundian origin is found throughout the entire Germanic-speaking world, making up the majority of the material found in Germany and much of that from England, while originally Scandinavian material is also found in England as well.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The use of the term "Germanic" is disputed in current scholarship, due to its implication of a shared cultural identity for which little evidence exists. Shami Ghosh remarks that Germanic heroic legend is unique in that it is not preserved among the peoples who originated it (mainly Burgundians and Goths) but among other peoples; he cautions that we cannot assume that it functioned to create any sort of "Germanic" identity among its audience, and notes that the Burgundians, for instance, became fairly romanized at an early date. Millet likewise remarks that defining these heroic legends as "Germanic" does not postulate a common Germanic legendary inheritance, but rather that the legends were easily transmitted between peoples speaking related languages. The close link between Germanic heroic legend and Germanic language and possibly poetic devices is shown by the fact that the Germanic speakers in Frankia who adopted a Romance language do not preserve Germanic legends, but rather developed their own heroic legends around figures such as William of Gellone, Roland, and Charlemagne.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Of central importance to heroic legend is the figure of the hero, about whom conflicting definitions exist. According to Edward Haymes and Susan Samples, the hero is an "extraordinary individual [...] who stands above his contemporaries in physical and moral strength." The hero is typically a man, sometimes a woman, who is admired for his or her achievements in battle and heroic virtues, capable of performing feats impossible for a normal human, and who often dies tragically. These heroic virtues include personal glory, honor, and loyalty within the lord's retinue, and form a heroic ethos that Rolf Bremmer traces to descriptions of Germanic warrior culture in the 1st-century AD Roman historian Tacitus. Other scholars have emphasized other qualities: Klaus von See rejected the notion of exemplarity, Wolfgang Haubrichs argued that heroes and their ethos primarily display the traditions of ruling families, and Walter Haug argued that the brutality of the heroic ethos derived from the introduction of people to history and their confrontation with seemingly senseless violence. In some cases the hero may also display negative values, but he is nevertheless always extraordinary and excessive in his behavior. For Brian Murdoch, the way in which he "copes with the blows of fate" is central. Peter Fisher, expressly distinguishes between the "Germanic hero" and the tragic hero. The death of the former is heroic rather than tragic; it usually brings destruction, not restoration, as in classical tragedy; and the hero's goal is frequently revenge, which would be "hamartia" (a flaw) in a tragic hero.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: In the Germanic sphere, the hero is usually defined by an amazing deed or deeds that show his heroic qualities. The hero is always a warrior, concerned with reputation and fame, as well as his political responsibilities. Heroes belonged to an aristocratic class, and legends about them provided an opportunity for the aristocratic public of the legends to reflect on their own behavior and values. In the High Middle Ages, this means that heroes often also portray the elements of chivalry and courtly behavior expected of their time period.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56-120) makes two comments that have been taken as attesting early heroic poetry among the Germanic peoples. The first is a remark in "Germania":


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The other is a remark in the "Annals" that the Cheruscian leader Arminius was celebrated in song after his death. This older poetry has not survived, probably because it was heavily connected to Germanic paganism.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Most of the extant heroic legends have their origins in the Migration Period (4th-6th centuries AD); some may have earlier origins, such as the legends of Sigurd and Hildr, while others are likely later, such as the legend of Walter of Aquitaine. Some early Gothic heroic legends are already found in Jordanes' "Getica" (c. 551). The most important figures around whom heroic legends were composed from the Migration Period are the Gothic king Ermanaric, the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great (later known as Dietrich von Bern), the Hunnic king Attila, and the Burgundian king Gundahar. Numerous other sources throughout the Early Middle Ages make brief references to figures known in later heroic legends, as well as to other figures about whom legends have likely been lost.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The original historical material at the heart of the legends has been transformed through the long process of oral transmission: the causes of complex historical and political events are reduced to basic human motivations such as greed, hubris, jealousy, and personal revenge; events are assimilated to folkloric narrative schemes; conflicts are personalized, typically as conflicts among relatives; and persons living in different time periods are portrayed as contemporaries living in the same heroic age. Stages in the combination of the originally independent figures of heroic legend can be seen in texts from the 8th and 9th centuries. Additionally, the legends appear to have become increasingly detached from historical reality, though they still may have been understood as conveying historical knowledge. Conflicts with monsters and otherworldly beings also form an important part of heroic legend. As an example of the variability of the tradition, Edward Haymes and Susan Samples note that Sigurd/Siegfried is variously said to be killed in the woods or in his bed, but always with the fixed detail that it was by a spear in the back.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: A minority position, championed by Walter Goffart and Roberta Frank, has argued that there is no oral tradition and that heroic legend was in fact developed by learned clerics in the Carolingian period who read about events in the migration period. This position is, however, "contrary to almost all literary scholarship".


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Heroic legends can also take on mythical elements, and these are common in Germanic heroic legend. Joseph C. Harris writes that "mythic motifs" or "folklore-related motifs" can become attached to the historical core of heroic legend. The liberation of society from monsters and otherworldly beings forms an important part of extant heroic legend. Examples of heroes taking on mythical qualities include the Old Norse hero Starkaðr, who may be portrayed with multiple arms, while Dietrich von Bern is able to breathe fire. The heroine Hildr appears to have become a valkyrie in the Norse tradition, and the same thing may have happened to the heroine Brunhild. Generally, mythical elements are more common in later rather than earlier Norse material: for instance, appearances of Odin are more common in the "Völsunga saga" than in the heroic poems of the Poetic Edda.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: The exact relationship between myth and legend is unclear, and it is also possible for mythological beings to be euhemerized as heroes. Thus some scholars argue that the immense strength Brunhild displays in the "Nibelungenlied" may indicate that she was originally a mythical being. The historical origins of the figure of Sigurd/Siegfried are uncertain, and his slaying of the dragon represents a victory over chaos and destruction and results in the hero taking on semi-divine abilities. Germanic heroic legend contains fewer mythological elements than that of many other cultures, for instance, the heroic legend of Ancient Greece.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Older scholarship was of the opinion that heroic poetry was "entirely heathen", however more recent scholarship has abandoned this position. A great many of the historical figures upon whom heroic legends were based, such as Theodoric the Great, Gundaharius, and Alboin, were Christians. Klaus von See goes so far as to suggest that Christianization and the creation and spread of the heroic legends "went hand in hand." Hermann Reichert, on the other hand, describes heroic poetry as integrating originally pagan poetry into its Christian worldview, as opposed to what he calls "Old Germanic poetry," which was pagan and has not survived. Many of the surviving pictorial representations of heroic legend are in an unambiguously Christian context, and many ecclesiastics belonged to the same aristocratic class among whom heroic poetry was popular. Complaints that ecclesiastical figures preferred hearing heroic tales to the Bible, the church fathers, or saints’ lives are frequent. The creation of several heroic epics also seems to have been prompted by ecclesiastics, such as "Waltharius", possibly "Beowulf", and the "Nibelungenlied", which was probably written through the patronage of bishop Wolfger von Erla of Passau.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: One of the earliest attestations of the heroic tradition is on the Anglo-Saxon Franks Casket (c. 700), which depicts a scene from the legend of Wayland the smith: Wayland is portrayed after having been crippled by king Niðhad. He stands over a headless figure representing Niðhad's children whom he has killed in revenge. The first woman represents Niðhad's daughter bringing a piece of jewelry to be repaired: the figures of the second woman and the man catching birds are unexplained. The top of the Franks Casket also appears to show an archer who is generally identified with Egil, Wayland's brother, and Egil's spouse Ölrún, who appear in the "Þiðrekssaga", the "Völundarkviða"; they are also usually identified on the Pforzen buckle inscription, from c. 570–600.


title: Germanic heroic legend

text: Some of the earliest evidence for Germanic Heroic legends comes in pictorial form on runestones and picture stones. In Sweden, there are nine runic inscriptions, and several image stones from the Viking Age that illustrate scenes from Germanic Heroic legends.