title: Weird West

text: Weird West (aka Weird Western) is a term used for the hybrid genres of fantasy Western, horror Western and science fiction Western. The term originated with DC's "Weird Western Tales" in 1972, but the idea is older as the genres have been blended since the 1930s, possibly earlier, in B-movie Westerns, comic books, movie serials and pulp magazines. Individually, the hybrid genres combine elements of the Western genre with those of fantasy, horror and science fiction respectively.


title: Weird West

text: Two early examples of Western fantasy are the short story "The Horror from the Mound" by Robert E. Howard, published in the May 1932 issue of the pulp magazine "Weird Tales", and the novelette "Spud and Cochise" by anthropologist and Pulitzer Prize-winning author Oliver La Farge, published in the non-genre magazine "The Forum" in January 1936.


title: Weird West

text: One of the earliest novels to introduce fantasy into a Western setting was "The Circus of Dr. Lao" (1935), by Charles G. Finney, which won a National Book Award for the Most Original Book of 1935. The novel concerns the visit to a fictional Arizona town by a magical circus that features legendary creatures from mythology. It was later adapted into the film version "7 Faces of Dr. Lao" (1963).


title: Weird West

text: Later novels include those by Joe R. Lansdale, who has written mostly horror Westerns, many featuring the heroic Reverend Jebediah Mercer. Lansdale has often mixed splatterpunk with alternate history Western. An example is "Dead in the West" (1983), in which zombies rise after an unjustly lynched Indian shaman has cursed the town of Mud Creek, Texas. The prolific Western author Louis L'Amour sometimes ventured into science fiction, as with "The Haunted Mesa" (1987), which is set amid the ruins of the Anasazi. Horror author Jack Ketchum's work includes "The Crossings" (2004), an occult novel set in 1848 Arizona.


title: Weird West

text: From the 1940s, many Western comics published stories in which heroes would sometimes encounter monsters, aliens, supervillains, etc. Marvel Comics featured Kid Colt, the longest-running Western character in American comic books, from 1948 to 1979. He became a time traveller, and ultimately, a mutant. The Rawhide Kid, another Marvel time traveller, debuted in a 16-issue series, from March 1955 to September 1957, from Marvel's 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics.


title: Weird West

text: DC Comics added a horror element to their Western stories by introducing "Weird Western Tales" in 1972. The title of this series gave rise to the term "Weird West". It ran for eight years and 59 issues. The main character was Jonah Hex, whose popularity secured his own eponymous series.


title: Weird West

text: In the mid-to-late 1990s, "Desperadoes" by Jeff Mariotte, from Image Comics/WildStorm Productions, returned Weird Western comics to the stands at a time when none of the major publishers had Western comics in their line-ups.


title: Weird West

text: "Preacher Special: Saint of Killers", a 4-issue mini-series, was a spin-off from "Preacher" by Garth Ennis. While the origin of the Saint of Killers in the Old West is the only true western element in the comic book "Preacher", the series has been described as a "Splatterpunk Western" or a mix of the Western with the Gothic.


title: Weird West

text: In film, "The Phantom Empire" (1935) is sometimes considered the first fantasy Western. Gene Autry, in his first starring role as a singing cowboy, ventures down a mineshaft and discovers a futuristic lost kingdom of the type depicted in "Flash Gordon". Horror Westerns began in the 1950s with the vampire western "Curse of the Undead", and continued in the 1960s with films like "Billy the Kid Versus Dracula" (1966), which depicted the real-life outlaw fighting against the fictional vampire, and "The Valley of Gwangi" (1969), in which Ray Harryhausen's special effects were used to pit cowboys against dinosaurs. Other Westerns with elements of fantasy, horror or science fiction are "7 Faces of Dr. Lao" (1964), "Jesse James Meets Frankenstein's Daughter" (1966), "High Plains Drifter" (1973), "The White Buffalo" (1977), "Pale Rider" (1985), "Ghost Town" (1988),"" (1989), "Wild Wild West" (1999)", Purgatory" (1999), "Jonah Hex" (2010), and "Bone Tomahawk" (2015).


title: Weird West

text: In the 1960s, the television series "The Wild Wild West" brought elements of pulp espionage and science fiction to its Old West setting. The animated adventures of "The Lone Ranger" followed suit, with the famous Western hero encountering mad scientists and other villains not often found in the Western genre. Additionally, Rod Serling's supernatural anthology series "The Twilight Zone" featured a handful of Western episodes, such as "Showdown with Rance McGrew". Later series include "The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr." (1993–1994), which featured steampunk elements; "Wynonna Earp" (2016), a horror Western about a present-day woman with a magic Colt Buntline revolver who fights reincarnations of outlaws killed by her ancestor, Wyatt Earp; and "Preacher" (2016), based on the comic book series of the same name.


title: Weird West

text: "Deadlands", first published by Pinnacle Entertainment Group in 1996, originated as a role-playing game which combines the Western and horror genres with steampunk elements. It is set in an alternate 1870s America and draws heavily on gothic horror conventions and old Native American lore to derive its sense of the supernatural. Characters can get involved in situations ranging from bank heists to shoot-outs involving vampires and zombies over the course of their adventures.


title: Weird West

text: "Undead Nightmare" (2010), an expansion to "Red Dead Redemption" (2010), is a horror Western video game. It tells the tale of an undead outbreak that has spread across the frontier. Other fantasy elements are new weapons such as holy water, and new mythical mounts, which include a unicorn and the Four Horses of the Apocalypse. Its sequel, "Red Dead Redemption 2", features a number of minor Easter eggs for the player to discover, such as UFOs and the remains of a giant hominid.


title: Weird West

text: "Weird West" (2022) is a top-down action role-playing game with elements of the immersive sim genre, with randomized elements through each playthrough.


title: Weird West

text: "Hard West" (2015) is a turn-based tactical and strategic video game, as well as its sequel - "Hard West 2" (2022).


title: Weird West

text: Less-common hybrid genres may include the acid Western – "The Shooting" (1966) has been cited as the first film of this kind. The horror Western essentially depicts the supernatural in an Old West setting. Kim Newman proposes the two main types are the "Indian Curse cycle" and the Gothic Western – featuring vampires, zombies, and the like. An example of the Indian Curse movie is "The Ghost Dance" (1982), in which a Native American shaman is possessed by an evil spirit. A Gothic Western example is "Ghost Town" (1988), about the quest of a sheriff to defeat a zombie gunfighter by using his star-shaped badge as a shuriken.


title: Weird West

text: The steampunk Western, a variant of the science-fiction Western, typically depicts an alternative history of the Old West but emphasises society's reliance on steam power, as in the 1960s TV series "The Wild Wild West". Another variant of the science-fiction Western is the space Western, which applies Western themes to a science-fiction frontier setting. As such, these works are usually set on other worlds, but the action sometimes takes place in the Old West, as in "Cowboys & Aliens" (2011), in which an alien spacecraft lands in 1870s New Mexico Territory.


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: The proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy was the formal act that sanctioned the birth of the unified Kingdom of Italy. It happened with a normative act of the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia — the law 17 March 1861, n. 4761 — with which Victor Emmanuel II assumed for himself and for his successors the title of King of Italy. 17 March is commemorated annually by the anniversary of the unification of Italy, a national holiday established in 1911 on the occasion of the 50th anniversary, and also celebrated, in the Republican era, in 1961 and 2011.


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: Following the Second Italian War of Independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, in the two-year period 1859-60, the goal of the unification of Italy had been largely achieved, with the sole exception of the Triveneto and Lazio. The annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia of the various provinces had been sanctioned by a series of plebiscites. However, the new state still carried the name of Kingdom of Sardinia.


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: On 18 February 1861, the new Parliament, already known as the Italian Parliament, met in Turin, at Palazzo Carignano, formerly the seat of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia, even though it was numbered as VIII, thus continuing the numbering of the legislatures of the Kingdom of Sardinia. The Chamber of Deputies of the Kingdom of Italy also included parliamentarians elected in the "new provinces", while the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy, not elected but appointed by the king, had been integrated with appointments of senators from different parts of Italy.


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: The opening of the new legislature took place with the speech of the Crown pronounced by the King. The Senate in the reply voted on 26 February spoke explicitly of a new realm. The Chamber of Deputies in the response speech to Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, written by Giuseppe Ferrari and dated 13 March 1861, already declared that:


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: Immediately after the start of the legislature, on 21 February, the then Prime Minister Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour presented to the Senate a bill, consisting of a single article, to formalize the new name of the King. This became law on 17 March 1861, with the publication in the Official Journal of the Kingdom of Italy n.67. 17 March is commemorated annually by the anniversary of the unification of Italy, a national holiday established in 1911 on the occasion of the 50th anniversary.


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: However, in the text approved by the Senate a second article also appears on the question of the heading of legislative acts. It was therefore established that:


title: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

text: The numeral of Victor Emmanuel of Savoy continued to be "second", not "first", as a sign of the continuity of the House of Savoy dynasty which had achieved Italian unification and of the continuity of the Statuto Albertino.


title: Morganella morganii

text: Morganella morganii is a species of Gram-negative bacteria. It has a commensal relationship within the intestinal tracts of humans, mammals, and reptiles as normal flora. Although "M. morganii" has a wide distribution, it is considered an uncommon cause of community-acquired infection, and it is most often encountered in postoperative and other nosocomial infections, such as urinary tract infections.


title: Morganella morganii

text: "Morganella morganii" was first described by a British bacteriologist H. de R. Morgan in 1906 as Morgan's bacillus. Morgan isolated the bacterium from stools of infants who were noted to have had "summer diarrhea". Later in 1919, Winslow" et al." named Morgan's bacillus, "Bacillus morganii". In 1936, though, Rauss renamed "B. morganii" as "Proteus morganii". Fulton, in 1943, showed that "B. columbensis" and "P. morganii" were the same and defined the genus "Morganella", due to the DNA-DNA hybridization. "M. morganii" has two subspecies – "M. m. morganii" and "M. m. columbensis". However, in 1962, a review article by Ewing reported that "M. columbensis" had been re-identified as "Escherichia coli", thereby removing that organism from the genus "Morganella".


title: Morganella morganii

text: "Morganella morganii" is facultatively anaerobic and oxidase-negative. Its colonies appear off-white and opaque in color, when grown on agar plates. "M. morganii" cells are straight rods, about 0.6–0.7 μm in diameter and 1.0–1.7 μm in length. This organism moves by way of peritrichous flagella, but some strains do not form flagella at .


title: Morganella morganii

text: "M. morganii" can produce the enzyme catalase, so it is able to convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. This is a common enzyme found in most living organisms. In addition, it is indole test-positive, meaning that this organism can split tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. Methyl red tests positive in "M. morganii", an indicator dye that turns red due to the bacterium's acid production during fermentation. Although a rare human pathogen, "M. morganii" has been reported as a cause of urinary tract infections, nosocomial surgical wound infections, peritonitis, central nervous system infection, endophthalmitis, pneumonia, chorioamnionitis, neonatal sepsis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, and arthritis. Numerous cases of nosocomial infection have been described, usually as postsurgical wound infections or urinary tract infections. Patients in whom bacteremia develops are typically immunocompromised, diabetic, or elderly, or have at least one serious underlying disease.


title: Morganella morganii

text: "M. morganii" consists of two species: "M. morganii" and "M. sibonii". "M. morganii" has been regarded as a normally harmless opportunistic pathogen, but some strains carry "antibiotic-resistant plasmids" and have been associated with nosocomial outbreaks of infections. Several reports indicate "M. morganii" causes sepsis, ecthyma, endophthalmitis, and chorioamnionitis, and more commonly urinary tract infections, soft tissue infections, septic arthritis, meningitis, and bacteremia, in the latter 2 cases with frequent fatal consequences.


title: Morganella morganii

text: In a rare case published in 2003, a patient presented with bilateral necrosis of both upper and lower eyelids. Upon microbial analysis, the areas were shown to have heavy growth of "M. morganii".


title: Morganella morganii

text: A study conducted at the University Hospital at Heraklion, Crete, Greece, showed a 92% success rate in the use of these antibiotics.


title: Morganella morganii

text: However, some "M. morganii" strains are resistant to penicillin, ampicillin/sulbactam, oxacillin, first-generation and second-generation cephalosporins, macrolides, lincosamides, fosfomycin, colistin, and polymyxin B. The emergence of highly resistant strains of "M. morganii" have been associated with use of third-generation cephalosporins.


title: Morganella morganii

text: Polymicrobial infections are most abundantly caused by this microbe which additionally damages the skin, soft tissues, and urogenital tract; these can be cured through use of the aforementioned antibiotics.


title: Paul (given name)

text: Paul () is a common masculine given name in countries and ethnicities with a Christian heritage (Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism) and, beyond Europe, in Christian religious communities throughout the world. Paul – or its variations – can be a given name or surname.


title: Paul (given name)

text: The name has existed since Roman times. It derives from the Roman family name "Paulus" or "Paullus", from the Latin adjective meaning "small", "humble", "least" or "little" . During the Classical Age it was used to distinguish the minor of two people of the same family bearing the same name. The Roman patrician family of the Gens Aemilia included such prominent persons as Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus, Tertia Aemilia Paulla (the wife of Scipio Africanus), and Sergius Paulus.


title: Paul (given name)

text: Its prevalence in nations with a Christian heritage is primarily due to its attachment to Saint Paul the Apostle, whose Greek name was Παῦλος, "Paûlos", a transliteration from the Latin, also carrying the "modest" meaning of this name, and chosen because of its similarity to his Jewish name Šaul. The name Paul is common, with variations, in all European languages (e.g. English, French, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Italian, German, Dutch, Scandinavian, Greek, Russian, Romanian, Georgian).


title: Paul (given name)

text: Paul's popularity has varied. In the United States, the 1990 census shows it ranked the 13th most common (male) name; however, Social Security Administration data shows popularity in the top 20 until 1968, with steadily declining use until its 2015 rank of 200th.


title: Populus tremula

text: Populus tremula (commonly called aspen, common aspen, Eurasian aspen, European aspen, or quaking aspen) is a species of poplar native to cool temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from Iceland and the British Isles east to Kamchatka, north to inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and south to central Spain, Turkey, the Tian Shan, North Korea, and northern Japan. It also occurs at one site in northwest Africa in Algeria. In the south of its range, it occurs at high altitudes in mountains.


title: Populus tremula

text: It is a substantial deciduous tree growing to tall by broad, with a trunk attaining over in diameter. The bark is pale greenish-grey and smooth on young trees with dark grey diamond-shaped lenticels, becoming dark grey and fissured on older trees.


title: Populus tremula

text: The adult leaves, produced on branches of mature trees, are nearly round, slightly wider than long, diameter, with a coarsely toothed margin and a laterally flattened petiole long. The flat petiole allows them to tremble in even slight breezes, and is the source of its scientific name, as well as one of its vernacular names "langues de femmes" attributed to Gerard's 17th-century "Herball". The leaves on seedlings and fast-growing stems of suckers (root sprouts) are of a different shape, heart-shaped to nearly triangular. They are also often much larger, up to long; their petiole is also less flattened.


title: Populus tremula

text: The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins produced in early spring before the new leaves appear; they are dioecious, with male and female catkins on different trees. The male catkins are patterned green and brown, long when shedding pollen; the female catkins are green, long at pollination, maturing in early summer to bear 10–20 (50–80) capsules each containing numerous tiny seeds embedded in downy fluff. The fluff assists wind dispersal of the seeds when the capsules split open at maturity.


title: Populus tremula

text: It can be distinguished from the closely related North American "Populus tremuloides" by the leaves being more coarsely toothed.


title: Populus tremula

text: Like other aspens, it spreads extensively by suckers (root sprouts), which may be produced up to 40 m from the parent tree, forming extensive clonal colonies. This often makes the job of clearing unwanted trees from an area especially difficult, as new suckers will continue to sprout from the extensive root system for up to several years after all surface growth has been eliminated.


title: Populus tremula

text: Eurasian aspen is a water and light demanding species that is able to vigorously colonize an open area after fire, clear cutting or other kind of damages. After an individual has been damaged or destroyed, root suckers are produced abundantly on the shallow lateral roots. Fast growth continues until the age of about 20 years when crown competition increases. After that, growth speed decreases and culminates at about 30 years of age. Aspen can reach an age of 200 years.


title: Populus tremula

text: Fossils of "Populus tremula" have been described from the fossil flora of Kızılcahamam district in Turkey which is of early Pliocene age.


title: Populus tremula

text: The aspen is found in cultivation in parks and large gardens. The fastigiate cultivar ‘Erecta’, with bright yellow autumn colouring, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. The cultivar is colloquially known as "Swedish columnar" in Canada and the United States.


title: Populus tremula

text: The hybrid with "Populus alba" (white poplar), known as grey poplar, "Populus" × "canescens", is widely found in Europe and central Asia. Hybrids with several other aspens have also been bred at forestry research institutes in order to find trees with greater timber production and disease resistance (e.g. "P. tremula" × "P. tremuloides", bred in Denmark).


title: Populus tremula

text: The wood of aspen is light and soft with very little shrinkage. It is used for lumber and matches but is also valued in the pulp and paper industry, being particularly useful for writing paper. In addition, it is used for plywood and different types of flake and particle boards. Given its hardiness and capacity for rapid growth and regeneration, it plays an important role in the production of wood for renewable energy. Ecologically, the species is important as many insect and fungi species benefit from it. The tree further provides habitat for several mammals and birds that require young forests.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: In chemical nomenclature, a preferred IUPAC name (PIN) is a unique name, assigned to a chemical substance and preferred among the possible names generated by IUPAC nomenclature. The "preferred IUPAC nomenclature" provides a set of rules for choosing between multiple possibilities in situations where it is important to decide on a unique name. It is intended for use in legal and regulatory situations.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: Preferred IUPAC names are applicable only for organic compounds, to which the IUPAC has the definition as compounds which contain at least a single carbon atom but no alkali, alkaline earth or transition metals and can be named by the nomenclature of organic compounds (see below). Rules for the remaining organic and inorganic compounds are still under development.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: The concept of PINs is defined in the introductory chapter (freely accessible) and chapter 5 of the ""Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013"", which replace two former publications: the ""Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry"", 1979 (the "Blue Book") and ""A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, Recommendations 1993"". The full draft version of the PIN recommendations (""Preferred names in the nomenclature of organic compounds"", Draft of 7 October 2004) is also available.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: A preferred IUPAC name or PIN is a name that is preferred among two or more IUPAC names. An IUPAC name is a systematic name that meets the recommended IUPAC rules. IUPAC names include retained names. A general IUPAC name is any IUPAC name that is not a "preferred IUPAC name". A retained name is a traditional or otherwise often used name, usually a trivial name, that may be used in IUPAC nomenclature.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: Since systematic names often are not human-readable a PIN may be a retained name. Both "PINs" and "retained names" have to be chosen (and established by IUPAC) explicitly, unlike other IUPAC names, which automatically arise from IUPAC nomenclatural rules. Thus, the PIN is sometimes the retained name (e.g., phenol and acetic acid, instead of benzenol and ethanoic acid), while in other cases, the systematic name was chosen over a very common retained name (e.g., propan-2-one, instead of acetone).


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: A preselected name is a preferred name chosen among two or more names for parent hydrides or other parent structures that do not contain carbon (inorganic parents). "Preselected names" are used in the nomenclature of organic compounds as the basis for PINs for organic derivatives. They are needed for derivatives of organic compounds that do not contain carbon themselves.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: The systems of chemical nomenclature developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) have traditionally concentrated on ensuring that chemical names are unambiguous, that is that a name can only refer to one substance. However, a single substance can have more than one acceptable name, like toluene, which may also be correctly named as "methylbenzene" or "phenylmethane". Some alternative names remain available as "retained names" for more general contexts. For example, tetrahydrofuran remains an unambiguous and acceptable name for the common organic solvent, even if the preferred IUPAC name is "oxolane".


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: Substitutive nomenclature (replacement of hydrogen atoms in the parent structure) is used most extensively, for example "ethoxyethane" instead of diethyl ether and "tetrachloromethane" instead of carbon tetrachloride. Functional class nomenclature (also known as radicofunctional nomenclature) is used for acid anhydrides, esters, acyl halides and pseudohalides and salts. Also "skeletal replacement operations", "additive and subtractive operations" and "conjunctive operations" are applied.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: The number of retained non-systematic, trivial names of simple organic compounds (for example formic acid and acetic acid) has been reduced considerably for preferred IUPAC names, although a larger set of retained names is available for general nomenclature. The traditional names of simple monosaccharides, α-amino acids and many natural products have been retained as preferred IUPAC names; in these cases the systematic names may be very complicated and virtually never used. The name for water itself is a retained IUPAC name.


title: Preferred IUPAC name

text: In IUPAC nomenclature, all compounds containing carbon atoms are considered organic compounds. Organic nomenclature only applies to organic compounds containing elements from the Groups 13 through 17. Organometallic compounds of the Groups 1 through 12 are not covered by organic nomenclature.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: Women's suffrage in Canada occurred at different times in different jurisdictions to different demographics of women. Women's right to vote began in the three prairie provinces. In 1916, suffrage was earned by women in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The federal government granted limited war-time suffrage to some women in 1917 and followed with full suffrage in 1918, at least, granting it on same basis as men, that is, certain races and status were excluded from voting in federal elections prior to 1960.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: By the close of 1922, all the Canadian provinces, except Quebec, had granted full suffrage to White and Black women, yet Asian and Indigenous women still could not vote. In Newfoundland, at that time a separate dominion, women earned suffrage in 1925 for women not Asian and not Indigenous. Women in Quebec, who were not Asian and not Indigenous, did not gain full suffrage until 1940.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: Municipal suffrage was earned in 1884 to property-owning widows and spinsters in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario; in 1886, in the province of New Brunswick, to all property-owning women except those whose husbands were voters; in Nova Scotia, in 1886; and in Prince Edward Island, in 1888, to property-owning widows and spinsters.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: Asian women (and men) were not granted suffrage until after World War II in 1948, Inuit women (and men) were not granted suffrage until 1950, and it was not until 1960 that suffrage (in Federal elections) was extended to First Nations women (and men) without requiring them to give up their treaty status. Incarcerated women (and men) serving sentences fewer than two years in length were granted suffrage in 1993, and incarcerated women (and men) serving longer sentences were given the vote in 2002.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: The cause of women's suffrage began in 1876, when Dr. Emily Stowe came to Toronto to practice medicine. She was the first, and for many years the sole, woman physician in Canada. Stowe, vitally interested in all matters relating to women, at once came before the public as a lecturer upon topics then somewhat new, "Woman's Sphere" and "Women in the Professions," being her subjects. She lectured not only in Toronto, but, under the auspices of various Mechanics' Institutes, in Ottawa, Whitby, and Bradford. After attending a meeting of the American Society for the Advancement of Women, in Cleveland in 1877, and meeting many women of the United States, Stowe, on returning home, felt that the time had arrived for some similar union among Canadian women. Talking it over with her friend, Helen Archibald, they decided that it would not be politic to attempt at once a suffrage association but, in November 1877, organized what was known as "The Toronto Woman's Literary Club".


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: At the beginning suffragists were typically middle-class White women. These women advocated for suffrage for the sole purpose of boosting their social status resulting in a better society. However, Black abolitionists, unionists, socialists, and temperance activists supported them.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: During the next five years, this club had phenomenal growth, adding to its ranks such woman as Mary McDonell (WCTU), Mrs. W. B. Hamilton, Mrs. W. I. Mackenzie, Mrs. J. Austin Shaw, and others. It also elicited a surprising amount of attention from the press. Among the most capable assistants from its very inception was Sarah Anne Curzon, for several years associate editor of the "Canada Citizen". It was the habit of the club to meet each Thursday at 3 p.m., at one of the members’ homes. Though not avowedly a suffrage society, no opportunity was lost of promoting this basic idea of the founders. One of the earliest efforts in this direction was a paper, by Archibald, entitled "Woman Under the Civil Law," which elicited discussion and served as educational material.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: During these years, too, mainly through the work of the Woman's Literary Club, the University of Toronto was opened to women. Eliza Balmer was the first female student.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: It was believed in 1883 that public sentiment had sufficiently progressed to warrant the formation of a regular Woman-Suffrage Society. On February 1, 1883, the club met and decided the following: "... that in view of the ultimate end for which the Toronto Woman's Literary Club was formed, having been attained, viz., to foster a general and living public sentiment in favour of women suffrage, this Club hereby disband, to form a Canadian Women's Suffrage Association." The following month, on March 5, at a meeting of the City Council, the Toronto Women's Literary and Social Progress Club requested the use of the Council Chambers on March 9. Their purpose was to hold a conversation to discuss the advisability of granting the franchise to those women who possessed the property qualification that entitled men to hold it; and then to proceed to form a suffrage club. Accordingly, on that date, Jessie Turnbull McEwen, then President of the club, was present along with Mayor Arthur Radcliffe Boswell, ex-Alderman John Hallam, Alderman John Baxter, John Wilson Bengough, Thomas Bengough, Thomas Phillips Thompson, and Mr. Burgess, editor of "Citizen". The Canadian Woman Suffrage Association was formally inaugurated, and 40 people enrolled themselves as members that evening.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: The first piece of work undertaken by the Association was the securing of the municipal franchise for the women of Ontario. On September 10, 1883, a committee was appointed to urge the City Council to petition the Local Government to pass a bill conferring the municipal franchise upon women. The committee consisted of Stowe, McEwen, Mrs. Hamilton, Mrs. Miller, Mrs. Mackenzie, and Mrs. Curzon, with the power to add others. The committee waited upon Hon. Oliver Mowat, who was then the Premier of the Province of Ontario. From the beginning, the members of the Association recognized that it would be manifestly unjust to exclude married women from the exercise of the franchise, bestowing it only on widows and single women. However, it was agreed that it was not politic to criticize the franchise bill before the House, on the principle of 'half a loaf being better than no bread'. Accordingly, objections were set aside, and every woman worked towards securing this partial reform, even though, if married, she would not directly benefit by it.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In 1882, the Ontario "Municipal Act" was amended to give married women, widows and spinsters, if possessed of the necessary qualifications, the right to vote on by-laws and some other minor municipal matters. Again, in 1884, the act was further amended, extending the right to vote in municipal elections on all matters to widows and unmarried women. In the municipal elections in Toronto held on January 4, 1886, women's votes were extremely important and resulted in the election of a candidate pledged to reform, William Holmes Howland.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: Another important work accomplished about this time, more or less directly through the influence of the Suffrage Association, was the opening of the Woman's Medical College in Toronto. Stowe (with her friend, Jennie Kidd Trout) had, in the 1870s, forced her way into a season's lectures on chemistry in the Toronto School of Medicine. About 1879, she intimated her intention of entering her daughter, Augusta Stowe, as a medical student. Dr. Augusta Stowe Gullen was awarded her degree of M. D. C. M. in 1883, the first woman to be awarded such a degree under Canadian institutions. As a consequence of the persistence of Stowe and her daughter, other women became aware of the possibilities in the medical profession, and so numerous were the applications for admission that it was deemed expedient to open a Woman's Medical College in Toronto. Gullen was appointed Demonstrator in Anatomy.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: After the labour involved in securing the municipal suffrage in 1883, and later, in struggling for the opening of the Woman's Medical College, there was a lull until 1889, when Stowe made arrangements to bring Dr. Anna Howard Shaw to Toronto to lecture. Stowe sent out 4,000 invitations, to every member of Parliament, council, school Board and ministerial association, inviting each member to be present to hear about the Woman Question. The lecture was a success, creating so much interest in the matter that the old suffrage association, which had been practically non-existent for several seasons, was re-organized, with Stowe as president, and Mrs. Curzon as secretary. In December 1889, Susan B. Anthony was secured to lecture in the Woman's Medical College auditorium. She succeeded in increasing interest in suffrage work, until it spread from the women of Toronto to those of surrounding towns, with new groups organizing in many places. Next, the Association secured Mary Seymour Howell, of Albany, New York, to lecture. Mrs. McDonell, ever indefatigable in her zeal for women, accompanied Howell to many towns throughout Ontario, to stimulate suffrage clubs already in existence and to form others.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In early 1890, it was believed that a Dominion Woman's Enfranchisement Convention might be assembled. This convention was duly announced to be held in Association Hall, Toronto, June 12–13, 1890. Delegates were received from the various Suffrage Clubs then existing. Also, there were representatives from American Clubs, including: Dr. Hannah A. Kimball, Chicago; Rev. Anna Shaw; Mrs. Isabella Hooker, (sister of Henry Ward Beecher), and Mrs. McLellan Brown, lawyer, and president of a Cincinnati college. The papers that elicited most attention were: "The Ballot, its Relation to Economics; " "Woman as Wage-Earner," and "Woman in the Medical Profession." Yellow, the colour of gold, and the symbol of wisdom in the East, was the badge of equal suffragists all over the continent, and was used for decorations at all meetings of the hall. Some of the mottoes used were "Canada's Daughters Should be Free", "No Sex in Citizenship", "Women are half the People", and "Woman, Man's Equal". The Dominion Woman's Enfranchisement Association became duly incorporated.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In 1890, in accordance with the desire of the Equal-Suffragists, Mayor Edward Frederick Clarke and the Toronto City Council determined to invite the Association for the Advancement of Women (A.A.W.), to hold its 18th annual Congress in Toronto. Some of the women who attended and contributed were: Julia Ward Howe, author and litterateur, the friend and associate of Emerson, Longfellow, and Holmes; Mary F. Eastman, one of the leading New England educationists; Alice Stone Blackwell, editor of the Woman's Journal, and daughter of the Rev. Lucy Stone; Clara Berwick Colby, editor of the "Woman's Tribune" in Beatrice, Nebraska, in 1883; Rev. Florence E. Kalloch, of Chicago; Mrs. Kate Tannatt Woods, journalist and writer.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In 1895, the Equal Suffragists in Manitoba were under the leadership of Dr. Amelia Yeomans. She indicated that the women of the W.C.T.U. were the first to espouse equal suffrage in Manitoba, having twice brought largely signed petitions before the Provincial Legislature. As early as 1872, the statutes in British Columbia were written so as to give married women a vote in municipal matters. By 1895 in Quebec, women for many years had exercised the municipal franchise, although historically, when it was held that a woman would be polluted by entering a polling-booth, it was customary for a notary to call upon the Quebec women in their homes, where they would, in his presence, record their vote without leaving their chair. Prince Edward Island was the only province in Canada in which there was no legislation regarding woman suffrage. Not even the municipal franchise had been conferred for a supermajority of electoral districts. In 1892, amidst deliberations in the 31st General Assembly of Prince Edward Island over the "Bill respecting the Legislature" (popularly known as the "Amalgamation Bill"), Neil McLeod, Leader of the Opposition, attempted to extend provincial suffrage to unmarried women. He prefaced his motion for an amendment to Section 52 of the bill by asking whether "a "femme sole" [is] a British subject, who has any one of the qualifications contained in sub-sections "c", "g", "h", "i", "j", "k", and "l"." Frederick Peters, "Leader of the Government" and chair of the Liberal Party, conjectured that the amendment was "simply introduced to gain a little cheap popularity. He has failed to receive this from the male portion of the country and he now strikes out in another line and endeavors to get a little from the females." McLeod, instead of a rejoinder, concluded the doomed motion: "I contend that women are at least as sober, intelligent, and moral as men, and that unmarried women possessing property, and liable to perform statute labor and pay taxes, ought to have the right to vote." Limiting the vote to unmarried women also diminished the frequency of intersections between legitimate children, hyperdescent, and suffrage. In New Brunswick, Sarah Manning, of St. John, was president of the W.E.A. In the Maritime Provinces, Edith Archibald was president of the Maritime W.C.T.U. and was perhaps, the pioneer suffragist of Nova Scotia. Mrs. Leon Owens was president of the Dominion Women's Enfranchisement Association (W.E.A.) of Halifax.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: The previously listed events regarding women’s suffrage were only in accordance with White women’s suffrage. Slavery in Canada meant that Black persons were legally deemed chattel property and not considered “people.” Black folks did not possess the rights and freedoms granted to citizens, such as democratic participation. Black persons were slowly being granted rights as British subjects as slavery was gradually being abolished, from 1793-1834. As British subjects, they were entitled to civil rights, but this was extended only to property-owning men, as a gender barrier still existed for all women. Manitoba became the first province to grant the right to vote to women, which extended to both White and Black women. The controversial Wartime Elections Act that passed on September 20, 1917, granted the federal vote to women associated with the armed forces. On May 24, 1918, female citizens over the age of 21 were granted the federal vote, regardless if their province had approved enfranchisement. While women then gained the right to run as Members of Parliament in 1919, Agnes McPhail was not elected to the House of Commons until 1921. The right to vote still had not been granted to Asian and Indigenous women.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In the 19th and 20th century, Asian peoples began immigrating to Canada and were denied the right to vote in both provincial and federal elections. As well, Canadians with Asian heritage were denied the right to vote. In 1920, the Dominion Elections Act was passed through the federal government and it stated that provinces could not discriminate against people based on differences in ethnicity, but this still excluded Canadians of Asian heritage, meaning they were still denied the right to vote. The Dominion Elections Act was rescinded in 1948 and went into effect in 1949. The disenfranchisement of Asian Canadians was finally put to an end after World War II.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: In 1920, the Indian Act was amended to allow for “involuntary enfranchisement” for Indigenous men. Only certain Indigenous men were deemed worthy for enfranchisement, such as those with a university degree. There was a poor response to the amendment which resulted in objections from Indigenous communities, which led the amendment to be repealed. Voluntary enfranchisement was introduced after the amendment. In 1960, Parliament established the Canada Elections Act which granted all registered “Indians<nowiki>"</nowiki> the right to vote. The intention behind the legislation was threefold. The first factor being that the Canadian government did not want to mirror the actions of the American government in denying African-Americans the right to vote. Secondly, the newly introduced Canadian Bill of Rights made reference to non-discrimination (prior to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms). Finally, this was seen as a step towards decolonization and increased autonomy for Indigenous communities. As well, until 1985, a First Nations woman marrying a non-First Nations man was automatically enfranchised, as were any children that she may bear. Prior to 1985 this also meant that she her children would lose their official "Indian" status, including the rights to live on a First Nations reserve, although a First Nations man did not lose his status in this way. Once Indigenous peoples became enfranchised, and removed from coverage of the Indian Act, they were granted rights identical to that of other Canadian citizens.


title: Women's suffrage in Canada

text: Note: the term "women" used in the table indicate women of age 21 and older. In later years voting was extended to women between 18 and 21 years of age. This change took place federally in 1970.


title: Alexandra Powers

text: Powers was born in New York City. She grew up in an 'artsy, liberal environment' on both coasts with her divorced parents. Her father teaches acting. She said in an interview that her parents "encouraged me to find my own truth". Commenting on her faith, she stated "I pray whenever I feel sad. And I believe that whatever is right will work out." In that same interview, she said that her father was Roman Catholic and her mother Katharyn Powers was interested in metaphysics. Powers' mother wrote for television programs including "Fantasy Island" and "Charlie's Angels". At the age of six, Powers announced her intentions to become an actress.


title: Alexandra Powers

text: Powers appeared in various television and films roles including "Cast a Deadly Spell", "21 Jump Street", and "Dead Poets Society". In the film "Rising Sun", Powers portrayed a prostitute who attempted to seduce the character played by actor Wesley Snipes. She also had a recurring role on the NBC legal drama "L.A. Law". She portrayed "Dusty Brown" in the NBC miniseries "A Matter of Justice". On being successfully cast in the NBC program "Tonya and Nancy", Powers commented, "In a lot of ways, it's the role of the year". For the program, she received ice-skating lessons from Dody Teachman, former coach to Tonya Harding. In a review for "The Orlando Sentinel", Powers received a positive reception, "It should be said that Powers, the Christian lawyer on L.A. Law, is a dead ringer for Tonya ... and that she delivers a convincing performance."


title: Alexandra Powers

text: In the late 1990s she became a Scientologist, and by 2000 had married Gavin Potter and joined the Sea Organization, the religious order of the Church of Scientology.


title: Alexandra Powers

text: Powers previously said she did not adhere to any religion: "I've sort of looked and searched. I was a Buddhist for about six months." She was married to actor Barry Sherman in December 1993. Powers lamented, "I have to take my ring off when I go to work. And that makes me sad, because I put the ring on and I don't want to ever have to take it off."


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: "The Nightman Cometh" is the thirteenth and final episode of "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia"’s fourth season. The episode features a rock opera based on songs written by


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: With a spring in his step, Charlie notifies the gang that he's written a musical. Dennis and Mac quiz Charlie over his motivations, but the gang want to play the parts that Charlie has written for them purely out of their own vanity.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: Since he is functionally illiterate, Charlie enlists the help of Dee's friend Artemis to transcribe the script into something legible. The gang squabble over which parts to play. Initially, Mac is excited to play The Dayman, but Dennis goads him into trading parts. Frank is cast as the troll and Dee is picked to play the princess.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: Dee is concerned over the subject matter of her song's lyrics, contending they sound like she molests children. Charlie also tries in vain to get Frank to say "boy's soul" rather than "boy's hole" in his song.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: Charlie tracks down The Waitress, giving her a ticket and telling her that he will never bother her again if she attends.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: On the night of the show, the gang is excited to perform for an audience. However, some drama ensues when Dee ad-libs a song clarifying that she's not interested in children, much to Charlie's chagrin. Mac gets laughs when he comes on stage as The Nightman, much to his dismay.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: The Troll sings to The Nightman that he has to pay the Troll Toll to get the boy's soul, although Frank's pronunciation results in him saying "hole" instead of "soul." Mac hops onto Dennis in bed, who points out that Mac has an erection. Dennis transforms into the Dayman and kills the Troll with a handgun. The Dayman fights the Nightman and pulls his heart out. The remaining cast members then join together for an ensemble reprise of "Dayman," which Dennis and Charlie came up with in the earlier episode "Sweet Dee's Dating a Retarded Person"


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: Following "The Dayman" reprise, Charlie swoops down from a sun from above the stage, wearing a yellow outfit, singing "Marry Me" to The Waitress as a wedding proposal to her. This awkward moment reveals his true motivation in penning and putting on an entire musical. Unsurprisingly, Charlie's gambit is all for naught, as she declines his proposal and storms out.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: The Dayman was first introduced as a song written by Charlie Kelly and Dennis Reynolds in the ninth episode of the third season, "Sweet Dee's Dating a Retarded Person." Glenn Howerton explained: "Scott Marder and Rob Rosell wrote the episode and the lyrics: 'Dayman, fighter of the Nightman, champion of the sun / He's a master of karate and friendship for everyone.' Which are just the worst fucking lyrics ever, which is exactly what we wanted."


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: The unexpectedly enthusiastic reception of the Dayman song inspired the cast to devise a musical episode, but one "organic to the tone of the series." One of the initial ideas was the musical being an elaborate prank with a rival bar but that concept was eventually abandoned. "We finally realized: Maybe Charlie writes the musical and our characters are just so fucking vain that we can't stomach the thought of Charlie getting other people to do it," said Howerton. "Any time we deal with that kind of subject matter, I like to think it's coming from a more intelligent place," Charlie Day explained. "A rape joke is not remotely a funny thing; a man writing a musical that he thinks is about self-empowerment, and not realizing that all his lyrics sound like they're about a child being molested, is a funny thing. The joke is coming from confusion and misunderstanding, which are classic tropes of all comedy."


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: Most of the music in the episode was written by Day and composer Cormac Bluestone. "I said, 'Let me go off and write some of the songs and lyrics,' and I went to the piano," Day said. "We'd already had the Dayman song, so I pulled out the 'Troll Toll' and 'Tiny Boy, Little Boy' songs." The episode was performed in front of background actors who didn't have any context for the musical so their bemused reactions were genuine. Director Matt Shakman told the cast, "Just do it all the way through."


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: "I got Artemis Pebdani to act like the stage manager of the event and actually come out and do the speech that you always hear in shows about where the fire exits are," Shakman said. "I remember a lot of confused faces as we were performing," Rob McElhenney recalled. "People [who weren't familiar with the show] were wondering why it was funny… But I always go back to Glenn and Charlie; if they're still laughing, then I know it's funny."


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: In September 2009, the cast took their show live. The "Gang" performed the musical "The Nightman Cometh" in New York City, Boston, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. Mary Elizabeth Ellis and Artemis Pebdani also appeared in the performance as The Waitress and Artemis. Actress Rhea Perlman (wife of Danny DeVito) assumed the role of Gladys.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: McElhenney said that Live Nation originally approached the cast about doing the show in 30 cities, but the cast settled on 6. Howerton described the show as "essentially an expanded version of the actual episode of "The Nightman Cometh", which was the final episode for season four. There are some added moments, added scenes, added songs, and extended versions of songs that already existed." Two new songs were included in the performance and a longer running time allowed for greater improvisation by the actors. The performance was also preceded by a preview screening of a season five episode.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: The Los Angeles performance, filmed at The Troubadour, was included as a bonus feature on the season four DVD box set.


title: The Nightman Cometh

text: The title of Charlie's play is a reference to Eugene O'Neill's classic play "The Iceman Cometh". O'Neill's play is described as being about "dead-end alcoholics who spend every possible moment seeking oblivion in one another's company and trying to con or wheedle free drinks from Harry and the bartenders", which is a good description of the gang.


title: French livre

text: The livre (abbreviation: £ or ₶., French for (pound)) was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of coins and of units of account.


title: French livre

text: The livre was established by Charlemagne as a unit of account equal to one pound of silver. It was subdivided into 20 "sous" (also "sols"), each of 12 "deniers". The word "livre" came from the Latin word "libra", a Roman unit of weight and still the name of a pound in modern French, and the denier comes from the Roman denarius. This system and the denier itself served as the model for many of Europe's currencies, including the British pound, Italian lira, Spanish dinero and the Portuguese dinheiro.


title: French livre

text: This first livre is known as the . Only deniers were initially minted, but debasement led to larger denominations being issued. Different mints in different regions used different weights for the denier, leading to several distinct livres of different values.


title: French livre

text: "Livre" is a homonym of the French word for "book" (from the Latin word ""), the distinction being that the two have different genders. The monetary and weight unit is feminine, la/une livre, while "book" is masculine, le/un livre.


title: French livre

text: For much of the Middle Ages, different duchies of France were semi-autonomous if not practically independent from the weak Capetian kings, and thus each minted its own currency. Charters would need to specify which region or mint was being used: "money of Paris" or "money of Troyes". The first steps towards standardization came under the first strong Capetian monarch, Philip II Augustus (1165–1223). Philip II conquered much of the continental Angevin Empire from King John of England, including Normandy, Anjou, and Touraine.


title: French livre

text: The currency minted at the city of Tours in Touraine was considered very stable, and Philip II decided to adopt the "livre tournois" as the standard currency of his lands, gradually replacing even the livre of Paris, and ultimately the currencies of all French-speaking areas he controlled. This was a slow process lasting many decades and not completed within Philip II's lifetime.


title: French livre

text: The result was that from 1200 onwards, following the beginning of King Philip II's campaigns against King John, the currency used within French speaking lands was in a state of flux, as the "livre tournois" was gradually introduced into other areas.


title: French livre

text: Until the thirteenth century and onwards, only deniers were actually minted as coin money. Both livres and sous did not actually exist as coins but were used only for accounting purposes.


title: French livre

text: Upon his return from the crusades in the 1250s, Louis IX instigated a royal monopoly on the minting of coinage in France and minted the first gold "écu d'or" and silver "gros d'argent", whose weights (and thus monetary divisions) were roughly equivalent to the livre tournois and the denier.


title: French livre

text: Between 1360 and 1641, coins worth 1₶. were minted known as francs. This name persisted in common parlance for 1₶. but was not used on coins or paper money.


title: French livre

text: The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549. However, in 1577, the livre tournois accounting unit was officially abolished and replaced by the écu, which was at that time the major French gold coin in actual circulation. In 1602, the livre tournois accounting unit was brought back.


title: French livre

text: Louis XIII of France stopped minting the franc in 1641, replacing it with coins based on the silver écu and gold Louis d'or. The écu and louis d'or fluctuated in value, with the écu varying between three and six livres tournois until 1726 when it was fixed at 6₶. The louis was initially (1640) worth 10₶., and fluctuated too, until its value was fixed at 24₶. in 1726.


title: French livre

text: In 1667, the livre parisis was officially abolished. However, the sole remaining livre was still frequently referred to as the livre tournois until its demise.


title: French livre

text: The first French paper money was issued in 1701 and was denominated in livres tournois. However, the notes did not hold their value relative to silver due to massive over–production. The Banque Royale (the last issuer of these early notes) crashed in 1720, rendering the banknotes worthless (see John Law for more on this system).


title: French livre

text: In 1726, under Louis XV's minister Cardinal Fleury, a system of monetary stability was put in place. Eight ounces (a mark) of gold was worth 740₶.9s. (so, one ounce of gold was worth approximately 4 Louis or 93₶.); 8 ounces of silver was worth 51₶.2s.3d. This led to a strict conversion rate between gold and silver (14.4867 to 1) and established the values of the coins in circulation in France at:


title: French livre

text: However a coin of 1₶. was not minted. Yet in 1720 a special coin minted in pure silver was produced and assigned a token value of 1₶. Additionally, France took Navarrese 20-sou coins minted in 1719 and 1720, re-struck them as écu (between the years of 1720 and 1723) essentially creating a coin worth 1 livre. These re-struck coins, however, eventually were assigned the value of 18 sous.


title: French livre

text: A kind of paper money was reintroduced by the Caisse d'Escompte in 1776 as "actions au porteur", denominated in livres. These were issued until 1793, alongside "assignats" from 1789. Assignats were backed (in theory) by government-held land. Like the issues of the Banque Royale, their value plummeted.


title: French livre

text: The last coins and notes of the livre currency system were issued in Year II of the Republic (1794). In 1795, the franc was introduced, worth 1₶.3d. (₶), and the first one-franc coin was struck in 1803. Still the word livre survived; until the middle of the 19th century it was indifferently used alongside the word franc, especially to express large amounts and transactions linked with property (real estate, property incomes or "rentes", cattle, etc...).


title: French livre

text: The livre had also been used as the legal currency of the Channel Islands. The Jersey livre remained legal currency in Jersey until 1834 when dwindling supplies of no-longer minted coins obliged the adoption of the pound as legal tender.


title: Long Range Land Attack Projectile

text: The Long Range Land Attack Projectile (LRLAP) is a cancelled precision guided 155 mm naval artillery shell for the U.S. Navy's Advanced Gun System (AGS). LRLAP was developed and produced by Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control, the prime contractor being BAE Systems.


title: Long Range Land Attack Projectile

text: The LRLAP would have used a rocket-assisted projectile with fin glide trajectory. The warhead effectiveness was considered comparable to that of the M795 artillery shell, and with the AGS it would have been capable of 6 round Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact (MRSI) in a span of 2 seconds. It would have used a blast fragmentation type warhead.


title: Long Range Land Attack Projectile

text: The LRLAP was designed for use in the AGS and is not compatible with any other weapon. The AGS is used only on the "Zumwalt"-class destroyer, with two AGSs on each ship. In November 2016, the Navy announced it had decided to cancel procurement of the LRLAP. This was due to rising costs resulting from the trimming of the "Zumwalt"-class destroyer fleet to just three ships, raising individual shell cost to $800,000-$1 million, about as much as the Tomahawk cruise missile. About 90 rounds had been secured for testing aboard the three hulls, but a full buy of about 2,000 planned rounds would be about $1.8-$2 billion.


title: Long Range Land Attack Projectile

text: In cooperation with BAE Systems a version of LRLAP was designed to be used with the 127 mm 5"/54 caliber Mark 45 guns used on most Navy ships. It was never produced. Other guided munitions for these guns were BTERM and ERGM, which were also never produced.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Michael Francis Mayock (born August 14, 1958) is a former American football executive and former player who served as the general manager of the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) from 2019 to 2021. Mayock was a safety with the New York Giants of the NFL, a draft analyst for the NFL Network, and a game analyst for NBC's coverage of Notre Dame football.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock played high school football at The Haverford School in Haverford, Pennsylvania, and college football (and baseball) at Boston College. He was selected as a safety by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the tenth round of the 1981 NFL Draft, as the 265th overall pick. He was waived during first roster cuts on August 18, 1981. After his release, he signed with the CFL's Toronto Argonauts during the 1981 season. He played in just one game before being released. He returned to the NFL with the New York Giants for the 1982 and 1983 football seasons.


title: Mike Mayock

text: In 1982, he played in the first two games of the season before the players' strike caused the cancellation of the next eight games. When the players returned on November 21, Mayock tore his rotator cuff in a game against the Washington Redskins, and was placed on injured reserve on November 24, 1982.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock was placed on injured reserve again before the start of the 1983 season on August 30, after undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery. He was activated from the list on October 16, 1983. He played in one game before he was placed on injured reserve again on October 24, 1983. He was activated from the injured reserve list after clearing procedural waivers on November 19, 1983. He played in the remaining five games of the season thereafter. He was waived by the Giants on July 27, 1984.


title: Mike Mayock

text: After an 18 year career in commercial real estate, Mayock broke into broadcasting covering college football for Prime Network, NCAA Productions, Prime Sports Radio and the Big East Conference. Later he went to ESPN where he worked as an analyst and sideline reporter for the cable network's coverage of the Canadian Football League and college football from 1993–95. He moved from ESPN to CBS Sports in 1996 as a member of SEC on CBS' broadcast team—during which time he served as both a game analyst (1996, 1997 and 1999) and lead sideline reporter (1998). Mayock also worked as a reporter for CBS's coverage of the NCAA basketball tournament in 1997, 1998 and 1999.


title: Mike Mayock

text: In 2000, he moved to Fox Sports Net where he called college football action. Between 2001 and 2004, Mayock served as a college football analyst for ABC Sports. For example, in 2002, he worked with Terry Gannon, then he worked with Derrin Horton, and, finally, he worked with Dr. Jerry Punch as the sixth-announcing team. From 2004 to 2018, Mayock worked with the NFL Network where he did his most notable work while a broadcaster.


title: Mike Mayock

text: He was the color commentator for the Minnesota Vikings preseason games for several seasons. From 2015 to 2018, Mayock commentated on the Philadelphia Eagles preseason television broadcasts alongside play-by-play announcer Scott Graham and sideline reporter Dave Spadero.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock was an analyst for NFL Network and hosted the show "Path To The Draft" during the draft season as a draft guru.


title: Mike Mayock

text: In 2010, Mayock replaced Pat Haden as the color commentator for NBC's coverage of Notre Dame football, teaming with play-by-play announcer Tom Hammond. On January 8, 2011, Mayock teamed with Hammond to call NBC's coverage of the Wild Card playoff game between the New Orleans Saints and Seattle Seahawks in what was later referred to as the Beast Quake game. This was his first NFL Playoffs game as a broadcaster.


title: Mike Mayock

text: On January 5, 2012, Mayock commentated the AFC wild card game between the Cincinnati Bengals and Houston Texans.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock called Thursday Night Football on the NFL Network with Brad Nessler from 2011 through 2013. In February 2014, the NFL announced that CBS Sports and the NFL Network would share and co-produce the Thursday Night package, using the No. 1 CBS announce team of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms for the entire season, replacing Nessler and Mayock.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock was replaced by Doug Flutie as color commentator of Notre Dame football, beginning with the 2015 season.


title: Mike Mayock

text: On December 31, 2018, Mayock was hired to be the general manager of the Oakland Raiders. One of Mayock's first splashes as general manager was trading for embittered Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Antonio Brown. In his first draft with the team, Mayock used the team's three first-round picks on Clelin Ferrell, Josh Jacobs, and Johnathan Abram. Mayock was involved in a heated verbal exchange with Brown during a practice session prior to the start of the 2019 NFL season, in which Brown insulted Mayock as a "cracker". The altercation allegedly stemmed from an Instagram post in which Brown displayed a letter from Mayock that detailed approximately $54,000 in fines for absences during training camp, which led to Brown being released and eventually signing with the New England Patriots.


title: Mike Mayock

text: On January 17, 2022, Mayock was fired by the Raiders after the team's first playoff game since 2016. The Raiders' overall record with Mayock was 25–24 in the regular season and 0–1 in the playoffs. Some of the Raiders' best picks during Mayock's tenure came after Round 1 including Trayvon Mullen (who was traded for a 7th round pick in 2022), Maxx Crosby, and Hunter Renfrow in 2019—and Divine Deablo and Nate Hobbs in 2021. None of Mayock's first round picks in the 2020 and 2021 NFL drafts (Henry Ruggs, Damon Arnette, and Alex Leatherwood) lasted a little more than a year with the team. Mayock has claimed he was fired, in part, for his belief that Rich Bisaccia should have been retained as head coach.


title: Mike Mayock

text: Mayock has two children, Leigh and Mike, the latter of whom played football at Villanova. He also has two stepchildren, Mackenzie and Jack Miles. Jack plays right wing for the Renfrew Wolves Junior A Hockey team of the CCHL. He resides in the San Francisco Area with his wife Amanda and their rescue dog Willow.


title: Hattie Winston

text: Hattie Mae Winston (born March 3, 1945) is an American film, television and Broadway actress and voice artist. She is known for her roles as Margaret Wyborn on "Becker", Lucy Carmichael in "Rugrats", "The Rugrats Movie", and the spin off series "All Grown Up!", and as a cast member of the PBS children's series "The Electric Company".


title: Hattie Winston

text: Winston was born in Lexington, Mississippi on March 3, 1945, the daughter of Roosevelt Winston and Selena (née Thurmond). She was raised in Greenville, Mississippi, where Winston attended local schools, which were segregated at the time. She left the South at the age of 14 and settled in Manhattan, New York, graduating high school there. Winston attended Howard University for two years, where she majored in music.


title: Hattie Winston

text: She began her career on stage in New York City in 1965, and was an original member of the Negro Ensemble Company. By the late 1960s, she had begun acting on Broadway. Winston portrayed Nell in musical "The Me Nobody Knows" (1970−71) before landing the role of Sylvia in Shakespearean comedy "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" (1972−73), replacing Jonelle Allen. She had previously served as Allen's understudy in the production. Winston then appeared as Cleo in musical "I Love My Wife" (1979), with Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs playing her character's husband.


title: Hattie Winston

text: Winston portrayed the lead, Billie Holiday, in play "Lady Day" (1981). She starred in the Broadway hit "The Tap Dance Kid" (1983−84) as Ginnie, her latest Broadway production to date. Winston received two Obie Awards for her roles in "Mother Courage and Her Children" and "The Michigan". She co-wrote the musical "" alongside James Stovall, which has been performed frequently since its inception.


title: Hattie Winston

text: In 1973, Winston joined the cast of PBS children's series "The Electric Company" during its third season, produced by the Children's Television Workshop. She replaced Lee Chamberlin on the series. Winston's most notable character was Valerie the Librarian, the girlfriend of Easy Reader (portrayed by Morgan Freeman). She also played many villainess roles versus Spider-Man on the "Spidey Super Stories" sketches, such as the Fox, the Thumper, the Queen Bee, and the Queen of Diamonds. Winston remained with the show until it ended in 1977.


title: Hattie Winston

text: While appearing on "The Electric Company", Winston was Veronique on soap opera "The Edge of Night" (1976). Winston appeared regularly as nurse Toni Gillette in "Nurse" from 1981 to 1982. She performed alongside Dorian Harewood in the television film "The Hope Division" (1987). Winston was Pauline in the unsuccessful pilot "Coming to America" (1989), based off the movie of the same name. In 1990, Winston portrayed Nurse Flowers in "Sesame Street Home Video Visits the Hospital".


title: Hattie Winston

text: In 1991, she won the role of housekeeper Gloria Davis in "Homefront", and continued playing the character until 1993. For her work on "Homefront", Winston was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 1994. She recurred on soap opera "Port Charles" as Alice Morgan, and acted in the Western "The Cherokee Kid" (1996).


title: Hattie Winston

text: She provided the voice of Lucy Carmichael on the popular Nickelodeon cartoon "Rugrats", as well as in the 1998 film version, "The Rugrats Movie". Winston reprised the role in the spin-off series "All Grown Up!", which ran from 2003 through 2008. During the 2000s, she played Margaret Turk, the mother of Dr. Christopher Turk (Donald Faison), on the NBC (later ABC) sitcom "Scrubs".


title: Hattie Winston

text: From 1998 through 2004, she portrayed nurse Margaret Wybourn on the CBS sitcom "Becker", starring Ted Danson. John Crook described Winston as a "valuable cog" on "Becker". In 2001, Winston received her second NAACP Image Award nomination, in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series as Margaret.


title: Hattie Winston

text: Following her run on "Becker", Winston made guest appearances on "ER", "Cold Case", "Castle" and "Mike & Molly". She had a recurring role as Sister Coriann Pearly in sitcom "The Soul Man".


title: Hattie Winston

text: In film, Winston portrayed Mrs. Todd in "Beverly Hills Cop III" (1994), Simone in "Jackie Brown" (1997) and Angela Russel in "True Crime" (1999), the latter opposite Clint Eastwood. Winston had a minor role as a hospital nurse in "Living Out Loud" (1998).


title: Hattie Winston

text: Winston is married to Harold Wheeler, who served as musical director for "Dancing with the Stars". The couple have one daughter, Samantha.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: The Kottonmouth Kings is an American hip hop group formed in Placentia, California in 1996 by D-Loc and Saint Dog. The group advocates for legalizing cannabis, and their lyrics frequently refer to smoking marijuana. The group plays hip hop, punk and rap rock songs that sometimes incorporate elements of other genres, including psychedelic rock, reggae, dubstep, bluegrass and jam band.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On February 24, 1998, Kottonmouth Kings released their first overall album, and their first EP, "Stoners Reeking Havoc".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 11, 1998, Kottonmouth Kings released their first national album, first studio album, and second overall album titled "Royal Highness" on Suburban Noize Records and Capitol Records. The album featured the original lineup of Daddy X, D-Loc, Saint Dog on vocals, and Lou Dog on drums and percussion, and DJ Bobby B.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On March 11, 1999, Kottonmouth Kings released their second EP, and third overall album, "Stash Box". On October 26, 1999, Kottonmouth Kings released their first compilation album, "Hidden Stash". This was also the last album to feature Saint Dog as a member of Kottonmouth Kings.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: Kottonmouth Kings began to gain mainstream success with the release of their third studio album, and their fifth overall album, "High Society" on June 27, 2000. This was the first album to feature "original" member Johnny Richter. The album charted at #65 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On September 4, 2001 D-Loc released his first solo album and his first under the name DJ Shakey Bonez titled "The Green Room".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: Kottonmouth Kings toured with D12/Primer 55 and Bionic Jive during the fall of 2001 in support of their fourth studio album, and sixth overall album, "" which was released on October 9, 2001. The album charted at #100 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On October 8, 2002, Kottonmouth Kings released their fourth studio album, and their seventh overall album titled "Rollin' Stoned". The album charted at #51 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In 2003 Kottonmouth Kings released their second compilation album, and their eighth overall release with the promo CD titled "Green Is Gold".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 12, 2003, Kottonmouth Kings released their third compilation album, their first live album and their ninth overall album titled "Classic Hits Live".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On April 20, 2004, Kottonmouth Kings released their fifth studio album, and their tenth overall release titled "Fire It Up". The album charted at #42 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 24, 2004, Daddy X released "Organic Soul", his first solo album, and Kingspade released their debut album titled "Kingspade".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On November 16, 2004, Kottonmouth Kings released their fourth compilation album, and their eleventh overall album, "The Kottonmouth Xperience".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On May 31, 2005, Kottonmouth Kings released their sixth studio album, and their twelfth overall album titled "Kottonmouth Kings". The album charted at #50 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On November 15, 2005, Kottonmouth Kings released their fifth compilation album and their thirteenth overall album, "Joint Venture". The album charted at #193 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On May 9, 2006, Kottonmouth Kings released their third EP, and fourteenth overall album titled "Nickel Bag". The album was a prelude to "Koast II Koast", their seventh studio album, released June 6. "Koast II Koast" charted at #39 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In 2006, Kottonmouth Kings headlined at the annual Cannabis Cup, and was named "Band of the Year" by "High Times".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On November 21, 2006, Kottonmouth Kings released their sixth compilation album and their sixteenth overall album, "Hidden Stash III". The album charted at #199 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 28, 2007, Kottonmouth Kings released their eighth studio album and their seventeenth overall album, "Cloud Nine". The album charted at #44 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On January 15, 2008, Kottonmouth Kings released their seventh compilation album, and their eighteenth overall album, "Greatest Highs". The album charted at #168 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On April 15, 2008, Kottonmouth Kings released their eighth compilation album and their nineteenth overall album, "".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On October 28, 2008, Kottonmouth Kings released their ninth studio album and their twentieth overall album, "The Green Album". The album charted at #42 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In 2009, D-Loc released his second solo album and his second under the name DJ Shakey Bonez titled "Kingspade Presents D-Loc's DJ Shakey Bonez: Dog Treats".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On October 13, 2009, Kottonmouth Kings released their tenth compilation album and their twenty-third overall album titled "Hidden Stash 420". The album charted at #103 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On April 20, 2010, Kottonmouth Kings released their tenth studio album, "Long Live the Kings". The album charted at #26 on the Billboard 200. Ironically named, the album was the last time Pakelika would be on as he was kicked out of the group by Daddy X, and died some time later.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 17, 2010 D-Loc released his third solo album and the first under the name D-Loc titled "MFK (Made for Kings)".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On March 1, 2011 The Dirtball released his fifth solo album, fourth on Suburban Noize Records, and first since joining Kottonmouth Kings, titled "Nervous System".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On April 19, 2011, Kottonmouth Kings released their fifth EP and their twenty-fifth overall album, "Legalize It".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On July 19, 2011, Kottonmouth Kings released their eleventh studio album, "Sunrise Sessions". The album charted at #46 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On March 20, 2012 D-Loc released his fourth solo album and the second under the name D-Loc, an EP titled "Weedman".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On May 22, 2012 The Dirtball released his sixth solo album, fifth on Suburban Noize Records, and second since joining Kottonmouth Kings, an EP titled "Desert Eagle".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 14, 2012, Kottonmouth Kings released their twelfth studio album and their twenty-eighth overall album, "Mile High". The album charted at #36 on the Billboard 200.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On December 25, 2013, D-Loc released his fifth solo album and the third under the name D-Loc, a second EP titled "Bong Tokes & Love Notes".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In March 2013 it was announced via social media accounts that Kottonmouth Kings had left Suburban Noize Records. Daddy X filed for the copyright of the name United Family Music.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In October 2013, Johnny Richter announced via Twitter that he was leaving Kottonmouth Kings, and was unsure if he would continue to do music. He released his first post-Kottonmouth Kings solo album, an EP titled "FreeKing Out" on December 17, 2013. However, he is still currently signed with Subnoize Records as a solo artist.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On April 20, 2014, Kottonmouth Kings released their first post-Johnny Richter album, their sixth EP titled "The Buddah Shack".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In September 2014, the band announced on Twitter and Facebook that their new album, "Krown Power", was in the final stages of being mixed and was set to be released in early 2015. On December 31, 2014, Kottonmouth Kings officially announced via their Twitter account that the album, the first LP release on United Family Music, would be dropping on April 21, 2015.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In early April 2015, KMK announced that the new tentative release date for "Krown Power" was set for June 2015, and that the album would be available for pre-order on April 20, 2015. A single and the accompanying video would be released each month leading up to the release of the album; the debut single/music video was "Ganja Glow".


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: In August 2015, DJ Bobby B announced on Instagram that he and the band had parted ways after working together for nineteen years.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: On August 28, 2015, "Krown Power", Kottonmouth Kings' thirteenth studio album was released. In November 2015, it was announced that KMK was set to release a new album in 2016 titled "Ganja Farm" with Marlon Asher and original KMK member Saint Dog.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: After the 20th anniversary tour and the tour to promote "Krown Power", the group quietly went on hiatus with no announcement. On July 31, 2017, D-Loc announced that the Kottonmouth Kings may still perform as a group at certain shows in the future.


title: Kottonmouth Kings

text: It was announced in December 2017, that D-Loc and Richter had reunited to reform Kingspade. In January 2018 Daddy X sent out a newsletter via United Family Music hinting at KMK returning in 2018. On January 31, 2018, Kingspade announced via Instagram that new music was set to be released on March 1, 2018, through the Kingmaker Company. On March 1, 2018, a music video for the Kingspade song "Who We" was released. In the video it was announced that Kingspade would release a full-length album in the summer of 2018 and Kottonmouth Kings would be releasing a new album titled "Kingdom Come" on April 20, 2018. Kottonmouth Kings came back in 2018 when original founding members D-Loc and Saint Dog, along with Johnny Richter on multiple features, released the album "Kingdom Come". The current lineup features D-Loc, Richter, and DJ Product 1969. On October 13, 2020, Saint Dog died. On December 5, 2020, D-Loc announced that he had formed P.T.B. Records and that a new Kottonmouth Kings album, titled "25 to Life", was set to be released in 2021. The album was released on April 20, 2021.


title: Peter Bonerz

text: Bonerzwas born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to Elfrieda (née Kern) and Christopher Bonerz. He grew up in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he attended Marquette University High School. Here, performing with the Prep Players, he gained his first theatrical experience. At Marquette University, he participated in the Marquette University Players. After graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in 1960, he decided to seek a career in theater, starting in New York City in improv with a troupe called The Premise. After compulsory service as a draftee in the United States Army, he worked with an improv troupe in San Francisco known as The Committee, whose members included Rob Reiner, David Ogden Stiers, Howard Hesseman and Hamilton Camp.


title: Peter Bonerz

text: Bonerz's first network television appearance was in 1965 on "The Addams Family" in the season-two episode "Morticia, The Writer". He had several more TV appearances in the late 1960s and also had roles in several films, including "Funnyman" (1967); "What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?" (1969); "Medium Cool" (1969); "Catch-22" (1970), which also included his future co-star Bob Newhart; "Jennifer on My Mind" (1971); and "Fuzz" (1972). In 1971, Bonerz was part of an ensemble cast in the short-lived improvisational television show "Story Theatre", which also included Alan Alda and Valerie Harper. In 1972, he landed the popular supporting role of Dr. Jerry Robinson, the eccentric orthodontist on "The Bob Newhart Show", whose most frequent comic foil was Marcia Wallace as Carol, the sharp-tongued receptionist. Bonerz would reprise this role in a cameo appearance in the final, unaired episode of Bob Newhart's third series, "Bob". He also directed 29 episodes. The show ran for six seasons, with ratings among the top 20 in the first three seasons.


title: Peter Bonerz

text: His later acting roles included the TV miniseries "The Bastard" (1978) and as a psychiatrist in the movie "Serial" (1980). In 1979, Bonerz appeared on "Password Plus" as a game show contestant/celebrity guest star with Marcia Wallace, his costar from "The Bob Newhart Show". In 1986, Bonerz co-starred with Tuesday Weld and River Phoenix in the television movie "". In 1999, he played Ed. Weinberger in the movie "Man on the Moon". He voiced Sal in the "Aaahh!!! Real Monsters" episode "Internal Affairs". In 2014, he played Doug Demarco in the "Anniversaries" episode of "Parks and Recreation".


title: Peter Bonerz

text: Beginning in 1974, Bonerz directed 29 episodes of "The Bob Newhart Show". Between 1974 and 2011, he directed over 350 episodes of various shows, including series like "Murphy Brown" (93 episodes), "Home Improvement" (29 episodes), "E/R" (22 episodes), "Friends" (12 episodes), and many others such as "Wings", "NewsRadio", "Archie Bunker's Place", and "ALF". He also directed films such as "Nobody's Perfekt" (1981) and "" (1989).


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Christopher Wolfgang John Alexander (4 October 1936 – 17 March 2022) was an Austrian-born British-American architect and design theorist. He was an emeritus professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His theories about the nature of human-centered design have affected fields beyond architecture, including urban design, software, and sociology. Alexander designed and personally built over 100 buildings, both as an architect and a general contractor.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: In software, Alexander is regarded as the father of the pattern language movement. The first wiki—the technology behind Wikipedia—led directly from Alexander's work, according to its creator, Ward Cunningham. Alexander's work has also influenced the development of agile software development.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: In architecture, Alexander's work is used by a number of different contemporary architectural communities of practice, including the New Urbanist movement, to help people to reclaim control over their own built environment. However, Alexander was controversial among some mainstream architects and critics, in part because his work was often harshly critical of much of contemporary architectural theory and practice.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander is known for many books on the design and building process, including "Notes on the Synthesis of Form, A City is Not a Tree" (first published as a paper and re-published in book form in 2015), "The Timeless Way of Building, A New Theory of Urban Design," and "The Oregon Experiment." More recently he published the four-volume "The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe," about his newer theories of "morphogenetic" processes, and "The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth", about the implementation of his theories in a large building project in Japan. All his works are developed or accumulated from his previous works, so his works should be read as a whole rather than fragmented pieces. His life's work or the best of his works is The Nature of Order on which he spent about 30 years, and the very first version of The Nature of Order was done in 1981, one year before a famous debate with Peter Eisenman at Harvard.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander is perhaps best known for his 1977 book "A Pattern Language," a perennial seller some four decades after publication. Reasoning that users are more sensitive to their needs than any architect could be, he produced and validated (in collaboration with his students Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid King, and Shlomo Angel) a "pattern language" to empower anyone to design and build at any scale.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander was born in Vienna, Austria. His father, Ferdinand Johann Alfred Alexander, was Catholic and his mother, Lilly Edith Elizabeth (Deutsch) Alexander was Jewish. As a young child Alexander emigrated in fall 1938 with his parents from Austria to England, when his parents were forced to flee the Nazi regime. (They worked as German language teachers.) He spent much of his childhood in Chichester and Oxford, England, where he began his education in the sciences. He moved from England to the United States in 1958 to study at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He moved to Berkeley, California in 1963 to accept an appointment as Professor of Architecture, a position he would hold for almost 40 years. In 2002, after his retirement, Alexander moved to Arundel, England, where he continued to write, teach and build up to the time of his illness and death. Alexander was married to Margaret Moore Alexander, and he had two daughters, Sophie and Lily, by his former wife Pamela Patrick. Alexander held both British and American citizenship.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: On 17 March 2022, Alexander died peacefully in his home in Binsted, near Arundel, United Kingdom, following a long illness. The immediate cause was pneumonia, according to Margaret Moore.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander attended the Dragon School in Oxford and then Oundle School. In 1954, he was awarded the top open scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge University in chemistry and physics, and went on to read mathematics. He earned a Bachelor's degree in Architecture and a Master's degree in Mathematics. He took his doctorate at Harvard (the first PhD in Architecture ever awarded at Harvard University). His dissertation "The Synthesis of Form: Some Notes on a Theory" was completed in 1962. He was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander was elected to the Society of Fellows, Harvard University 1961–64; awarded the First Medal for Research by the American Institute of Architects, 1972; elected member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts, 1980; winner of the Best Building in Japan award, 1985; winner of the ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Distinguished Professor Award, 1986 and 1987; invited to present the Louis Kahn Memorial Lecture, 1992; elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996; one of the two inaugural recipients of the Athena Medal, given by the Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU), 2006;. awarded ("in absentia") the Vincent Scully Prize by the National Building Museum, 2009; awarded the lifetime achievement award by the Urban Design Group, 2011; winner of the Global Award for Sustainable Architecture, 2014 and 1994 Seaside Prize recipient.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: "The Timeless Way of Building" (1979) described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire:


title: Christopher Alexander

text: "A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction" (1977), co-authored with Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a generative grammar. The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe, and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs. A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: The book includes all needed surveying and structural calculations, and a novel simplified building system that copes with regional shortages of wood and steel, uses easily stored inexpensive materials, and produces long-lasting classic buildings with small amounts of materials, design and labor. It first has users prototype a structure on-site in temporary materials. Once accepted, these are finished by filling them with very-low-density concrete. It uses vaulted construction to build as high as three stories, permitting very high densities.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: This book's method was adopted by the University of Oregon as described in "The Oregon Experiment" (1975), and remains the official planning instrument. It has also been adopted in part by some cities as a building code.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: The idea of a pattern language appears to apply to any complex engineering task, and has been applied to some of them. It has been especially influential in software engineering where patterns have been used to document collective knowledge in the field.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: "A New Theory of Urban Design" (1987) coincided with a renewal of interest in urbanism among architects, but stood apart from most other expressions of this by assuming a distinctly anti-masterplanning stance. An account of a design studio conducted with University of California Berkeley students on a site in San Francisco, it shows how convincing urban networks can be generated by requiring individual actors to respect only "local" rules, in relation to neighbours. A vastly undervalued part of the Alexander canon, "A New Theory" is important in understanding the generative processes which give rise to the shanty towns latterly championed by Stewart Brand, Robert Neuwirth, and the Prince of Wales. There have been critical reconstructions of Alexander's design studio based on the theories put forward in "A New Theory of Urban Design".


title: Christopher Alexander

text: "The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe" (2003–04), which includes The "Phenomenon of Life", "The Process of Creating Life", "A Vision of a Living World" and "The Luminous Ground", is Alexander's most comprehensive and elaborate work. In it, he put forth a new theory about the nature of space and described how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, planning, and the way in which we view the world in general. The mostly static patterns from "A Pattern Language" were amended by more dynamic sequences, which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the end result of sequences). Sequences, like patterns, promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture).


title: Christopher Alexander

text: The online publication "Katarxis 3" (September 2004) includes several essays by Christopher Alexander, as well as the legendary debate between Alexander and Peter Eisenman from 1982.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Alexander's final book published while he was alive, "The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle Between Two World-Systems" (2012), is the story of the largest project he and his colleagues had ever tackled, the construction of a new High School/College campus in Japan. He also used the project to connect with themes in his four-volume series. He contrasted his approach, (System A) with the construction processes endemic in the U.S. and Japanese economies (System B). As Alexander describes it, System A is focused on enhancing the life/spirit of spaces within given constraints (land, budget, client needs, etc.) (drawings are sketches – decisions on placing buildings, materials used, finish and such are made in the field as construction proceeds, with adjustments as needed to meet overall budget); System B ignores, and tends to diminish or destroy that quality because there is an inherent flaw: System A is a generally a product of a different Economic System than we live in now. When the architect is only responsible for concept and casual field drawings (which the builder uses to build structures at the lowest possible [competitive] cost), the builder finds that System A can not produce acceptable results at the lowest market cost. Except for a culture where land and material costs are low or first world clients who are sensitive, patient and wealthy. In most cases, the economically motivated builder must use a hybrid system. In the best case, System AB, the builder uses the processes of System A to differentiate, improve and inform his work. Or there are no economic considerations and the builder is the architect and is building for himself. In the last few chapters he described "centers" as a way of thinking about the connections among spaces, and about what brings more wholeness and life to a space.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo (the building process of which is outlined in his 2012 book "The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth"); the West Dean Visitors Centre in West Sussex, England; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in San Jose, California (both described in "Nature of Order"); the Sala House and the Martinez House (experimental houses in Albany and Martinez, California made of lightweight concrete); the low-cost housing in Mexicali, Mexico (described in "The Production of Houses"); and several private houses (described and illustrated in "The Nature of Order"). Alexander's built work is characterized by a special quality (which he used to call "the quality without a name", but named "wholeness" in "Nature of Order") that relates to human beings and induces feelings of belonging to the place and structure. This quality is found in the most loved traditional and historic buildings and urban spaces, and is precisely what Alexander has tried to capture with his sophisticated mathematical design theories. Paradoxically, achieving this connective human quality has also moved his buildings away from the abstract imageability valued in contemporary architecture, and this is one reason why his buildings are under-appreciated at present.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: His former student and colleague Michael Mehaffy wrote an introductory essay on Alexander's built work in the online publication "Katarxis 3", which includes a gallery of Alexander's major built projects through September 2004.


title: Christopher Alexander

text: In addition to his lengthy teaching career as a Professor at UC Berkeley (during which a number of international students began to appreciate and apply his methods), Alexander was a key faculty member at both The Prince of Wales's Summer Schools in Civil Architecture (1990–1994) and The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment. He also initiated the process which led to the international Building Beauty post-graduate school for architecture, which launched in Sorrento, Italy for the 2017–18 academic year.