title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In March 2017, FBI Director James Comey confirmed in a congressional hearing that the FBI had been investigating Russian interference as part of its counterintelligence mission. He further confirmed that the probe included links between Trump campaign members and the Russian government, and "whether there was any coordination between the campaign and Russia's efforts". Comey added in a June Senate hearing that President Trump had not been personally under investigation until after Comey's departure from the FBI.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In February 2018, the Nunes memo, written by staff for U.S. Representative Devin Nunes, stated: "The Papadopoulos information triggered the opening of an FBI counterintelligence investigation in late July 2016 by FBI agent Pete Strzok",


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: rather than the Steele dossier as asserted by, among others, President Donald Trump, Nunes, and several Fox News hosts such as Tucker Carlson and Sean Hannity.<ref name="Cassidy_2/2/2018"></ref> A rebuttal memo by Democrats in the House Intelligence Committee confirmed that the investigation was opened on July 31, 2016, and stated that Christopher Steele's memos "played no role in launching the counterintelligence investigation into Russian interference and links to the Trump campaign". The counter-memo added that the FBI investigative team only received the Steele dossier in mid-September, "because the probe's existence was so closely held within the FBI".<ref name="Philips_2/24/2018"></ref><ref name="Prokop_2/24/2018"></ref> "The New York Times" reported in April 2019 that investigators received the dossier on September 19, 2016.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In April 2018, the House Intelligence Committee, then in Republican control, released a report on Russian interference in the 2016 election, as well as the American response to it. The report corroborated that the FBI opened its counterintelligence probe in late July 2016 "following the receipt of derogatory information about foreign policy advisor George Papadopoulos".<ref name="Yen_Woodward_Tucker_4/1/2019"></ref><ref name="Qiu_5/21/2019"></ref><ref name="HRPT-115-1_3/22/2018"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In June 2018, the Office of the Inspector General released a report on its counter-investigation into the FBI's investigation of the Hillary Clinton email controversy. This report stated: "On July 31, 2016, just weeks after the conclusion of the Midyear investigation [into Clinton], the FBI opened its investigation of Russian interference in the ongoing presidential election [...] the Russia investigation, which touched upon the campaign of then candidate Trump."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Mueller Report of the Special Counsel investigation, completed in March 2019, states that the Papadopoulos information about Russia having acquired damaging material on Clinton "prompted the FBI on July 31, 2016, to open an investigation into whether individuals associated with the Trump Campaign were coordinating with the Russian government in its interference activities".<ref name="NYT-Mueller_Report_4/18/2019"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: A review of Crossfire Hurricane done by Justice Department Inspector General Michael E. Horowitz resulted in a report released in December 2019. The report stated that the following information from a Friendly Foreign Government triggered the investigation: George Papadopoulos "suggested the Trump team had received some kind of suggestion from Russia that it could assist this process with the anonymous release of information during the campaign that would be damaging to Mrs. Clinton (and President Obama)."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Horowitz's review also found that the FBI electronic communication opening the investigation into Papadopoulos said that Papadopoulos "made statements indicating that he is knowledgeable that the Russians made a suggestion to the Trump team that they could assist the Trump campaign with an anonymous release of information during the campaign that would be damaging to the Clinton campaign."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The "Crossfire Hurricane" codename was taken from the opening line of "Jumpin' Jack Flash", a Rolling Stones song.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The FBI's concerns became clear after Brennan shared intelligence about Russian interference with Comey in mid-August 2016. The FBI investigation, code named Crossfire Hurricane, had a large degree of independence from inter-agency efforts to investigate Russian interference. According to an April 2018 House Intelligence Committee report, a "fusion cell on Russian election interference, which was analysts from the CIA, FBI, and NSA [...] operated through the election". The report also wrote that the fusion cell itself stood down in mid-November 2016.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: After receiving the Papadopoulos information from the Australian government, the Office of Inspector General reported that "...the initial investigative objective of Crossfire Hurricane was to determine which individuals associated with the Trump campaign may have been in a position to have received the alleged offer of assistance from Russia."(p. 59) The Senate Intelligence Committee took this to mean the Crossfire Hurricane team initially focused attention on confirming "'exactly who Papadopoulos spoke with' as 'it is implausible that Papadopoulos did not' share the offer with members of the Trump campaign."<ref name="Senate_10/29/2020"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Crossfire Hurricane initially targeted several people connected to the Trump campaign: Papadopoulos, Michael Flynn, Paul Manafort, Carter Page and Roger Stone.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: During the investigation, the FBI used national security letters to obtain phone records and other documents. FBI agents, believing Trump would lose the election, and cognizant of Trump's claims that the election was rigged against him, were careful to ensure the investigation did not become public, as they feared that if Trump lost he would blame his defeat on the revelation of the investigation. However, after the election, personal texts on December 15, 2016, from FBI lead investigator Peter Strzok to FBI attorney Lisa Page, with whom he was having an affair,<ref name="Chiu_12/2/2019"></ref> showed Strzok was likely aware of what he took to be politically motivated leaks from other intelligence agencies, although the texts showed Strzok and Page themselves typically coordinated their public communications with the FBI press office.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On September 7, 2016, U.S. intelligence passed information to James Comey, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and Peter Strzok, Deputy Assistant Director of Counterintelligence that in late July 2016, John Brennan, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency at the time, had briefed President Barack Obama that U.S. intelligence had indications that Russian intelligence was alleging that U.S. presidential candidate Hillary Clinton had invented a plan for a scandal to link candidate Trump to Vladimir Putin, the DNC email hack, and Wikileaks’ release of the emails.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Office of the Inspector General's June 2018 report states that Peter Strzok, Lisa Page, "and several others from the Midyear investigation [by the FBI into Hillary Clinton] were assigned to the Russia investigation, which [the Office was] told was extremely active during this September and October [2016] time period." Strzok "was assigned to lead the Russia investigation in late July 2016", and E. W. Priestap had a supervisory role over the Russia investigation during an unspecified time period.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: This investigation's work continued into May 2017. In May 2019, House Intelligence Committee Chairman Adam Schiff told "The Washington Post" that after Comey was fired, congressmen were no longer briefed on the status of the FBI counterintelligence investigation into Trump associates, despite the multiple criminal investigations spawning from it.<ref name="Bump_5/15/2019"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The FBI had surveilled Carter Page under a Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) warrant beginning in 2013 or 2014, on concerns that Russian intelligence was attempting to recruit him. Trump announced his candidacy for president in June 2015, and Page joined his campaign on March 21, 2016. After Michael Isikoff of "Yahoo! News" reported on September 23, 2016, that Page was being investigated by American intelligence for his contacts with Russian agents, Page immediately left the Trump campaign, while two campaign spokesmen denied he had ever been a part of it.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: During the summer of 2016, the FBI applied for a warrant to conduct surveillance on four members of the Trump campaign, but this application was rejected by the FISA court as too broad. On October 21, 2016, the FBI filed a new FISA warrant application for Page alone, expressing the FBI's belief that the Russian government was collaborating with Page and possibly others associated with the Trump campaign, and that Page had been the subject of targeted recruitment by Russian intelligence agencies. The rationale advanced in support of this warrant relied in part on Page's prior activities, in part on intercepts of Russian communications or confidential human intelligence sources, and in part on a "dossier" of raw intelligence findings gathered by British former MI6 agent Christopher Steele.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Steele dossier alleged that Page had originated the idea of leaking the DNC emails, and that he was negotiating a share of Rosneft in exchange for Trump lifting sanctions against Russia if elected. The application disclosed that the dossier had been compiled by someone "likely looking for information that could be used to discredit" the Trump campaign, but did not disclose that it was indirectly funded as opposition research by the DNC and the Clinton campaign. Steele had previously worked with the FBI and considered trustworthy.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The request was signed by Comey and Deputy Attorney General Sally Yates, and Judge Rosemary M. Collyer issued the warrant, concluding there was probable cause to believe Page was a foreign agent knowingly engaging in clandestine intelligence for the Russian government. The warrant on Page was renewed three times, each for an additional 90 days. The extensions were issued by three different District Court judges: Michael W. Mosman, Anne C. Conway and Raymond J. Dearie. The first two extensions were signed by Comey, and the last one by his deputy Andrew McCabe after Comey was fired. In addition, Acting Attorney General Dana Boente signed the first extension, and Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein signed the last two.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Shortly after the opening of the Crossfire Hurricane investigation on July 31, 2016, the FBI used confidential human sources (CHS) to conduct meetings with individuals affiliated with the Trump campaign.<ref name="Politico_12/11/2019"></ref><ref name="Kessler_5/6/2019"></ref> During the 2016 Trump Campaign, the FBI used four CHSs and "a few" undercover agents as part of Crossfire Hurricane, and this "resulted in interactions with Carter Page, George Papadopoulos, and a high-level Trump campaign official who was not a subject of the investigation".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: "The New York Times" reported that agents involved in the Russia investigation asked Stefan Halper to approach Carter Page and George Papadopoulos, and it was unclear whether he had been asked to contact Sam Clovis, who was vice-chairman of the Trump campaign.<ref name="Goldman_Savage_4/9/2019"></ref> Halper was a retired Cambridge professor at the time, and had long been an informant connected to the intelligence world.<ref name="Goldman_Schmidt_Mazzetti_5/2/2019"></ref><ref name="Costa_Leonnig_Harris_5/22/2018"></ref> The IG report never uses Halper's name, but refers to a "Source 2", whom "The Telegraph" identified as Halper.<ref name="Riley-Smith_3/5/2020"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The IG report says "the Crossfire Hurricane team conducted three CHS operations prior to the team's initial receipt of Steele's reporting on September 19, 2016", and describes how FBI CHS "Source 2" contacted three individuals "who were still with the Trump campaign." Halper spoke separately to Page, Clovis, and Papadopoulos, and the three men have acknowledged that they agreed to meet with him. Halper's activities were reported by Andrew C. McCarthy in a May 12, 2018, "National Review" article, and Donald Trump referred to this report in a tweet accusing the Obama administration of planting a "spy" in his campaign, thus launching the Spygate conspiracy theory.<ref name="Manchester_5/17/2018"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The first FBI CHS operation was at least four meetings between Halper and Carter Page. Page said he "had extensive discussions" with Halper on "a bunch of different foreign-policy-related topics".<ref name="Bump_5/22/2018"></ref><ref name="Costa_Leonnig_Hamburger_Barrett_5/18/2018"></ref> "The Washington Post" reported Page told "The Daily Caller" his last contact with Halper was in September 2017, which was the month the last FISA warrant on Page expired.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Page and Halper also met at a London symposium on July 11–12, 2016, before the meetings mentioned above. An anonymous former federal law enforcement official told "The New York Times" that this earlier contact was coincidental.<ref name="Fandos_Goldman_4/10/2019"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The second FBI CHS operation took place between "Source 2" and "a high-level official in the Trump campaign who was not a subject of the investigation" on September 1, 2016. The IG report never names that "high-level official", but Sam Clovis stated in a radio interview that he met a professor at a DoubleTree hotel in Arlington, Virginia on September 1, 2016, and that the professor had already met Carter Page and later met Papadopoulos.<ref name="Kelly_Stark_5/22/2018"></ref><ref name="Beauchamp_5/25/2018"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: "The New York Times" reported Page had urged Halper to meet with Sam Clovis, and, according to an anonymous source for the "Times", the FBI was aware of the meeting but had not instructed Halper to ask Clovis about issues related to the Russia investigation. Clovis said that he and Halper discussed China, not Russia, during their sole meeting. Clovis also said that while Halper only indicated that he was offering his assistance to the Trump campaign, Clovis was concerned that Halper was creating an audit trail to justify continued surveillance of the campaign. "The Washington Post" reported that Halper requested a second meeting, but it never happened.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The IG report describes two meetings between "Source 2" and Papadopoulos on September 15, 2016: a brunch meeting and a pre-dinner meeting. "The Washington Post" reports that Halper met Papadopoulos in London on September 15, 2016, after Halper invited Papadopoulos on September 2, 2016, to come to London and to write a paper on Mediterranean oil fields.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: "The New York Times" reports that Halper was not alone in London; the FBI had sent a female investigator using the pseudonym Azra Turk to meet with Papadopoulos while posing as Halper's assistant. "The Times" states that Turk's assignment suggests that the FBI wanted a trained investigator to provide a "layer of oversight". "The Times" further suggests that Turk may have been assigned to serve as a witness in the event the investigation was ultimately prosecuted and the government needed the credible testimony of such an individual without exposing Halper as a longtime confidential informant. Papadopoulos said that Halper arranged for him to go out for drinks with Turk, who he said was a "Turkish National."<ref name="Kelly_5/4/2019"></ref> "The New York Times" said that Halper accompanied Turk "in one of her meetings" with Papadopoulos.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The IG report says that, according to Crossfire Hurricane case agents, the September 15 meetings that it describes involved an attempt to recreate the conditions of an earlier meeting between Papadopoulos and an FFG (Friendly Foreign Government) official in which they said Papadopoulos had made comments about Russian assistance to the Trump Campaign. In May 2016,<ref name="Fredericks_4/19/2019"></ref> Australian FFG officials Alexander Downer<ref name="Knott_12/10/2019"></ref> and Erika Thompson<ref name="Probyn_Doran_9/21/2018"></ref><ref name="AAP_5/26/2019"></ref> had met Papadopoulos at a London bar, where Papadopoulos told them that the Russians were in possession of hacked Democratic Party emails containing derogatory information about Hillary Clinton. Two months later, Australian reports to the FBI about this meeting triggered the opening of the Crossfire Hurricane investigation.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: During these meetings, Halper asked if Papadopoulos knew of any Russian efforts to interfere in the election; Papadopoulos said he did not. The Crossfire Hurricane team assessed that his denials seemed to be a "rehearsed response", and they "discounted Papadopoulos' denials for a number of reasons".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Stuart Evans, then head of the office of intelligence at DOJ, later said the denial was material to the FISA court case. The denials, and FBI team's assessment of the denials, "should have been shared with Justice Department's office of intelligence (OI) 'in order for [OI] to make the determination whether [those denials] should be in the application'" to the FISA court.<ref name="Herridge_4/25/2020"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Another FBI CHS named "Source 3", "an individual with a connection to Papadopoulos", was used to interact with Papadopoulos "multiple times between October 2016 and June 2017". In a meeting with Source 3 in late October 2016, Papadopoulos denied that Russia was "playing a big game" in the American presidential election. When he was next asked whether Russia had "special interests", Papadopoulos declared: "that's all bullshit". He added that he knew "for a fact" that the Trump campaign was not involved in the DNC hack, adding that such involvement would have been illegal. When asked if Russia had "interest in Trump", Papadopoulos replied: "no one knows how a president's going to govern anyway". The FBI failed to include these statements in their subsequent FISA warrant applications. In his report, Horowitz included this failure as among the seventeen "inaccuracies or omissions" in the FBI's handling of the FISA warrant application.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In SSCI report volume 5 on Russian interference it is mentioned that Jeff Sessions, Donald J. Trump have FBI investigations but codenames for them were redacted unlike other codenames that are not redacted.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Christopher Steele served as a paid CHS for the FBI prior to his work related to the election, receiving $95,000 for this work, which an FBI handling agent found "to be valuable and that it warranted compensation". Steele received no compensation from the FBI for the later work he did related to the election. The IG report found that Steele and the FBI had differing views about his role related to Crossfire Hurricane. The FBI initially considered him a CHS, a role in which he was told not to discuss what he found with the media. But Steele was also working for Fusion GPS, a private firm that directed him to share his findings with the media. Steele's contact with the media alarmed the leadership at the FBI, which led them to formally end the FBI's relationship with him in November 2016. However, the FBI continued to receive information from Steele indirectly via senior Justice Department official Bruce Ohr through May 2017.<ref name="Shane_12/9/2019"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In early August 2016, he made a trip to Rome,<ref name="Scheuermann_Schmitt_2/7/2019"></ref> where he briefed four American FBI officials about some of his research, including the first memo from his dossier.<ref name="Hamburger_Helderman_2/6/2018"></ref><ref name="Kessler_1/9/2018"></ref> During its intense questioning of Steele, the FBI "alluded to some of their own findings of ties between Russia and the Trump campaign" and asked Steele about Papadopoulos, but he said he knew nothing about him.<ref name="Mayer_3/12/2018"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The agents also "raised the prospect of paying Steele to continue gathering intelligence after Election Day", but Steele "ultimately never received payment from the FBI for any 'dossier'-related information". The subsequent public release of the dossier interrupted discussions between Steele and the FBI.<ref name="Hamburger_2/28/2017"></ref> The IG report later confirmed the FBI had initially offered to pay Steele $15,000 for his trip to Rome, but the payment was halted in November 2016 when the FBI formally closed Steele as a CHS because they learned that Steele had shared his research with "Mother Jones" magazine.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Inspector General's report determined the FBI had "several other" confidential sources "with either a connection to candidate Trump or a role in the Trump campaign",<ref name="Kiely_Robertson_Farley_12/30/2019"></ref><ref name="Cournoyer_Herridge_Watson_Quinn_12/11/2019"></ref><ref name="Bertrand_Samuelson_12/30/2019"></ref> but that the FBI did not task these sources as a part of the Crossfire Hurricane investigation.<ref name="Oprysko_12/9/2019"></ref> One of these FBI sources "held a position in the Trump campaign", but this source did not inform the FBI about their role until they had left the campaign, according to the Inspector General.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Inspector General wrote his review "found no evidence that the FBI attempted to place any" FBI source in the Trump campaign.<ref name="Bump_12/9/2019"></ref><ref name="Blake_12/9/2019"></ref> The review also "found no evidence" the FBI had tried to "recruit members of the Trump campaign" to serve as their sources. Finally, the review did not produce evidence "political bias or improper motivations influenced" the FBI's usage of confidential sources or undercover agents for interactions with members of Trump's campaign.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: It also emerged that, according to one agent, one of these FBI CHSs was a Trump supporter, as were the FBI employees who cultivated this source. These FBI employees exchanged text messages supporting Trump in the 2016 election.<ref name="Herridge_et-al_12/9/2019"></ref>


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On January 5, 2017, FBI Director James Comey, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, CIA Director John Brennan, and NSA Director Mike Rogers briefed President Obama about an intelligence report on Russian interference in the 2016 election, which Obama had ordered in December. The discussion touched on the Steele Dossier and the relationship between incoming National Security Adviser Michael Flynn and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak. Following that briefing, President Obama met with Comey, Vice President Joseph Biden, National Security Adviser Susan Rice, and Deputy Attorney General Sally Yates. Rice documented the meeting two weeks later, on January 20, in an email she sent just before leaving the White House for the last time. According to Rice's email, during the meeting, President Obama stressed that the continuing investigation should be handled "by the book" and that he was not "asking about, initiating, or instructing anything from a law enforcement perspective". The email also stated that Obama directed them to be "mindful to ascertain if there is any reason that we cannot share information fully as it relates to Russia" with members of the incoming administration.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On January 6, Comey, Clapper, Brennan, and Rogers briefed President-elect Trump on the intelligence report. Before the briefing, it was planned that Comey would separately brief Trump on the most salacious aspects of the Steele dossier "in the most discreet and least embarrassing way". As Comey later described it: "At the conclusion of that briefing, I remained alone with the president-elect to brief him on some personally sensitive aspects of the information assembled during the assessment." Comey also assured Trump he was not personally under investigation. He later testified that the FBI leadership had discussed the assurance in advance, and that one member of the team—later revealed to be FBI General Counsel James Baker—had raised concerns about it. Specifically, according to Comey's testimony, Baker felt that although "it was technically true [that] we did not have a counterintelligence file case open on then-President-elect Trump" nevertheless because of the scope of the investigation, Trump's "behavior, his conduct will fall within the scope of that work." Later, in August 2019, the Office of Inspector General released a report quoting witnesses who said Comey, along with the senior leadership at the FBI, "discussed Trump's potential responses to being told about the 'salacious' information, including that Trump might make statements about, or provide information of value to, the pending Russian interference investigation."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In February 2017, "The New York Times" published a report on Crossfire Hurricane, whose name had not been made public at the time. Citing current and former American officials commenting anonymously on the classified investigation, "The New York Times" reported that communications intercepts and logs showed that Trump campaign members and Trump associates, including Paul Manafort, had "repeated contacts" with senior Russian intelligence officials "in the year before the election". In June 2017, former FBI director James Comey stated that the February 2017 "Times" report was "in the main" not true, but did not specify what the inaccuracies were. In July 2020, the Senate Judiciary Committee revealed that FBI counterintelligence agent Peter Strzok, one of the leaders of the investigation, had earlier privately made annotations on the February 2017 "Times" report in which he stated that the FBI was "unaware of ANY Trump advisors engaging in conversations with Russian intelligence officials," but that they were aware that (a) Carter Page had contacts with Russian intelligence before he joined the Trump campaign, (b) an associate of Manafort had contacts with Russian intelligence, and (c) Trump campaign officials had contacts with the Russian ambassador and the Russian embassy's congressional liaison. The Senate Intelligence Committee ultimately uncovered that Manafort's associate Konstantin Kilimnik was in fact a Russian intelligence official who had contacts with the Trump campaign, though the FBI was apparently unaware of this in the earlier months of 2017 given Strzok's annotations.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On May 8, 2017, Trump dismissed Comey from his tenure as FBI Director. More than 130 Democratic lawmakers of the United States Congress called for a special counsel to be appointed in reaction to Comey's firing.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On May 17, 2017, Rosenstein appointed Mueller as special counsel under the applicable Department of Justice regulation, and the Special Counsel investigation (also known as the Mueller probe) took over the Crossfire Hurricane efforts, which were still ongoing at the time. Rosenstein's authority to appoint Mueller arose due to Attorney General Jeff Sessions's March 2017 recusal of himself from investigations into the Trump campaign.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In June 2017, Peter Strzok, the FBI agent who had led the Crossfire Hurricane investigation up to this point, became a member of Mueller's team. In August 2017, Strzok was removed from the team and reassigned to the FBI's Human Resources department following the Inspector General's discovery of text messages from Strzok expressing a low opinion of Trump and stating his preference that Clinton should win the election by an overwhelming majority.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: George Papadopoulos pleaded guilty on October 5, 2017, to making false statements. On January 27, 2017, Papadopoulos had lied to FBI investigators regarding his contacts with Joseph Mifsud, a Maltese professor with connections to Russian government officials. The special counsel's office was unable to fully investigate Papadopoulos's activities with Sergei Millian, a Belarusian native turned American citizen, because Millian did not cooperate with investigators. Millian previously said he had "insider knowledge and direct access to the top hierarchy in Russian politics".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Flynn pleaded guilty on December 1, 2017, to making false statements. On January 24, 2017, Flynn had lied to FBI investigators regarding his contacts with Sergey Kislyak, the Russian Ambassador to the United States.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Manafort pleaded guilty on September 14, 2018, to one count of conspiracy to obstruct justice for witness tampering, and one count of participating in a conspiracy against the United States. NBC News wrote that Manafort's conspiracy charge was related to "money laundering, tax fraud, failing to file Foreign Bank Account Reports, violating the Foreign Agents Registration Act, and lying and misrepresenting to the Department of Justice".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Stone was arrested on January 25, 2019, and charged on seven counts, including witness tampering and lying to investigators.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Page was not charged with a crime by the special counsel investigation. Its report said: "The investigation did not establish that Page coordinated with the Russian government in its efforts to interfere with the 2016 presidential election". However, with incomplete "evidence or testimony about who Page may have met or communicated with in Moscow [...] Page's activities in Russia—as described in his emails with the [Trump campaign]—were not fully explained."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On March 22, 2019, the Special Counsel investigation was concluded, and the Mueller Report was submitted that day.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Mueller Report concluded that Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election did occur "in sweeping and systematic fashion" and "violated U.S. criminal law". The first method detailed was "a social media campaign that favored presidential candidate Donald J. Trump and disparaged presidential candidate Hillary Clinton", which also sought to "provoke and amplify political and social discord in the United States". The second method of Russian interference saw the Russian military intelligence service, the GRU, hacking into email accounts owned by people associated with the Clinton presidential campaign or Democratic Party organisations, followed by the publication of damaging hacked material.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: To establish whether a crime was committed by members of the Trump campaign with regard to Russian interference, the special counsel's investigators used conspiracy law, and not the concept of "collusion". They used the concept of "coordination": "an agreement—tacit or express—between the Trump campaign and the Russian government on election interference".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The Mueller Report found that the investigation "identified numerous links between the Russian government and the Trump campaign", that Russia "perceived it would benefit from a Trump presidency" and that the 2016 Trump presidential campaign "expected it would benefit electorally" from Russian hacking efforts. Ultimately, "the investigation did not establish that members of the Trump campaign conspired or coordinated with the Russian government in its election interference activities".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: However, investigators had an incomplete picture of what had really occurred during the 2016 campaign, due to some associates of Trump campaign providing either false, incomplete or declined testimony, as well as having deleted, unsaved or encrypted communications. As such, the Mueller Report "cannot rule out the possibility" that information then unavailable to investigators would have presented different findings.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: , Attorney General William Barr was conducting an investigation into the origins of the FBI probe, whether surveillance was adequately predicated, potential overreach by FBI or Department of Justice (DOJ) leadership, and whether the Steele dossier was part of a Russian disinformation campaign. Barr assigned John Durham, the United States Attorney for the District of Connecticut, to lead the investigation.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: Upon the December 2019 release of the Justice Department Inspector General's findings that the investigation was properly opened on a factual and legal basis, Barr and Durham publicly stated their belief the evidence justified opening only a preliminary rather than a full investigation and indicated they would continue to investigate.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On December 1, 2020, Attorney General Barr revealed to the Associated Press that on October 19, 2020, he had appointed Durham to be a Special Counsel pursuant to the federal statute that governed such appointments. Durham's investigation, according to Barr's statement to the Associated Press and the Attorney General's order appointing Durham as special counsel, was to examine whether "any federal official, employee, or any other person or entity violated the law in connection with the intelligence, counter-intelligence, or law-enforcement activities directed at the 2016 presidential campaigns, individuals associated with those campaigns, and individuals associated with the administration of President Donald J. Trump, including but not limited to Crossfire Hurricane and the investigation of Special Counsel Robert S. Mueller III."


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: In March 2018, the Justice Department's Inspector General, Michael E. Horowitz, announced that the Office of Inspector General (OIG) had opened a review of the origins of the FBI's Russia investigation, the informants used, and the process followed to authorize surveillance of Carter Page, a foreign policy adviser on the Trump campaign.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: On December 9, 2019, Horowitz released his report on the findings of the DOJ OIG investigation. The OIG found no indication that the investigation of Trump and Russia was motivated by political bias, but did make 17 "basic and fundamental" errors and omissions in its warrant applications to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISA) to surveil Carter Page, a foreign policy adviser on the Trump campaign. The report found that the FBI's investigation had a factual basis and was initiated for an authorized purpose, stating: "We did not find documentary or testimonial evidence that political bias or improper motivation influenced" the agency's decision to open the investigation. The report did, however, criticize the FBI for mistakes related to the FBI's application to the FISA Court for a warrant to wiretap Carter Page, and found that in one application to renew the FISA warrant, an FBI lawyer had altered an email from a CIA liaison to make it appear Page had not been a source for the CIA, although Page had in fact "been approved as an operational contact for the [CIA] from 2008 to 2013". The report did not speculate on whether the warrant application would have been rejected had "any particular misstatement or omission, or some combination thereof" been corrected. During Senate testimony after the report's release, Horowitz attributed the warrant problems to "gross incompetence and negligence" rather than intentional malfeasance or political bias, and stated: "The activities we found don't vindicate anyone who touched this. The actions of FBI agents were not up to the standards of the FBI." As a result of the findings, Horowitz announced a broader review of the FBI's FISA warrant application process, to study whether problems with the process are systemic.


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: The report debunked claims, promoted by Trump and his allies, that the Steele dossier had prompted the Russia investigation, and reiterated that the FBI investigation had in fact started in late July 2016, based on a tip from Australian officials regarding Trump campaign adviser George Papadopoulos. The report also refuted Trump's assertions that Peter Strzok and Lisa Page had initiated the investigation; that decision was made by William Priestap, the assistant FBI director for the Counterintelligence Division. The report criticized the FBI, however, for relying on information from the Steele dossier even though one of Steele's sources told the agency that his statements had been mischaracterized or exaggerated. The OIG investigation found no support for Trump's claims that President Obama had ordered the wiretapping of Trump Tower. The OIG also found no support for Trump's claims that the FBI had implanted a "spy" within his 2016 campaign, finding "no documentary or testimonial evidence that political bias or improper motivations influenced the FBI's decision" to use informants (known within the FBI as "confidential human sources" or "undercover employees") "to interact with Trump campaign officials in the Crossfire Hurricane investigation".


title: Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)

text: FBI Director Christopher A. Wray said he accepted the OIG's findings and had "ordered more than 40 corrective steps to address the Report's recommendations", and added it was "important that the inspector general found that, in this particular instance, the investigation was opened with appropriate predication and authorization". Trump responded by attacking Wray by name on Twitter. Attorney General William Barr rejected the OIG's key conclusion and continued to assert that the FBI's investigation into Trump was unjustified. James Comey, the director of the FBI who oversaw the Trump-Russia investigation and was fired in May 2017 by Trump, acknowledged the "significant mistakes" identified by the inspector general, but staunchly defended the FBI and criticized Trump's attacks on investigators. In an op-ed published in the "Washington Post", Comey wrote: "the truth is finally out... and those who smeared the FBI are due for an accounting" and called upon Attorney General Barr to "acknowledge the facts" and "stop acting like a Trump spokesperson."


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: USS "Port Royal" (CG-73) was a guided missile cruiser that served in the United States Navy. She was commissioned on 9 July 1994, as the 27th and final ship of the class. "Port Royal" was named in honor of the two naval battles of Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, one during the American Revolutionary War, the other during the American Civil War. She was decommissioned on 29 September 2022. The ship is the second to bear the name, with the first being a steam-powered, side-wheel gunboat, from New York City, in commission from 1862 to 1866.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: The second "Port Royal" (CG-73) was assigned hull number CG-69 on 9 May 1989, but that number was reassigned to guided missile cruiser and CG-73 to "Port Royal" on 8 December 1989; was laid down on 18 October 1991, at Pascagoula, Mississippi, by Ingalls Shipbuilding, Litton Industries; launched on 20 November 1992; sponsored by Susan G. Baker (wife of James A. Baker III, Chief of Staff to President George H. W. Bush and former Secretary of State); and commissioned at Savannah, Georgia, on 9 July 1994.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" and are the original cruisers for the navy's Linebacker Program (Milestone Phase I, II and III), which provided theater ballistic missile defense capability, as test platforms to detect, track, cue, intercept, and interact with other national assets to shoot down ICBMs. The vessel's Aegis and Standard Missile Tracking systems have been upgraded with "long range surveillance and track (LRS&T)", and the ships were outfitted to carry the modified SM-2 Block IVA TMD. As of 2009, "Port Royal" along with "Lake Erie" and were the only three s to be equipped for the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense Program. "Port Royal" participated as a tracking ship during operation "Stellar Athena" FTM 12 on 22 June 2007 off Hawaii. "Port Royal"s role has been taken by .


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: Originally, "Port Royal" was to be outfitted with the experimental shipboard mounted High Energy Laser Weapon System (HELWEPS). Based on a megawatt-class deuterium/fluorine chemical laser, HELWEPS would have replaced the standard 5-inch forward gun. HELWEPS was to have been used to destroy missiles up to about away, or to burn out electro-optical sensors about away. The outfitting, scheduled to occur in Naval Base Ventura County, Port Hueneme, California in 1994 was cancelled, along with all plans to install HELWEPS on "Ticonderoga"-class cruisers.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: Four (LM2500) gas turbine engines propel "Port Royal" with at speeds greater than . Two five-bladed controllable reversible pitch propellers ( diameter) and two rudders assist in acceleration and deceleration.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed from December 1995 until June 1996, as part of the battle group Carrier Group Seven. The CVBG was participating in Operation Southern Watch, but was deployed to the South China Sea in March 1996, to act as a stabilizing force the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis. During this deployment, Captain Richards transferred command to Captain Gary Roughead on 21 January 1996. Following her first deployment, "Port Royal" became the first U.S. cruiser to integrate women into the crew.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed with the "Nimitz" battle group for participation in Operation Southern Watch from September 1997 until March 1998.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed with the "" battle group, participating in Operation Southern Watch. Leaving in January 2000, she returned to Hawaii early after sustaining damage to her port shaft and Hub during pursuit of a vessel suspected of smuggling Iraqi oil in violation of U.N. sanctions. She returned in June and then in August went into drydock for repairs and upgrades.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed early Pearl Harbor on 17 November 2001, to join the "John C. Stennis" battle group on deployment in support of Operation Enduring Freedom.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed with Expeditionary Strike Group-One (ESG-1) in support of the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) from 3 September 2003 until 11 March 2004. This was the very first deployment of an Expeditionary Strike Group.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: "Port Royal" deployed with "Peleliu" Expeditionary Strike Group-Three (ESG-3) in support of the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) from 27 February 2006 until 5 August 2006.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: On 6 January 2008, the destroyer "Hopper", "Port Royal" and the frigate were entering the Persian Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz when five Iranian boats approached them at high speed and in a threatening manner. The U.S. ships had been in the Arabian Sea searching for a sailor who had been missing from "Hopper" for one day. The U.S. Navy says the Iranian boats made "threatening" moves toward the U.S. vessels, coming as close as . The U.S. Navy allegedly received a radio transmission saying, "I am coming at you. You will explode in a couple of minutes." As the U.S. ships prepared to fire, the Iranians abruptly turned away, the U.S. officials said. Before leaving, the Iranians dropped white boxes into the water in front of the U.S. ships. The U.S. ships did not investigate the boxes. Officials from the two nations differed on the severity of the incident. The Iranians claimed they were conducting normal maneuvers while American officials claimed that an imminent danger to American naval vessels existed.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: On 5 February 2009, at 21:00, "Port Royal" ran aground about a half-mile south of the Honolulu International Airport's Reef Runway. The ship had just come out of a dry dock after undergoing maintenance and was undergoing her first sea trials. No one was injured in the incident and no fuel was spilled. On 9 February 2009, "Port Royal" was pulled off the coral reef at around 2:00. No one was injured during the recovery effort, though damage to the reef was extensive, both from the ship's hull and the cables used to drag the ship off the reef. Captain John Carroll was relieved of his duties and, along with the ship's executive officer, commander Steven Okun and three other sailors, subsequently disciplined for dereliction of duty and improperly hazarding a vessel. Carroll had been the commanding officer of "Port Royal" since 23 October 2008. Rear Admiral Dixon R. Smith, who was aboard the ship, assumed temporary command on that day, and on 9 February, Captain John Lauer III, an official in Smith's Naval Surface Group Middle Pacific, assumed command.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: The warship suffered heavy damage to the underwater bow sonar dome and to her propellers and propeller shafts and was dry-docked for repairs. Captain Neil Parrott was assigned to preside over the investigation into the grounding. On 18 February, the ship entered Dry Dock Number 4 at Pearl Harbor. The navy estimated that repairs would cost between $25 and $40 million. The ship left dry dock on 24 September 2009 but needed several more weeks of repair and assessment before returning to duty.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: In May 2013, to answer queries made by Congress, Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) reported that the condition of the ship was comparable to certain other cruisers in the same class and that the effects of the grounding might not have been as severe as had been previously thought. A full report on the ship and her condition was anticipated in early August 2013. An April 2014 report by the GAO found that "Port Royal" was no more expensive to repair than other cruisers slated for retention.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: In 2020, a U.S. Navy budget plan proposed putting "Port Royal," as well as her sisters , , and , on a path to early decommissioning, as they had not been modernized.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: In December 2020 the U.S. Navy's Report to Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for Construction of Naval Vessels stated that the ship was planned to be placed Out of Commission in Reserve in 2022.


title: USS Port Royal (CG-73)

text: The ship was officially decommissioned at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, Hawaii on 29 September 2022 She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry on 30 September 2022. , her final disposition remains pending.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Alphonsus Liguori, CSsR (27 September 1696 – 1 August 1787), sometimes called Alphonsus Maria de Liguori or Saint Alphonsus Liguori, was an Italian Catholic bishop, spiritual writer, composer, musician, artist, poet, lawyer, scholastic philosopher, and theologian. He founded the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, known as the Redemptorists, in November 1732.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: In 1762 he was appointed Bishop of Sant'Agata dei Goti. A prolific writer, he published nine editions of his "Moral Theology" in his lifetime, in addition to other devotional and ascetic works and letters. Among his best known works are "The Glories of Mary" and "The Way of the Cross", the latter still used in parishes during Lenten devotions.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: He was canonized in 1839 by Pope Gregory XVI and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church by Pope Pius IX in 1871. One of the most widely read Catholic authors, he is the patron saint of confessors.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: He was born in Marianella, near Naples, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, on 27 September 1696. He was the eldest of seven children of Giuseppe Liguori, a naval officer and Captain of the Royal Galleys, and Anna Maria Caterina Cavalieri. Two days after he was born, he was baptized at the Church of Our Lady the Virgin as Alphonsus Mary Anthony John Cosmas Damian Michael Gaspard de' Liguori. The family was of noble lineage, but the branch to which Liguori belonged had become somewhat impoverished.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Liguori learned to ride and fence but was never a good shot because of poor eyesight. Myopia and chronic asthma precluded a military career so his father had him educated for the legal profession. He was taught by tutors before entering the University of Naples, where he graduated with doctorates in civil and canon law at 16. He remarked later that he was so small at the time that he was almost buried in his doctor's gown and that all the spectators laughed. When he was 18, like many other nobles, he joined the Confraternity of Our Lady of Mercy, with whom he assisted in the care of the sick at the hospital for "incurables".


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: He became a successful lawyer. He was thinking of leaving the profession and wrote to someone, "My friend, our profession is too full of difficulties and dangers; we lead an unhappy life and run risk of dying an unhappy death". At 27, after having lost an important case, the first he had lost in eight years of practising law, he made a firm resolution to leave the profession of law. Moreover, he heard an interior voice saying: "Leave the world, and give yourself to me."


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: In 1723, he decided to offer himself as a novice to the Oratory of St. Philip Neri with the intention of becoming a priest. His father opposed the plan, but after two months (and with his Oratorian confessor's permission), he and his father compromised: he would study for the priesthood, but not as an Oratorian, and would live at home. He was ordained on 21 December 1726, at the age of 30. He lived his first years as a priest with the homeless and the marginalized youth of Naples. He became very popular because of his plain and simple preaching. He said: "I have never preached a sermon which the poorest old woman in the congregation could not understand". He founded the "Evening Chapels", which were managed by the young people themselves. The chapels were centres of prayer and piety, preaching, community, social activities and education. At the time of his death, there were 72, with over 10,000 active participants. His sermons were very effective at converting those who had been alienated from their faith.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Liguori suffered from scruples much of his adult life and felt guilty about the most minor issues relating to sin. Moreover, Liguori viewed scruples as a blessing at times and wrote: "Scruples are useful in the beginning of conversion... they cleanse the soul, and at the same time make it careful".


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: In 1729, Liguori left his family home and took up residence in the Chinese Institute in Naples. It was there that he began his missionary experience in the interior regions of the Kingdom of Naples, where he found people who were much poorer and more abandoned than any of the street children in Naples. In 1731, while he was ministering to earthquake victims in the town of Foggia, Alphonsus said he had a vision of the Virgin Mother in the appearance of a young girl of 13 or 14, wearing a white veil.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: On 9 November 1732, he founded the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, when Sister Maria Celeste Crostarosa told him that it had been revealed to her that he was the one that God had chosen to found the congregation. He founded the congregation with the charism of preaching popular missions in the city and the countryside. Its goal was to teach and preach in the slums of cities and other poor places. They also fought Jansenism, a heresy that preached an excessive moral rigorism: "the penitents should be treated as souls to be saved rather than as criminals to be punished". He is said never to have refused absolution to a penitent.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: A gifted musician and composer, he wrote many popular hymns and taught them to the people in parish missions. In 1732, while he was staying at the Convent of the Consolation, one of his order's houses in the small city of Deliceto in the province of Foggia in Southeastern Italy, Liguori wrote the Italian carol "Tu scendi dalle stelle" ("From Starry Skies Descending") in the musical style of a pastorale. The version with Italian lyrics was based on his original song written in Neapolitan, which began ' ("When the child was born"). As it was traditionally associated with the zampogna, or large-format Italian bagpipe, it became known as ', the "Carol of the Bagpipers".


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Liguori was consecrated Bishop of Sant'Agata dei Goti in 1762. He tried to refuse the appointment by using his age and infirmities as arguments against his consecration. He wrote sermons, books, and articles to encourage devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Virgin Mary. He first addressed ecclesiastical abuses in the diocese, reformed the seminary and spiritually rehabilitated the clergy and faithful. He suspended those priests who celebrated Mass in less than 15 minutes and sold his carriage and episcopal ring to give the money to the poor. In the last years of his life, he suffered a painful sickness and a bitter persecution from his fellow priests, who dismissed him from the Congregation that he had founded.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: By May 1775, Alphonus was "deaf, blind, and laden with so many infirmities, that he has no longer even the appearance of a man", and his resignation was accepted by the recently crowned Pope Pius VI. He continued to live with the Redemptorist community in Pagani, Italy, where he died on 1 August 1787.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: He was beatified on 15 September 1816 by Pope Pius VII and canonized on 26 May 1839 by Pope Gregory XVI.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: In 1949, the Redemptorists founded the Alphonsian Academy for the advanced study of Catholic moral theology. He was named the patron of confessors and moral theologians by Pope Pius XII on 26 April 1950, who subsequently wrote of him in the encyclical "Haurietis aquas".


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: In bestowing the title of "Prince of Moral Theologians", the church also gave the "unprecedented honour she paid to the Saint in her Decree of 22 July 1831, which allows confessors to follow any of St. Alphonsus's own opinions without weighing the reasons on which they were based". The church did not bestow this unique privilege lightly but was due to the extraordinary combination of exceptional knowledge and understanding of church teachings combined with the great precision in which he wrote.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Liguori was a prolific and popular author. He was proficient in the arts, his parents having had him trained by various masters, and he was a musician, painter, poet and author at the same time. Liguori wrote 111 works on spirituality and theology. The 21,500 editions and the translations into 72 languages that his works have undergone attest to the fact that he is one of the most widely-read Catholic authors.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: His best-known musical work is his Christmas hymn "", later translated into Italian by Pope Pius IX as "Tu scendi dalle stelle" ("From Starry Skies Thou Comest").


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: A strong defender of the Catholic Church, Liguori said:To reject the divine teaching of the Catholic Church is to reject the very basis of reason and revelation, for neither the principles of the one nor those of the other have any longer any solid support to rest on; they can then be interpreted by every one as he pleases; every one can deny all truths whatsoever he chooses to deny. I therefore repeat: If the divine teaching authority of the Church, and the obedience to it, are rejected, every error will be endorsed and must be tolerated."


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: Liguori's greatest contribution to the Catholic Church was in the area of moral theology. His masterpiece was "The Moral Theology" (1748), which was approved by the Pope himself and was born of Liguori's pastoral experience, his ability to respond to the practical questions posed by the faithful and his contact with their everyday problems. He opposed sterile legalism and strict rigourism. According to him, those were paths closed to the Gospel because "such rigour has never been taught nor practised by the Church". His system of moral theology is noted for its prudence, avoiding both laxism and excessive rigour. He is credited with the position of Aequiprobabilism, which avoided Jansenist rigorism as well as laxism and simple probabilism. Since its publication it has remained in Latin, often in 10 volumes or in the combined 4-volume version of Gaudé. It saw only recently its first publication in translation, in an English translation made by Ryan Grant and published in 2017 by Mediatrix Press. The English translation of the work is projected to be around 5 volumes.


title: Alphonsus Liguori

text: His Mariology, though mainly pastoral in nature, rediscovered, integrated and defended that of St Augustine of Hippo, St Ambrose of Milan and other fathers; it represented an intellectual defence of Mariology in the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, against the rationalism to which contrasted his fervent Marian devotion.


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: The Hunter is the sixth studio album by American rock band Blondie, released on May 24, 1982, by Chrysalis Records. It was Blondie's last album of new material until 1999's It was recorded in December 1981.


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: "The Hunter", as stated in the press release, is loosely a concept album based on the theme of "searching, hunting, or pursuing one's own Mt. Everest." Tracks on the album include Jimmy Destri's Motown pastiche "Danceway", while "Dragonfly" has a science-fiction theme to its lyrics about a race in space. "The Beast" deals with lead singer Debbie Harry's experiences of becoming a public figure: "I am the centre of attraction, by staying off the streets". "English Boys" is Harry and Chris Stein's melancholy tribute to "those English boys who had long hair", the Beatles, recorded the year after John Lennon's assassination in New York City, describing the innocence and idealism of the 1960s. "War Child" references military conflicts in Cambodia and the Middle East. The album concludes with a cover version of Smokey Robinson's "The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game", originally recorded by the Marvelettes in 1967.


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: The song "For Your Eyes Only" was originally written for the 1981 James Bond film of the same name. The producers of the film, however, favored a track composed by Bill Conti and Michael Leeson and asked Blondie to record that song instead. When Blondie declined, the Conti/Leeson song was passed on to Sheena Easton. Blondie opted to release their song (written by Harry and Stein) on "The Hunter".


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: Two singles were released from the album, "Island of Lost Souls" and "War Child" (the latter of which was also released as a 12″ extended version). "Danceaway" was planned for release as a single in Canada (backed with "For Your Eyes Only"), but was issued only extremely briefly before the single was withdrawn. Videos for "Island of Lost Souls" and "English Boys" were produced.


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: In the liner notes to the 2001 reissue of "The Hunter", producer Mike Chapman stated, "I knew that we were in a different and far less accessible artistic space. And that worried me. I could tell that things were different now, and I knew that this would be the last Blondie album."


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: The album peaked at in the UK, in Australia and in the US. Compared to Blondie's three previous albums with Mike Chapman as producer ("Parallel Lines", "Eat to the Beat" and "Autoamerican"), "The Hunter" proved to be a disappointment, both commercially and critically. Six months after its release, the band splintered. The summer "Tracks Across America Tour '82" was set to promote the album but turned out to be unsuccessful. The band's European tour which was due to follow in autumn was cancelled.


title: The Hunter (Blondie album)

text: "The Hunter" was digitally remastered and reissued by Chrysalis Records UK in 1994, and again by EMI-Capitol in 2001, both times with the 12″ version of "War Child" as the only bonus track.


title: Tolperisone

text: Tolperisone (trade name Mydocalm among others) is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant used for the treatment of increased muscle tone associated with neurological diseases. It has been used since the 1960s.


title: Tolperisone

text: Tolperisone is indicated for use in the treatment of pathologically increased tone of the skeletal muscle caused by neurological diseases (damage of the pyramidal tract, multiple sclerosis, myelopathy, encephalomyelitis) and of spastic paralysis and other encephalopathies manifested with muscular dystonia.


title: Tolperisone

text: Manufacturers report that tolperisone should not be used in patients with myasthenia gravis. Only limited data are available regarding the safety in children, youths, during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is not known whether tolperisone is excreted into mother's milk.


title: Tolperisone

text: In 2012, following concerns on the safety and efficacy, an "article 31 referral" was triggered at the European Medicines Agency. The European Medicines Agency has recommended restricting the use of tolperisone. After review and a subsequent re-examination in 2012, the Agency concluded the safety and adverse reaction risks of this drug outweigh the benefits, and that there is weak support for its efficacy, in all but one indication (muscle stiffness or spasticity after stroke), and specifically, due to the prevalence of hypersensitivity symptoms such as flushing, rash, severe skin itchiness (with raised lumps), wheezing, difficulty breathing, and swallowing, fast heartbeat and fast decrease in blood pressure (basically anaphylaxis), their recommendations included ceasing advertising in Europe and ceasing injections, updating patient information leaflets, changing to another medicine for existing users, and for prescribers to only use it stroke patients when administered by mouth, not injection.


title: Tolperisone

text: Adverse effects occur in fewer than 1% of patients and include muscle weakness, headache, arterial hypotension, nausea, vomiting, dyspepsia, and dry mouth. All effects are reversible. Allergic reactions occur in fewer than 0.1% of patient and include skin rash, hives, Quincke's edema, and in some cases anaphylactic shock.


title: Tolperisone

text: Excitability has been noted after ingestion of high doses by children. In suicide studies of three isolated cases, it is believed that ingestion of tolperisone was the cause of death.


title: Tolperisone

text: Tolperisone does not have a significant potential for interactions with other pharmaceutical drugs. It cannot be excluded that combination with other centrally acting muscle relaxants, benzodiazepines or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may make a dose reduction necessary in some patients.


title: Tolperisone

text: Tolperisone is a centrally acting muscle relaxant that acts at the reticular formation in the brain stem by blocking voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels.


title: Tolperisone

text: Tolperisone is absorbed nearly completely from the gut and reaches its peak blood plasma concentration after 1.5 hours. It is extensively metabolised in the liver and kidneys. The substance is excreted via the kidneys in two phases; the first with a half-life of two hours, and the second with a half-life of 12 hours.


title: Tolperisone

text: Brand names include "Mydocalm", "Biocalm", "Mydeton", "Miderizone", "Mydoflex", "Myolax", "Myoxan" and "Viveo".


title: 2001 Copa América

text: The 2001 Copa América was held in Colombia, from 11 to 29 July. It was organised by CONMEBOL, South America's football governing body. Colombia won the tournament for the 1st time without conceding a goal.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: Brazil were the defending champions who were knocked out from the tournament by Honduras after suffering a 0–2 defeat in the quarter-final.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: There is no qualifying for the final tournament. CONMEBOL's ten South American countries participate, along with two more invited countries, making a total of twelve teams competing in the tournament. Originally, Mexico and CONCACAF Champions Canada were invited.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: Prior to the tournament, three meetings were held by CONMEBOL authorities who were concerned about potential security issues in Colombia. On 1 July they announced the cancellation of the tournament. Venezuela offered to host the competition, but on 6 July CONMEBOL decided to reinstate the plans for Colombia, and the tournament was held on schedule.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: When the tournament was originally cancelled, Canada disbanded its training camp and Canadian players returned to their club teams. The Canadian Soccer Association announced they would not be able to participate in the reinstated tournament. With only a few days' notice, Costa Rica (CONCACAF) accepted an invite to take Canada's spot in the tournament. The Costa Ricans advanced to the knockout stage, losing in the quarterfinals.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: Complaining about the sudden reversal, and claiming that Argentine players had received death threats from terrorist groups, the Argentine Football Association decided to withdraw from the competition on 10 July, in spite of Colombian authorities proposing to implement additional protection measures. With the tournament starting the next day, Honduras (CONCACAF) were invited, arriving with barely enough players on 13 July in an airplane provided by the Colombian Air Force, after the tournament started and just a few hours before its first game. The Hondurans performed well through the tournament, finishing in third place.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: Despite the pre-tournament concerns, there were no incidents of violence nor acts of assault towards any of the participating nations.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: The teams were divided into three groups of four teams each. The formation of the groups was made by CONMEBOL, in a public drawing of lots.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: Each team plays one match against each of the other teams within the same group. Three points are awarded for a win, one point for a draw and zero points for a defeat.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: At the end of the first stage, a comparison was made between the third-placed teams of each group. The two best third-placed teams advanced to the quarter-finals.


title: 2001 Copa América

text: With six goals, Víctor Aristizábal is the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 60 goals were scored by 41 different players, with none of them credited as own goal.


title: Strategos

text: Strategos, plural strategoi, Latinized strategus, (; Doric Greek: στραταγός, "stratagos"; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek to mean military general. In the Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army, it is the highest officer rank.


title: Strategos

text: "Strategos" is a compound of two Greek words: "stratos" and "agos". "Stratos" (στρατός) means "army", literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". "Agos" (ἀγός) means "leader", from "agein" (ἄγειν) "to lead", from the proto-Ιndo-Εuropean root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move”.


title: Strategos

text: In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens, the office of "strategos" existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten "strategoi" who were elected annually, one from each tribe ("phyle"). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the "polemarchos", who had hitherto been the senior military commander. At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the "polemarchos" had a casting vote, and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the "polemarchos", like the other "archontes", was appointed by lot. The annual election of the "strategoi" was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a "strategos" died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.


title: Strategos

text: The strict adherence to the principle of a "strategos" from each tribe lasted until , after which two "strategoi" could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own "strategos", perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available. This system continued at least until , but by the time Aristotle wrote his "Constitution of the Athenians" in , the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period, although the number of the tribes was increased, the number of "strategoi" remained constant at ten.


title: Strategos

text: In the early part of the 5th century, several "strategoi" combined their military office with a political role, with Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, or Pericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilian "rhetores" in the later 5th century, the "strategoi" were limited to their military duties. Originally, the "strategoi" were appointed "ad hoc" to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three—"strategoi" might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the "nauarchos" commanded the navy, the Athenian "strategoi" held command both at sea and on land. From the middle of the 4th century, the "strategoi" increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the "strategos epi ten choran" () for the defence of Attica; the "strategos epi tous hoplitas" (), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two "strategoi epi ton Peiraia" (), responsible for the war harbour of Piraeus; and the "strategos epi tas symmorias" (), responsible for the equipment of the warships. This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when each "strategos" was given specific duties. In the Roman Imperial period, the "strategos epi ta hopla" () became the most prominent magistrate in Athens. The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.


title: Strategos

text: The Athenian people kept a close eye on their "strategoi". Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to "euthyna" and in addition there was a vote in the "ekklesia" during every prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as "strategos" and fined, and in 406 six of the eight "strategoi" who commanded the fleet at the Battle of Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death.


title: Strategos

text: The title of "strategos" appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander. The "strategos" as an office is attested at least for Syracuse from the late 5th century BC, Erythrae, and in the "koinon" of the Arcadians in the 360s BC.


title: Strategos

text: The title of "strategos autokrator" was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an "ad hoc" basis. Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as "strategos autokrator" (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the League of Corinth.


title: Strategos

text: Under Philip II of Macedon, the title of "strategos" was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. "strategos tes Europes" (""strategos" of Europe").


title: Strategos

text: In several Greek city leagues the title "strategos" was reserved for the head of state. In the Aetolian League and the Achaean League, where the strategos was annually elected, he was the eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis. "Strategoi" are also reported in the Arcadian League, in the Epirote League and in the Acarnanian League, whereas the leaders of the Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles, Boeotarch and Tagus respectively.


title: Strategos

text: In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi, notably Lagid Egypt, for which most details are known, "strategos" became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties. In Egypt, the "strategoi" were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists ("klerouchoi") established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the "nomarches", the governor of each of the country's nomes, and the "oikonomos", in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BC), the "strategos" was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the "klerouchoi" were progressively demilitarized. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established the office of epistrategos (, "over-general") to oversee the individual "strategoi". The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the "nomarches" and the "oikonomos", while the "epistrategos" retained powers of military command. In addition, "hypostrategoi" (sing. hypostrategos, ) could be appointed as subordinates. The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into the Roman period, where the "epistrategos" was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the "procurator ad epistrategiam" was placed in charge of the "strategoi". The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.


title: Strategos

text: The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into "strategiai" ("generalships"), each headed by a "strategos", based on the various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province, and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished.


title: Strategos

text: Under the Roman Republic and later through the Principate, Greek historians often used the term "strategos" when referring to the Roman political/military office of "praetor". Such a use can be found in the New Testament: Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers to the magistrates of Philippi as "strategoi" (στρατηγοί). Correspondingly, antistrategos (, "vice-general") was used to refer to the office of "propraetor".


title: Strategos

text: The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. Initially, the term was used along with "stratelates" and, less often, "stratopedarches", to render the supreme military office of "magister militum" (the general in command of a field army), but could also be employed for the regional "duces". In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system, their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme. The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial "strategoi" were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople, rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of "strategoi" increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the "Taktikon Uspensky" lists 18 "strategoi", the "Escorial Taktikon", written c. 971–975, lists almost 90.


title: Strategos

text: Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the "strategos" of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs were specifically barred. At the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding "strategoi": while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces. During the 11th century, the "strategoi" were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by the civil "kritai" ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled "doukes" or "katepano", who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term "strategos" had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.


title: Strategos

text: The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the title "strategos": strategetes (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other "strategoi" or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator, archistrategos (, "chief-general") and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and the term hypostrategos (, "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general.


title: Strategos

text: The city of Messina in Sicily also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily, held that position.


title: Strategos

text: In the modern Hellenic Army, a stratigós (the spelling remains ) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of "stratárchis" (Field Marshal) existed under the monarchy, but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic. Under the monarchy, the rank of full "stratigós" in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since , in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence, the rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence, when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff.


title: Strategos

text: All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos and ypostrátigos, for Lieutenant General and Major General, respectively. A Brigadier General however is called "taxíarchos", after a "táxis" (in modern usage "taxiarchía"), which means brigade. The ranks of "antistrátigos" and "ypostrátigos" are also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard, which lack the grade of full "stratigós".


title: Strategos

text: The oldest use of the term "strategos" in fiction may be found in the "Callirhoe" of Chariton of Aphrodisias which is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills a few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear.


title: Strategos

text: This position was featured in Orson Scott Card's novel "Ender's Game". In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch (responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon (the political leader of Earth, rather like a stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations), was one of the three most powerful people alive. During an earlier war described in the novel, because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance—specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war—all three positions were filled with Jewish people: an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of the Formics by half-Māori Mazer Rackham changed this position. Bean (Julian Delphiki) was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel "Earth Awakens" establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for the newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion.


title: Strategos

text: The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka, in the series of books by S. M. Stirling, also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity, though often with only the loosest resemblance to what they originally meant.


title: Strategos

text: The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the Sunrise anime "The Vision of Escaflowne"; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire.


title: Strategos

text: The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game "Assassin's Creed Odyssey". There is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch. They wield heavy blades and shield.


title: Strategos

text: In "Xenoblade Chronicles 3", Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd.


title: Taha Hussein

text: Taha Hussein was born in Izbet el Kilo, a village in the Minya Governorate in central Upper Egypt. He was the seventh of thirteen children of lower-middle-class parents. He contracted ophthalmia at the age of two, and, as the result of faulty treatment by an unskilled practitioner, he became blind. After attending a kuttab, he studied religion and Arabic literature at El Azhar University; but from an early age, he was dissatisfied with the traditional education system.


title: Taha Hussein

text: When the secular Cairo University was founded in 1908, he was keen to be admitted, and despite being poor and blind, he won a place. In 1914, he received a PhD for his thesis on the sceptic poet and philosopher Abu al-ʿAlaʾ al-Maʿarri.


title: Taha Hussein

text: Taha Hussein left for Montpellier, enrolled in its university, attended courses in literature, history, French and Latin. He studied formal writing but he was not able to take full advantage of it as he "may be used to taking knowledge with his ears, not with his fingers."


title: Taha Hussein

text: He was summoned to return to Egypt due to the poor conditions at the University of Cairo; but three months later, those conditions improved, and Taha Hussein returned to France.


title: Taha Hussein

text: After obtaining his MA from the University of Montpellier, Hussein continued his studies at the Sorbonne. He hired Suzanne Bresseau (1895–1989) to read to him, and subsequently married her. In 1917 the Sorbonne awarded Hussein a second PhD, this time for his dissertation on the Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun, who is widely regarded as the founder of modern [sociology].


title: Taha Hussein

text: In 1919 Hussein returned to Egypt with Suzanne, and he was appointed professor of history at Cairo University. He went on to become a professor of Arabic literature and of Semitic languages.


title: Taha Hussein

text: At the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo, Taha Hussein was made responsible for the completion of Al-Mu'jam al-Kabir ("The Great Dictionary"), one of the academy's most important tasks. He also served as president of the academy.


title: Taha Hussein

text: His book of literary criticism "On Pre-Islamic Poetry" () of 1926 that bought him some fame in the Arab world. In this book, he expressed doubt about the authenticity of much early Arabic poetry, claiming it to have been falsified during ancient times due to tribal pride and rivalry between tribes. He also hinted indirectly that the Qur'an should not be taken as an objective source of history. Consequently, the book aroused the intense anger and hostility of the religious scholars at Al Azhar and many other traditionalists, and he was accused of having insulted Islam. However, the public prosecutor stated that what Taha Hussein had said was the opinion of an academic researcher and no legal action was taken against him, although he lost his post at Cairo University in 1931. His book was banned but was re-published the next year with slight modifications under the title "On Pre-Islamic Literature" (1927).


title: Taha Hussein

text: Taha Hussein was an intellectual of the Egyptian Renaissance and a proponent of the ideology of Egyptian nationalism as an Arab nation within the Arab world, arguing in a series of public letters against the Pharaonist Tawfiq al-Hakim that Arab identity is integral to Egyptian identity.


title: Taha Hussein

text: In 1950, he was appointed Minister of Education, in which capacity he led a call for free education and the right of everyone to be educated. He also transformed many of the Quranic schools into primary schools and converted a number of high schools into colleges such as the Graduate Schools of Medicine and Agriculture. He is also credited with establishing a number of new universities and he was the head of the Cultural Heritage of the Ministry of Education . Hussein proposed that Al Azhar University should be closed down in 1955 after his tenure as education minister ended.


title: Taha Hussein

text: In the West he is best known for his autobiography, "Al-Ayyam" (, "The Days") which was published in English as "An Egyptian Childhood" (1932) and "The Stream of Days" (1943).


title: Taha Hussein

text: The author of "more than sixty books (including six novels) and 1,300 articles", his major works include:


title: Chris Van Dusen

text: Chris Van Dusen is an American television producer and screenwriter. He is the creator and executive producer of the television series "Bridgerton", and served as showrunner for seasons one and two.


title: Chris Van Dusen

text: Van Dusen worked on "Grey's Anatomy" from 2005 to 2012, and, although uncredited, assisted in the transformation of "Grey's Anatomy" into its spin-off, "Private Practice". He was also a producer and writer on ABC's "The Catch" and "Scandal".


title: Chris Van Dusen

text: A native of Maryland, Van Dusen graduated from Emory University before receiving his M.F.A. at the University of Southern California. He and his husband have three daughters.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Richard Karl Freiherr von Weizsäcker (; 15 April 1920 – 31 January 2015) was a German politician (CDU), who served as President of Germany from 1984 to 1994. Born into the aristocratic Weizsäcker family, who were part of the German nobility, he took his first public offices in the Evangelical Church in Germany.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: A member of the CDU since 1954, Weizsäcker was elected as a member of parliament at the 1969 elections. He continued to hold a mandate as a member of the Bundestag until he became Governing Mayor of West Berlin, following the 1981 state elections. In 1984, Weizsäcker was elected as President of the Federal Republic of Germany and was re-elected in 1989 for a second term. As yet, he and Theodor Heuss are the only two Presidents of the Federal Republic of Germany who have served two complete five-year-terms. On 3 October 1990, during his second term as president, the reorganized five states of the German Democratic Republic and East Berlin joined the Federal Republic of Germany, which made Weizsäcker President of a reunified Germany.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Weizsäcker is considered the most popular of Germany's presidents, held in high regard particularly for his impartiality. His demeanor often saw him at odds with his party colleagues, particularly longtime Chancellor Helmut Kohl. He was famous for his speeches, especially one he delivered at the 40th anniversary of the end of the Second World War in Europe on 8 May 1985. Upon his death, his life and political work were widely praised, with "The New York Times" calling him "a guardian of his nation's moral conscience".


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Richard von Weizsäcker was born on 15 April 1920 in the New Palace in Stuttgart, the son of diplomat Ernst von Weizsäcker, a member of the Weizsäcker family, and his wife Marianne von Graevenitz, a daughter of Friedrich von Graevenitz (1861–1922), a General of the Infantry of the Kingdom of Württemberg. Ernst von Weizsäcker was a career diplomat and a high-ranking official in the Foreign Ministry in the 1930s. The youngest of four children, Weizsäcker had two brothers, the physicist and philosopher Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Heinrich von Weizsäcker who fell as a soldier in Poland at the beginning of World War II. The sister Adelheid (1916–2004) married Botho-Ernst Graf zu Eulenburg-Wicken (1903–1944), a landowner in East Prussia. Richard's grandfather Karl von Weizsäcker had been Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Württemberg, and was ennobled in 1897 and raised to the hereditary title of Baron ("Freiherr") in 1916. His term in office ended in 1918, shortly before the monarchy was abolished in the German Revolution of 1918–1919. However, during the following years, he still occupied an apartment in the former royal palace where his grandson was born in an attic room.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Because his father was a career diplomat, Weizsäcker spent much of his childhood in Switzerland and Scandinavia. The family lived in Basel 1920–24, in Copenhagen 1924–26, and in Bern 1933–36, where Richard attended the Swiss Gymnasium Kirchenfeld. The family lived in Berlin, in an apartment in the Fasanenstraße in Wilmersdorf, between 1929 and 1933 and again from 1936 until the end of the Second World War. Weizsäcker was able to miss the third class of his elementary school, and entered a secondary school at the young age of nine, the "Bismarck-Gymnasium" (now the ) in Wilmersdorf. When he was 17 years old, Weizsäcker travelled to England to study philosophy and history at Balliol College, Oxford. In London, he witnessed the coronation of King George VI. He spent the winter semester of 1937/38 at the University of Grenoble in France to improve his French. He was mustered for the army there in 1938 and moved back to Germany the same year to start his "Reichsarbeitsdienst".


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: After the outbreak of the Second World War, Weizsäcker joined the German army, ultimately rising to the rank of captain in the reserves. He joined his brother Heinrich's regiment, the Infantry Regiment 9 Potsdam. He crossed over the border to Poland with his regiment on the very first day of the war. His brother Heinrich was killed about a hundred meters away from him on the second day. Weizsäcker watched over his brother's body through the night, until he was able to bury him the next morning. His regiment, consisting in a large part of noble and conservative Prussians, played a significant part in the 20 July plot, with no fewer than nineteen of its officers involved in the conspiracy against Hitler. Weizsäcker himself helped his friend Axel von dem Bussche in an attempt to kill Hitler at a uniform inspection in December 1943, providing Bussche with travel papers to Berlin. The attempt had to be called off when the uniforms were destroyed by an air raid. Upon meeting Bussche in June 1944, Weizsäcker was also informed of the imminent plans for 20 July and assured him of his support, but the plan ultimately failed. Weizsäcker later described the last nine months of the war as "agony". He was wounded in East Prussia in 1945 and was transported home to Stuttgart, to see out the end of the war on a family farm at Lake Constance.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: At the end of the war Weizsäcker continued his study of history in Göttingen and went on to study law, but he also attended lectures in physics and theology. In 1947, when his father Ernst von Weizsäcker was a defendant in the Ministries Trial for his role in the deportation of Jews from occupied France, Richard von Weizsäcker served as his assistant defence counsel. He took his first legal "Staatsexamen" in 1950, his second in 1953, and finally earned his doctorate ("doctor juris") in 1955. In 1953 he married Marianne von Kretschmann. They had met when she was an 18-year-old schoolgirl and he was thirty. In 2010, Weizsäcker described the marriage as "the best and smartest decision of my life". They had four children: Robert Klaus von Weizsäcker, a professor of economics at the Technical University of Munich, Andreas von Weizsäcker, an art professor at the Academy of Fine Arts Munich, Beatrice von Weizsäcker, a lawyer and journalist, and , chief physician at the Schlosspark-Klinik in Berlin. In the late 1970s, his son Andreas was a student at the Odenwaldschule. When reports about sexual abuse there surfaced in 2010, it was speculated in the media that Andreas might have been one of the victims, but this was denied by the family. Andreas died of cancer in June 2008, aged 51. Weizsäcker's son Fritz was murdered by a man armed with a knife on 19 November 2019, while holding a lecture at the Schlosspark-Klinik in Berlin, where he worked.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Weizsäcker worked for Mannesmann between 1950 and 1958, as a scientific assistant until 1953, as a legal counsel from 1953, and as head of the department for economic policy from 1957. From 1958 to 1962, he was head of the Waldthausen Bank, a bank owned by relatives of his wife. From 1962 to 1966, he served on the board of directors of Boehringer Ingelheim, a pharmaceutical company. It was involved in production of the Agent Orange. This fact is speculated to be the motive behind the murder of his son in 2019, though the suspect has been sent to a secure hospital unit due to a "delusional general aversion" against the victim's family.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Between 1964 and 1970, Weizsäcker served as president of the German Evangelical Church Assembly. He was also a member of the Synod and the Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany from 1967 to 1984. During his early tenure as president, he wrote a newspaper article supporting a memorandum written by German evangelical intellectuals including Werner Heisenberg and his brother Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker who had spoken out in favour of accepting the Oder–Neisse line as the western border of Poland as an indispensable precondition for lasting peace in Europe. While this was met by negative reactions from politicians, especially in Weizsäcker's own party, he nevertheless led the Evangelical Church on a way to promoting reconciliation with Poland, leading to a memorandum by the Church in both West and East Germany. The paper was widely discussed and met with a significantly more positive response.


title: Richard von Weizsäcker

text: Weizsäcker joined the CDU in 1954. Some years later, Helmut Kohl offered him a safe seat for the 1965 elections, even going so far as to have Chancellor Konrad Adenauer write two letters urging him to run, but Weizsäcker declined, due to his work in the German Evangelical Church Assembly, wanting to avoid a conflict of interest. However, he became a member of the "Bundestag" (Federal Diet) in the 1969 federal elections, serving until 1981.