title: History of marketing

text: When Wendell R. Smith published his now classic article, "Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies" in 1956, he noted that he was simply documenting marketing practices that had been observed for some time and which he described as a "natural force". Other theorists agree that Smith was simply codifying implicit knowledge that had been used in marketing and brand management from the early twentieth century.


title: History of marketing

text: As industry grew, the demand for skilled business professionals also grew. To meet this demand, universities began offering courses in commerce, economics and marketing. Marketing, as a discipline, was first taught in universities in the very early twentieth century. However, researchers only became interested in investigating the history of marketing in the mid twentieth century. From the outset, researchers tended to identify two strands of historical research; the history of marketing practice and the history of marketing thought which was fundamentally concerned with the rise of marketing education and dissecting the way that marketing was taught and studied. Early historical studies were primarily descriptive.


title: History of marketing

text: The practice of marketing may have been carried out for millennia, but the modern concept of marketing as a professional practice appears to have emerged the post industrial corporate world. In addition to the studies of specific cultures or time periods, discussed in the preceding section, some historians of marketing have sought to write more general histories of marketing's evolution in the modern era. A key question that has preoccupied researchers is whether it is possible to identify specific orientations or mindsets that inform key periods in marketing's evolution. Marketers disagree about the way that marketing practice has evolved over time.


title: History of marketing

text: In the marketing literature, continuing debate surrounds the orientations or philosophies that might have informed marketing practice at different periods of time. An orientation may be defined as "the type of activity or subject that an organisation seems most interested in and gives most attention to". In relation to marketing orientations, the term has been defined as a "philosophy of business management". or "a corporate state of mind" or as an "organisational culture".


title: History of marketing

text: The general lack of agreement amongst scholars as to what constitutes clearly identifiable periods and the orientation that characterised each distinct period has spawned a lengthy list of orientations. Space prevents an exhaustive description of all periods or eras. However, the salient features of the most commonly cited periods appear in the following section.


title: History of marketing

text: A production orientation is often proposed as the first of the so-called orientations that dominated business thought. Keith dated the production era from the 1860s to the 1930s, but other theorists argue that evidence of the production orientation can still be found in some companies or industries. Specifically Kotler and Armstrong note that the production philosophy is "one of the oldest philosophies that guides sellers" and "is still useful in some situations".


title: History of marketing

text: The selling orientation is thought to have begun during the Great Depression and continued well into the 1950s although examples of this orientation can still be found today. Kotler et al. note that the selling concept "is typically practised with unsought goods".


title: History of marketing

text: Phillip Kotler is often credited with first proposing the societal marketing orientation or concept in an article published in the "Harvard Business Review" in 1972. However, some marketing historians, notably Wilkie and Moore, have argued that a societal perspective was evident in marketing theory and in marketing texts, since the discipline's inception in the early 1900s or that societal marketing is merely an extension of the marketing concept.


title: History of marketing

text: The societal marketing concept adopts the position that marketers have a greater social responsibility than simply satisfying customers and providing them with superior value. Instead, marketing activities should strive to benefit society's overall well-being. Marketing organisations that have embraced the societal marketing concept typically identify key stakeholder groups including: employees, customers, local communities, the wider public and government and consider the impact of their activities on all stakeholders. They ensure that marketing activities do not damage the environment and are not hazardous to broader society. Societal marketing developed into sustainable marketing.


title: History of marketing

text: Starting in the 1990s, a new stage of marketing emerged called relationship marketing. The focus of relationship marketing is on a long-term relationship that benefits both the company and the customer. The relationship is based on trust and commitment, and both companies tend to shift their operating activities to be able to work more efficiently together. One of the most prominent reasons for relationship marketing comes from Kotler's idea that it costs about five times more to obtain a new customer than to maintain the relationship with an existing customer. A relationship marketing approach seeks to maximise the value of all the potential exchanges an organisation could have into the future.


title: History of marketing

text: Empirical support for relationship marketing as a distinct paradigm is very weak. One study suggests that relationship marketing is really a sub-component of large scale movements of the value-added process rather than a separate era or framework. Some theorists suggest that marketing is moving from a relationship marketing paradigm and towards a social media paradigm where marketers have access to a more controlled environment and are able to customise offers and communications messages.


title: History of marketing

text: To investigate the history of marketing practice, scholars often turn to a method known as periodisation. Periodisation refers to the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified, named units for the purpose of analysis or study. Scholars do not agree on the periods that characterise the history of marketing practice. In a major review of the periodisation approach, Hollander et al. have identified fourteen different "stage theories" or "short periodisations" as well as a total of nineteen "long periodisations" that have been carried out since 1957. Of these, the contributions of Robert Keith (1960) and Ronald Fullerton (1988) are the most frequently cited.


title: History of marketing

text: In 1960, Robert J. Keith, the then Vice President of Pillsbury, set the stage for decades of controversy when he published an article entitled the "Marketing Revolution" in which he set out the way that the Pillsbury Company had shifted from a focus on production in the 1860s through to a consumer focus in the 1950s. He traced three distinct eras in Pillsbury's evolution:


title: History of marketing

text: In addition, Keith hypothesised that a "marketing control era" was about to emerge. Although Keith's article explicitly documented Pillsbury's evolution, the article appears to suggest that the stages observed at Pillsbury constitute a standard or normal evolutionary path (production→sales→marketing) for most large organisations.


title: History of marketing

text: Keith's notion of distinct eras in the evolution of marketing practice has been widely criticised and his periodisation described as "hopelessly flawed". Specific criticisms of Keith's tripartite periodisation include that:


title: History of marketing

text: The article, which is entirely based on Keith's personal recollections and did not use a single reference, is best described as "anecdotal". Systematic studies carried out since Keith's work have failed to replicate Keith's periodisation. Instead, other studies suggest that many companies exhibited a marketing orientation in the 19th-century and that the business schools were teaching marketing decades before Pillsbury adopted a marketing-oriented approach. Jones and Richardson also investigated historical accounts of marketing practice and found evidence for both the sales and marketing era during the so-called production era and concluded that the idea of a "marketing revolution" was a myth. A detailed study of the chocolate manufacturer, Rowntree, found that this company had shifted from a production orientation through to a marketing orientation by the 1930s, without having transitioned through the so-called sales orientation. Other critiques of Keith's work have pointed out that the so-called "production era" fails to align with historical facts and have also suggested that it is a myth. Keith's eras have become known, somewhat cynically, as the "standard chronology".


title: History of marketing

text: In 1988, Fullerton developed a more subtle and nuanced periodisation for the so-called marketing eras. Fullerton's eras were:


title: History of marketing

text: In spite of the intense criticism leveled at Keith's eras of marketing practice, his periodisation is the most frequently cited in textbooks and has become the accepted wisdom. One content analysis of 25 introductory and advanced texts found that Keith's eras were reproduced in all but four. Another study, which examined 15 of the top selling marketing texts, found that the although the incidence of repeating Keith's eras was waning, it had not been replaced by Fullerton's periodisation, nor any other more meaningful framework.


title: History of marketing

text: For all the controversies surrounding marketing stages or periods, Keith and others appear to have contributed a lasting legacy. A study by Grundey (2010) suggests that many contemporary textbooks begin with Keith's eras and expand on it by including newer concepts such as the "societal marketing concept", the "relationship marketing concept" and the "interfunctional concept", as shown in the table below. More recently, Kotler and Keller added the "holistic marketing concept" to the list of eras in marketing. Marketing theorists continue to debate whether the holistic era represents a genuine new orientation or whether it is an extension of the marketing concept. Grundey summarised five different periodisations in the history of marketing, as shown in the following table, as a means of highlighting the general lack of agreement among scholars.


title: History of marketing

text: Dating the history of marketing, as an academic discipline, is just as problematic as the history of marketing practice. Marketing historians cannot agree on how to date the beginnings of marketing thought. Eric Shaw, for instance, suggests that a period of pre-academic marketing thought can be identified prior to 1900. Other historians suggest that the theory of marketing only emerged in the 20th century when the discipline began to offer courses at universities. Nevertheless, the birth of marketing as a discipline is usually designated to the first decade of the twentieth century when "marketing courses" appeared in universities. In 1902, the University of Michigan offered what many believe to be the very first course in marketing. The University of Illinois also started offering coursework in marketing in 1902. In the academic year, 1904-1905, the University of Pennsylvania commenced teaching marketing. Other universities soon followed, including the Harvard Business School. In 1914 Harvard's required course "Economic Resources of the United States" was renamed "Marketing."


title: History of marketing

text: Prior to the emergence of marketing courses, marketing was not recognised as a discipline in its own right; rather it was treated as a branch of economics and was often called "applied economics." Subjects, which today might be recognised as marketing-related, were embedded in economics courses. Early marketing theories were described as modifications or adaptations of economic theories.


title: History of marketing

text: The impetus for the separation of marketing and economics was due, at least in part, to economic's focus on production as the creator of economic value and general failure to investigate distribution. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, as markets became more globalised, distribution began to assume increasing importance. Some economics professors began to run courses examining various aspects of the marketing system, including "distributive and regulative systems." Other courses, such as the "marketing of products" and the "marketing of farm-products" followed. As the first decades of the 20th century progressed, books and articles concerning marketing topics began to emerge. In 1936, the publication of the new "Journal of Marketing" gave marketing academics a forum for exchanging ideas and research methods and also gave the discipline a real sense of its own distinct identity as a maturing academic discipline.


title: History of marketing

text: Several scholars have attempted to describe the evolution of marketing thought chronologically and to connect it with broader intellectual and academic trends. Bartels (1965) provided a brief account of marketing's formative periods, and Shah and Gardner (1982) briefly considered the development of the six dominant schools in contemporary marketing. However, these initial attempts have been criticised as overly descriptive. One of the first theorists to consider the stages in the development of marketing thought was Robert Bartels, who in "The History of Marketing Thought," (1965) used a periodisation approach. He categorised the development of marketing theory decade by decade from the beginning of the 20th century:


title: History of marketing

text: Bartels was the first historian to provide a "long view of marketing’s past and wide sweep of its subdisciplines" and in so doing, he nurtured an interest in the history of marketing thought.


title: History of marketing

text: Other marketing historians have eschewed the periodisation approach, and instead considered whether distinct schools within marketing reflect different facets of common theory and whether a more unifying intellectual structure has emerged. These approaches tend to identify distinct schools of thought. A school of thought refers to an intellectual tradition or a group of scholars who share a common philosophy or set of ideas. Marketing historians, Shaw and Jones, define a school of thought as one that has "a substantial body of knowledge; developed by a number of scholars; and describing at least one aspect of the what, how, who, why, when and where of performing marketing activities."


title: History of marketing

text: To a certain extent, there is some agreement that in early marketing thought, three so-called traditional schools, namely the commodity school, the functional school and the institutional school co-existed. Marketing historians such as Eric Shaw and Barton A. Weitz point to the publication of Wroe Alderson's book, "Marketing Behavior and Executive Action" (1957), as a break-point in the history of marketing thought, moving from the macro functions-institutions-commodities approach to a micromarketing management paradigm. Following on from Alderson, marketing began to incorporate other fields of knowledge besides economics, notably behavioral science and psychology, becoming a multi-disciplinary field. For many scholars, Alderson's book marks the beginning of the "Marketing Management Era." Of those historians who identify schools, there is no real agreement about which schools were dominant at different stages in marketing's development. Although the distinctive features of these schools can be identified and described, many of the early text-books included elements drawn from two or more schools of thought- for example, in a series of chapters devoted to commodities followed by a series of chapters devoted to the institutional and functional schools.


title: History of marketing

text: In the following section, a brief overview of the contributions of key thinkers will be outlined with respect to the prevailing schools that have dominated marketing thought.


title: History of marketing

text: Hunt and Goolsby, identified four schools of thought that have dominated marketing, namely; the commodity school, the institutional school, the functional school and the managerial school.


title: History of marketing

text: Yet other commentators identify a broader range of schools. O'Malley and Lichrou, for example, document the schools as:


title: History of marketing

text: By the 1920s, the marketing discipline was organised into three schools of thought: the commodity school, the institutional school and the functional school. The following sections briefly outlines the schools of thought as conceptualised by key thinkers in the discipline. Although these can be treated as separate schools of thought, considerable overlap between them is evident. The three schools that preceded marketing management exhibited a highly descriptive approach and collectively these are often called the "classical schools." These schools borrowed heavily from economics and were largely concerned with aggregate demand and lacked a focus on the individual firm. By the 1960s, all previous schools of thought had been eclipsed by the managerial school because it offered a problem-solving approach and presented marketers with potential solutions to marketing problems that were frequently encountered.


title: History of marketing

text: The commodity school is thought to have originated with an article by C.C. Parlin (1916) with a focus on the "objects of exchange" and was primarily concerned with classifying commodities. A different article published by Copeland, and published in the "Harvard Business Review" (1923) proposed the convenience-shopping-specialty goods classification which is still in use today. Other theorists developed a plethora of methods for classifying goods.


title: History of marketing

text: The institutional school focused its attention on the "agents of market transactions," specifically those organisations active in the intermediary channel system, such as wholesalers and retailers. It was primarily concerned with documenting the channels of distribution, the functions performed by channel members and the value-adding services they provided. In short, the institutional school was fundamentally concerned with the activities required to achieve efficiency within distribution systems. The institutional school was heavily influenced by economics, but in the 1970s, began to take on ideas from behavioural science. A key work in the institutional school tradition is Weld's "The Marketing of Farm Products," (1916) while other important contributors included: Butler's "Marketing and Merchandising," (1923); Breyer's "Commodity and Marketing" (1931); Converse's "Marketing: Methods and Policies" (1921) and Duddy & Revzan's "Marketing: An Institutional Approach" (1947).


title: History of marketing

text: The functional school was thought to have originated with the publication of Shaw's article, "Some Problems in Market Distribution," (1912) The functional school was primarily concerned with documenting the "functions of marketing." In other words, it attempted to address the question, What work does marketing do? Different theorists within the functional school produced long lists of marketing's functions. Although there was little agreement about what should be included in the list, much of it revolved around the value added by marketing intermediaries. In those early years, advertising and promotion was rarely seen as a marketing function. In addition to Shaw, key thinkers in the functional school included Weld, Vanderblue and Ryan.


title: History of marketing

text: Wroe Alderson changed marketing thought with the publication of his work, "Marketing Behaviour and Executive Action" (1957) in which he was primarily concerned with the problems and challenges faced by marketers and the types of solutions that had been found to be successful. This shifted the emphasis away from the functions of marketing and towards a more problem-solving approach, thereby paving the way for a more managerial approach within the discipline. Some historians have claimed that Alderson's article signalled a "paradigm shift" in thinking, towards a new "macromarketing" approach.


title: History of marketing

text: The marketing management school emerged as the dominant school in the 1960s following the publication of "Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach," written by E. Jerome McCarthy and replaced the so-called functional school which had been the dominant school for the first part of the twentieth century. In the words of Hunt and Goolsby, the publication of McCarthy's text, sounded the "beginning of the end for the functional school."


title: History of marketing

text: However, Hunt and Goolsby note that the 1960s was a transitional period in which both the functional school and the managerial school co-existed. Shaw and Jones have described the emergence of the managerial school in the mid-twentieth century as a "paradigm shift."


title: History of marketing

text: While the management school continued to borrow from economics, it also introduced ideas from the new and emerging fields of sociology and psychology, which offered useful insights for explaining aspects of consumer behaviour such as the influence of culture and social class. Key works in the marketing management tradition include Wroe Alderson's "Marketing Behavior and Executive Action," (1957), Howard's "Marketing Management" (1957), Lazer's "Managerial Marketing: Perspectives and Viewpoints," (1957) and McCarthy's "Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach" (1960).


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Samuel Bass (1807–1853) was a Canadian abolitionist who helped Solomon Northup, author of "Twelve Years a Slave", attain his freedom. Northup was a free black man from New York who was kidnapped and forced into slavery in the Deep South. At risk of injury and conviction in default of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, Bass mailed letters to friends of Northup that initiated a series of events to save him.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Bass was born in August 1807 in Augusta Township, Upper Canada (now Ontario), where he was raised. His parents were John and Hannah Lakins Bass, who had twelve children. John had come to Canada with his mother and siblings in the late 1770s after the death of his father. His grandparents, Adonijah and Lydia Draper Bass, were United Empire Loyalists who lived in Walloomsac, New York, during the American Revolutionary War.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Samuel Bass married Catharine Lydia Lane (or Lydia Catlin Lane), and they settled in rural Edwardsburgh Township. They built a house and had four daughters, Catherine, Hannah, Martha Maria, and Zeruah. He did not have a great relationship with his wife. He said that she had a temper so severe that it would have been difficult for any man to live with her.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Bass left Canada around 1840 for the United States, where he had relatives. He is known to have lived in Louisiana, and he owned land in Illinois.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Bass came to Marksville, Louisiana, a town of about 6,000 people, by the 1850s. He was hired by John Waddill of Marksville to work on his home. They talked about his life in Canada, the details of which Waddill recorded in a diary. The town was located in Avoyelles Parish, which was "a region steeped in French-colonial history and surrounded by sweeping farmland, meandering bayous and moss-hanging shade trees." Bass freely expressed his concerns about slavery, which would not have been welcome in the Deep South. While others would have been run out of the area for their anti-slavery discourse, Bass stayed in the area because he was considered a respectful listener of other's viewpoints and was an interesting conversationalist.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Bass was hired in 1852 to build a new house, now called the Edwin Epps House for Edwin Epps's family. Bass and Solomon Northup, who was enslaved by Epps, worked together on the construction of a Creole cottage. By this time, Northup had been enslaved for eleven years, after being kidnapped and forced into slavery. Bass expressed his opposition to slavery with Epps. He said that there is "no justice or righteousness in it". Feeling comfortable with Bass, Northup shared his story and asked Bass to mail letters to his friends in New York. Bass agreed to help him, at great risk after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: They met secretly on the plantation late at night in the summer of 1852 to make plans. They agreed that Bass should write the letters at his room at Marksville to avoid being caught. Northup provided the names of three individuals in Saratoga Springs, New York—Judge Marvin, Cephus Parker, and William Perry—who could vouch for his free status. They chose to write to three men, allowing that some people could have moved away or died. They figured that it might take six weeks for the letters to be received and for word to be sent back to Louisiana. To be safe, they agreed to avoid one another after the letters were sent.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: There was no response to the three letters for months. Bass had decided on a backup plan to travel to Saratoga and deliver the message personally if needed. Bass and Northup were unaware of what was occurring in New York. Two of the letters were sent to Cephas Parker and William Perry from Saratoga, New York, who notified Northup's wife of her husband's whereabouts. Henry Bliss Northup, a lawyer and a relative of Northup's father's former slaveholder, was notified of his childhood friend's plight. With six affidavits and a petition, Henry Northup obtained a letter from Governor Washington Hunt of New York that declared that Solomon Northup was a free man and he appointed Henry an agent of rescue. Henry carried the letter with him as he traveled to Louisiana to meet with Waddill, who then wrote in an affidavit that Northup was "violently and fraudulently kidnapped." Waddill filed a lawsuit against Edwin Epps, after which Judge Ralph Cushman provided the paperwork for Epps to release Northup.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Henry arrived at the Epps' plantation on January 3, 1853, with the sheriff of Avoyelles Parish to free Northup. "The New York Times" published an article about Northup's years of slavery and emancipation, but Bass was not mentioned in the article. This may have been a means to protect him.


title: Samuel Bass (abolitionist)

text: Bass lived in Marksville, where he had a relationship with a free woman of color, Augustine Tournier. Commonly called Justine, she had a daughter with Bass called both Ellen and Helena. Bass prepared a will with Waddill the night before he died of pneumonia on August 30, 1853 at the home of Justine Tournier. Bass had owned property in Illinois and Upper Canada, which he left to his children. He left what money he had to William Sloat, a friend, to arrange for a "decent Christian burial".


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: The bridge, also known as the pilothouse or wheelhouse, is a room or platform of a ship from which the ship can be commanded. When a ship is under way, the bridge is manned by an officer of the watch aided usually by an able seaman acting as a lookout. During critical maneuvers the captain will be on the bridge, often supported by an officer of the watch, an able seaman on the wheel and sometimes a pilot, if required.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: There are many terms for parts of a ship with functions similar to a bridge. Depending upon the design and layout of a ship, some of these terms may be interchangeable.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Traditionally, sailing ships were commanded from the quarterdeck, aft of the mainmast, where the ship's wheel was located (as it was close to the rudder). A "wheelhouse" was a small enclosure around the ship's wheel on the quarter deck of sailing ships. On modern ships the "wheelhouse" or "pilothouse" refers to the bridge of smaller motor vessels, such as tugs.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: With the arrival of paddle steamers, engineers required a platform from which they could inspect the paddle wheels and where the captain's view would not be obstructed by the paddle houses. A raised walkway, literally a bridge, connecting the paddle houses was therefore provided. When the screw propeller superseded the paddle wheel, the term "bridge" survived.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Traditionally, commands would be passed from the senior officer on the bridge to stations dispersed throughout the ship, where physical control of the ship was exercised, as technology did not exist for the remote control of steering or machinery. Helm orders would be passed to an enclosed wheel house, where the coxswain or helmsman operated the ship's wheel. Engine commands would be relayed to the engine officer in the engine room by an engine order telegraph that displayed the captain's orders on a dial. The engine officer would ensure that the correct combination of steam pressure and engine revolutions were applied. Weatherproof pilot houses supplanted open bridges so that the pilot, who was traditionally the ship's navigating officer, could issue commands from shelter.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Iron, and later steel, ships also required a "compass platform". This was usually a tower, where a magnetic compass could be sited far away as possible from the ferrous interference of the hulk of the ship.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Many ships still have a "flying bridge", a platform atop the pilot house, open to weather, containing a binnacle and voice tubes to allow the conning officer to direct the ship from a higher position during fair weather conditions.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Larger warships may have "navigation bridge", which is used for the actual conning of the ship, and a separate "admiral's bridge" can be provided in flagships, where the admiral can exercise control over the squadron of ships without interfering with the captain's command of the vessel. In older warships, a heavily armored conning tower was often provided, where the vital command staff could be located under protection to ensure that the ship could be commanded under fire.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: On a submarine, the bridge is the highest point on the conning tower, to provide for better visual navigation when on the surface. They became standard on United States Navy submarines after 1917, greatly improving the function of the vessels while at the surface.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Modern advances in remote control equipment have seen progressive transfer of the actual control of the ship to the bridge. The wheel and throttles can be operated directly from the bridge, controlling often-unmanned machinery spaces. Aboard modern warships, navigational command comes from the bridge, whereas electronically directed weapon systems are usually controlled from an interior compartment.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: On a commercial vessel, the bridge will contain the equipment necessary to safely navigate a vessel on passage. Such equipment will vary with ship type, but generally includes a GPS navigation device, a Navtex receiver, an ECDIS or chart system, one or more radars, a communications system (including distress calling equipment), engine (telegraph) controls, a wheel/autopilot system, a magnetic compass (for redundancy and cross check capability) and light/sound signalling devices.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: The navigation station of a ship may be located on the bridge or in a separate chart room, nearby. It includes a table sized for nautical charts where calculations of course and location are made. The navigator plots the course to be followed by the ship on these charts. Besides the desk and the navigation charts, the area contains navigational instruments that may include electronic equipment for a Global Positioning System receiver and chart display, fathometer, a compass, a marine chronometer, two-way radios, and radiotelephone, etc.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: A flying bridge is an open area on top of a surface ship that provides unobstructed views of the fore, aft, and the sides of a vessel, and that serves as an operating station for the ship's officers, such as the captain or officer of the watch.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Prior to World War II, virtually every sailing ship, steamship, monitor, paddle steamer, or large pleasure ship had a flying bridge above the main bridge. Flying bridges were generally not enclosed at all (although sometimes they were partially enclosed), and often had little equipment—usually just a speaking tube or telephone to allow communication with the helmsman or wheelman on the main bridge. On military warships after 1914, the flying bridge was usually the station for the air defense officer and the gunnery officer. The amount of equipment on a flying bridge varies widely with the need of the captain. During World War II, for example, American submarine chaser surface ships had a well-outfitted flying bridge which usually contained a pelorus, signal lamps, telescope, and voice tube to permit the captain to command the ship. U.S. Navy attack transport ships could be outfitted with either 20mm or 40mm automatic cannons on their flying bridges.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Flying bridges were almost always the highest bridge on the ship. They usually were above the flag bridge (also known as the "admiral's bridge"–a bridge above the main bridge on a command warship where a high-ranking officer such as an admiral could conduct fleet operations, plan strategy, and conduct large battles) and the main bridge.


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Since the 1980s, large pleasure craft may have a flying bridge toward the stern that is used as additional outdoor seating space and a place to store a tender. On the smallest surface vessels, such as a sport fishing boat, the flying bridge may have controls permitting the ship to be piloted from the flying bridge, but will lack the full range of controls of the pilot house. On larger small vessels, the flying bridge may actually be enclosed, in which case it is more properly called an "upper pilot house" or "upper bridge".


title: Bridge (nautical)

text: Some flying bridges have "bridge wings", open areas which thrust outward from the flying bridge over the sides of the vessel by approximately to allow an officer to see the side of their ship while docking or working with smaller vessels. A bridge wing is a narrow walkway extending from both sides of a pilothouse to the full width of a ship or slightly beyond, to allow bridge personnel a full view to aid in the maneuvering of the ship. Officers use bridge wings when docking or maneuvering in locks and narrow waterways. Each bridge wing may be equipped with a console controlling the bow thruster, stern thruster, rudder and engines.


title: Waste container

text: A waste container, also known as a dustbin, garbage can, and trash can is a type of container that is usually made out of metal or plastic. The words "rubbish", "basket" and "bin" are more common in British English usage; "trash" and "can" are more common in American English usage. "Garbage" may refer to food waste specifically (when distinguished from "trash") or to municipal solid waste in general.


title: Waste container

text: A pedal bin is a container with a lid operated by a foot pedal. Lillian Moller Gilbreth, an industrial engineer and efficiency expert, invented the pedal bin in the 1920s for the disposal of kitchen waste. The foot pedal enables the user to open the lid without touching it with their hands.


title: Waste container

text: In the 2010s, some bins have begun to include automated mechanisms such as a lid with infrared detection on the top of the can powered by batteries to open it rather than a foot pedal, freeing the user from touching the bin in any way. This helps prevent the bin lids becoming clogged with trash. These wastes containers are mostly made of stainless steel. Some bin models also include a small receptable for an air freshener.


title: Waste container

text: Legislation surrounding waste receptacles was first introduced in France in an 1883 prefectural order signed by Eugène Poubelle, from whose name the French word for a waste receptacle comes. This order mandated the provision and collection of waste bins to each household in Paris. These bins were specified as having to be between 80 and 120 litres in volume and having a handle and a lid. Three waste bins were to be allocated to each household in order to sort refuse from reclaimable fibres such as paper and cloth and other reusable materials like ceramics, glasses and oyster shells.


title: Waste container

text: Legislation setting out the responsibilities for the provision and collection of ""receptacles for the temporary deposit and collection of dust ashes and rubbish"" by local authorities in Britain was first set out in the Public Health Act 1875. However, this did not mandate the use of them, leaving the decision to offer the service to local government instead.


title: Waste container

text: In many cities and towns, there is a public waste collection service which regularly collects household waste from outside buildings. The waste is loaded into a garbage truck and driven to a landfill, incinerator or crush facility to be disposed of.


title: Waste container

text: In some areas, each household has multiple bins for different categories of rubbish (usually represented by colours) depending on its suitability for recycling, which will instead be routed to a recycling center.


title: Waste container

text: Roadside waste collection is often done by means of larger metal containers of varying designs, mostly called dumpsters in the US, and skips in the UK.


title: Waste container

text: Public areas such as parks, often have litter bins placed to improve the social environment by encouraging people not to litter. Such bins in outdoor locations or other busy public areas are usually mounted to the ground or wall to discourage theft, and reduce vandalism, and to improve their appearance are sometimes deliberately artistic or cute. In dense urban areas, trash is stored underground below the receptacle. Many are lined with a plastic or paper bin bag to help contain liquids.


title: Waste container

text: The term "garbage can" is also used for a model of decision making, the "Garbage Can Model" of decision making. It is concerned with cases of decision making in great aggregate uncertainty which can cause decisions to arise that from a distant point of view might seem irrational.


title: Waste container

text: A "trash can" metaphor is often used in computer operating system desktop environments as a place files can be moved for deletion.


title: Waste container

text: In a workplace setting, a bin may be euphemistically called "the circular file", "the round file" or "the janitor's file". Whereas useful documents are filed in a filing cabinet, which is rectangular, junk mail and other worthless items are "filed" in the bin, which is often round.


title: Waste container

text: The term "wastebasket" is occasionally used in taxonomy to refer to less formal (and often paraphyletic) groupings that pose problems in classification (e.g., the proposed order Insectivora is considered a "wastebasket taxon", as it groups small mammals that do not fit nicely into other taxa), and the Nilo-Saharan language family is sometimes called "Greenberg's wastebasket", as it was a grouping made by him to fit the languages of Africa that did not fall into the other groups, Afroasiatic, Niger–Congo and Khoisan.


title: The Devil Below

text: The Devil Below is a 2021 horror film directed by Bradley Parker. The film stars Alicia Sanz, Adan Canto, Zach Avery, Chinaza Uche, Jonathan Sadowski, Jesse LaTourette and Will Patton.


title: The Devil Below

text: A mining crew is leaving the Shookum Hills Coal Mine. A man named Schuttmann and his son Derek are talking about a coworker who is not being safe. Derek is attempting to persuade his father to give their coworker another chance when he is suddenly attacked by an unknown creature. Schuttmann attempts to save Derek, but the creature stabs him in the shoulder, paralyzing him. A bloodied Derek is taken away as he screams.


title: The Devil Below

text: Years later, a team of scientists—Darren, Shawn, Terry, and Jaime—led by an adventurer named Arianne, are searching for Shookum Hills and its coal mine. The town hasn't been placed on maps since the 1970s, and its population has also seemingly vanished. It's believed that the disappearance is related to an underground coal fire that resulted in sinkholes opening up around the town. Darren, the team leader, believes that the fires were started by a rare mineral.


title: The Devil Below

text: The group stops at a store and Arianne goes inside to buy supplies and ask for directions to Shookum Hills. The proprietor claims that he has never heard of Shookum Hills; when Arianne presses the issue, he tells her to go back the way she came. As the team leaves the store, the proprietor warns an unknown party that there is a problem. As the team leaves the store, another car begins following them. Arianne successfully eludes the pursuers, and the team finds a dirt road blockaded by an electrical fence. They break through the fence and discover the abandoned Shookum Hills Mine. Though delighted by their find, they are puzzled to discover a sinkhole covered by an improvised electrified fence. They break through the barrier and lower sensors into the hole to establish a picture of the tunnels beneath. Terry is suddenly dragged into the sinkhole. Arianne and Jaime descend into the sinkhole to try and find Terry, but cannot locate him. Darren and Shawn are confronted by an angry local named Dale, who demands to know why they opened the sinkhole cover. Frightened, they knock him unconscious. Once Arianne returns, she tells them that there are monstrous creatures in the tunnels. The group flees into the woods, losing Shawn in the process. Dale is also killed, after reporting that the sinkhole has been breached. Darren, Arianne, and Jaime are rescued by a group of locals led by Schuttman, who used to own the mines. He reveals that the mines are home to monsters that are the true reason the town disappeared. The surviving townsfolk have remained behind to keep the creatures contained.


title: The Devil Below

text: Arianne volunteers to go back with two locals, Ellroy and Shelby, to show them the sinkhole they opened. Darren and Jaime choose to accompany her. The creatures ambush them, and Ellroy sacrifices himself to draw them off. The rest of the group escapes into the tunnels. Shelby also chooses to distract the creatures, telling Arianne and the two men to flee. Jaime attempts to kill some of the creatures with a grenade, only for one of them to attack him and knock the grenade out of his hand. He is killed when it detonates.


title: The Devil Below

text: Exhausted and distraught, Darren tells Arianne that this expedition was not to map out the geographical area as he had led her to believe. He is being paid by a coal mining company that wants the rare mineral in the caves. He refuses to go on and Arianne leaves, promising to bring help back. She reaches the surface, but is surprised and captured by one of the creatures, which knocks her out with a paralytic venom. She awakens briefly to see that she is on a raft being steered by one of the creatures, along with Shelby's corpse. When they reach the creatures' lair, she is reunited with Darren and Shawn, both of whom have also been captured. Shawn notes that the creatures are a species which breeds and colonizes like ants or bees. He is then fed to the queen creature, which is a bloated, immobile hulk. The creatures attempt to feed Arianne to the queen, but she recovers from the venom and uses a grenade Darren gave her to kill the queen.


title: The Devil Below

text: She and Darren escape and begin to climb up a rope at the entrance, but one of the creatures follows them and attacks Darren. Arianne gives him a knife to fight back, but the creature manages to poison him. He chooses to cut the rope instead, saving Arianne at the cost of his own life. The locals arrive, and one of them is about to cut the rope and doom Arianne, only for Schuttman to stop him and help her escape. The locals use a flamethrower and rifles to drive the creatures back into the tunnels. Afterwards Schuttmann is driving Arianne back to the outside of the fence. He tells her about the death of his son and asks her to help them keep the creatures from escaping. While she's unsure that they can overcome the monsters, she reluctantly agrees to help.


title: The Devil Below

text: Plans to film "The Devil Below", then titled "Shookum Hills", were first announced in 2018. The film went into production in May 2018 in Kentucky, based on a script written by Eric Scherbarth and Stefan Jaworski. Equipment utilized in the shoot included the Kogalia Ra, which was used to light scenes in the Appalachian caves and mines.


title: The Devil Below

text: "The Devil Below" was given a limited theatrical release in the United States on March 5, 2021, alongside a VOD release on the same date in the United States.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Avigdor Lieberman (, ; , ; born 5 June 1958) is a Soviet-born Israeli politician serving as Minister of Finance since 2021, having previously served twice as Deputy Prime Minister of Israel from 2006 to 2008 and 2009 to 2012.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman entered the Knesset in 1999, and has served in numerous roles in the government, including as Minister of National Infrastructure, Minister of Transportation, and Minister of Strategic Affairs. He served as Deputy Prime Minister under Prime Ministers Ehud Olmert and Benjamin Netanyahu. He served under Netanyahu as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2009 to 2012 and 2013 to 2015 and as Minister of Defense from 2016 to 2018. On 14 November 2018, he resigned as Defense Minister because of a ceasefire in Gaza which he characterized as "surrendering to terror."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: He is the founder and leader of the secular nationalist Yisrael Beiteinu (Israel Our Home) party, whose electoral base initially consisted overwhelmingly of Russian-speaking immigrants from the former Soviet Union, but later attracted broader support. Lieberman has stated his opposition to forming a coalition with religious parties and refused to join Benjamin Netanyahu's coalition in April 2019. As a result of the arrival in Israel during the 1990s of about one million Russian-speaking immigrants, Yisrael Beiteinu has regularly played the "king-maker" role in Israel's coalition governments. He was replaced in the Knesset by Elina Bardach-Yalov when he became the Finance minister.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Evet Lvovich Lieberman (later Avigdor Lieberman) was born to a Russian-speaking Jewish family in Kishinev, Moldavian SSR, Soviet Union (now Chișinău, Moldova). His father Lev (18 May 1921 – 2 July 2007) was a writer who had served in the Red Army and spent seven years in a Siberian exile under Joseph Stalin's rule, where he met his wife Esther (2 July 1923 – 4 December 2014). His parents imbued him with a strong secular Jewish identity and consciously taught him only Yiddish up until the age of three. Inheriting a love of Russian literature from his father, Lieberman had dreamed of becoming a poet. Lieberman attributes his forthright personality to his youth in the large Jewish community of 1970s Kishinev, saying: "Jews were 25 percent of the population of Kishinev [during the 1970s]... We were more affluent, better educated, and we showed it... The Jews of Moldova have this no-nonsense streak."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: After high school, Lieberman enrolled at the Chișinău Agriculture Institute majoring in hydrological land improvement. As a student in Moldova, his passion for Russian literary classics continued, as he won first prize for a play he wrote, and dreamed of a literary career.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman and his family immigrated to Israel on 18 June 1978. Lieberman studied Hebrew at an ulpan and changed his first name to Avigdor. He was conscripted into the Israel Defense Forces, and was only obligated to do one year of active service instead of three, during which he served in the IDF military government in Hebron. Following his discharge from active duty, he continued to be called up for the reserves. After undergoing an artillery course, he served in the Artillery Corps. He attained the rank of Corporal.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Upon his release from the army, he earned a BA in International Relations and Political Science from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On campus he was active in the student group "Kastel," associated with the Likud. Relations between Kastel and Arab student groups were tense and often deteriorated into violence. According to "Maariv", based on the testimony of a witness who was a student at the time, Lieberman participated in a few of the violent clashes. Lieberman said that he was involved in two. Jamal Zahalka, an Arab Knesset member from Balad who was also a student at the time and active in Arab groups, claimed that he remembers Lieberman as yelling a lot but avoiding any of the rough action.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: "Haaretz" reported that Lieberman was briefly involved with the Kach party founded by Rabbi Meir Kahane based on the testimony of two Kach activists, Avigdor Eskin and Yosef Dayan. Lieberman denied this and called the publication an "orchestrated provocation".


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: While studying at the Hebrew University, Lieberman worked as a bouncer at the student club "Shablul" ("Hebrew:" "snail"), which is where he met his future wife. A year later, Lieberman was promoted to general manager, responsible for all the activities at the club.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman and his wife Ella née Tzipkin, also a Moldovan immigrant to Israel, have a daughter Michal (born 22 June 1983) and two sons, Yaakov (born 15 March 1988) and Amos (born 14 September 1990). They live in the Israeli settlement of Nokdim, located in the Judean Desert of the West Bank, where they have resided since 1988. Lieberman stated that despite having lived there for so long he is willing to leave his home as part of a peace agreement.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman's mother, Esther Lieberman, died on 4 December 2014 while Lieberman was in Switzerland. He was scheduled to continue his travels to the United States, but cancelled that portion of the trip in order to attend the funeral and sit shiva.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In 1983–1988, Lieberman helped found the Zionist Forum for Soviet Jewry and was a member of the Board of the Jerusalem Economic Corporation and the Secretary of the Jerusalem branch of the Histadrut Ovdim Le'umit ("National Workers' Union"). In 1988, he started working with Benjamin Netanyahu. From 1993 to 1996, following Netanyahu's election as party leader, Lieberman served as Director-General of the Likud party. After Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister, Lieberman served as Director-General of the Prime Minister's Office from 1996 to 1997.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In 1997, Lieberman resigned from Likud after Prime Minister Netanyahu granted concessions to the Palestinians in the Wye River Memorandum, and expressed disappointment when Yisrael BaAliyah, a new immigrant party headed by Natan Sharansky did not quit the coalition government in protest. In 1999, Lieberman formed the Yisrael Beiteinu party to create a platform for Soviet immigrants who supported a hard line in negotiations with the Palestinians. The party ran for the Knesset during the 1999 legislative election, and ran on a joint list with Aliyah, a party formed by Michael Nudelman and Yuri Stern, who had broken away from Yisrael BaAliyah. The new party won four seats, one of which was taken by Lieberman. Lieberman served on the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee and State Control Committee, and as Chairman of the Israel-Moldova Parliamentary Friendship League.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In March 2001, Lieberman was appointed Minister of National Infrastructure, but resigned in March 2002.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In the 2003 legislative election, Yisrael Beiteinu ran on a joint list with the National Union. The joint list won seven seats, with Yisrael Beiteinu allotted four of them. In February 2003, Lieberman was appointed Minister of Transport, and resigned from the Knesset to take a seat in the Cabinet. He maintained leadership of the party and returned to the Knesset in 2006. Later he would simultaneously serve in the Knesset and Cabinet.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In May 2004, Lieberman was dismissed from the cabinet by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon due to his opposition to the Gaza disengagement, and Yisrael Beiteinu left the government in June in protest of the disengagement.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In the 2006 legislative election, Lieberman's party split from the National Union to run alone. The party won eleven seats, a gain from its previous six seats. It was initially in the opposition, but in October 2006, Lieberman and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert signed a coalition agreement under which Lieberman became the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Strategic Affairs, a newly created position with a focus towards the strategic threat from Iran. In December 2006, he called Iranian nuclear proliferation "the biggest threat facing the Jewish people since the Second World War". He advocated that Israel join the European Union and NATO.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman resigned his cabinet position and Yisrael Beiteinu left the coalition in January 2008. He cited opposition to the resuming peace talks, saying that "Negotiations on the basis of land for peace are a critical mistake ... and will destroy us."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Yisrael Beiteinu, which was described at times as Lieberman's "one man's party" for its media-closed meetings and party members' reluctance to give interviews, emerged as the third largest party in Israel after 2009 legislative election and on 16 March, it entered the coalition government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Lieberman was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 25 October 2012, Lieberman and Benjamin Netanyahu announced that their respective political parties, Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu, had merged and would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 22 January 2013 general elections. "In view of the challenges we're facing, we need responsibility on a national level... We're providing a true alternative, and an opportunity for the citizens to stabilize leadership and government," Lieberman said.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman was appointed Minister of Defense in May 2016. He resigned from the Knesset under the Norwegian Law, allowing Yulia Malinovsky to replace him.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman has attracted interest of voters from Israel's business community. Former ambassador to the United States Danny Gillerman explains: "His agenda is interesting, especially the combination between his vigorous opposition to a state of halakha and his uncompromising condition of the formation of a national-unity government. There is a yearning for leadership, and this milieu is fed up with the parties and with religious coercion." Dalia Itzik has said “He represents the historic Mapai today.”


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Upon taking office as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lieberman posed a clear message against application of provisions discussed at the Annapolis Conference. He noted that Israel must abide by the "road map for peace" as a first phase for furtherance of the negotiations process as well as by the two accompanying Tenet and Zinni documents.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman quit Olmert government due to his opposition to the Annapolis Conference. Lieberman followed his 1 April message with concerns that "[others] stand over us with a stopwatch" and that responsible and serious formulations of policy will take between one and two months.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman's office stated in early April that peace talks would continue when Palestinian government officials cracked down on attacks against Israelis. Lieberman and Netanyahu planned to broaden the Foreign Ministry PR campaign with regard to Iran, focusing on abuse of human rights and sponsorship of terrorism. Lieberman was questioned three times on charges of corruption.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In early May 2009, Lieberman visited Rome, Paris, Prague, and other cities. He met with his Foreign Minister counterparts, such as Frank-Walter Steinmeier of Germany, and he also paid his respects at Berlin's Holocaust memorial, laying a wreath at the 19,000-square-meter monument. At a press conference in Italy, Avigdor Lieberman stated that the government's goal was not to produce slogans or make pompous declarations, but to reach concrete results.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In his remarks at the 2013 Sderot Conference for Society, Lieberman stated his support of multi-directional foreign policy. The weight of his statement came at a time when a preliminary deal between Israel and the US with Iran, which would partially freeze its rogue nuclear program, was in opposition.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 7 May, Lieberman was appointed minister in charge of strategic dialogue with the U.S. On 17 June, he appeared in a joint press conference with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in his first official visit to the U.S. Lieberman clashed with Clinton over Israeli settlements. "Financial Times" described the meeting as "one of the most tense encounters between the sides for several years". Clinton also rejected Lieberman's assertion that the Bush administration had agreed to further building in the West Bank.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In September 2009, Lieberman toured Africa along with businessmen and officials from the Foreign Ministry, Finance Ministry, Defense Ministry, and National Security Council in an attempt to strengthen economic and trade ties and discuss the Iranian nuclear program. Lieberman also sought to strengthen ties with countries in Eastern and Central Europe. In a 2011 interview, Netanyahu said that Lieberman had opened important doors that had been closed to Israel before.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In June 2016, Lieberman was appointed Israel's Minister of Defense, as a result of his party joining the government coalition. Lieberman's first action as Defense Minister was to approve equal rights for the bereaving families of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender soldiers. Avigdor Lieberman issued an official document on behalf of the Defense Ministry in June 2016 declaring that the ministry "views same-sex and heterosexual families of fallen soldiers equally, and operates in accordance with this equality so that there is no difference in recognition and rights." In October 2018, he appointed Maj.-Gen. Aviv Kochavi, as the Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman believes the peace process is based on three false basic assumptions: that “Israeli-Palestinian conflict is the main cause of instability in the Middle East; that the conflict is territorial and not ideological; and that the establishment of a Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders will end the conflict."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In late May 2004, Lieberman unveiled the Lieberman Plan, proposing that the populations and territories of Israeli Jews and Arabs, including some Arab citizens of Israel, would be "separated". According to the plan, also known as the "Populated-Area Exchange Plan", Arab towns in Israel adjacent to Palestinian Authority areas would be transferred to Palestinian Authority, and only those Arab Israelis who migrated from the area to within Israel's new borders and pledged loyalty to Israel would be allowed to remain Israeli citizens. On 30 May 2004, Prime Minister Ariel Sharon condemned Lieberman's statements, stating "We regard Israeli Arabs as part of the State of Israel." On 4 June 2004, as the disputes over the up-coming disengagement plan grew more intense, Sharon dismissed Lieberman from the cabinet.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: After the 2009 Israeli elections, Lieberman said he changed his mind in recent years and decided to support the creation of a Palestinian state. He wrote in a letter to "The Jewish Week" that he "advocates the creation of a viable Palestinian state", and told "The Washington Post" that he would agree to the evacuation of Nokdim "if there really will be a two-state solution". He stated in the Knesset that "reality changes" and that his shift had occurred over the last few years. In his "The Jewish Week" article, Lieberman tried to explain his party's "no loyalty – no citizenship" campaign by writing: "During Operation Cast Lead in Gaza, I was appalled by the calls for the destruction of the State of Israel and for renewed suicide bombings that some Israeli Arab leaders called for at pro-Hamas rallies. Although 'responsible citizenship' had always been part of our platform, I realized that this was a burning issue that had to take top priority." He stated his "responsible citizenship" platform and compared his position to the express policy of nations around the world, saying: "In the U.S., those requesting a Green Card must take an oath that they will fulfill the rights and duties of citizenship."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 5 January 2014, Lieberman again brought up his plan, saying that he would not support any peace plan that did not include such "an exchange". He said that when he talks about it, he refers to the Triangle and Wadi Ara.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman supports Israeli membership in the European Union and NATO. He considers Iran a serious threat to Israel, but initially came out in favor of further political/economic sanctions and opposed a military strike, saying that he cannot imagine the implications of armed action. However, "Haaretz" later reported that Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak persuaded Lieberman to switch sides and support an attack.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: While his party is sometimes described by the news media as doctrinally secular and aiming to reduce the role of the rabbinical system in government, it actually supports the continuation of the role of Orthodox rabbinical courts, but wants more nationally minded religious people, rather than the ultra-orthodox, in charge. It does not advocate introducing civil marriage within Israeli law, but rather to find a solution to some of those who cannot marry under such laws. It does not advocate a separation of religion and state in Israeli society.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In response to possible charges by the International Criminal Court, Lieberman has called for the court to be defunded.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Avigdor Lieberman advocates expansion of foreign relations with Azerbaijan due to the historical friendliness of Azerbaijanis towards Jewish minorities. Lieberman said: "Even in the time of the Soviet Union, (Azerbaijan) was known to treat its Jewish community well, and there is no anti-Semitism there. We must continue strengthening our relations with Azerbaijan" Azerbaijan–Israel relations play strategically important role against a common adversary of both countries, Iran. Recently, Lieberman supported Azerbaijan during 2016 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes over the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: A large number of media sources within and outside of Israel have labelled Yisrael Beiteinu and Lieberman as right wing to far right or ultra-nationalist. However, in general, Israelis are divided on how to characterize Lieberman's politics. In a 2014 poll conducted in Israel, 62% saw Lieberman as a national leader.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Yisrael Beiteinu has shown support for a two-state solution and were also noted for a secularist approach upon leading new legislation for civil marriage in Israel as well as pushing for some relaxation in the conversion process. Several commentators, however, noted that these positions do not coincide with the party's platform. These positions which are contradictory to the tradition of right wing politics in Israel had been explained by Gershom Gorenberg as that following the Six-Day War, opinions were split regarding the occupied territory, where being right-wing meant a position of holding onto the territory while being left-wing addressed a high level of willingness to give that territory away. He notes Lieberman to not be a right-winger by those terms as he's talking about giving occupied lands as well as land from sovereign Israel.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: A polarizing figure within Israeli politics, Lieberman is quoted as saying, "I've always been controversial because I offer new ideas. For me to be controversial, I think this is positive." Lieberman has called to establish a border between Israel and the West Bank so that Israel would include large Jewish settlement blocs and the Palestinian state would include large Arab-Israeli population centers. He proposed that Israel's citizens should sign a loyalty oath or lose their right to vote.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In November 2006, Lieberman, who described Arab members of the Knesset that meet with Hamas as "terror collaborators", called for their execution: "World War II ended with the Nuremberg Trials. The heads of the Nazi regime, along with their collaborators, were executed. I hope this will be the fate of the collaborators in [the Knesset]."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: The comment was attacked as racist by Eitan Cabel, a Labor party representative, and Ahmad Tibi, leader of the Arab party Ta'al and one-time advisor to Yasser Arafat, who demanded that "a criminal investigation be initiated against Lieberman for violating the law against incitement and racism". Tibi strongly objected to Lieberman's ministerial appointment, describing him as "a racist and a fascist". Labour minister Ophir Pines-Paz, who resigned over Lieberman's appointment, echoed Tibi's remarks, saying that Lieberman was tainted "by racist declarations and declarations that harm the democratic character of Israel".


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In remarks in the Knesset in March 2008, shortly after 6 March attack at Jerusalem's Mercaz HaRav yeshiva, Lieberman commented that "yesterday's attack can not be disconnected from the Arab MKs incitement, which we hear daily in the Knesset." Directing his comments at Arab MKs whose comments Lieberman describes as anti-Israel incitement, he added that "a new administration will be established and then we will take care of you."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In 1998, news reports stated that Lieberman suggested the bombing of the Aswan Dam in retaliation for Egyptian support for Yasser Arafat. In 2001, reports stated that he told a group of ambassadors from the Former Soviet Union that if Egypt and Israel were ever to face off militarily again, that Israel could bomb the Aswan Dam.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Since the signing of the Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty, which followed Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's historic visit to Israel, multiple Israeli heads of state have visited Egypt on numerous occasions. However, Sadat's successor, Hosni Mubarak, visited Israel only once—for Yitzhak Rabin's funeral in 1995—and never participated in talks on Israeli soil. In 2008, while on the Knesset speaker's podium during its memorial for Rehavam Ze'evi, Lieberman raised the issue and said, "Mubarak never agreed to come here as president. He wants to talk to us? Let him come here. He doesn't want to talk to us? He can go to hell."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and President Shimon Peres immediately apologized to the Egyptians. Lieberman accused the two of them of acting like "a battered wife". He explained his belief that the President and Prime Minister were wrong to ask forgiveness from Mubarak in that Egypt had provoked Israel just days earlier by identifying Israel as the enemy in a massive military exercise and that caricatures in the Egyptian media are akin to Nazi propaganda.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: After Netanyahu began his term as Prime Minister in March 2009, government aides met with Egyptian officials and told them that Lieberman's role should not be a reason for tension between the two countries. News reports had previously been issued claiming that Egypt would not work with the Netanyahu administration unless Lieberman personally apologized. The administration labeled them "inaccurate and out of all proportion". On 9 April, Mubarak invited Netanyahu to meet with him personally in Sharm e-Sheikh. Unofficial channels for discussion were also reportedly being considered.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: During a meeting with Egyptian intelligence chief Omar Suleiman in April 2009, Lieberman made an attempt at an apology, expressing "his respect and appreciation for Egypt's leading role in the region and his personal respect for Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Minister Suleiman".


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 21 August, Lieberman said that it is important for Israel to make sure that the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty is upheld, and not to remain silent as Egyptian military forces enter the Sinai. Concern was raised by Israeli officials over Egyptian failure to notify Israel about the deployment of tanks in the Sinai, which violates the peace treaty. Lieberman said, "We must make sure that every detail is upheld, otherwise we'll find ourselves in a slippery slope as far as the peace treaty is concerned." As instability in the Sinai continued into the next month, Lieberman responded to calls to deploy more troops with "The problem in Sinai is not the size of the forces, it is their readiness to fight, to put pressure and to carry out the job as is needed."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 28 August, Lieberman invited Egyptian President Morsi to visit Israel, after being encouraged by Morsi'is statements in late August that the Israel-Egypt peace treaty was secure. Lieberman said, "We certainly hope to see Morsi hosting official Israeli representatives soon; we want to see him giving interviews to Israeli media; we want to see him in Jerusalem as President (Shimon) Peres' guest."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Following a series of terror attacks on Israeli civilians perpetrated by Palestinian militants during a three-day period in March 2002, Lieberman proposed issuing an ultimatum to the Palestinian National Authority to halt all militant activity or face wide-ranging attacks. He said, "if it were up to me I would notify the Palestinian Authority that tomorrow at ten in the morning we would bomb all their places of business in Ramallah, for example." This led then Foreign Minister Shimon Peres to respond that excessive military measures could lead to accusations of war crimes and that the Israeli administration must not "escalate the situation".


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In July 2003, reacting to a commitment made by then Prime Minister Ariel Sharon to the US, where amnesty could be given to approximately 350 Palestinian prisoners including members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad, Lieberman rejected a chance to participate in the related committee and said "It would be better to drown these prisoners in the Dead Sea if possible, since that's the lowest point in the world," Lieberman continued, according to Galei Tzahal ('Israel Army Radio'), by stating his willingness, as Minister of Transport, to supply buses to take the prisoners there. Lieberman's suggestion also led to confrontation between Lieberman and Arab-Israeli MKs Ahmed Tibi (Hadash-Ta'al), Jamal Zahalka (Balad), Taleb el-Sana, Abdelmalek Dahamsha (United Arab List) as well as then opposition leader Shimon Peres.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In January 2009, during the Gaza War, Lieberman argued that Israel "must continue to fight Hamas just like the United States did with the Japanese in World War II. Then, too, the occupation of the country was unnecessary." This threat has been interpreted by some media commentators, including Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, as an allusion to Hiroshima and Nagasaki and as advocacy for a nuclear strike on Gaza.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In January 2014, according to "Haaretz", Lieberman would not support any peace agreement that did not include the exchange of Israeli Arab land and population. Lieberman stated: "I will not support any peace deal that will allow the return of even one Palestinian refugee to Israel."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: 'Whoever is with us should get everything. Whoever is against us, there’s nothing else to do. We have to lift up an axe and remove his head, otherwise we won’t survive here. There is no reason that Umm al-Fahm will be part of Israel.'


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: This was interpreted by the Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA) as meaning that Israeli Arab citizens who betray or oppose the Jewish state should be beheaded. However, Lieberman supports a territorial partition of Israel, whereby Israel would cut off Arab-Israeli areas and transfer them to a future Palestinian state.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In April 2018, Lieberman said: "You have to understand, there are no innocent people in the Gaza Strip. Everyone has a connection to Hamas. Everyone receives a salary from Hamas. Those who are trying to challenge us at the border and breach it belong to Hamas's military wing."


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: In 2011, Lieberman became the first Foreign Minister to sever ties with the Mossad. Lieberman ordered the foreign ministry to sever ties with the Mossad, and suggested to stop sharing information and to stop inviting Mossad officials to discussions and meetings. This was after Lieberman said the Mossad has not followed the normal procedures.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: After the 2011 Duma election, in which Russian President Vladimir Putin's party United Russia won, Lieberman was the first international politician to describe them as "absolutely fair, free and democratic". Putin has described Lieberman's own political career as "brilliant". Lieberman's pro-Russian stance and perceived friendly relations with Putin have also drawn criticism from other Israelis. Lieberman and his party have approved the Russian absorption of Crimea. While defense minister, he told Russian media during an interview in May 2018, that he did not agree with the West's disapproval of Russia's actions in Syria or with Western sanctions against Russia.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Controversy also emerged when it was revealed that a chairman of Lieberman's party, Leon Litinetski, was also employed by the Russian government, as a chairman of the Coordinating Council of Russian Compatriots, a position appointed by the Kremlin.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 24 September 2001, Lieberman acknowledged in the Jerusalem District Court that he hit a twelve-year-old youth from Tekoa, who had hit his son. The incident occurred in December 1999 in the Nokdim settlement. After his son was beaten by a group of children, Lieberman located one of the boys in a trailer and hit him in the face. After the boy fell and was injured, Lieberman grabbed him by the shirt-collar and arm, took him back to his home in Tekoa and threatened that he would attack him again if he returned to Nokdim.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: He was charged with assaulting and threatening him. Lieberman confessed to the crime and plead guilty as part of a plea bargain. The judge ultimately ruled that Lieberman must pay the child a compensation of 10,000 shekels, and an additional fine of 7,500 shekels.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Some of Lieberman's connections with local and foreign businessmen were under police investigation. Lieberman allegedly received millions of shekels from various entrepreneurs while serving as member of Knesset; under Israeli law, MKs are not allowed to receive any payment beyond their salary. One claim was that Michael Cherney paid a company called Path to the East large amounts of money between the years 1999 and 2006, and that these sums were then allegedly passed on to Lieberman as a bribe. Other allegations concern a company called M.L.1, founded by Lieberman's daughter Michal when she was 21. These allegations concern money transferred to M.L.1 from unknown sources outside Israel; the money was later allegedly used for paying salaries to Avigdor and Michal Lieberman. Lieberman was also under investigation for receiving a bribe from Austrian-Jewish businessman Martin Schlaff.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman denied all allegations of wrongdoing in these cases, and claims that the police are conspiring against him. In particular, he has pointed to the proximity of his investigation to the 2009 Israeli elections and said that such investigations are "part of my routine before every parliamentary election." Allegations of bias on the part of the police have also been reported in Arutz Sheva, which reported that the investigation, which had been "ongoing for years, suddenly became active again once [Lieberman] left the government" in January 2008.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 2 April 2009, Lieberman was questioned by police on suspicion of corruption for at least seven hours at the national squad headquarters in central Israel. It was part of an ongoing investigation examining his business dealings. Lieberman denied all allegations. He claimed the investigation has been dragged out, and had filed a petition to the court requesting a speedy process.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: On 24 May 2010 the Israel Police recommended Lieberman's indictment for breach of trust, regarding the suspected receipt of classified information concerning ongoing criminal investigations into his activities. Former ambassador to Belarus, Ze'ev Ben Aryeh was also recommended for indictment. On 13 April 2011, the State Prosecutor's Office announced that it had decided to charge Lieberman with fraud, money laundering, breach of trust and witness tampering. The pre-indictment hearing was set for 17–18 January 2012. On 13 December 2012, a CNN breaking news blog post stated that the Israeli Justice Ministry had decided to only charge him with breach of trust and fraud, and not the more serious witness tampering and money laundering corruption charges. on 14 December 2012, Lieberman announced that he was removing his immunity and resigned as Foreign Minister.


title: Avigdor Lieberman

text: Lieberman's trial before the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court began on 17 February 2013 and ended on 6 November 2013 with an acquittal. The three judges voted unanimously to acquit him. In the verdict, they wrote that while Lieberman had acted improperly in failing to inform the Foreign Ministry of his past dealings with Ben Aryeh, he was not guilty of criminal activity, as he had not been aware of the seriousness of the circumstances, and his appointment of Ben Aryeh had not been a promotion. Lieberman returned to his position as Foreign Minister on 11 November 2013, after the Israeli cabinet had approved his re-appointment to the office the previous day.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Ismat Chughtai (21 August 1915 – 24 October 1991) was an Indian Urdu novelist, short story writer, liberal humanist and filmmaker. Beginning in the 1930s, she wrote extensively on themes including female sexuality and femininity, middle-class gentility, and class conflict, often from a Marxist perspective. With a style characterised by literary realism, Chughtai established herself as a significant voice in the Urdu literature of the twentieth century, and in 1976 was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Ismat Chughtai was born on 21 August 1915 in Badayun, Uttar Pradesh to Nusrat Khanam and Mirza Qaseem Baig Chughtai; she was the ninth of ten children—six brothers and four sisters. The family moved frequently as Chughtai's father was a civil servant; she spent her childhood in cities including Jodhpur, Agra, and Aligarh—mostly in the company of her brothers as her sisters had all got married while she was still very young. Chughtai described the influence of her brothers as an important factor which influenced her personality in her formative years. She thought of her second-eldest brother, Mirza Azim Beg Chughtai (also a novelist), as a mentor. The family eventually settled in Agra, after Chughtai's father retired from the Indian Civil Services.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai received her primary education at the Women's College at the Aligarh Muslim University and graduated from Isabella Thoburn College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1940. Despite strong resistance from her family, she completed her Bachelor of Education degree from the Aligarh Muslim University the following year. It was during this period that Chughtai became associated with the Progressive Writers' Association, having attended her first meeting in 1936 where she met Rashid Jahan, one of the leading female writers involved with the movement, who was later credited for inspiring Chughtai to write "realistic, challenging female characters". Chughtai began writing in private around the same time, but did not seek publication for her work until much later.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai wrote a drama entitled "Fasādī" ("The Troublemaker") for the Urdu magazine "Saqi" in 1939, which was her first published work. Upon publication, readers mistook it as a play by Chughtai's brother Azeem Beg, written using a pseudonym. Following that, she started writing for other publications and newspapers. Some of her early works included "Bachpan" ("Childhood"), an autobiographical piece, "Kafir" ("Infidel"), her first short-story, and "Dheet" ("Stubborn"), her only soliloquy, among others. In response to a story that she wrote for a magazine, Chughtai was told that her work was blasphemous and insulted the Quran. She, nonetheless, continued writing about "things she would hear of".


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai's continued association with the Progressive Writers' Movement had significant bearings on her writing style; she was particularly intrigued by "Angarey", a compilation of short-stories written in Urdu by members of the group including Jahan, Sajjad Zaheer, Sahibzada Mahmuduzaffar and Ahmed Ali. Other early influences included such writers as William Sydney Porter, George Bernard Shaw, and Anton Chekhov. "Kalyān" ("Buds") and "Cōtēn" ("Wounds"), two of Chughtai's earliest collections of short stories, were published in 1941 and 1942 respectively.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai's first novella "Ziddi", which she had written on her early twenties was first published in 1941. The book chronicles the love affair between a woman, who works as domestic help in an affluent household and her employer's son. Chughtai later discussed the similarity in themes and style of the novel with the works of the romantic novelist Hijab Imtiaz Ali, citing her as another early influence. Commentators have praised the novella, both for its "compelling prose" and for providing "[glimpses] into a world where women try to break out of the shackles created by other women, rather than men". Critic and short story writer Aamer Hussein, in a 2015 retrospective review, likened Chughtai's "oracular voice, which didn't comment or explain, but studded the narrative with poetic observations" to that of American author Toni Morrison. "Ziddi" was later translated into English as "Wild at Heart" and adapted into a 1948 feature film of the same name.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: After completing her Bachelor's of Education degree, Chughtai successfully applied for the post of headmistress of an Aligarh-based Girls school. There, she met and developed a close friendship with Shaheed Latif, who was pursuing a master's degree at the Aligarh Muslim University at the time. Chughtai continued to write for various publications during her stay at Aligarh. She found success with such short-stories as "Gainda" and "Khidmatgaar" and the play "Intikhab", all of which were published during the period. She then moved to Bombay in 1942 and began working as an Inspectress of schools. Later that year, she married Latif, who was now working as a dialogue writer in Bollywood, in a private ceremony. Khwaja Ahmad Abbas was the legal witness to the ceremony.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai garnered widespread attention for her short-story "Lihaaf" ("The Quilt"), which appeared in a 1942 issue of "Adab-i-Latif", a Lahore-based literary journal. Inspired by the rumoured affair of a "begum" and her masseuse in Aligarh, the story chronicles the sexual awakening of Begum Jan following her unhappy marriage with a "nawab". Upon release, "Lihaaf" attracted criticism for its suggestion of female homosexuality and a subsequent trial, with Chughtai being summoned by the Lahore High Court to defend herself against the charges of "obscenity". Fellow writer and member of the Progressive Writers' Movement Sadat Hassan Manto was also charged with similar allegations for his short-story "Bu" ("Odour") and accompanied Chughtai to Lahore. The charges notwithstanding, both Chughtai and Manto were exonerated.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: The trial, which took place in 1945, itself drew much media and public attention and brought notoriety to the duo. Chughtai fared better in the public eye, having garnered support from such fellow members of the Progressive Writers' Movement as Majnun Gorakhpuri and Krishan Chander. Regardless, she detested the media coverage of the whole incident, which in her view weighted heavily upon her subsequent work; "["Lihaaf"] brought me so much notoriety that I got sick of life. It became the proverbial stick to beat me with and whatever I wrote afterwards got crushed under its weight."


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai, however, is known to have made her peace with the whole fiasco, having met the woman who had inspired Begum Jan a few years after the publication of "Lihaaf". The woman told Chughtai that she had since divorced her husband, remarried and was raising a child with her second husband. Chughtai's biographers recall the meeting between the two women in "Ismat: Her life, Her times": "[Chughtai] felt greatly rewarded when the begum told [her that "Lihaaf"] had changed her life and it is because of her story now she was blessed with a child". Chughtai, who had been apprehensive about the meeting at first, later expressed her delight in a "memoir", writing, "flowers can be made to bloom among rocks. The only condition is that one has to water the plant with one's heart's blood".


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai's quasi-autobiographical novel "Tedhi Lakeer" ("The Crooked Line") was released in 1943. She was pregnant with her daughter during the time. She recalled the difficult circumstances facing her during her work on the novel, in a 1972 interview with "Mahfil: Journal of South Asian Literature": "[It was] during the war that I wrote my novel "Terhi Lakeer", a big, thick novel. I was sick then, pregnant with my daughter. But I was always writing that novel". The book chronicles the lives of the Muslim community, women in particular, in the backdrop of the waning British Raj. Chughtai's exploration of the "inner realms of women's lives" was well received by critics who variously described her work in "Tedhi Lakeer" as "probing and pertinent" and "empowering". She herself recalled her creative process in the 1972 interview, saying she found inspiration from the small incidents that she would witness around her and even the personal conversations that took place amongst the women in her family, "I write about people I know or have known. What should a writer write about anyway"?


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: In the years following their marriage, Latif also introduced Chughtai to the Hindi film industry. She began writing scripts in the late 1940s and made her debut as a screenwriter for Latif's drama film "Ziddi". Starring Kamini Kaushal, Pran, and Dev Anand in his first major film role, "Ziddi" became one of the biggest commercial successes of 1948. It was based on the 1941 eponymous short story; Chughtai had rewritten the narrative in form of a screenplay for the production. She then wrote the dialogue and screenplay for the 1950 romance drama film "Arzoo", starring Kaushal and Dilip Kumar. Chughtai expanded her career into directing with the 1953 film "Fareb", which featured an ensemble cast of Amar, Maya Daas, Kishore Kumar, Lalita Pawar, and Zohra Sehgal. Having again written the screenplay based on one of her short stories, Chughtai co-directed the film with Latif. Upon release, both "Arzoo" and "Fareb" garnered positive response from the audience and performed well at the box-office.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai's association with film solidified when she and Latif co-founded the production company Filmina. Her first project as a filmmaker was the 1958 drama film "Sone Ki Chidiya", which she wrote and co-produced. Starring Nutan and Talat Mahmood in lead roles, it told the story of a child actor, who was abused and exploited over the course of her career. The film was well received by audiences and the success translated directly into a rise in Chughtai's popularity, as noted by writer and critic Shams Kanwal. "Sone Ki Chidiya" has been described as a significant production for "[chronicling] a heady time in Indian cinema" and showcasing the "grime behind the glamour" of the film industry. Nutan, who garnered a good response for her performance in the film, herself described it as one of her favorite projects. Also in 1958, Chughtai produced the Mahmood-Shyama starrer romance drama "Lala Rukh".


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai continued writing short-stories during the time despite her commitment to film projects. Her fourth collection of short-stories "Chui Mui" ("Touch-me-not") was released in 1952 to an enthusiastic response. The eponymous short-story has been noted for its "pertinent dissection of our society" and contesting the venerated tradition of motherhood, especially its


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: equation of womanhood. Rafay Mahmood highlighted, in a 2014 editorial, the relevance of the story in the twenty-first century. "Chui Mui" was adapted for stage by Naseeruddin Shah as a part of a commemorative series "Ismat Apa Kay Naam", with his daughter Heeba Shah playing the central character in the production.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Beginning in the 1960s, Chughtai wrote a total of eight novels, the first of which was "Masooma" ("The Innocent Girl"), published in 1962. The film follows the life of a young actress, Nilofar, who is forced to work as call girl to sustain her family once her father abandons them. Set in the Bombay of 1950s, the novel delves into the themes of sexual exploitation and social and economic injustice. Her next work, the 1966 novella "Saudai" ("Obsession") was based on the screenplay of 1951 film "Buzdil", which she co-wrote with Latif. Commentators have noted that "Saudai" could never shed its structure and still read like a screenplay despite Chughtai's efforts.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Following a lukewarm reception for both "Masooma" and "Saudai", Chughtai received significant praise for her fifth novel "Dil ki Duniya" ("The Heart Breaks Free"). Reviewing the novel, observers have placed it second only to "Tedhi Lakeer" in the canon of her work. The novel follows the lives of a varied group of women living in a conservative Muslim household in Uttar Pradesh. "Dil Ki Duniya", much like "Tedhi Lakeer", is autobiographical in nature as Chughtai drew heavily from her own childhood in Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh. Comparing the two, Hussein says, "if "Tedhi Lakeer" impressed me with its boldness, range and its credentials as a major novel, "Dil ki Duniya"s influence would linger with me forever, and I'd find its thematic and stylistic echoes in my own stories".


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: In the early 1970s, Chughtai wrote two novels, "Ajeeb Aadmi" ("A Very Strange Man") and "Jangli Kabootar" ("Wild Pigeons") that made use of her knowledge of the Hindi film industry, which she had been a part of for the last couple of decades. "Jangli Kabootar", which was first published in 1970, follows the life of an actress and was partially inspired from a real-life incident that had occurred at the time. Chughtai's grandson, filmmaker Aijaz Khan had expressed his interest in a making a feature film based on story in a 2015 interview with the "Mumbai Mirror": "would like to make one of her stories, "Jangli Kabootar" [as the story has] always fascinated me."


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: "Ajeeb Aadmi" similarly narrates the life of Dharam Dev, a popular leading man in Bollywood and the impact that his extra-marital affair with Zareen Jamal, a fellow actress has on the lives of the people involved. The novel was said to have been based on the affair between frequent co-stars Guru Dutt and Waheeda Rehman; Dutt was married to playback singer Geeta Dutt and the couple had three children at the time. While there are several allusions to real-life figures including Meena Kumari, Lata Mangeshkar, and Mohammed Rafi, members of the Dutt family and Rehman are never explicitly named. Chughtai said of "Ajeeb Aadmi": "[In the novel], I go into [...] why girls run after him and producers like him, and the hell they make for these men and for their wives. The novel, which was released in the early 1970s, was praised for its bold nature and candour."


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Mumbai-based writer and journalist, Jerry Pinto noted the impact of "Ajeeb Aadmi"s initial release saying, "There hadn't been a more dramatic and candid account of the tangled emotional lives of Bollywood before this." Writing for the "Khaleej Times" in 2019, Khalid Mohamed echoed the sentiment. He called the book a first of a kind tell-all book about the Hindi film industry, one that was "an eye-opener even for the know-alls of Bollywood". Mohamed also made a detailed note of Chughtai's candid style of writing, saying that she had an "instinctive gift for relating stories frankly and fearlessly".


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in the late 1980s, which limited her work thereafter. She died at her house in Mumbai on 24 October 1991, following the prolonged illness. Chughtai was known to have been averse of getting a burial, the common funeral practice in Islam. Rakhshanda Jalil quotes one of Chughtai's conversations with Qurratulain Hyder, a friend and contemporary writer in "An Uncivil Woman: Writings on Ismat Chughtai", "I am very scared of the grave. They bury you beneath a pile of mud. One would suffocate [...] I'd rather be cremated." As per most accounts, Chughtai was cremated at the Chandanwadi crematorium, in accordance with her last wishes.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Following the translation of numerous of her works into English, a renewed interest in the Urdu literature of the twentieth century, and subsequent critical reappraisals, Chughtai's status as a writer rose. Critical reappraisals for her works began with rereadings of "Lihaaf", which in the intervening years has attached a greater significance; it was noted for its portrayal of the insulated life of a neglected wife in the feudal society and became a landmark for its early depiction of sex, still a taboo in modern Indian literature. "Lihaaf" has since been widely anthologised and has become one of Chughtai's most appreciated works.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: With more of her work being made available for reading to a wider audience over the years, criticism centered around the limited scope of Chughtai's writing has also subsided. In a 1993 retrospective piece, Naqvi also countered the perceived scope of Chughtai's writings, saying that her work was "neither confined to nor exhausted" by the themes central to "Lihaaf": "she had much, much more to offer". She separately cited the example of "Jangli Kabootar", which was one of the first novels in Chughtai's cannon to explore the theme of infidelity. Naqvi highlighted how despite having established herself as a significant voice in Urdu literature by this time, Chughtai still remained keen on probing new themes and expand the scope of her work.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: "Tedhi Lakeer", which has come to be regarded as Chughtai's magnum opus is now considered to be one of the most significant works of Urdu literature by commentators and various media outlets. Critic and dramatist Shamim Hanfi gives it highest praise, saying that the novel, its first half in particular, matches up to the highest standards of world literature. Hussein comparably calls it one of the best novels of Urdu language and notes that Chughtai combines all her literary influences and her own lived experiences to create a radical text. He likened the novel's framework to that of a "bildungsroman" and praised its examination of the nationalist and feminist issues of the period. Commentators have also compared Chughtai's writing style in the novel to that of French writer and intellectual Simone de Beauvoir, based on the duo's existentialist and humanist affiliations.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai was a liberal Muslim whose daughter, nephew, and niece were married to Hindus. In her own words, Chughtai came from a family of "Hindus, Muslims and Christians who all live peacefully". She said she read not only the Qur’an, but also the Gita and the Bible with openness.


title: Ismat Chughtai

text: Chughtai's short stories reflected the cultural legacy of the region in which she lived. This was well demonstrated in her story "Sacred Duty", where she dealt with social pressures in India, alluding to specific national, religious and cultural traditions.