title: Indian Ocean trade

text: The Ottomans tried to challenge Portugal's hegemony in the Persian Gulf region by sending an armada against the Portuguese under Ali Bey in 1581. They were supported in this endeavor by the chiefs of several local principalities and port towns such as Muscat, Gwadar, and Pasni. However, the Portuguese successfully intercepted and destroyed the Ottoman Armada. Subsequently, the Portuguese attacked Gwadar and Pasni on the Mekran Coast and sacked them in retaliation for providing aid and comfort to the enemy.


title: Indian Ocean trade

text: During the 16th century the Portuguese had established bases in the Persian Gulf. In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of Imam-Quli Khan Undiladze managed to expel the Portuguese from Bahrain. In 1622, with the help of four English ships, Abbas retook Hormuz from the Portuguese in the capture of Ormuz. He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, Bandar Abbas, nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful.


title: Indian Ocean trade

text: The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps slaves during 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Indian Ocean trade

text: The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached in 1807. The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all – slaves were deported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 until 1848.


title: Indian Ocean trade

text: In all, Europeans traders deported – slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were deported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to slaves deported across the Atlantic.


The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is a worldwide system for automated emergency signal communication for ships at sea developed by the United Nations' International Maritime Organization (IMO) as part of the SOLAS Convention.


title: Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

text: It's a set of safety procedures, types of equipment, and communication protocols used for safety and rescue operations of the distressed ships, boats, and aircraft. It's supplemental to the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (ICMSaR) adopted in 1979 and provides basis for the communication.


text: GMDSS consists of several systems which are intended to perform the following functions: alerting (including position determination of the ship in distress) ships in the vicinity and ashore authorities, search and rescue coordination, locating (homing), maritime safety information broadcasts, general communications, and bridge-to-bridge communications. Specific radio carriage requirements depend upon the ship's area of operation, rather than its tonnage. The system also provides redundant means of distress alerting, and emergency sources of power.


text: Recreational vessels do not need to comply with GMDSS radio carriage requirements, but will increasingly use the Digital Selective Calling (DSC) Marine VHF radios. Offshore vessels may elect to equip themselves further. Vessels under 300 gross tonnage (GT) are not subject to GMDSS requirements.


text: Since the invention of radio at the end of the 19th century, ships at sea have relied on Morse code, invented by Samuel Morse and first used in 1844, for distress and safety telecommunications. The need for ship and coast radio stations to have and use radiotelegraph equipment, and to listen to a common radio frequency for Morse encoded distress calls, was recognized after the sinking of the liner RMS "Titanic" in the North Atlantic in 1912. The U.S. Congress enacted legislation soon after, requiring U.S. ships to use Morse code radiotelegraph equipment for distress calls. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), now a United Nations agency, followed suit for ships of all nations. Morse encoded distress calling has saved thousands of lives since its inception almost a century ago, but its use requires skilled radio operators spending many hours listening to the radio distress frequency. Its daytime range on the medium frequency (MF) distress band (500 kHz) is limited, and the amount of traffic Morse signals can carry is also limited.


text: Not all ship-to-shore radio communications were short range. Some radio stations provided long-range radiotelephony services, such as radio telegrams and radio telex calls, on the HF bands (3–30 MHz) enabling worldwide communications with ships. For example, Portishead Radio, which was the world's busiest radiotelephony station, provided HF long-range services. In 1974, it had 154 radio operators who handled over 20 million words per year. Such large radiotelephony stations employed large numbers of people and were expensive to operate. By the end of the 1980s, satellite services had started to take an increasingly large share of the market for ship-to-shore communications.


text: For these reasons, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency specializing in safety of shipping and preventing ships from polluting the seas, began looking at ways of improving maritime distress and safety communications. In 1979, a group of experts drafted the ICMSaR, which called for development of a global search and rescue plan. This group also passed a resolution calling for development by IMO of a Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) to provide the communication support needed to implement the search and rescue plan. This new system, which the world's maritime nations are implementing, is based upon a combination of satellite and terrestrial radio services, and has changed international distress communications from being primarily ship-to-ship based to ship-to-shore (Rescue Coordination Center) based. It spelled the end of Morse code communications for all but a few users, such as amateur radio operators. The GMDSS provides for automatic distress alerting and locating in cases where a radio operator does not have time to send an SOS or MAYDAY call, and, for the first time, requires ships to receive broadcasts of maritime safety information which could prevent a disaster from happening in the first place. In 1988, IMO amended the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention, requiring ships subject to it fit GMDSS equipment. Such ships were required to carry NAVTEX and satellite EPIRBs by August 1, 1993, and had to fit all other GMDSS equipment by February 1, 1999. US ships were allowed to fit GMDSS in lieu of Morse telegraphy equipment by the Telecommunications Act of 1996.


text: Cospas-Sarsat is an international satellite-based search and rescue system, established by Canada, France, the United States, and Russia. These four countries jointly helped develop the 406 MHz Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB), an element of the GMDSS designed to operate with Cospas-Sarsat system. These automatic-activating EPIRBs, now required on SOLAS ships, commercial fishing vessels, and all passenger ships, are designed to transmit to alert rescue coordination centers via the satellite system from anywhere in the world. The original COSPAS/SARSAT system used polar orbiting satellites, but in recent years the system has been expanded to also include 4 geostationary satellites. Newest designs incorporate GPS receivers to transmit highly accurate positions (within about 20 metres) of the distress position. EPIRB manufacturers offer AIS (Automatic Identification System) enabled beacons. 406 MHz EPIRBs transmit an ID which is linked to a database of information about the vessel. Typically a vessel has a unique ID: MMSI.


text: The serviceability of these items is checked monthly and annually and they have limited battery shelf life, between two and five years using mostly lithium-type batteries.


text: Navtex is an international, automated system for instantly distributing maritime safety information (MSI) which includes navigational warnings, weather forecasts and weather warnings, search and rescue notices and similar information to ships. A small, low-cost and self-contained "smart" printing radio receiver is installed on the bridge, or the place from where the ship is navigated, and checks each incoming message to see if it has been received during an earlier transmission, or if it is of a category of no interest to the ship's master. The frequency of transmission of these messages is 518 kHz in English, while 490 kHz is sometime used to broadcast in a local language.


text: The messages are coded with a header code identified by the using single letters of the alphabet to represent broadcasting stations, type of messages, and followed by two figures indicating the serial number of the message.


text: FA56 where F is the ID of the transmitting station, A indicates the message category "navigational warning", and 56 is the consecutive message number.


text: As of January 2020, there are two certified providers of GMDSS satellite services: INMARSAT, with several of their commsats in equatorial geosynchronous orbit, and Iridium Communications, with their 66-satellite constellation in low Earth orbit (LEO) that can cover higher latitudes and operate with lower communications latency. The certification of Iridium in 2020 ended a monopoly on the provision of the satellite-based portion of maritime distress services that had previously been held by Inmarsat since the system became operational in 1999.


text: Satellite systems operated by the Inmarsat company, overseen by the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) are important elements of the GMDSS. The types of Inmarsat ship earth station terminals recognized by the GMDSS are: Inmarsat C and F77. Inmarsat F77, an updated version of the now redundant Inmarsat A and B, provide ship-to-shore, ship-to-ship and shore-to-ship telephone, telex and high-speed data services, including a distress priority telephone and telex service to and from rescue coordination centers. Fleet 77 fully supports the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) and includes advanced features such as emergency call prioritisation. Unfortunately Fleet 77 has an end of life scheduled for 1 December 2020. No definite alternatives are currently defined. The Inmarsat C provides ship/shore, shore/ship and ship/ship store-and-forward data and email messaging, the capability for sending preformatted distress messages to a rescue coordination center, and the Inmarsat C SafetyNET service. The Inmarsat C SafetyNET service is a satellite-based worldwide maritime safety information broadcast service of high seas weather warnings, NAVAREA navigational warnings, radionavigation warnings, ice reports and warnings generated by the USCG-conducted International Ice Patrol, and other similar information not provided by NAVTEX. SafetyNET works similarly to NAVTEX in areas outside NAVTEX coverage.


text: Inmarsat C equipment is relatively small and lightweight, and costs much less than a F77 station. A F77 ship earth station requires a relatively large gyro-stabilized unidirectional antennas; the antenna size of the Inmarsat C is much smaller and is omnidirectional. Inmarsat C being a low power system allows for its operation from the vessels emergency 24volt battery supply under emergency conditions. This coupled to the omni directional antenna arrangements allow for a guaranteed response to a distress alert between 76 degrees North and 76 degrees South (Sea area A3).


text: Under a cooperative agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), combined meteorological observations and AMVER reports can now be sent to both the USCG AMVER Center, and NOAA, using an Inmarsat C ship earth station, at no charge.


text: SOLAS now requires that Inmarsat C equipment have an integral satellite navigation receiver, or be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver. That connection will ensure accurate location information to be sent to a rescue coordination center if a distress alert is ever transmitted.


text: Also the new LRIT long range tracking systems are upgraded via GMDSS Inmarsat C which are also compliant along with inbuilt SSAS, or ship security alert system. SSAS provides a means to covertly transmit a security alert distress message to local authorities in the event of a mutiny, pirate attack, or other hostile action towards the vessel or its crew.


text: A GMDSS system may include high-frequency (HF) radiotelephone and radiotelex (narrow-band direct printing) equipment, with calls initiated by digital selective calling (DSC). Worldwide broadcasts of maritime safety information can also be made on HF narrow-band direct printing channels. All ships trading in Sea area A4 must carry HF DSC and NDBP equipment which can also operate from the ships reserve energy supply (typically a 24v battery supply). This HF provision is necessary as the Inmarsat coverage does not extend to the polar regions.


text: The GMDSS installation on ships include one (two on vessels over 500 GT) search-and-rescue locating device called Search and Rescue Radar Transponders (SART) which are used to locate survival craft or distressed vessels by creating a series of twelve dots on a rescuing ship's 3 cm radar display. The detection range between these devices and ships, dependent upon the height of the ship's radar mast and the height of the Search and Rescue Locating device, is normally about 15 km (8 nautical miles).


text: Once detected by radar, the Search and Rescue Locating device will produce a visual and aural indication to the persons in distress.


text: The IMO also introduced digital selective calling (DSC) on MF, HF and VHF maritime radios as part of the GMDSS system. DSC is primarily intended to initiate ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship radiotelephone and MF/HF radiotelex calls. DSC calls can also be made to individual stations, groups of stations, or "all stations" in one's radio range. Each DSC-equipped ship, shore station and group is assigned a unique 9-digit Maritime Mobile Service Identity.


text: DSC distress alerts, which consist of a preformatted distress message, are used to initiate emergency communications with ships and rescue coordination centers. DSC was intended to eliminate the need for persons on a ship's bridge or on shore to continuously guard radio receivers on voice radio channels, including VHF channel 16 (156.8 MHz) and 2182 kHz now used for distress, safety and calling. A listening watch aboard GMDSS-equipped ships on 2182 kHz ended on February 1, 1999. In May 2002, IMO decided to postpone cessation of a VHF listening watch aboard ships. That watchkeeping requirement had been scheduled to end on February 1, 2005.


text: IMO and ITU both require that the DSC-equipped MF/HF and VHF radios be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver (GPS). That connection will ensure accurate location information is sent to a rescue coordination center if a distress alert is transmitted. The FCC requires that all new VHF and MF/HF maritime radiotelephones type accepted after June 1999 have at least a basic DSC capability.


text: VHF digital selective calling also has other capabilities beyond those required for the GMDSS. The US Coast Guard uses this system to track vessels in Prince William Sound, Alaska, Vessel Traffic Service. IMO and the USCG also plan to require ships carry a Universal Shipborne automatic identification system, which will be DSC-compatible. Countries having a GMDSS A1 Area should be able to identify and track AIS-equipped vessels in its waters without any additional radio equipment. A DSC-equipped radio cannot be interrogated and tracked unless that option was included by the manufacturer, and unless the user configures it to allow tracking.


text: GMDSS telecommunications equipment should not be reserved for emergency use only. The International Maritime Organization encourages mariners to use GMDSS equipment for routine as well as safety telecommunications.


text: The batteries are required to have a capacity to power the equipment for 1 hour on ships with an emergency generator or built prior to February 1995, and 6 hours on ships not fitted with an emergency generator or built after February 1995 in order to comply with SOLAS. The batteries must be charged by an automatic charger, which is also required to be powered from the main and emergency generators. Changeover from AC to battery supply must be automatic, and effected in such a way that any data held by the equipment is not corrupted ("no break").


text: During Coast Guard inspections, the batteries must be able to go from 100% discharge to fully charged in no longer than 10 hours in order to pass certification. The charger too must be obtainable at all times during vessel operation and should be inspected to make sure it functions properly. When the reserve source of energy consists of batteries, the battery capacity must be checked at intervals not exceeding 12 months. If not completed within past 12 months, this must be done during inspection.


text: Storage batteries provided as a reserve source of energy must be installed in accordance with applicable electrical codes and good engineering practice. They must be protected from adverse weather and physical damage. They must be readily accessible for maintenance and replacement.


text: GMDSS sea areas serve two purposes: to describe areas where GMDSS services are available, and to define what radio equipment GMDSS ships must carry (carriage requirements). Prior to the GMDSS, the number and type of radio safety equipment ships had to carry depended upon its tonnage. With GMDSS, the number and type of radio safety equipment ships have to carry depends upon the GMDSS areas in which they travel. GMDSS sea areas are classified in the following four areas: A1, A2, A3 and A4.


text: In addition to equipment listed, all GMDSS-regulated ships must carry a satellite EPIRB, a NAVTEX receiver (if they travel in any areas served by NAVTEX), an Inmarsat-C SafetyNET receiver (if they travel in any areas not served by NAVTEX), a DSC-equipped VHF radiotelephone, two (if between 300 and less than 500 GRT) or three VHF handhelds (if 500 GRT or more), and two 9 GHz search and rescue radar transponders (SART).


text: Presently, until an A1 or A2 Sea Area is established, GMDSS-mandated ships operating off the U.S. coast must fit to Sea Areas A3 (or A4) regardless of where they operate. U.S. ships whose voyage allows them to always remain within VHF channel 16 coverage of U.S. Coast Guard stations may apply to the Federal Communications Commission for an individual waiver to fit to Sea Area A1 requirements. Similarly, those who remain within 2182 kHz coverage of U.S. Coast Guard stations may apply for a waiver to fit to Sea Area A2 requirements.


text: The General Operator’s Certificate is required on SOLAS vessels operating also outside GMDSS Sea Area A1, while a Restricted Operator’s Certificate is needed on SOLAS vessels operated solely within GMDSS Sea Area A1,


text: Long Range Certificate may be issued, and is required on non-SOLAS vessels operating outside GMDSS Sea Area A1, while a Short Range Certificate is issued for non-SOLAS vessels operating only inside GMDSS Sea Area A1.


text: Finally there is a restricted radiotelephone operator's certificate, which is similar to the Short Range Certificate but limited VHF DSC radio operation. Some countries do not consider this adequate for GMDSS qualification.


text: To obtain any of these licenses a person must be a U.S. citizen or otherwise eligible for work in the country, be able to communicate in English, and take written examinations approved by the Federal Communications Commission. Like the amateur radio examinations, these are given by private, FCC-approved groups. These are generally not the same agencies who administer the ham tests. Written test elements 1 and 7 are required for the Operator license, and elements 1 and 7R for the Restricted Operator. (Passing element 1 also automatically qualifies the applicant for the Marine Radiotelephone Operator Permit, the MROP.)


text: For the Maintainer license, written exam element 9 must be passed. However, to obtain this certificate an applicant must also hold a General radiotelephone operator license (GROL), which requires passing commercial written exam elements 1 and 3 (and thus supersedes the MROP). Upon the further passing of optional written exam element 8 the ship radar endorsement will be added to both the GROL and Maintainer licenses. This allows the holder to adjust, maintain, and repair shipboard radar equipment.


text: Until March 25, 2008 GMDSS operator and maintainer licenses expired after five years but could be renewed upon payment of a fee. On that date all new certificates were issued valid for the lifetimes of their holders. For those still valid but previously issued with expiration dates, the FCC states:


text: Any GMDSS Radio Operator's License, Restricted GMDSS Radio Operator's License, GMDSS Radio Maintainer's License, GMDSS Radio Operator/Maintainer License, or Marine Radio Operator Permit that was active, i.e., had not expired, as of March 25, 2008, does not have to be renewed.


text: Since an older certificate does show an expiration date, for crewmembers sailing internationally it may be worth paying the fee (as of 2010 it was $60) to avoid any confusion with local authorities.


text: Finally, to actually serve as a GMDSS operator on most commercial vessels the United States Coast Guard requires additional classroom training and practical experience beyond just holding a license.


text: The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office publishes a GMDSS Admiralty List of Radio Signals (Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) Volume NP285 - 2016/17 Edition is ISBN number - 978-0-070-774-4322. (DMT)


title: Crip Camp

text: Crip Camp: A Disability Revolution is a 2020 American documentary film directed, written and co-produced by Nicole Newnham and James LeBrecht. Barack and Michelle Obama serve as executive producers under their Higher Ground Productions banner.


title: Crip Camp

text: "Crip Camp" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2020, where it won the Audience Award. It was released on March 25, 2020, by Netflix and received acclaim from critics. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.


title: Crip Camp

text: "Crip Camp" starts in 1971 at Camp Jened, a summer camp in New York described as a "loose, free-spirited camp designed for teens with disabilities". Starring Larry Allison, Judith Heumann, James LeBrecht, Denise Sherer Jacobson, and Stephen Hofmann, the film focuses on those campers who turned themselves into activists for the disability rights movement and follows their fight for accessibility legislation.


title: Crip Camp

text: The idea to make the film about Camp Jened started "with an off-hand comment at lunch". James LeBrecht had worked with Nicole Newnham for 15 years as a co-director. LeBrecht was born with spina bifida and uses a wheelchair to get around. However, he had never seen a documentary related to his "life's work as a disability rights advocate". At the end of the lunch meeting, LeBrecht told Newnham, "You know, I've always wanted to see this film made about my summer camp", and she replied with "Oh, that's nice, why?". Newnham told "The Guardian", "then he completely blew my mind" explaining why he wanted to make this film. Newnham said:


title: Crip Camp

text: "Crip Camp" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2020. The film was released on March 25, 2020, by Netflix. The film was set to be released in a limited release that same day, but the theatrical release was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Crip Camp

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: "As entertaining as it is inspiring, "Crip Camp" uses one group's remarkable story to highlight hope for the future and the power of community." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 86 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Crip Camp

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote, "this indispensable documentary defines what it means to call a movie 'inspiring'." Justin Chang writing for "Los Angeles Times" said that "[the film] delivers an appreciably blunt message". Benjamin Lee of "The Guardian" wrote, "this impactful film shines a light on a forgotten fight for equality". Daniel Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote, "My only hope is that the confrontational title and the Obama branding don't scare some viewers away from a story that is truly non-partisan, humane and significant". Peter Debruge writing for "Variety" said, "[the film] proves to be the most educational for those born into a post-ADA world, a world of self-opening doors and accessible bathroom stalls and ramps that take wheelchairs into consideration".


title: Crip Camp

text: Richard Lawson of "Vanity Fair" wrote, "The spirit of revolution—righteously angry yet full of bonhomie, demanding but generous in its reach—is alive and well in the film. As, one hopes, it is everywhere else". Carlos Ríos Espinosa of Human Rights Watch wrote, "The film made me realize the importance of building spaces for people with disabilities to organize". Katie Rife of "The A.V. Club" wrote, "[the film] will serve as an enlightening look at how much has changed in the past 50 years". Jake Coyle writing for "The Washington Post" wrote, "[the film] has a specific starting point but it unfolds as a broader chronicle of a decades-long fight for civil rights—one that has received less attention than other 20th century struggles for equity".


title: Monster Study

text: The Monster Study was a stuttering experiment performed on 22 orphan children in Davenport, Iowa in 1939. It was conducted by Wendell Johnson at the University of Iowa. Graduate student Mary Tudor conducted the experiment under Johnson's supervision. Half of the children received positive speech therapy, praising the fluency of their speech, and the other half, negative speech therapy, belittling the children for speech imperfections. Many of the normal speaking orphan children who received negative therapy in the experiment suffered negative psychological effects, and some retained speech problems for the rest of their lives.


title: Monster Study

text: It was dubbed the "Monster Study" as some of Johnson's peers were horrified that he would experiment on orphan children to confirm a hypothesis. The experiment was kept hidden for fear Johnson's reputation would be tarnished in the wake of human experiments conducted by the Nazis during World War II. Because the results of the study were never published in any peer-reviewed journal, Tudor's thesis is the only official record of the details of the experiment.


title: Monster Study

text: The University of Iowa publicly apologized for the Monster Study in 2001. However, Paticia Zebrowski, University of Iowa assistant professor of speech pathology and audiology notes that the data that resulted from the experiment is the "largest collection of scientific information" on the phenomenon of stuttering and that Johnson's work was the first to discuss the importance of the stutterer's thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings and continues to influence views on stuttering greatly.


title: Monster Study

text: The research began with a selection of twenty-two subjects from a veterans' orphanage in Iowa. None were told the intent of her research, and they believed that they were there to receive speech therapy. Tudor was trying to induce stuttering in healthy children and to see whether telling stutterers that their speech was fine would produce a change. Included among the twenty-two subjects were ten orphans whom teachers and matrons had marked as stutterers before the study began. Tudor and five other graduate students who agreed to serve as judges listened to each of the children speak, graded them on a scale from 1 (poor) to 5 (fluent) and concurred with the school's assessment. Five were assigned to Group IA, the experimental set, and would be told that their speech was fine. The five in Group IB, the control group, would be told that their speech is "as bad as people say".


title: Monster Study

text: The remaining 12 children were chosen at random from the population of normally fluent orphans. Six of these were assigned to IIA. These children, ranging in age from 5 to 15, were to be told that their speech was horrible, that they were beginning to stutter, and that they must correct this immediately. The final six children in Group IIB, similar in age to those in IIA, were normal speakers who were to be treated as such and given compliments on their nice enunciation.


title: Monster Study

text: On the first visit, Tudor tested each child's I.Q. and identified whether they were left-handed or right-handed. A popular theory at the time held that stuttering was caused by a cerebral imbalance. If, for example, a person was born left-handed but was using their right hand, their nerve impulses would misfire, affecting their speech. Johnson did not believe the theory, but still suggested Tudor test each child's handedness. She had them draw on chalkboards and squeeze the bulb of a dynamometer. Most were right-handed, but left-handed children were present in all the groups. There was no correlation between handedness and speech in the subjects. During this period, they assigned numbers to the children, such as "Case No 15 Experimental Group IIA..."


title: Monster Study

text: The experimental period lasted from January until late May 1939, and the actual intervention consisted of Tudor driving to Davenport from Iowa City every few weeks and talking with each child for about 45 minutes. She followed an agreed-upon script. In her dissertation, she reported that she talked to the stuttering youngsters who were going to be told that they did not stutter. She said to them, in part, "You'll outgrow [the stuttering], and you will be able to speak even much better than you are speaking now... Pay no attention to what others say about your speaking ability for undoubtedly they do not realize that this is only a phase."


title: Monster Study

text: To the non-stuttering youngsters in IIA, who were to be branded stutterers, she said: "The staff has come to the conclusion that you have a great deal of trouble with your speech… You have many of the symptoms of a child who is beginning to stutter. You must try to stop yourself immediately. Use your will power… Do anything to keep from stuttering… Don't ever speak unless you can do it right. You see how [the name of a child in the institution who stuttered severely] stutters, don't you? Well, he undoubtedly started this very same way."


title: Monster Study

text: The children in IIA responded immediately. After her second session with 5-year-old Norma Jean Pugh, Tudor wrote, "It was very difficult to get her to speak, although she spoke very freely the month before." Another in the group, 9-year-old Betty Romp, "practically refuses to talk," a researcher wrote in his final evaluation. "Held hand or arm over eyes most of the time." Hazel Potter, 15, the oldest in her group, became "much more conscious of herself, and she talked less," Tudor noted. Potter also began to interject and to snap her fingers in frustration. She was asked why she said 'a' so much. "Because I'm afraid I can't say the next word." "Why did you snap your fingers?" "Because I was afraid I was going to say 'a.'"


title: Monster Study

text: All the children's schoolwork fell off. One of the boys began refusing to recite in class. The other, eleven-year-old Clarence Fifer, started anxiously correcting himself. "He stopped and told me he was going to have trouble on words before he said them," Tudor reported. She asked him how he knew. He said that the sound "wouldn't come out. Feels like it's stuck in there."


title: Monster Study

text: The sixth orphan, Mary Korlaske, a 12-year-old, grew withdrawn and fractious. During their sessions, Tudor asked whether her best friend knew about her 'stuttering,' Korlaske muttered, "No." "Why not?" Korlaske shuffled her feet. "I hardly ever talk to her." Two years later, she ran away from the orphanage and eventually ended up at the rougher Industrial School for Girls — simultaneously escaping her human experimentation.


title: Monster Study

text: Mary Tudor herself wasn't untouched. Three times after her experiment had officially ended, she returned to the orphanage to voluntarily provide follow-up care. She told the IIA children that they didn't stutter after all. The impact, however well-meaning, was questionable. She wrote to Johnson about the orphans in a slightly defensive letter dated April 22, 1940, "I believe that in time they … will recover, but we certainly made a definite impression on them."


title: Monster Study

text: The results of the study were freely available in the library of the University of Iowa, but Johnson did not seek publication of the results. The experiment became national news in the wake of a series of articles conducted by an investigative reporter at the "San Jose Mercury News" in 2001, and a book titled "Ethics: A Case Study from Fluency" was written to provide an impartial scientific evaluation. The panel of authors in the book consists mostly of speech pathologists who fail to reach any consensus on either the ethical ramifications or scientific consequences of the Monster Study. Richard Schwartz concludes in Chapter 6 of the book that the Monster Study "was unfortunate in Tudor and Johnson's lack of regard for the potential harm to the children who participated and in their selection of institutionalized children simply because they were easily available. The deception and the apparent lack of debriefing were also not justifiable." Other authors concur claiming the orphan experiment was not within the ethical boundaries of acceptable research. Others, however, felt that the ethical standards in 1939 were different from those used today. Some felt the study was poorly designed and executed by Tudor, and as a result the data offered no proof of Johnson's subsequent hypothesis that "stuttering begins, not in the child's mouth but in the parent's ear"—i.e., that it is the well-meaning parent's effort to help the child avoid what the parent has labeled "stuttering" (but is in fact within the range of normal speech) that contributes to what ultimately becomes the problem diagnosed as stuttering.


title: Monster Study

text: On 17 August 2007, seven of the orphan children were awarded a total of $1.2M by the State of Iowa for lifelong psychological and emotional scars caused by six months of torment during the University of Iowa experiment. The study learned that although none of the children became stutterers, some became self-conscious and reluctant to speak. A spokesman for the University of Iowa called the experiment "regrettable" and added: "This is a study that should never be considered defensible in any era. In no way would I ever think of defending this study. In no way. It’s more than unfortunate." Before her death, Mary Tudor expressed deep regret about her role in the Monster Study and maintained that Wendell Johnson should have done more to reverse the negative effects on the orphan children's speech.


title: Monster Study

text: The lawsuit was an outgrowth of a "San Jose Mercury News" article in 2001 conducted by an investigative reporter.


title: Monster Study

text: The article revealed that several of the orphans had long-lasting psychological effects stemming from the experiment. The state tried unsuccessfully to have the lawsuit dismissed but in September 2005, Iowa's Supreme Court justices agreed with a lower court in rejecting the state's claim of immunity and petition for dismissal.


title: Monster Study

text: Many of the orphans testified that they were harmed by the "Monster Study" but outside of Mary Tudor, who testified in a deposition on November 19, 2002, there were no eyewitnesses. The advanced age of the three surviving former orphans on the plaintiff's side helped expedite a settlement with the state.


title: Monster Study

text: "For the plaintiffs, we hope and believe it will help provide closure relating to experiences from long ago and to memories going back almost 70 years. For all parties, it ends long-running, difficult and costly litigation that only would have run up more expenses and delayed resolution to plaintiffs who are in their seventies and eighties." (DM Register)


title: Monster Study

text: Despite the settlement, the debate remains contentious over what harm, if any, the Monster Study caused the orphan children. Nicholas Johnson, the son of the late Wendell Johnson, has vehemently defended his father. He and some speech pathologists have argued that Wendell Johnson did not intend to harm the orphan children and that none of the orphans were diagnosed as "stutterers" at the end of the experiment. Other speech pathologists have condemned the experiment and said that the orphans' speech and behavior was adversely affected by the negative conditioning they received. Letters between Mary Tudor and Wendell Johnson that were written shortly after the experiment ended showed that the children's speech had deteriorated significantly. Mary Tudor returned to the orphanage three times to try to reverse the negative effects caused by the experiment but lamented the fact that she was unable to provide enough positive therapy to reverse the deleterious effects.


title: Monster Study

text: Today, the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association prohibits experimentation on children when there exists a significant chance of causing lasting harmful consequences.


title: John Norum

text: John Norum (born 23 February 1964) is a Norwegian-Swedish guitarist and one of the founders of the rock band Europe. Concurrent to his role with Europe, he also maintains a career as a solo artist.


title: John Norum

text: As an infant, Norum moved with his parents to Upplands Väsby (a Stockholm suburb), where he grew up and has spent most of his life.


title: John Norum

text: During his career in music, Norum has played with Eddie Meduza & the Roaring Cadillacs, Dokken, Don Dokken's solo band, as well as collaborated with other well-known artists on his solo albums, including Glenn Hughes, Kelly Keeling, Peter Baltes, Simon Wright and Göran Edman. His influences include Gary Moore, Michael Schenker, Frank Marino, John Sykes and Ritchie Blackmore.


title: John Norum

text: In 1979, John Norum formed Force, which was Europe's first name, with vocalist Joey Tempest. Europe participated in and won the "Rock Sm", Swedish championship of rock, broadcast on television in 1982, with Norum being voted best guitarist and Joey best vocalist. The championship prize was the recording of a studio album by a small Swedish label.


title: John Norum

text: The album "Europe" was released in February 1983, and became a hit in the band's home country and in Japan. In February 1984 "Wings of Tomorrow", the band's next album was released, and the band started to become very popular on the Swedish scene, touring throughout the country, and also gaining recognition in Japan. The band signed to Epic Records in 1985 and recorded the album "The Final Countdown" at the end of the year. In May 1986, "The Final Countdown" was released, and quickly achieved success in several European countries, Japan, and United States. A series of disagreements between Norum and the band's manager Thomas Erdtman began to occur even before the tour began, which led the guitarist to decide to leave the band in October 1986.


title: John Norum

text: After having left Europe, Norum signed a solo contract for three studio albums with Europe's label. His solo debut, "Total Control", was released in October 1987. Norum sang on almost all of the songs, while Göran Edman sang on the other three. The album was successful in Sweden, getting to No. 4 in the Swedish charts and gaining platinum status (the single "Let Me Love You" also went to No. 4 in the Swedish charts; the ballad "Back on the Streets" to No. 34 "Billboard" US Rock). Norum won all the music awards of the year in the country in 1988. The band toured Sweden. Their last show took place at the Hammersmith Odeon in London, England in late 1988.


title: John Norum

text: Norum's talent, evident on albums with Europe and his first solo album, sparked the interest of vocalist Don Dokken of the American band Dokken, who split up in 1988. Norum was enlisted to contribute to the album "Up from the Ashes", which came out as Don Dokken's first solo album in 1990, and they went on tour in 1991. In 1990, Norum released a mini EP live, recorded in 1988, "Live in Stockholm".


title: John Norum

text: In 1992, the album "Face the Truth" was released. The album was a project with former Deep Purple frontman Glenn Hughes, with Hughes singing practically all of the songs. Joey Tempest also guested on the album.


title: John Norum

text: In 1995, the album "Another Destination" was released, being his last release for Epic Records. He toured behind the album in Sweden with new vocalist, Kelly Keeling, who had also sung on the album. In December 1996, another album, "Worlds Away" released (again with Keeling singing), through a new record company, Mascot Records. The following year, a show in Japan was recorded (with new singer, Leif Sundin), which was released as the "Face It Live" album. At the end of 1997, John Norum performed 15 shows as part of Dokken in the United States, replacing George Lynch who had once again left the band.


title: John Norum

text: In 1999, Norum released his last solo album before his return to Europe, "Slipped into Tomorrow", with him on vocals. He went on tour in Scandinavia, with Thin Lizzy guitar player Brian Robertson playing songs of that band.


title: John Norum

text: At the turn of the millennium, Norum participated in Europe's inaugural concert for Swedish TV, playing with the band again after 14 years of absence. He again joined the band that same year, this time at the Hard Rock Cafe in Stockholm, to play "Rock the Night".


title: John Norum

text: In 2001, Norum joined Dokken as an official member. They toured the United States in 2001 and in 2002 released the "Long Way Home" album. During a tour of Europe, not satisfied with Don Dokken's temperament, he decided to leave the band. In 2003, Europe announced its official reforming of the classic five-man lineup, with Norum officially returning to the band, having not been a member for 17 years. He refused an offer by UFO before rejoining Europe (Norum had already rejected an offer from UFO in 1996, plus Michael Schenker who had left, upon learning of the offer made to Norum, returned to the band).


title: John Norum

text: Since 2004, Europe has released six further studio albums, while Norum released a further sixth and seventh solo album, "Optimus" in 2005, and "Play Yard Blues" in 2010, singing on both albums. A new solo album was slated to be released in 2021, more focused musically on Europe's bluesy style of rock, but so far no official release date has been given for the album.


title: John Norum

text: Norum started and developed his musical career in Sweden, but has also lived in the United States for a few years, where he met and married Michelle Meldrum in 1995, founder and lead guitarist of the all-female hard rock band Phantom Blue and the Swedish metal band Meldrum. The couple had one son, Jake Thomas, born on 22 September 2004. On 21 May 2008, Michelle died from a cystic growth in her brain. Another son, Jim Henry, was born on 16 April 2012, to him and his Swedish fiancée Camilla Wåhlander. The couple also had a daughter, Celine Margareta, born on 28 July 2014.


title: John Norum

text: Norum is the older brother of singer Tone Norum. and his stepfather is Thomas Witt, a former record producer, Columbia executive and drummer for Eddie Meduza.


title: John Norum

text: His guitar goes through the Wah into the chorus pedal, from where the separate outputs connect to the two amp heads, with the delay connected in the effects loop of the JCM 800 only.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The Jameson Raid (29 December 1895 – 2 January 1896) was a botched raid against the South African Republic (commonly known as the Transvaal) carried out by British colonial administrator Leander Starr Jameson, under the employment of Cecil Rhodes. It involved 500 British South Africa Company police launched from Rhodesia over the New Year weekend of 1895–96. Paul Kruger, whom Rhodes had a great personal hatred towards, was president of the South African Republic at the time. The raid was intended to trigger an uprising by the primarily British expatriate workers (known as Uitlanders) in the Transvaal but failed to do so. The workers were called the Johannesburg conspirators. They were expected to recruit an army and prepare for an insurrection; however, the raid was ineffective, and no uprising took place. The results included embarrassment of the British government; the replacement of Cecil Rhodes as prime minister of the Cape Colony; and the strengthening of Boer dominance of the Transvaal and its gold mines. The raid was a contributory cause of the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902).


title: Jameson Raid

text: What later became South Africa was not a single, united nation during the late nineteenth century. The territory had four distinct entities: the two British colonies of Cape Colony and Natal; and the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic, more commonly referred to as the Transvaal.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The Cape, more specifically the small area around present day Cape Town, was the first part of South Africa to be settled by Europeans; the first immigrants arrived in 1652. These settlers were transported by, and long remained under the control of, the Dutch East India Company.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Gradual consolidation and eastward expansion took place over the next 150 years; however, by the beginning of the nineteenth century, Dutch power had substantially waned. In 1806, Great Britain took over the Cape to prevent the territory falling to Napoleon and to secure control over the trade routes to the Far East.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Antipathy towards British control and the introduction of new systems and institutions grew amongst a substantial portion of the Boer community. One of the primary causes of friction was policy of the British authorities towards slavery in South Africa. In 1828, legislation passed by the British parliament guaranteed equal treatment under the law for all, regardless of race. In 1830, a new ordinance imposed heavy penalties for harsh treatment of slaves. The measure was controversial among some of the population, and in 1834, the government abolished slavery in the British Empire altogether. The Boers opposed the changes, as they believed they needed enslaved labor to make their farms work. They believed the slaveholders were compensated too little upon emancipation. They were also suspicious of how the government paid for compensation. This resentment culminated in the en-masse migration of substantial numbers of the Boers into the hitherto unexplored frontier, to get beyond the control of British rule. The migration became known as the Great Trek.


title: Jameson Raid

text: This anti-British feeling was by no means universal: in the Western Cape, few Boers felt compelled to move. The Trekboers, frontier farmers in the East who had been at the front of the colony's eastward expansion, were the ones who elected to trek further afield. These emigrants, or Voortrekkers as they became known, first moved east into the territory later known as Natal. In 1839, they founded the Natalia Republic as a new homeland for the Boers. Other Voortrekker parties moved northwards, settling beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Reluctant to have British subjects moving beyond its control, Britain annexed the Natalia Republic in 1843, which became the Crown colony of Natal. After 1843, British government policy turned strongly against further expansion in South Africa. Although there were some abortive attempts to annex the territories to the north, Britain recognised their independence by the Sand River Convention of 1852 and the Orange River Convention of 1854, for the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, respectively.


title: Jameson Raid

text: After the First Anglo-Boer War, Gladstone's government restored the Transvaal's independence in 1884 by signing the London Convention. No one knew there would be the discovery of the colossal gold deposits of the Witwatersrand two years later by Jan Gerrit Bantjes (1843-1911).


title: Jameson Raid

text: Despite the political divisions, the four territories were strongly linked. Each was populated by European-African emigrants from the Cape; many citizens had relatives or friends in other territories. As the largest and longest established state in Southern Africa, the Cape was economically, culturally, and socially dominant: by comparison, the population of Natal and the two Boer republics were mostly pastoralist, subsistence farmers.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The fairly simple agricultural dynamic was upset in 1870, when vast diamond fields were discovered in Griqualand West, around modern-day Kimberley. Although the territory had historically come under the authority of the Orange Free State, the Cape government, with the assistance of the British government, annexed the area, taking control of its vast mineral wealth.


title: Jameson Raid

text: In June 1884, Jan Gerrit Bantjes (1843–1914) discovered signs of gold at Vogelstruisfontein (the first gold sold directly to Cecil Rhodes at Bantjes's camp for £3,000) followed in September by the Struben brothers at Wilgespruit near Roodepoort which started the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and modern-day Johannesburg. The first gold mines of the Witwatersrand were the Bantjes Consolidated Mines. By 1886 it was clear that there were massive deposits of gold in the main reef. The huge inflow of "Uitlanders" (foreigners), mainly from Britain, had come to the region in search of employment and fortune. The discovery of gold made the Transvaal overnight the richest and potentially the most powerful nation in southern Africa, but it attracted so many Uitlanders (in 1896 approximately 60,000) that they quickly outnumbered the Boers (approximately 30,000 white male Boers).


title: Jameson Raid

text: Fearful of the Transvaal's losing independence and becoming a British colony, the Boer government adopted policies of protectionism and exclusion, to include restrictions requiring Uitlanders to be resident for at least four years in the Transvaal to obtain the franchise, or right to vote. They heavily taxed the growing gold mining industry which was predominantly British and American. Due to this taxation, the Uitlanders became increasingly resentful and aggrieved about the lack of representation. President Paul Kruger called a closed council, including Jan Gerritse Bantjes, to discuss the growing problem and it was decided to put a heavy tax on the sale of dynamite to non-Boer residents. Jan G. Bantjes, fluent in both spoken and written Dutch and English, was a close confidant of Paul Kruger with their link dating to the Great Trek days. Jan's father, Jan Gerritze Bantjes, had given Paul Kruger his elementary education during the trek and Jan Gerritse was part of his inner core of associates. This closed council would be the committee which set the Transvaal Republic on a collision course with Great Britain and the Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 and which set German feelings toward Britain at boiling point by siding with the Boers. Because of this applied dynamite tax, considerable discontent and tensions began to rise. As Johannesburg was largely an Uitlander city, non-boer leaders there began to discuss the proposals for an insurrection.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Cecil Rhodes, Governor of the Cape, had a desire to incorporate the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in a federation under British control. Having combined his commercial mining interests with Alfred Beit to form the De Beers Mining Corporation, the two men also wanted to control the Johannesburg gold mining industry. They played a major role in fomenting Uitlander grievances.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Rhodes later told the journalist W.T. Stead that he feared that a Uitlander rebellion would cause trouble for Britain if not controlled by him:


title: Jameson Raid

text: In mid-1895, Rhodes planned a raid by an armed column from Rhodesia, the British colony to the north, to support an uprising of Uitlanders with the goal of taking control. The raid soon ran into difficulties, beginning with hesitation by the Uitlander leaders.


title: Jameson Raid

text: In September and October 1895, a dispute between the Transvaal and Cape Colony governments arose over Boer trade protectionism. The Cape Colony had refused to pay the high rates charged by the Transvaal government for use of the Transvaal portion of the railway line to Johannesburg, instead opting to send its goods by wagon train directly across the Vaal River, over a set of fords (known as 'drifts' in South Africa). Transvaal president Paul Kruger responded by closing the drifts, angering the Cape Colony government. While Transvaal eventually relented, relations between the nation and Cape Colony remained strained.


title: Jameson Raid

text: As part of the planning, a force had been placed at Pitsani, on the border of the Transvaal, by the order of Rhodes so as to be able to quickly offer support to the Uitlanders in the uprising. The force was placed under the control of Leander Starr Jameson, the Administrator General of the Chartered Company (of which Cecil Rhodes was the Chairman) for Matabeleland. Among the other commanders was Raleigh Grey. The force was around 600 men, about 400 from the Matabeleland Mounted Police and the remainder other volunteers. It was equipped with rifles, somewhere between eight and sixteen Maxim machine guns, and between three and eleven light artillery pieces.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The plan was that Johannesburg would revolt and seize the Boer armoury in Pretoria. Jameson and his force would dash across the border to Johannesburg to "restore order" and with control of Johannesburg would control the gold fields.


title: Jameson Raid

text: However, while Jameson waited for the insurrection to begin, differences arose within the Reform Committee and between Johannesburg Uitlander reformers regarding the form of government to be adopted after the coup. At a point, certain reformers contacted Jameson to inform him of the difficulties and advised him to stand down. Jameson, with 600 restless men and other pressures, became frustrated by the delays and, believing that he could spur the reluctant Johannesburg reformers to act, decided to go ahead. He sent a telegram on 28 December 1895 to Rhodes warning him of his intentions - "Unless I hear definitely to the contrary, shall leave to-morrow evening" - and on the very next day sent a further message, "Shall leave to-night for the Transvaal". However, the transmission of the first telegram was delayed, so that both arrived at the same time on the morning of 29 December, and by then Jameson's men had cut the telegraph wires and there was no way of recalling him.


title: Jameson Raid

text: On 29 December 1895, Jameson's armed column crossed into the Transvaal and headed for Johannesburg. They hoped that this would be a three-day dash to Johannesburg before the Boer commandos could mobilise, and would trigger an uprising by the Uitlanders.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The British Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, though sympathetic to the ultimate goals of the raid, realized it would be a mistake since the uitlanders were not supportive. He immediately tried to stop it, remarking that "if this succeeds it will ruin me. I'm going up to London to crush it". He rushed back to London and ordered Sir Hercules Robinson, governor-general of the Cape Colony, to repudiate the actions of Jameson and warned Rhodes that the company's charter would be in danger if it were discovered the Cape Prime Minister was involved in the raid. Chamberlain therefore instructed local British representatives to call on British colonists not to offer any aid to the raiders.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Although Jameson's men had cut the telegraph wires to Cape Town, they had failed to cut the telegraph wires to Pretoria (cutting a fence by mistake). Accordingly, news of his incursion quickly reached Pretoria and Jameson's armed column was tracked by Transvaal forces from the moment that it crossed the border. The Jameson armed column first encountered resistance very early on 1 January when there was a very brief exchange of fire with a Boer outpost. Around noon the Jameson armed column was around twenty miles further on, at Krugersdorp, where a small force of Boer soldiers had blocked the road to Johannesburg and dug in and prepared defensive positions. Jameson's force spent some hours exchanging fire with the Boers, losing several men and many horses in the skirmish. Towards evening the Jameson armed column withdrew and turned south-east attempting to flank the Boer force. The Boers tracked the move overnight and on 2 January, as the light improved, a substantial Boer force with some artillery was waiting for Jameson at Doornkop. The tired raiders initially exchanged fire with the Boers, losing around thirty men before Jameson realized the position was hopeless and surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronjé. The raiders were taken to Pretoria and jailed.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The Boer government later handed the men over to the British for trial and the British prisoners were returned to London. A few days after the raid, the Kaiser of Germany sent a telegram (the "Kruger telegram") congratulating President Kruger and the Transvaal government on their success "without the help of friendly powers", alluding to potential support by Germany. When this was disclosed in the British press, it raised a storm of anti-German feeling. Dr. Jameson was lionised by the press and London society, inflamed by anti-Boer and anti-German feeling and in a frenzy of jingoism. Jameson was sentenced to 15 months for leading the raid, which he served in Holloway. The Transvaal government was paid almost £1 million in compensation by the British South Africa Company.


title: Jameson Raid

text: For conspiring with Jameson, the members of the Reform Committee (Transvaal), including Colonel Frank Rhodes and John Hays Hammond, were jailed in deplorable conditions, found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to death by hanging. This sentence was later commuted to 15 years’ imprisonment, and in June 1896, all surviving members of the Committee were released on payment of stiff fines. As further punishment for his support of Jameson, the highly decorated Col. Rhodes was placed on the retired list by the British Army and barred from active involvement in army business. After his release from jail, Colonel Rhodes immediately joined his brother Cecil and the British South Africa Company in the Second Matabele War taking place just north of the Transvaal in Matabeleland. Cecil Rhodes was forced to resign as Prime Minister of Cape Colony in 1896 due to his apparent involvement in planning and assisting in the raid; he also, along with Alfred Beit, resigned as a director of the British South Africa Company.


title: Jameson Raid

text: Jameson's raid had depleted Matabeleland of many of its troops and left the whole territory vulnerable. Seizing on this weakness, and a discontent with the British South Africa Company, the Ndebele revolted during March 1896 in what is now celebrated in Zimbabwe as the First War of Independence, the First Chimurenga, but it is better known to most of the world as the Second Matabele War. The Shona joined them soon thereafter. Hundreds of European settlers were killed within the first few weeks of the revolt and many more would die over the next year and a half. With few troops to support them, the settlers had to quickly build a laager in the centre of Bulawayo on their own. Against over 50,000 Ndebele held up in their stronghold of the Matobo Hills the settlers mounted patrols under such people as Burnham, Baden-Powell, and Selous. It would not be until October 1897 that the Ndebele and Shona would finally lay down their arms.


title: Jameson Raid

text: In Britain the Liberal Party objected to, and later opposed, the Boer War. Later, Jameson became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony (1904–08) and one of the founders of the Union of South Africa. He was made a baronet in 1911 and returned to England in 1912. On his death in 1917, he was buried next to Cecil Rhodes and the 34 BSAC soldiers of the Shangani Patrol (killed in 1893 in the First Matabele War) in the Matobos Hills, near Bulawayo.


title: Jameson Raid

text: The affair brought Anglo-Boer relations to a dangerous low. Tensions were further exacerbated by the "Kruger telegram" from the German, Kaiser Wilhelm II congratulating Kruger on defeating the "raiders". The German telegram came to be widely interpreted as an offer of military aid to the Boers. Wilhelm was already perceived by many as anti-British after initiating a costly naval arms race between Germany and Britain.


title: Jameson Raid

text: As tensions quickly mounted, the Transvaal began importing large quantities of arms and signed an alliance with the Orange Free State in 1897. Jan C. Smuts wrote in 1906 of the Raid, "The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war... And that is so in spite of the four years of truce that followed... [the] aggressors consolidated their alliance... the defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable."


title: Jameson Raid

text: Joseph Chamberlain condemned the raid despite previously having approved Rhodes' plans to send armed assistance in the case of a Johannesburg uprising. In London, despite some condemnation by the print-media, most newspapers used the episode as an opportunity to whip-up anti-Boer feelings. Though they faced criminal charges in London for their actions in South Africa, Jameson and his raiders were treated as heroes by much of the popular public. Chamberlain welcomed the escalation by Transvaal as an opportunity to annex the Boer states.


title: Jameson Raid

text: To this day, Jameson's involvement in the Jameson Raid remains something of an enigma, being somewhat out-of-character with his prior history, the rest of his life and successful later political career. In 2002, The Van Riebeeck Society published Sir Graham Bower's "Secret History of the Jameson Raid and the South African Crisis, 1895–1902" (edited by Deryck Schreuder and Jeffrey Butler, Van Riebeeck Society, Cape Town, Second Series No. 33), adding to growing historical evidence that the imprisonment and judgement upon the Raiders at the time of their trial was unjust, in view of what has appeared, in later historical analysis, to have been the calculated political manoeuvres by Joseph Chamberlain and his staff to hide his own involvement and knowledge of the Raid.


title: Jameson Raid

text: In a 2004 review of Sir Graham Bower's account, Alan Cousins commented that "A number of major themes and concerns emerge" from Bower's history, "perhaps the most poignant being Bower’s accounts of his being made a scapegoat in the aftermath of the raid: 'since a scapegoat was wanted I was willing to serve my country in that capacity'."


title: Presto (album)

text: Presto is the thirteenth studio album by Canadian rock band Rush. It was released November 21, 1989 by Anthem Records and was the band's first album released internationally by Atlantic Records following the group's departure from Mercury. After the "Hold Your Fire" (1987) tour ended in 1988, the group members reconvened in December to decide their next step and agreed to take six months off before starting on a new album. "Presto" marked another change in Rush's sound, with guitar taking a more dominant role in the writing and a reduction in synthesizers and a return towards more guitar-driven arrangements.


title: Presto (album)

text: "Presto" reached No. 7 in Canada and No. 16 in the United States. "Show Don't Tell," "The Pass" and "Superconductor" were released as singles from "Presto"; the former charted at No. 1 on the U.S. Album Rock Tracks chart. Rush supported the album with the Presto Tour from February to June 1990. "Presto" reached gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling 500,000 copies. The album was remastered in 2004 and 2013, the latter as part of the 2013 box set, "The Studio Albums 1989–2007". In 2015 it was reissued after being remastered by Sean Magee at Abbey Road Studios following a direct approach by Rush to remaster their entire back catalogue.


title: Presto (album)

text: In May 1988, Rush wrapped up touring the band's previous album, "Hold Your Fire" (1987), which was followed by the band's third live release "A Show of Hands" in early 1989. The group then decided not to renew contracts with international distributor Mercury Records; Lifeson said they departed because the relationship had become stale by this point. Peart later wrote that with the band now "free of deadlines and obligations" for the first time in fifteen years, they chose to take advantage by taking a six-month break. In December 1988, the group gathered at Peart's house to discuss the next step and agreed to start a new studio album after the break.


title: Presto (album)

text: Work on "Presto" began with Rush renting a studio in the country to write and rehearse new material. They adopted their usual method of Lifeson and Lee working on the music while Peart worked alone on the lyrics. Peart wrote: "At the end of the day I might wander into the studio, ice cubes clinking, and listen to what they'd been up to, and if I'd been lucky, show them something new." Rush worked at the studio during the week and returned home on weekends.


title: Presto (album)

text: "Presto" marks the beginning of Rush's return to a more guitar-driven sound from what is known to many as Rush's "synthesizer period" of the band's previous four releases. When Lifeson and Lee discussed what musical direction to take, they agreed that the core of the band's sound, emotion, and energy had come from the guitar, something that they wanted to return to for "Presto". This resulted in a much more satisfying album for Lifeson. Lifeson had felt constricted in his guitar playing since synthesizers began playing a more dominant role in the songwriting and performance on "Signals" (1982), which had continued through the 1980s. Lee explained that Rush wanted "Presto" to be "more of a singer's album, and I think you'll notice that the arrangements musically support the vocal[s] ... Neil's lyrics to me are a lot more heartfelt [...] This album was a real reaction against technology in a sense. I was getting sick and tired of working with computers and synthesizers [...] We made a pact to stay away from strings, pianos, and organs—to stay away from digital technology. In the end, we couldn't resist using them for colour."


title: Presto (album)

text: In a contrast to previous albums "Grace Under Pressure", "Power Windows" and "Hold Your Fire", the album does not contain an overall running lyrical theme, or what Peart described as "heavy" lyrical messages, instead adopting a more loose approach with each track making its own statement. Peart used the word "response" to describe the lyrical content as a whole. "The idea that you don't go through life just looking at things. It doesn't matter if you've been all around the world - you may have seen it, but if you haven't felt it, you haven't been there." Peart added: "There are many threads and a strong motif of looking at life today and trying to act inside it."


title: Presto (album)

text: After several songs had been worked out, the band felt it was the right time to present what they had to a co-producer. However, their initial choice, Peter Collins, who'd worked on "Power Windows" (1985) and "Hold Your Fire", reluctantly declined the offer to work on "Presto" as he wished to produce other bands. Though Rush felt confident enough to undertake production duties themselves, they still wanted someone they could trust and to provide an objective point of view to their ideas. Among the various candidates was English producer, songwriter, and keyboardist Rupert Hine, whose experience with a variety of artists attracted the group. Peart recalled the time when they presented their ideas to Hine: "We were a little bemused [...] at the end of some of them he actually seemed to be laughing! We looked at each other, eyebrows raised as if to say: "He thinks our songs are funny?" But evidently it was a laugh of pleasure; he stayed 'til the end". At Hine's suggestion, the group brought in Stephen W. Tayler as the recording and mixing engineer. The sessions with Rush and Hine together were productive; initially, 10 days were assigned for pre-production work with one track for each day, but it was complete after just one-and-a-half days.


title: Presto (album)

text: The album's title was an idea that Rush had considered to use for "A Show of Hands", but when Peart had started writing for a song entitled "Presto" it was then used as the title.


title: Presto (album)

text: "Presto" was recorded from June to August 1989. As part of their deal with Hine, the band agreed to record parts of "Presto" in London. "Presto" was finished around four weeks ahead of schedule.


title: Presto (album)

text: When the album was complete, Rush sought a new record deal and signed to Atlantic Records after executive Doug Morris had wanted to sign the group for a number of years and made an attractive offer.


title: Presto (album)

text: "The Pass" concerns a friend of Peart's who joined him on a cycle ride and once discussed juvenile suicide, which inspired the lyrics for the song. Peart named it the song he had worked the hardest on due to the delicate nature of the subject. The song became a group favorite; Peart picked the track as the reason to choose "Presto" as one album of theirs that they would re-record if they could.


title: Presto (album)

text: "Scars" features a complex drum pattern in which both acoustic and electronic drums are utilized. The pattern was derived from a tribal rhythm Neil Peart experienced while on a bicycle tour of Africa (later chronicled in his first book, ""). He went on to incorporate this pattern into his live drum solos. The song also features the use of a sequencer in place of, and often mistaken for, a bass guitar.


title: Presto (album)

text: Title track "Presto" was not performed live until 2010 for the Time Machine Tour. Lifeson said the song is about "feeling more active in your heart than in your head, not having the answers to problems."


title: Presto (album)

text: "Superconductor" deals with the superficiality of mainstream music. That topic also appears in other songs such as "Grand Designs" from the "Power Windows" album.


title: Presto (album)

text: In "Anagram (for Mongo)," every line contains one or more words that are formed by using letters in another word from that same line (e.g. "There is no safe seat at the feast"), and certain lines contain anagrammed words (e.g. "Miracles will have their claimers"). Its title was inspired by the character Mongo from "Blazing Saddles". Lifeson spoke about the lyrics: "It doesn't mean anything, it was just a fun thing, but there are some great twists in there."


title: Presto (album)

text: "Red Tide" has been seen as a commentary on climate change and the growing problem of global warming.


title: Presto (album)

text: "Hand Over Fist" was originally an instrumental that Rush had intended to include on "Presto", but Peart continued to submit lyrical ideas to Lifeson and Lee; one in particular fit to the music well enough and the plan for an instrumental was scrapped. In the album's tour book Peart used the symbolism that the hand game "rock, paper, scissors" represents, which was made into a nursery rhyme and used as a lyrical chant in "Hand over Fist."


title: Presto (album)

text: The album's sleeve was designed by Rush's longtime collaborator Hugh Syme: a black-and-white design depicting a levitating magician's hat on a hill with a rabbit emerging from it. The field in the foreground has many rabbits. Rush had devised its concept and presented it to Syme who then produced several ideas depicting what they suggested. Lifeson recalled the moment when they saw the design they went with: "We all started laughing hysterically, 'This is great, it's perfect!'"


title: Presto (album)

text: Gregory Heaney of AllMusic described the album as 'workmanlike' and removed from the creativity of their earlier works. However, he asserts that the songs aren't terrible, just a sense that something is not quite clicking, perhaps due to the length of time it had been since the band wrote more-traditional, guitar-based songs. However, before such a review was posted on November 10, 2012, the site had listed a favorable 4.5 star (out of a possible 5) review of the album by Mackenzie Wilson. Wilson described the album as one that "intelligently leads Rush into the '90s without musical bleakness".


title: Write-off

text: A write-off is a reduction of the recognized value of something. In accounting, this is a recognition of the reduced or zero value of an asset. In income tax statements, this is a reduction of taxable income, as a recognition of certain expenses required to produce the income.


title: Write-off

text: In income tax calculation, a write-off is the itemized deduction of an item's value from a person's taxable income. Thus, if a person in the United States has a taxable income of $50,000 per year, a $100 telephone for business use would lower the taxable income to $49,900. If that person is in a 25% tax bracket, the tax due would be lowered by $25. Thus the net cost of the telephone is $75 instead of $100.


title: Write-off

text: In order for business owners to write off business expenses, the IRS states that purchases must be both ordinary and necessary. This means that deductible items must be usual and required for the business owner's field of work. For example, a telemarketer may deduct the purchase of a phone, since phones are used normally and necessarily in their work, whereas a saxophonist may not.


title: Write-off

text: In business accounting, the term 'write-off' is used to refer to an investment (such as a purchase of sellable goods) for which a return on the investment is now impossible or unlikely. The item's potential return is thus canceled and removed from ('written off') the business's balance sheet. Common write-offs in retail include spoiled and damaged goods. In commercial or industrial settings, a productive asset may be subject to write-off if it suffers failure or accident damage that is infeasible to repair, leaving the asset unusable for its intended purpose.


title: Write-off

text: Similarly, banks write off bad debt that is declared non collectable (such as a loan on a defunct business, or a credit card due that is in default), removing it from their balance sheets. A reduction in the value of an asset or earnings by the amount of an expense or loss. Companies are able to write off certain expenses that are required to run the business, or have been incurred in the operation of the business and detract from retained revenues.


title: Write-off

text: A negative write-off refers to the decision not to pay back an individual or organization that has overpaid on an account. Negative write-offs can sometimes be seen as fraudulent activity if those who overpay a claim or bill are not informed that they have overpaid and are not given any chance to reconcile their overpayment or be refunded.


title: Write-off

text: Some institutions such as banks, hospitals, universities, and other large organizations regularly perform negative write-offs, especially when the amount is considered low (e.g., $5 at some institutions or up to $15 or more at others).


title: Write-off

text: A write-down is an accounting treatment that recognizes the reduced value of an impaired asset. The value of an asset may change due to fundamental changes in technology or markets. One example is when one company purchases another and pays more than the net fair value of its assets and liabilities. The excess purchase price is recorded on the buying company's accounts as goodwill. If it becomes apparent that the purchased asset no longer has the value recorded in the goodwill account (i.e., if the asset cannot be resold at the same price), the value in the goodwill asset account is "written down". One example is when Rupert Murdoch's News Corp bought "Wall Street Journal" publisher Dow Jones at a 60% premium in 2007, which News Corp. later had to write down by $2.8 billion because of declining advertising revenues.


title: Write-off

text: A write-down is sometimes considered synonymous with a write-off. The distinction is that while a write-off is generally completely removed from the balance sheet, a write-down leaves the asset with a lower value. As an example, one of the consequences of the 2007 subprime crisis for financial institutions was a revaluation under mark-to-market rules: "Washington Mutual will write down by $150 million the value of $17 billion in loans".


title: Saturn S series

text: The Saturn S-series is a family of compact cars from the Saturn automobile company of General Motors. Saturn pioneered the brand-wide "no-haggle" sales technique.


title: Saturn S series

text: The automobile platform, the Z-body, was developed entirely in-house at Saturn, and it shared very little with the rest of the General Motors model line. It implemented a spaceframe design, used on the Pontiac Fiero during the 1980s, with non-load-carrying side panels made of plastic instead of metal. These polymer panels were dent-resistant, something that remained a selling point for Saturn until just a few years before the Saturn brand was discontinued.


title: Saturn S series

text: The S series was marketed from the fall of 1990 for the 1991 model year through the end of the 2002 model year. Significant design updates were made in 1996, 1997, and 2000 for all cars. Although nearly every year of the S-series's existence brought some minor changes to the architecture of the car, each model kept the same basic body styling throughout its respective production period.


title: Saturn S series

text: The S-series debuted for model year 1991 with the Sport Coupe (SC) and Sedan Level (SL) models. The SC was only available with the DOHC (Dual Overhead Cam) engine whereas the SLs had an option for the SOHC (Single Overhead Cam) engine (SL1) or the DOHC (SL2).


title: Saturn S series

text: For the 1993 model year, the SC gained an SOHC option (SC1) in addition to the existing DOHC option (SC2, renamed from SC). The SL & SC families were joined by the SW (Station Wagon) models, in both SW1 and SW2 flavors.


title: Saturn S series

text: The S series all used either the SOHC LK0/L24 or the DOHC LL0 version of the completely original, designed in-house Saturn 1.9L engine. SL1s, SC1s, and SW1s were only offered with the MP2 manual transmission and the MP6 automatic, while SL2, SC2 and SW2 models came with either the MP3 manual or MP7 automatic. The only difference in each case is the selection of gear ratios, with the SOHC-associated transmissions being geared taller for more efficiency, and the DOHC-associated transmissions having shorter, more closely spaced ratios for performance. As a result, it's not uncommon for enthusiast-owners to swap a tall-geared MP2 manual into a car equipped with a DOHC engine for better fuel economy on the highway.


title: Saturn S series

text: Aside from the engine and transmission, the level 2 models also included 15-inch instead of 14-inch wheels, a correspondingly larger tire size, EVO steering, a rear swaybar, the option of rear disc brakes (standard on the 1991-1992 SC), color-matched bumpers and door handles, and more interior options such as power locks, power windows, rear defroster, & a sunroof (SC2 only). Aside from the wheel size, it was almost impossible to tell a 1 from a 2 externally, except for the SC2s which had retractable headlamps throughout model year 1996.


title: Saturn S series

text: A redesign beginning with the 1999 model year gave the SC a small suicide door (more correctly a clamshell door) on the driver's side to improve rear-seat access. This type of door had previously been used in extended cab pickup trucks, but was an innovation in coupe design.


title: Saturn S series

text: The level 1 S-series equipped with a manual transmission were among the most fuel-efficient cars available in the United States when they were produced, reaching in EPA highway tests at the time (this would likely translate to under current methodologies).


title: Saturn S series

text: Taiwan and Japan were the only two Asian countries to import Saturns. From 1992 to 1996, the first- and second-generation sedans plus the first-generation coupes were sold in Taiwan. From 1997 to 2001, the second-generation versions were sold in right-hand drive in Japan. Some "Toyota Netz" dealerships and former Isuzu dealerships also offered Saturn products until 2001.


title: Saturn S series

text: The first generation SL was constructed for model years 1991 through 1995, with the first Saturn rolling off the assembly line in the Spring Hill, Tennessee factory on July 30, 1990, the same day that then-CEO of GM, Roger Bonham Smith, retired. It was maroon with a tan interior.


title: Saturn S series

text: The base SL model featured the MP2 5-speed manual transmission only, and it had manual steering. On the exterior, the car featured unique hubcaps different from the SL1 and came equipped with only a driver's side exterior mirror (a passenger mirror was a popular dealer-installed option). On the inside, the SL featured an AM/FM radio with no cassette player and a lower-grade cloth material on the seats. No factory options such as power windows, power locks, air conditioning, or cruise control were available on the SL. The SL1 trim level added power steering, a passenger mirror, different hubcaps for the 14-inch wheels, an AM/FM cassette player, and softer cloth material on the seats. It featured as standard equipment the same MP2 manual or the MP6 4-speed automatic transmission could be had as an option. The SL1 could be optioned with power windows, power locks, power mirror (passenger side only - driver's side retained manual control), cruise control, and air conditioning. Both were offered only with the SOHC 1.9L I4 "LKO" engine that produced , which was rated at 27 mpg (8.7L/100 km/32 mpg) City, 34 mpg (6.9L/100 km; 41 mpg) Highway. The SL2 trim level featured the MP3 5-speed manual transmission, or the MP7 4-speed automatic transmission, both exclusively with the DOHC 1.9L I4 LL0 engine that was rated at , 24 mpg (9.8L/100 km; 29 mpg) City, 34 mpg (6.9L/100 km; 41 mpg) Highway. The SL2 also brought body-color bumpers, 15-inch steel wheels (alloys were optional), and higher spec cloth on the seats (including the seatbacks - on SL and SL1 the seatbacks were vinyl). SL2's could be optioned with power windows, locks, mirror (again, pass. side only), cruise control, air conditioning, sunroof, and leather seats. Anti-lock brakes were available as an option as well, which brought along rear disc brakes.


title: Saturn S series

text: For the 1995 model year, the seatbelts were changed from the power passive restraint type to the conventional 3-point type. The interior of the vehicle was redesigned with a new dashboard and the addition of a front passenger's airbag. The center console was updated as well, adding previously absent cup holders. Also for 1995, the SOHC (LK0) engine was given MPFI to create the L24 engine.


title: Saturn S series

text: The S-series had a fuel tank, which means that both cars got around on a single tank based on average of . Owners of the base model typically report real-world fuel mileage of about 38–41  mpg (6.2–5.7 L/100 km; 46–49 mpg) on the highway with the manual transmission.


title: Saturn S series

text: For the 1993 model year, a station wagon variant of the SL was added to the model lineup. This was offered in SW1 and SW2 trim levels. The station wagon used the same doors as the sedan, but the bodywork behind the C-pillar and the roof differed.


title: Saturn S series

text: The first generation Saturn SC coupes were made from 1990 until 1996. The first generation Saturn SC coupes were originally only available in one trim level which was the SC.


title: Saturn S series

text: The 1990-1992 Saturn SC featured a DOHC 1.9-liter "LL0" inline-four engine that was rated at . For the 1993 model year, the original regular SC coupe model was renamed as the SC2 and a new SC1 trim level was introduced. For the 1994 model year, the SC1 and the SC2 had both gotten revised power door locks and a recalibrated automatic transmission. The first generation SC2 had received a minor refresh in 1995 in which the lower front bumper and the vehicle's taillights were both updated. For the 1995 model year, both the SC1 and the SC2 had gotten a redesigned interior with a new redesigned dashboard with a front passenger's airbag.


title: Saturn S series

text: The first generation SC1 coupe featured a SOHC 1.9-liter "LKO" inline-four engine that was rated at . The SC1's engine was later upgraded to the L24 engine for the 1995 model year.


title: Saturn S series

text: The first generation Saturn SC1 coupes shared the same fixed headlight front fascia as the SL sedans and the SW station wagons, rather than the pop-up headlight design used on the SC2 and the original SC. The SC1 also lacked a rear trunk lid reflector and a rear stabilizer bar.


title: Saturn S series

text: For the 1994 model year, a highest-trim "SL3" model was planned. Saturn owner's manuals from this period made mention to the SL3- it would have featured an SC front end on an SL2 body, with all options as standard. An inline-six engine derived from the 1.9L was to be offered.


title: Saturn S series

text: The second generation SL sedans and SW station wagons were made from 1996 to 1999. They had both featured a completely redesigned exterior. The interior was mostly the same as on the first generation vehicles, while mechanically they went largely untouched. The redesigned second generation S-series went on sale in 1995 for the 1996 model year.


title: Saturn S series

text: A few minor changes were made for the 1998 model year S-series vehicles. Due to multiple complaints about the noise coming from the vehicle's trip odometer that had been in all of the Saturn S-series since 1995, had replaced with a new type of trip odometer in an effort to correct the problem. For the 1998 model year, a new cluster with a digital trip odometer had been introduced. Rear disc-brakes were no longer available as an option on the S series due to high costs for them as well as very little improvement in braking performance over the conventional rear drum-brakes setup.


title: Saturn S series

text: Beginning with all of the Saturn S-series vehicles that were made in late 1999 (sometimes referred to as 1999.5 models) had received improvements to both the SOHC and the DOHC engines in the S series. These changes included revised pistons, new connecting rods, and new crankshaft counterweights in the engine as well. The Twin Cam cylinder head had now featured a new roller-rocker setup with hydraulic tappets and roller cams replacing the conventional bucket lifter setup of the previous engine in the S series.


title: Saturn S series

text: Also introduced for the 1999 model year S-series vehicles that were sold in California was a different type of exhaust manifold that housed an upstream catalytic converter (this converter had heated up much faster than the conventional unit, and it had also decreased exhaust emissions faster as well), and it also had provisions for an air-injection reaction system (This had injected fresh air into the exhaust to reduce hydrocarbons during the startup of the vehicle, as it would help the oxygen sensors and catalytic converters reach their operating temperatures faster). These vehicles were made to meet the all-new CARB ULEV standards for the 1999 model year.


title: Saturn S series

text: The second generation SC coupes were made from 1997 until 2002. The second generation SC coupes had also moved to the longer wheelbase that the SL sedans and the SW station wagons had used, resulting in an equal wheelbase length across all S-series models. The redesign had resulted in a more curved look for the SC coupes, which gave a slight increase in the vehicle's interior room/space, as well as a completely redesigned exterior of the vehicle itself. For the 1999 model year, a front-opening clamshell door was added to the driver's side of the vehicle. Even though this door on the driver's side of the vehicle had allowed easier access into the vehicle's rear seat, the driver's seat in the vehicle was also able to slide forward to allow easy access to the vehicle's rear seat as well. As a clamshell door, the rear driver's side door could not open unless the front door was open, because the door handle was on the inside of the door itself. Like the first generation SC coupes, the SC1 model lacked a rear sway bar.


title: Saturn S series

text: In 1999 for the 2000 model year, the Saturn S-series had been redesigned for the final time before being discontinued in 2002. This resulted in the third generation Saturn S-series.


title: Saturn S series

text: The exterior of the Saturn SL sedans received new body panels from the belt-line down. The rear end of the SL sedans received a redesigned applique on the trunk, and the headlights of the SL sedans had received orange turn signal indicators.


title: Saturn S series

text: The interior of all the Saturn S-series models received a completely redesigned dashboard, center console, and steering wheel, but the rest of the interiors were mostly unchanged. The SL2, SW2, and SC2 got the storage compartment with a sliding armrest in the center console as standard, whereas the SL1, SW1, and SC1 did not.


title: Saturn S series

text: Like the 1999 model year SL sedans and the 1999 model year SW station wagons that were made in late in 1999, the 2000 model year SL sedans and the 2000 model year SW station wagons had also included a digital trip odometer, which did not cause any issues like the analog trip odometers that were used in the 1991-early 1999 model year S-series vehicles.


title: Saturn S series

text: The third generation Saturn S-series was also the first Saturn to use the body control module (BCM), and the powertrain control module (PCM) systems in tandem with each other. In the third generation Saturn S-series models, the PCM system was used strictly for the vehicle's transmission and engine, whereas the BCM system was used strictly for the vehicle's interior functions such as the digital trip odometer and speedometer.


title: Saturn S series

text: Beginning with the 2001 model year, side curtain airbags became available as an optional feature. The optional side curtain airbags were only available on the 2001 to 2002 model Saturn SL1 and SL2 sedans.


title: Saturn S series

text: The third generation of Saturn SC continued to be available in SC1 and SC2 models. While retaining the previous generation's bodywork, it was facelifted with redesigned fascias front and rear, as well as new headlamps and tail lamps. The front fenders and door panels were also changed, continuing the character line all the way down to the fog light beneath the front bumper. A PCM and BCM were added. A new GT trim package had become available for the Saturn SC coupes for the 2001 model year, along with the option of American Racing Wheels that was only available on the GT version of the Saturn SC coupes. A rear spoiler on the vehicle's rear trunk lid was also made available for the 2001 to 2002 model year Saturn SC GT coupes.


title: Saturn S series

text: A special Homecoming edition of the SL2 was released for 1994. It had special Pearl White paint (a "silver-tint" pearl, shared with Cadillac models of this year), black Saturn emblems, spoiler, "teardrop" wheels, anti-lock four-wheel disc brakes, grey leather/cloth interior, rear headrests, fog lamps, and power locks and windows. Options included a sunroof, CD player, and the 4-speed automatic with traction control.


title: Saturn S series

text: In 1998 and 1999, prospective buyers of a red or white SC2 had the option of purchasing the "Black Top Coupe Package" for $225.00 (US). The models were referred to as the "Red Hot Coupe" or "White Hot Coupe", based on the exterior color. The package came with a black roof panel, black outside rearview mirrors, black emblems, white face gauges and black accented teardrop wheels. These are extremely rare.


title: Saturn S series

text: In 1999, a second Homecoming Edition was produced in a special "Mint Color" with tan leather interior, special off-white gauge faceplates, and black Saturn badges to commemorate the second "Homecoming" visit to the Spring Hill, Tennessee manufacturing facility. The 1999 Homecoming Edition also had the same features offered as the 1994 Homecoming Edition.


title: Saturn S series

text: In 2001, a special yellow SC2 coupé model was also built. The model was officially named "Limited Edition", but soon became known as the "Bumblebee Edition". 99 were produced, each with a certificate of authenticity. The "Bumblebee Edition" included embroidered headrests, black leather interior with yellow leather inserts on the seats and door panels, black roof and mirrors, number designation inside the fuel filler door, and a certificate of authenticity. These are not to be confused with the regular issue Yellow Sport Coupe.


title: Saturn S series

text: For the 2001 model year only, a special edition of the Saturn SL2 sedan that was called the Saturn SL2 10th Anniversary Edition (also known as the Silver Anniversary Edition) was made available. The Saturn SL2 10th Anniversary Edition had included several upscale features that were not available on any other Saturn S-series vehicles like power windows, leather interior, standard side curtain airbags, and several other upscale features. The Saturn SL2 10th Anniversary Edition also had "Saturn 10th Anniversary" stitched onto the front seat adjustable leather headrests. The Saturn SL2 10th Anniversary Edition had also featured a rear spoiler on the vehicle's rear trunk lid.


title: Saturn S series

text: In addition to the above-mentioned "Special Edition" Saturns; there was also the 1999–2001 Saturn SWP "Postal" station wagon that were produced (450 in 1999), intended to be marketed to rural route mail carriers. These station wagons were right-hand-drive vehicles.


title: Saturn S series

text: There were also a limited number of Saturns that were exported to Japan as right-hand-drive vehicles circa between 1997 and 2000 (during the lifetime of the second-generation model). Aside from having the steering wheel on the other side, Japanese market Saturns were also fitted with slightly different light units. The rear lamps had amber turn signals and the front indicators were mounted closer to the corners rather than inboard. The SL and SW's engine displacement and dimensions were within the Japanese government's dimension regulations and engine tax brackets (as only 1.9-liter engines were offered for the second-generation models), although the SC did not meet the dimension regulations and would have been subjected to annual taxes.


title: Saturn S series

text: Saturn faced a hard time in Japan, where it played directly into the strengths of the Japanese manufacturers, comparing unfavorably with better-priced and more competent Japanese compact cars. The interior, especially, received criticism. A mere 602 units were sold in Saturn's first year in Japan (April to December 1997).


title: Saturn S series

text: Another problem was that Japanese car dealers have always excelled at customer service; this meant that Saturn's main sales argument in the United States was meaningless in the Japanese market. The introduction of Saturn was also ill-timed, as the economy was in the midst of a recession due to the effects of the 1980s "bubble economy". As the Japanese had less money to spend on "luxury goods", as imported products are regarded, Saturn found very few buyers.


title: Saturn S series

text: The 1995 Saturn SL was the most stolen vehicle in 2003, while the 1994 SL took third place in CCC Information Services's 2003 most stolen vehicle report. According to the Lynnwood, Washington police department, when use of the key wears on the door and ignition mechanisms, a filed blank key can be used to open the door and start the engine.


title: Saturn S series

text: Saturn SC's competed in the SCCA World Challenge in the 1990s, winning several races from 1995 to 1997.


title: Saturn S series

text: Several S-series cars have been used as rally race cars. S-Series cars are also popular in dirt oval racing and autocross.