title: Davanagere

text: Davanagere was selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Central government's Smart Cities Mission. It was among the first 20 towns to be developed under the mission by Ministry of Urban Development. According to 2020 human living index, it was selected as the top 9th most livable city under 10 million population in India.


title: Davanagere

text: Davangere has been a pioneer in municipal administration with the city attaining the status of a municipality as early as 1870. The "Imperial Gazetteer of India" (1911) says that the receipts and expenditure of the municipality, during the ten years ending 1901, averaged Rs 14,200 and Rs 12,600 respectively. The civic administration of the city was managed by the "Nagarasabhe", before it was established as a municipality on 7 August 1951. It now has the status of a City Corporation, which was upgraded on 6 January 2007. It is headed by a Mayor, assisted by Commissioners and council members. The city is divided into 45 wards, and the council members (corporators) are elected by the people of the city.


title: Davanagere

text: Davanagere is the "Heart of Karnataka". Davanagere is surrounded from Chitradurga, Vijayanagara, Shimoga, Chikmagalur and Haveri districts. Davanagere is at the centre of Karnataka, 14°28' N latitude, 75°59' longitude and above sea level. Davanagere District receives average annual rainfall of .


title: Davanagere

text: Davanagere lies in the semi arid region. The district is bounded by Shimoga (Malenadu) Area of Hills, Haveri, Chitradurga, Chikmagalur and Vijayanagara districts. The southern and western parts of the district are irrigated by the waters of the Bhadra reservoir. It has the Asia's 2nd largest irrigation tank called Sulekere (shanthi sagara) which is a major water source for farmers in the district.


title: Davanagere

text: census, Davanagere city had a population of 435,125. Males constitute 52% of the population, and females 48%. Davanagere has an average literacy rate of 85%, higher than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy is 89% and, female literacy is 81%. In Davanagere, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.


title: Davanagere

text: Davangere is well-connected by road to Bangalore, Chitradurga, Dharwad, Pune, Goa, Mangalore, Mysore and Chennai through NH 48 (previously National Highway 4).


title: Davanagere

text: Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation, has a divisional office situated in Davanagere City. The city is well-connected to Bengaluru and other cities in the state by KSRTC buses. Many privately operated buses offer overnight services to other places within the state. The city's railway station comes under South Western Railway zone and was constructed during the British period and has been renovated recently. The station code is DVG. The railway station is quite conveniently located in the centre of the city. Regular train services are available to travel towards Bengaluru, Hubli and Mysore.


title: Davanagere

text: The nearest domestic airport to Davanagere is Hubballi Airport (IATA:HBX), which is from the city and the nearest International airport is Mangalore International Airport. The ubiquitous Autorickshaws are the backbone for travelling within the city. The city bus services are operated by both private as well as state owned buses.


title: Frau Holle

text: "Frau Holle" ( ; also known as "Mother Holle", "Mother Hulda" or "Old Mother Frost") is a German fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm in "Children's and Household Tales" in 1812 (KHM 24). It is of Aarne-Thompson type 480.


title: Frau Holle

text: Frau Holle (also known in various regions as Holla, Holda, Perchta, Berchta, Berta, or Bertha) was initially a pre-Christian female legendary figure who survived in popular belief well into the 19th century.


title: Frau Holle

text: The name may be cognate of the Scandinavian creature known as the "Hulder". Jacob Grimm made an attempt to establish her as a Germanic goddess.


title: Frau Holle

text: The name is thought to originate from German "huld" ("gracious, friendly, sympathetic, grateful" found in "hold sein", "huldigen"), Middle High German "hulde", Old High German "huldī" ("friendliness"). Cognate with Danish and Swedish "huld" ("fair, kindly, gracious") or 'hyld' ("secret, hidden"), Icelandic "hollur" ("faithful, dedicated, loyal"), Middle English "hold", "holde", Old English "hold" ("gracious, friendly, kind, favorable, true, faithful, loyal, devout, acceptable, pleasant"), from Proto-Germanic "hulþaz" ("favourable, gracious, loyal"), from Proto-Indo-European "*kel-" ("to tend, incline, bend, tip").


title: Frau Holle

text: The name Hludana is found in five Latin inscriptions: three from the lower Rhine ("Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum" XIII 8611, 8723, 8661), one from Münstereifel () and one from Beetgum, Frisia () all dating from 197 AD-235 AD. Many attempts have been made to interpret this name.


title: Frau Holle

text: Marija Gimbutas names Hulda (or Holda, Holla, Holle) as having originally been an ancient Germanic supreme goddess who predates most of the Germanic pantheon, including deities such as Odin, Thor, Freya, and Loki, continuing traditions of pre-Indo-European Neolithic Europe.


title: Frau Holle

text: As Christianity slowly replaced Germanic paganism during the Early Middle Ages, many of the old customs were gradually lost or assimilated into Christian tradition. By the end of the High Middle Ages, Germanic paganism was almost completely marginalized and blended into rural folklore, in which the character of Frau Hulda eventually survived.


title: Frau Holle

text: In Germanic pre-Christian folklore, "Hulda", "Holda", "Holle", and "Holla" were all names to denote a single being. Hulda is also related to the Germanic figure of Perchta. She dwells at the bottom of a well, rides a wagon, and first taught the craft of making linen from flax. According to Erika Timm, Perchta emerged from an amalgamation of Germanic and pre-Germanic, probably Celtic, traditions of the Alpine regions after the Migration Period in the Early Middle Ages.


title: Frau Holle

text: Holle is the goddess to whom children who died as infants go, and alternatively known as both the "Dunkle Großmutter" (Dark Grandmother) and the "Weisse Frau" (White Lady), elements which are more typically associated with the Grimms' fairy tale as well.


title: Frau Holle

text: Frau Holle's festival is in the middle of winter, the time when humans retreat indoors from the cold. It may be of significance that the Twelve Days of Christmas were originally the "Zwölften" ("the Twelve"), which like the same period in the Celtic calendar were an intercalary period during which the dead were thought to roam abroad.


title: Frau Holle

text: Holda's connection to the spirit world through the magic of spinning and weaving has associated her with witchcraft in Catholic German folklore. She was considered to ride with witches on distaffs, which closely resemble the brooms that witches are thought to ride. Likewise, Holda was often identified with Diana in old church documents. As early as the beginning of the 11th century she appears to have been known as the leader of women, and of female nocturnal spirits, which "in common parlance are called "Hulden" from "Holda"". These women would leave their houses in spirit, going "out through closed doors in the silence of the night, leaving their sleeping husbands behind". They would travel vast distances through the sky, to great feasts, or to battles amongst the clouds.


title: Frau Holle

text: The 9th century "Canon Episcopi" censures women who claim to have ridden with a "crowd of demons". Burchard's later recension of the same text expands on this in a section titled "De arte magica":


title: Frau Holle

text: Have you believed there is some female, whom the stupid vulgar call Holda [in some manuscripts "strigam Holdam", the witch Holda], who is able to do a certain thing, such that those deceived by the devil affirm themselves by necessity and by command to be required to do, that is, with a crowd of demons transformed into the likeness of women, on fixed nights to be required to ride upon certain beasts, and to themselves be numbered in their company? If you have performed participation in this unbelief, you are required to do penance for one year on designated fast-days.


title: Frau Holle

text: Later canonical and church documents make her synonymous with Diana, Herodias, Bertha, Richella, and Abundia. Ginzburg (1990) has identified similar beliefs existing throughout Europe for over 1,000 years, whereby men and women were thought to leave their bodies in spirit and follow a goddess variously called Holda, Diana, Herodias, Signora Oriente, Richella, Arada, and Perchta. He also identifies strong morphological similarities with the earlier goddesses Hecate / Artemis, Artio, the Matres of Engyon, the Matronae, and Epona, as well as figures from fairy-tales, such as Cinderella.


title: Frau Holle

text: A 16th century fable recorded by Erasmus Alberus speaks of "an army of women" with sickles in hand sent by Frau Hulda. Thomas Reinesius in the 17th century speaks of Werra of the Voigtland and her "crowd of maenads."


title: Frau Holle

text: Frau Holle figures in some pre-Christian Alpine traditions that have survived to modern times. During the Christmas period in the alpine regions of Germany, Austria and northern Switzerland, wild masked processions are still held in a number of towns, impersonating Holda, Perchta, or related beings, and the wild hunt. Vivid visual descriptions of her may allude to a popular costumed portrayal, perhaps as part of a seasonal festival or holiday drama.


title: Frau Holle

text: Here cometh up Dame Hulde with the snout, to wit, nature, and goeth about to gainstay her God and give him the lie, hangeth her old ragfair about her, the straw-harness; then falls to work and scrapes it featly on her fiddle. — M. Luther (1522)


title: Frau Holle

text: Grimm based his theory of Holda on what he took to be the earliest references to her: An 11th century interpolation to the "Canon Episcopi" by Burchard of Worms, and pre-Christian Roman inscriptions to Hludana that he tentatively linked to the same divinity. There were early challenges to connecting this figure with a pagan goddess, since her earliest definite appearance links her with the Virgin Mary, commonly called the "Queen of Heaven": An early-13th century text listing superstitions states that "In the night of Christ's Nativity they set the table for the Queen of Heaven, whom the people call Frau Holda, that she might help them". Lotte Motz and Ginzburg both conclude that she is pre-Christian in origin, based on comparison with other remarkably similar figures and ritual observances spread throughout Europe.


title: Frau Holle

text: A pagan Holda received wide distribution in catalogs of superstitions and in sermons during the 15th century, and in the 16th, Martin Luther employed the image to personify the shortcomings of hostile Reason in theological contexts.


title: Frau Holle

text: In conclusion, Frau Holle is one of Germany's most durable female legendary figures and represents a pre-Christian deity who survived in popular belief and in the memory of common people well into the 19th century.


title: Frau Holle

text: Frau Gauden, also known as Frau Gode, Frau Gaur, Fru Goden, Frau Wohl, and Mutter Gauerken, is a being from the folklore of Mecklenburg. She is said to be cursed because she expressed to prefer eternally hunt rather than go to Heaven, and her daughters, who expressed the same desire, were transformed into small dogs who either pull her wagon or sled, or serve as hunting dogs. She visits the homes of humans during the Twelve Nights of Christmas and punishes the lazy while sometimes rewarding the virtuous or those who help her.


title: Frau Holle

text: The Grimms say Perchta or Berchta was known "precisely in those Upper German regions where Holda leaves off, in Swabia, in Alsace, in Switzerland, in Bavaria and Austria."


title: Frau Holle

text: According to Jacob Grimm (1882), Perchta was spoken of in Old High German in the 10th century as Frau Berchta and thought to be a white-robed female spirit. She was known as a goddess who oversaw spinning and weaving, like myths of Holda in Continental German regions. He believes she was the feminine equivalent of Berchtold, and she was sometimes the leader of the wild hunt.


title: Frau Holle

text: According to Erika Timm, Perchta emerged from an amalgamation of Germanic and pre-Germanic, probably Celtic, traditions of the Alpine regions after the Migration Period in the Early Middle Ages.


title: Frau Holle

text: The Spillaholle (Silesian German also Spillahulle, Spillahole, Spillahôle, Spiellahole; Standard German: Spindelholle; English translation: "spindle Holle") is a legendary creature exclusively found in German folklore of formerly German Silesia including Austrian Silesia. A similar being is found in folktales of formerly German-speaking Bohemia. The Spillaholle is a Silesian variant of female German legendary creatures such as Hulda (Frau Holle) or Perchta. In Bohemia, she is simply known as Frau Holle ("Mrs. Holle"). Other Silesian names are Satzemsuse, Mickadrulle, and Mickatrulle.


title: Frau Holle

text: The Spindelholle is a sallow old woman with short arms and legs, sometimes directly called a hag. She appears hooded (characterized by the name Popelhole or Popelhôle; Standard German: Popelholle; English translation: "hooded Holle") or wearing ragged clothing (as shown by the name variant Zumpeldrulle or Zompeldroll). She also can be seen in old Franconian dress or generally shaped as a pelt sleeve. The Bohemian Frau Holle is a small and ugly old woman which carries a batch of stinging nettles.


title: Frau Holle

text: The main activity of the Spillaholle is connected with spinning, for she is the overseer of spinning taboos and a bogey used for spinning children. Therefore, a broad variety of names for the Spillaholle shows connection to spindles, such as Spilladrulle, Spillagritte, Spillmarthe, Spillalutsche or Spellalutsche.


title: Frau Holle

text: The appearance of the Spillaholle is mainly during the winter months, especially during Advent, Christmas or during the "Zwölften" (twelve nights of Christmas). She goes from house to house to see if the children and spinsters are spinning diligently, looking through the windows or even all gaps in the house wall. When they are still spinning during evening and night, then there will be slight or even severe punishments.


title: Frau Holle

text: When spinsters are not finished with their spinning, then the Satzemsuse will sit in their lap during spinning or even give them igneous spindles instead of normal ones. The Spillaholle takes the lazy spinsters away. Frau Holle beats them with a batch of stinging nettles. If all the tow is already spun, then there will not only be no punishment, even one of the nettles will be left in the house to ward the house of misfortune for the whole coming year. Additionally, in Bohemia all spinning is banned on the night of St. Thomas. If a spinster is working anyway, she will be punished by Frau Holle.


title: Frau Holle

text: To children spinning in the night the Spindelholle says: ""Verzage nicht, verzage nicht, warum spinnst du die Zahl am Tage nicht?"" (Do not quail, do not quail, why do you not spin the number at day?) Then she kills the children or takes them away. That this will not happen the children will be warned by their parents when at evening the wind is howling in the stove: ""Die Spillagritte kommt!"" (The Spillagritte comes!), or they will have to listen to the following rhyme:


title: Frau Holle

text: The Spillaholle also scares people to death or walks abroad at forest tracks. A less malicious activity of her is the causation of snow, just like it is known from the standard Frau Holle as well. When the Spillaholle shakes her bed, then it will snow.


title: Frau Holle

text: The Spindelholle's home lies beneath a rock in the woods, known as the "Spillalutschenstein" ("Spillalutsche's stone"). At night, seven lights can be seen above the "Spillalutschenstein". Normally, the Spillaholle appears solitarily, but as Popelhole, she is wed to the Popelmann, a German Silesian Bogeyman. As Satzemsuse she has companions which are the Satzemkater ("Kater" = tomcat), the Satzemziege ("Ziege" = goat) and the Rilpen, a collectivity of wood sprites. The Bohemian Frau Holle is accompanied by small deformed wights which she orders to beat outrageous spinsters with rods.


title: Frau Holle

text: The tale was published by the Brothers Grimm in the first edition of "Kinder- und Hausmärchen", published in 1812. Their source was Wilhelm Grimm's friend and future wife Dortchen Wild. Some details were added in the second edition (1819), most notably rooster's greetings, based upon the account of Georg August Friedrich Goldmann from Hanover.


title: Frau Holle

text: It is still a common expression in Hesse, Southern parts of the Netherlands and beyond to say "Hulda is making her bed" when it is snowing, that is, she shakes her bed and out comes snow from heaven. Like many other tales collected by the Brothers Grimm, the story of Frau Holle was told to teach a moral. In this case, it is that hard work is rewarded and laziness is punished.


title: Frau Holle

text: A rich widow lived with her daughter and her stepdaughter. The widow favored her younger biological daughter, allowing her to become spoiled and idle while her older stepdaughter was left to do all the work. Every day, the stepdaughter would sit outside the cottage and spin beside the well.


title: Frau Holle

text: One day, she pricked her finger on the point of the spindle. As she leaned over the well to wash the blood away, the spindle fell from her hand and sank out of sight. The stepdaughter feared that she would be punished for losing the spindle, and in panic she leapt into the well after it.


title: Frau Holle

text: The girl found herself in a meadow, where she came upon an oven full of bread. The bread asked to be taken out before it burned. With a baker's peel, she took all the loaves out and then walked on. Then she came to an apple tree that asked that its apples be harvested. So she did so and gathered them into a pile before continuing on her way. Finally, she came to a small house of an old woman, who offered to allow the girl to stay if she would help with the housework.


title: Frau Holle

text: The woman identified herself as Frau Holle, and cautioned the girl to shake the featherbed pillows and coverlet well when she made the bed, as that would make it snow in the girl's world. The girl agreed to take service with Frau Holle, and took care to always shake the featherbed until the feathers flew about like snowflakes.


title: Frau Holle

text: After a time, the girl became homesick and told Frau Holle that it was time for her to return home. Frau Holle had been impressed by the girl's kindness and hard work so much that, when she escorted the girl to the gate, a shower of gold fell upon the girl. She also gave her the spindle which had fallen into the well. With that, the gate was closed and the girl found herself back not far from her mother's house.


title: Frau Holle

text: Her mother wished the same good fortune for her biological daughter. She also set her to sit by the well and spin, but the girl deliberately threw the spindle into the well before jumping in herself. She too came to the oven, but would not assist the bread nor would she help the apple tree. When she came to Frau Holle's house, she likewise took service there. She then fell into her lazy careless ways. Frau Holle soon dismissed her. As the lazy girl stood at the gate, a kettle of pitch spilled over her. "That is what you have earned" said Frau Holle and closed the gate.


title: Frau Holle

text: Other versions describe the first girl having a piece of gold fall from her lips every time she speaks, whilst the second has a toad fall from her lips every time she speaks as depicted in "Diamonds and Toads".


title: Frau Holle

text: Like many of the other tales collected by the Grimm brothers, "Frau Holle" personifies good behavior and bad, and the appropriate reward meted out for each. Even so, it also exhibits a number of contrasts with other stories. Typically, the magical beings who appear in the tales must enter the real world and appear to the protagonists before any intercession can take place. Moreover, these beings are almost always anonymous and therefore difficult to correlate with figures in pre-Christian mythology. By contrast, Frau Holle resides somewhere above the Earth, and the protagonists must go to her, paradoxically by diving into a spring. When she makes her bed, loose feathers are 'stirred up' and fall to earth as snow, and so this fairy tale is an origin myth as well. Comparison between Frau Holle and a weather or earth goddess is inevitable. Jakob Grimm notes that Thunar (Thor) makes rain in a similar fashion, implying for Frau Holle a very high rank in the pantheon.


title: Frau Holle

text: Though not unique in this respect, the Frau Holle story is also notable for the absence of class-related motifs such as palaces, halls to which one may or may not be invited, and the rise to the status of the nobility through marriage.


title: Frau Holle

text: According to the Aarne and Thompson classification system of fairy tales, "Mother Hulda" is a story of type 480, "The Kind and the Unkind Girls". Others of this type include "Shita-kiri Suzume", "Diamonds and Toads", "The Three Heads in the Well", "Father Frost", "The Three Little Men in the Wood", "The Enchanted Wreath", "The Old Witch", and "The Two Caskets". Literary variants include "The Three Fairies" and "Aurore and Aimée".


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The Sanctuary of Christ the King () is a Catholic monument and shrine dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ overlooking the city of Lisbon situated in Almada, in Portugal. It was inspired by the "Christ the Redeemer" statue of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, after the Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon visited that monument. The project was inaugurated on 17 May 1959. The giant statue was erected to express gratitude because the Portuguese were spared the direct destructive effects of World War II.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The construction of the Christ the King monument was approved in a Portuguese Episcopate conference, held in Fátima on 20 April 1940, as a plea to God to release Portugal from entering World War II and celebrate the 50th anniversary of the act of consecration of the world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. However, the idea had originated earlier on a visit of the Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro in 1934, soon after the inauguration of the statue of "Christ the Redeemer" in 1931.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: In 1941 the land which was used to construct the monument was acquired. In 1949 the cornerstone was finally placed on the site, and managed by the Portuguese Episcopate. Construction began in 1949 and took ten years to complete, funded and supported by Apostleship of Prayer members. Yet it was only in 1952 that the first construction started on the site; at that time the foundations of the monument were established by "Empresa de Construções OPCA". The final cost of the complex was of twenty million escudos (20 059 258$40).


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The inauguration of the complex officially began on 17 May 1959, and continued throughout the 20th century. On the 25th anniversary of the Shrine in 1984, the Chapel of Our Lady of Peace was first inaugurated. A new plan was approved to recondition the grounds of the Shrine (under the direction of Luiz Cunha and Domingos Ávila Gomes) and also to build a "Sanctuary", which included a rectory, a chapel, administration and meeting halls and exhibition galleries.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: When Pope Paul VI created the Roman Catholic Diocese of Setúbal on 16 July 1975, under the Papal bull "Studentes Nos", the Monument of Christ the King and the Seminary of Almada were still under the control of the Patriarchate of Lisbon. In June 1999 the site came under the authority of the Diocese of Setúbal, which immediately started to restore the monument. The municipal authority was responsible for public works, beginning in May 2001 to clean the area and reorganize the public spaces, under technical supervision of the School of Sciences and Technology of the Nova University of Lisbon. Following the restoration projects, the monument was reopened in a solemn ceremony on 1 February 2001. Due to its national importance, the Conference of Bishops determined that funds collected throughout the country on 23 November 2003 would be used for the restoration.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: In order to support pilgrimage to the site, in June 2004 new spaces in the Sanctuary building were inaugurated, including a dining room for 150 people and two segregated dormitories. This was followed on 17 May 2005, with the inauguration of a 150-person dining area and 80-person meeting hall, in addition to two segregated dormitories, dining room and kitchen.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: Improvements to the monument and sanctuary of Christ the King began in 2006. By 17 May of that year, the Chapel of Our Lady of Peace was inaugurated, under the supervision of architect João de Sousa Araújo. In the following year (17 May 2007), the Pope John XXIII hall was opened, containing eight oil paintings of the same architect, among them images from the encyclical "Pax in Terris" and a statue of the "Angel of Portugal". Similarly, the old high cross from the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima was donated to the Sanctuary of Christ the King, and unveiled on the same day. On 25 November 2005, the newly remodeled main sacristy in the monument's chapel, that featured the original statue of the monument by sculptor Francisco Franco, was reopened.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: On 17 May 2008, the Chapel of the Confidants of the Heart of Jesus, containing valuable reliquaries of Margaret Mary Alacoque, John Eudes, Faustina Kowalska and Mary of the Divine Heart was opened, along with the Ten Commandments in bronze, which were placed on the main face of the monument.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The inauguration of the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament (6 January 2009) witnessed the presentation of two paintings related to the revelations made by Margaret Mary Alacoque and another, which was placed above the tabernacle.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: Pope Benedict XVI over flew the shrine on the occasion of his apostolic visit to Portugal in May 2010.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The monument was erected on an isolated clifftop 133 m above the sea, overlooking the Tagus River left bank. It was constructed in the parish of Pragal, which was merged with the parishes of Almada, Cova da Piedade, Pragal e Cacilhas in 2013, into the municipality of Almada. It is the highest point in Almada, on a plateau dominated by the 25 de Abril Bridge, and close to the Estação Elevatória e Reservatório do Pragal. It is accessible from Lisbon by car (over the 25 de Abril Bridge east of the crossing), by train through station in Pragal and by ferry (the "Cacilheiro") over the Tagus, through the port of Cacilhas in Almada.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The monument consists of a trapezoidal pedestal of height, formed by four arches and a flat platform, supporting the image of Christ. Its base was designed by architect António Lino in the form of a gate, while the statue of "Christ the King" was designed by sculptor Francisco Franco de Sousa. The four arches of the pedestal are oriented in the directions of the compass rose. The figure of Christ, comparable to the "Christ the Redeemer" statue in Rio de Janeiro, forms a cross, with its arms extended out facing the city of Lisbon, as if to embrace the city. Due to issues of security and safety, the monument was sufficiently distanced from the cliffs on which it predominates.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: At the base of the statue is the observation deck, at , which enables panoramic views of the city of Lisbon, the Tagus River and the 25 de Abril Bridge.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: Under the statue, occupying a fifth of the pedestal's height is the Chapel of Our Lady of Peace ("Nossa Senhora da Paz") with an entrance from the northern facade. This space is distinctly different with its masonry stone, the northern facade surmounted by cross and the other facades containing narrow doors. Inside two of the pillars is an elevator system with access to the terrace; the statue is 79.30 metres high, and overlooks the Tagus (192 metres above the river).


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: To the south of the monument is the Sanctuary building, comprising a rectangular body of three wings, with facades covered with masonry brick. In 1987 there was a plan to construct 18 different buildings and spaces around the monument (including a restaurant, lookouts, a commercial complex, a parking area and a sanctuary), of which only a few of these structures were built. The most notable was the construction of the visitors' centre and the "Sanctuary" building.


title: Christ the King (Almada)

text: The interior of the monument is divided into various spaces, among them a library, a bar, two halls and the main chapel. Two religious spaces were dedicated, one to the Chapel of Our Lady of Peace () and the other to the Confidants of Jesus (). There are relics exposed for public veneration (of Margaret Mary Alacoque, John Eudes, Faustina Kowalska and Mary of the Divine Heart), relating to the revelations of the "Sacred Heart of Jesus").


title: Volvo S70

text: The Volvo S70 is a compact executive car produced by Volvo Cars from 1996 to 2000. The S70 was essentially a facelifted 850 saloon. The S70 was replaced with the Volvo S60.


title: Volvo S70

text: Introduced in Europe in late 1996 for the 1997 model year and later in the U.S. for the 1998 model year, the Volvo S70 was an updated version of the Volvo 850 saloon. The S70's body style was overall more rounded compared to its predecessor. Changes included a redesigned front end with new lights, fully colour-coded bumpers and side trim, and clear indicator lenses for the rear lights, as well as a redesigned interior. According to Volvo, a total of 1800 changes were made.


title: Volvo S70

text: Standard equipment was improved with remote central locking, heated & electrically adjustable mirrors, 4 airbags, power brakes with ABS and power windows being standard on every car. Trim levels varied for each market as did the equipment levels of the most basic trims. In the United States, the badging denoted the engine variant and to some extent the equipment level, whereas in Europe engine and options could be chosen individually. On all markets more powerful versions usually received better or upgraded standard equipment. The "T5" and "R" were the series high-performance models.


title: Volvo S70

text: For model year 1999 a minor facelift was introduced. Apart from very minor cosmetic changes, such as a slightly different Volvo badge on the front grille and US models now being equipped with side markers on the front fenders, most changes were done to the mechanicals. Volvo introduced its second generation side airbag which increased in volume to offer better protection. WHIPS, Volvo's system to minimize whiplash injuries, was also introduced as part of the standard equipment. New engine management systems with drive-by-wire replaced the mechanical throttle on all turbo engines as well as bringing with them an upgraded traction control. Now including throttle as well as brake intervention it was renamed "STC". The ABS was upgraded from a three-channel to a four-channel system, all-wheel drive models received thicker rear discs and redesigned rear calipers. All automatic transmissions were now equipped with adaptive shift-logic, replacing the previous 3-mode selection. A starter interlock was added to models with manual transmissions.


title: Volvo S70

text: For model year 2000 a new 5-speed automatic transmission with adaptive shift-logic was introduced. It was only available on non turbo front-wheel drive models. The 10V engine variants were dropped and replaced by detuned 20V versions, drive-by-wire throttle was now also introduced for non turbo models.


title: Volvo S70

text: With the S70, Volvo continued to offer a mid-size saloon. With a variety of models and options it was well received but was outsold by its estate variant the V70.


title: Volvo S70

text: With engines choices ranging from 126PS to 250PS, and a diesel engine finally being available for the saloon as well as the "Bi-Fuel," there was something for everyone. Market adjustments meant that outside of Europe no TDI or "Bi-Fuel" models were available.


title: Volvo S70

text: Specialised versions for the fleet market, such as a taxi and police variant, were now available from the factory. Notable uses of police S70's were by some British highway patrol forces and even some North American police forces.


title: Volvo S70

text: From model year 1998 to 2000 a S70 AWD was offered. It used the same setup as the V70 AWD, with the exception of the rear self-leveling suspension being an option rather than a standard feature. The only available engine was the 193 PS 2.4 L turbo with either a 4-speed automatic or 5-speed manual transmission.


title: Volvo S70

text: An S70 'R' version was introduced in 1997 for the 1998 model year and offered the highest performance of all S70 models. The engine was rated at and for models fitted with a five-speed manual gearbox and limited slip differential. Models fitted with a four-speed automatic gearbox were rated at and . Only FWD versions were produced. The model was only available in Europe and few select other countries.


title: Volvo S70

text: The S70 R came with a unique leather/Alcantara interior that featured diamond stitching on the seats. Further styling touches were a special front bumper, blue gauge faces for the instrument cluster, the option to have the car in a "R" specific colour and a choice of unique 16" or 17" alloy wheels. Standard equipment was substantially upgraded over normal models with few options available such as a trunk mounted CD-changer, RTI navigation system or an upgraded stereo system. Production ended with the 1998 model year.


title: Bleach (season 15)

text: The fifteenth season of the "Bleach" anime series is known as . It is directed by Noriyuki Abe, and produced by TV Tokyo, Dentsu and Studio Pierrot. The season's twenty-six episodes are based on the "Bleach" manga series by Tite Kubo, but follow original storylines exclusive to the anime. In this arc, Soul Reaper Ichigo Kurosaki and his friends investigate a series of strange events in the Soul Society where numerous Soul Reapers have disappeared without a trace, with a seemingly large conspiracy at work. As this takes place, Ichigo notices that he loses his power after defeating Sōsuke Aizen.


title: Bleach (season 15)

text: The season aired from April to October 2011. Aniplex collected it in six DVD volumes between February 22 and July 25, 2012. The English adaptation of the "Bleach" anime is licensed by Viz Media, and this season started airing on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block on October 6, 2013 and ended on April 27, 2014.


title: Bleach (season 15)

text: The episodes of this season uses three pieces of theme music. The single opening theme is "BLUE" by ViViD. The first ending theme, by fumika is used from episode 317 to 329. The second ending theme, "Haruka Kanata" by UNLIMITS is used from episodes 330 to 342.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge is a combined road and railway bridge over the Mississippi River connecting the cities of St. Louis, Missouri and East St. Louis, Illinois. It is located on the St. Louis riverfront between Laclede's Landing, to the north, and the grounds of the Gateway Arch, to the south. The bridge is named for its designer and builder, James Buchanan Eads. Work on the bridge began in 1867, and it was completed in 1874. The Eads Bridge was the first bridge across the Mississippi south of the Missouri River. Earlier bridges were located north of the Missouri, where the Mississippi is smaller. None of the earlier bridges survive, which means that the Eads Bridge is also the oldest bridge on the river.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In order to accommodate the massive size and strength of the Mississippi River, the Eads Bridge required a number of engineering feats. Perhaps most importantly, due to the use of steel by Andrew Carnegie’s Keystone Bridge Company, it was the first large-scale use of steel as a structural material and initiated the shift from wrought-iron to steel as the default material for large structures. Its foundations were the deepest underwater constructions at the time, at more than 100 feet below water level. They were installed using pneumatic caissons, a pioneering application of caisson technology in the United States and, at the time, by far the largest caissons ever built. Its center arch was the longest rigid span ever built at the time, at 520 feet. The method of constructing the arches, in which they were suspended from temporary wooden towers, is sometimes cited as the first use of the "cantilever principle" for a large bridge. These engineering principles were used for later bridges, including the Brooklyn Bridge, which began construction in 1870.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge became a famous image of the city of St. Louis, from the time of its erection until 1965 when the Gateway Arch was completed. The highway deck was closed to automobiles from 1991 to 2003, but has been restored and now carries both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. It connects Washington Avenue in St. Louis, Missouri with Riverpark Drive and, eventually, East Broadway, both in East St. Louis, Illinois. The former railroad deck now carries the St. Louis MetroLink light rail system, providing service between St Louis and communities on the Illinois side of the river.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The bridge is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark. As of April 2014, it carries about 8,100 vehicles daily, down 3,000 since the Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge opened in February 2014.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge was built by the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge Company, with the Keystone Bridge Company, founded in 1865 by Andrew Carnegie, serving as subcontractor for steel superstructure erection.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Because of the increased reach of newly constructed railroads, river shipping trade had declined in importance compared to the antebellum years. Chicago was fast gaining as the center of commerce in the West. The bridge was conceived as a solution for St. Louis to regain eminence by connecting railroad and vehicle transportation across the river. Although he had no prior experience in bridge building, James Eads was chosen as chief engineer for the bridge.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In an attempt to secure their future, steamboat interests successfully lobbied to place restrictions on bridge construction, requiring spans and heights previously unheard of. This was ostensibly to maintain sufficient operating room for steamboats beneath the bridge's base for the then foreseeable future. The unproclaimed purpose was to require a bridge so grand and lofty that it was impossible to erect according to conventional building techniques. The steamboat parties planned to prevent any structure from being built, in order to ensure continued dependence on river traffic to sustain commerce in the region.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Such a bridge required a radical design solution. The Mississippi River's strong current was almost and the builders had to battle ice floes in the winter. The ribbed arch had been a known construction technique for centuries. The triple span, tubular metallic arch construction was supported by two shore abutments and two mid-river piers. Four pairs of arches per span (upper and lower) were set apart, supporting an upper deck for vehicular traffic and a lower deck for rail traffic.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Construction involved varied and confusing design elements and pressures. State and federal charters precluded suspension or draw bridges, or wood construction. There were constraints on span size and the height above the water line. The location required reconciling differences in heights - from the low Illinois floodplain of the east bank of the river to the high Missouri cliff on the west bank. The bedrock could only be reached by deep drilling, as it was below water level on the Illinois side and below on the Missouri side.


title: Eads Bridge

text: These pressures resulted in a bridge noted as innovative for precision and accuracy of construction and quality control. This was the first use of structural alloy steel in a major building construction, through use of cast chromium steel components – even though as 1988 tests showed, the amount of chromium was too low to influence the strength, and the steel in general wouldn't be considered suitable for any structural application in modern times. The completed bridge also relied on significant—and unknown—amounts of wrought iron. Eads argued that the great compressive strength of steel was ideal for use in the upright arch design. His decision resulted from a curious combination of chance and necessity, due to the insufficient strength of alternative material choices.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The particular physical difficulties of the site stimulated interesting solutions to construction problems. The deep caissons used for pier and abutment construction signaled a new chapter in civil engineering. Piers were sunk almost below the river's surface. Unable to construct falsework to erect the arches, because they would obstruct river traffic, Eads's engineers devised a cantilevered rigging system to close the arches.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Masonry piers were built to heights of almost , about the height of a ten-story building. About of that span was driven through the sandy riverbed until it hit bedrock. Eads implemented a building method that he had observed in Europe, whereby masonry was set atop a metal chamber filled with compressed air. Stone was added to the chamber, which caused the caisson to sink. Workers dove into the caisson to shovel sand into a pump that shot it out into the air so the masonry could be sunk into the riverbed. Numerous workers who operated in the Eads Bridge caissons, still among the deepest ever sunk, suffered from "caisson disease" (also known as "the bends" or decompression sickness). Fifteen workers died, two other workers were permanently disabled, and 77 were severely afflicted.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge was recognized as an innovative and exciting achievement. Eads secured 47 patents during his lifetime, many of which were taken out for parts of the bridge's structure and devices for its construction. President Ulysses S. Grant dedicated the bridge on July 4, 1874, and General William T. Sherman drove the gold spike completing construction. After completion, 14 locomotives crossed the bridge to prove its stability.


title: Eads Bridge

text: On June 14, 1874, John Robinson led a "test elephant" on a stroll across the new Eads Bridge to prove that it was safe. A big crowd cheered as the elephant from a traveling circus lumbered toward Illinois. Popular belief held that elephants had instincts that would make them avoid setting foot on unsafe structures. Two weeks later, Eads sent 14 locomotives back and forth across the bridge at one time. The opening day celebration on July 4, 1874, featured a parade that stretched for through the streets of St. Louis.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge was undercapitalized during construction and burdened with debt. Because of its historic focus on the Mississippi and river trade, St. Louis lacked adequate rail terminal facilities, and the bridge was poorly planned to coordinate rail access. Although an engineering and aesthetic success, the bridge operations became bankrupt within a year of opening. The railroads boycotted the bridge, resulting in a loss of tolls. The bridge was later sold at auction for 20 cents on the dollar. This sale caused the National Bank of the State of Missouri to fold, which was the largest bank failure in the United States at that time. Eads did not suffer financial consequences. Many involved with financing the bridge were indicted, but Eads was not.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Granite for the bridge came from the Iron County, Missouri, quarry of B. Gratz Brown, Missouri Governor and U.S. Senator, who had helped secure federal financing for the bridge.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In April 1875, after the failure of the Illinois and St Louis Bridge Company, the bridge was sold at public auction, for $2 million, to a newly incorporated St. Louis Bridge Company controlled by the old company's creditors. This group was bought-out two years later by the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA). The TRRA owned the bridge until 1989, when the Terminal Railroad transferred the bridge to the Bi-State Regional Transportation Authority and the City of St. Louis, for incorporation into St Louis' MetroLink light rail system. In exchange for Eads Bridge, the TRRA acquired the MacArthur Bridge, previously owned by the City of St Louis.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In 1949, the bridge's strength was tested with electromagnetic strain gauges. It was determined that Eads' original estimation of an allowable load of could be raised to . The Eads Bridge is still considered one of the greatest bridges ever built.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge had long hosted only passenger trains on its rail deck. In the late 20th century, however, passenger traffic had declined because of individual automobile use, and the railroad industry was restructuring. By the 1970s, the Terminal Railroad Association had abandoned its Eads trackage. The bridge had lost all remaining passenger rail traffic to the MacArthur Bridge during the early years of Amtrak; the dimensions of modern passenger diesels were incompatible with both the bridge and the adjoining tunnel linking the Union Station trackage with Eads.


title: Eads Bridge

text: MetroLink service over the bridge began in 1993. The bridge was closed to automobile traffic between 1991 and 2003, when the city of St. Louis, Missouri, completed a project to restore the highway deck.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In 1998, the Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center investigated the effects of the ramming of the bridge by the towboat "Anne Holly" on April 4 of that year. The ramming resulted in the near breakaway of the SS "Admiral", a riverboat casino. Implementing several recommended changes reduced the odds of this happening in the future.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In 2012, the Bi-State Development Agency/Metro (BSDA/Metro) started the Eads Bridge Rehabilitation project to extend the life of the bridge to at least the year 2091. The restorations included replacing 1.2 million pounds of struts, bracing, and other support steel dating to the 1880s; removing all paint and corrosion from the superstructure; re-painting the superstructure with a rust-inhibiting coating; repairing damaged structure; rebuilding concrete supports; restoring the brick archways; and upgrading the MetroLink's rails. The total cost was $48 million, with $27 million coming from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. While expected to start in 2009, work didn't begin until 2012 due to labor disputes and higher-than-expected cost estimates. Workers completed the project in 2016.


title: Eads Bridge

text: City fathers wanted a wagon bridge to the heart of town to highlight the best features of St. Louis. Economics required that it be a railroad bridge, but there was no space for railroads in the heart of downtown. Hence, a tunnel was authorized to connect the bridge to the Missouri Pacific Railroad to the south (and later to the new Union Station).


title: Eads Bridge

text: Eads worked out the specifications for the tunnel. It was to be a “cut and cover” tunnel 4000 ft long, 30 ft below street level. They advertised for bids in the Missouri Republican on August 31, 1872. The contract was awarded to William Skrainka and Company. Construction began in October. A series of problems arose including quicksand and springs on the planned route. Also several workers were injured; at least one was killed.


title: Eads Bridge

text: On November 29, the city council passed an ordinance changing the tunnel route to Eight Street and transferring the right to build to the newly formed St. Louis Tunnel Railroad Company.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In April, Skrainka and Co. decided the project was too difficult. They agreed to complete construction south of Market St. The work north of Market was assigned to James Andrews, the stonemason overseeing construction of the bridge piers.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The Eads Bridge was ready to be opened after seven years of construction on July 4, 1874. The celebration included a fifteen-car train filled with 500 dignitaries pulled by three locomotives that departed from the St. Louis, Vandalia, and Terre Haute Railroad station in East St. Louis. Locomotives were provided by the Illinois Central Railroad and the Vandalia line (a Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiary). The route crossed the Eads Bridge and traveled through the tunnel to Mill Creek Valley and then returned.


title: Eads Bridge

text: Locomotive smoke is a concern in tunnels, especially passenger tunnels. Specially designed coke-burning “smoke-consuming engines” from the Baldwin Locomotive Works had yet to be ordered. News reports tell of passengers coughing and gasping for breath. Construction of the tunnel was not yet complete. Only one of the two tracks was available and ventilation was not yet arranged.


title: Eads Bridge

text: A photograph of the St. Louis Bridge Company's coke-burning engine appears on page 38 of Brown's Baldwin Locomotive Works.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The St. Louis Bridge Company almost certainly had a transfer station in East St. Louis to switch trains entering St. Louis from Illinois between steam locomotives and the coke-burning engine used in this tunnel, as the Eads Bridge's railroad deck connects directly to the tunnel. This would have been analogous to the later (1910–1937), well-known Manhattan Transfer station in New Jersey, except there rail passengers switched between the electric trains used in the New York Tunnel Extension tunnels under the Hudson River (North River Tunnels) and thru New York City (historic Penn Station and East River Tunnels) and the steam trains then used on the Pennsylvania Railroad main line (now part of Amtrak’s electrified Northeast Corridor along with the tunnels and present-day Penn Station), instead of switching engines on the train itself as was apparently the case in St. Louis.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In 1875, the bridge and tunnel companies declared bankruptcy. In 1881, Jay Gould got control of the bridge and tunnel companies by threatening to build a competing bridge four miles north of St. Louis. In 1889, Gould was instrumental in the creation of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis. He died in 1892, but this led to the construction of Union Station in 1894.


title: Eads Bridge

text: In 1898 the bridge was featured on the $2 Trans-Mississippi Issue of postage stamps. One hundred years later the design was reprinted in a commemorative souvenir sheet.


title: Eads Bridge

text: The bridge was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964, in recognition of its innovations in design, materials, construction methods, and importance in the history of large-scale engineering projects.


title: Eads Bridge

text: During the bridge's construction, "The New York Times" called it "The World's Eighth Wonder". On its 100th anniversary, the Times' architectural critic, Ada Louise Huxtable, described it as "among the most beautiful works of man."


title: Colorfulness

text: Colorfulness, chroma and saturation are attributes of perceived color relating to chromatic intensity. As defined formally by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) they respectively describe three different aspects of chromatic intensity, but the terms are often used loosely and interchangeably in contexts where these aspects are not clearly distinguished. The precise meanings of the terms vary by what other functions they are dependent on.


title: Colorfulness

text: As colorfulness, chroma, and saturation are defined as attributes of perception, they can not be physically measured as such, but they can be quantified in relation to psychometric scales intended to be perceptually even—for example, the chroma scales of the Munsell system. While the chroma and lightness of an object are its colorfulness and brightness judged in proportion to the same thing ("the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that appears white or highly transmitting"), the saturation of the light coming from that object is in effect the chroma of the object judged in proportion to its lightness. On a Munsell hue page, lines of uniform saturation thus tend to radiate from near the black point, while lines of uniform chroma are vertical.


title: Colorfulness

text: The naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. In the CIE XYZ and RGB color spaces, the saturation is defined in terms of additive color mixing, and has the property of being proportional to any scaling centered at white or the white point illuminant. However, both color spaces are non-linear in terms of psychovisually perceived color differences. It is also possible — and sometimes desirable — to define a saturation-like quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception.


title: Colorfulness

text: In the CIE 1976 LAB and LUV color spaces, the unnormalized chroma is the radial component of the cylindrical coordinate CIE LCh (lightness, chroma, hue) representation of the LAB and LUV color spaces, also denoted as CIE LCh(ab) or CIE LCh for short, and CIE LCh(uv). The transformation of formula_1 to formula_2 is given by:


title: Colorfulness

text: The chroma in the CIE LCh(ab) and CIE LCh(uv) coordinates has the advantage of being more psychovisually linear, yet they are non-linear in terms of linear component color mixing. And therefore, chroma in CIE 1976 Lab and LUV color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of "saturation".


title: Colorfulness

text: Another, psychovisually even more accurate, but also more complex method to obtain or specify the saturation is to use a color appearance model like CIECAM02. Here, the chroma color appearance parameter might (depending on the color appearance model) be intertwined with e.g. the physical brightness of the illumination or the characteristics of the emitting/reflecting surface, which is more sensible psychovisually.


title: Colorfulness

text: The CIECAM02 chroma formula_5 for example, is computed from a lightness formula_6 in addition to a naively evaluated color magnitude formula_7 In addition, a colorfulness formula_8 parameter exists alongside the chroma formula_9 It is defined as formula_10 where formula_11 is dependent on the viewing condition.


title: Colorfulness

text: The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity and how much it is distributed across the spectrum of different wavelengths. The purest (most saturated) color is achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity drops, then as a result the saturation drops. To desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive system (such as watercolor), one can add white, black, gray, or the hue's complement.


title: Colorfulness

text: The CIE has not formally recommended this equation since CIELAB has no chromaticity diagram, and this definition therefore lacks direct connection with older concepts of saturation. Nevertheless, this equation provides a reasonable predictor of saturation, and demonstrates that adjusting the lightness in CIELAB while holding fixed does affect the saturation.


title: Colorfulness

text: But the following verbal definition of Manfred Richter and the corresponding formula proposed by Eva Lübbe are in agreement with the human perception of saturation:


title: Colorfulness

text: where formula_16 is the saturation, formula_17 the lightness and formula_18 is the chroma of the color.


title: Colorfulness

text: This definition is inspired by experimental work done with the intention of remedying CIECAM97s's poor performance. formula_8 is proportional to the chroma formula_5 thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some similarity to the CIELUV definition.


title: Colorfulness

text: Saturation is also one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. However, in the HSL color space saturation exists independently of lightness. That is, both a very light color a very dark color can be heavily saturated in HSL; whereas in the previous definitions—as well as in the HSV color space—colors approaching white all feature low saturation.


title: Colorfulness

text: The excitation purity (purity for short) of a stimulus is the difference from the illuminant's white point to the furthest point on the chromaticity diagram with the same dominant wavelength; using the CIE 1931 color space:


title: Colorfulness

text: where formula_23 is the chromaticity of the white point and formula_24 is the point on the perimeter whose line segment to the white point contains the chromaticity of the stimulus. Different color spaces, such as CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, and will yield different results.


title: Sabhaapathy

text: Sabhaapathy is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language comedy film directed by debutant R. Srinivasa Rao and produced by R K Entertainment. The film stars Santhanam and Preeti Verma in the lead roles and the music is composed by Sam C. S. The film released theatrically on 19 November 2021 to moderate reviews from critics but positive response from audience and ended up as a failure in the box office. The satellite and streaming rights were sold to Colors Tamil and Amazon Prime Video and Aha respectively.


title: Sabhaapathy

text: Siby Jeyya of "India Herald" wrote, "Sabhaapathy is one of Santhanam's better films as a leading man." Sudhir Srinivasan of "The New Indian Express" wrote, "Sabhaapathy, begins with the deep voice of a narrator who identifies himself as ‘vidhi’, claiming to ‘play’ with ‘innocent’ people like Sabhaapathy. I imagine that on the day I watched Sabhaapathy, Mr Vidhi had chosen me for his game." Suganth of "The Times of India" gave a rating of 2.5 out on 5 and wrote, "Sabhaapathy is a middling affair. Like a dream that eludes you once you wake up, you forget it the moment you step out of the theatre." Sify gave a rating of 2 out on 5 and wrote as "sabhaapathy is a below-average comedy entertainer that can be watched for the hilarious comedy combination between  Santhanam and the MS Baskar!" and the final verdict as "Tedious". Ranjani krishnakumar of "Film Companion" wrote, "Sabhaapathy is a test of patience, even if you generally enjoy Santhanam's brand of humour."


title: Borgward

text: The former Borgward car manufacturing company, based in Bremen, Germany, was founded by Carl F. W. Borgward (1890–1963). It produced cars of four brands, which were sold to a diversified international customer base: Borgward, Hansa, Goliath and Lloyd. Borgward's Isabella was one of the most popular German premium models in the 1950s, while Lloyd's Alexander / Lloyd 600 model offered affordable mobility to many working-class motorists. The group ceased operations in 1961, following controversial insolvency proceedings.


title: Borgward

text: The brand was revived in the 21st century, with the Stuttgart-based Borgward Group AG designing and marketing cars manufactured in China.


title: Borgward

text: The origins of the company go back to 1905 with the establishment in Varel (near Bremen) of Hansa Automobilgesellschaft and the foundation in Bremen itself of NAMAG, maker of the Lloyd car. These two businesses merged in 1914 to form the "Hansa-Lloyd-Werke A.G." After the war, in the troubled economic situation then confronting Germany, the business failed to prosper and by the late 1920s faced bankruptcy. For Carl Borgward, already the successful creator of the Goliath-Blitzkarren business, the misfortunes of Hansa-Lloyd presented an opportunity to greatly expand the scope of his auto business, and he took control of it.


title: Borgward

text: The first vehicle Carl Borgward designed was the 1924 "Blitzkarren" ("lightning cart"), a tiny three-wheeled van with , which was successful in the market gap it filled. Traders with a small budget bought it for delivery. The Reichspost ordered many of them for postal service.


title: Borgward

text: In 1929, Borgward became the director of Hansa-Lloyd AG having been able to merge his Goliath-Werke Borgward & Co. with Hansa-Lloyd. The small Goliath-Blitzkarren had by now evolved into the three-wheeled timber-framed synthetic-leather-bodied 5 or 7 hp Goliath Pionier. Borgward turned his attention to the other businesses and led the development of the Hansa Konsul. In February 1937, there came the new Hansa Borgward 2000 and in 1939 its name was shortened to Borgward 2000. The 2000 model was followed by the Borgward 2300 which remained in production until 1942.


title: Borgward

text: After World War II, in 1946 Carl Borgward used some of the brand names from businesses he had acquired over the years to found three separate companies: Borgward, Goliath and Lloyd. This was intended to increase the quantity of steel allocated to his business at a time of austerity and rationing. For many purposes the companies would be run as a single entity; but in a business operated by a man to whom delegation did not come naturally, the proliferation of legal entities nevertheless added unhelpful layers of complexity through the 1950s and encouraged a broadening of the range which in the end proved financially unsustainable with the sales volumes achievable. In 1949 the company presented the Borgward Hansa 1500.


title: Borgward

text: Production of the Borgward Isabella began in 1954. The Isabella would become Borgward's most popular model and remained in production for the life of the company. In 1959 the Borgward P100 was introduced, equipped with pneumatic suspension.


title: Borgward

text: Borgward introduced a line of 1500 cc sports racers in the 1950s, with the 16-valve engine from these becoming a successful Formula Two power unit (which was also used by some F1 privateers in 1961).


title: Borgward

text: Although Borgward pioneered innovations in the German market such as air suspension and automatic transmissions, the company had difficulty competing in the marketplace. While larger companies like Opel and VW took advantage of economies of scale and kept prices low to gain market share, Borgward's cost structure was higher than necessary for its size. It operated as four tiny independent companies, and never implemented cost-reduction strategies, such as joint development and parts sharing between the company's makes. Borgward suffered quality problems as well. The Lloyd Arabella was technically advanced as a water-cooled boxer with front wheel drive, but plagued with problems such as water leakage and gearbox quirks. Lloyd lost money on the car, although it was more expensive than its competitors.


title: Borgward

text: In 1961, the company was forced into liquidation by creditors. Carl Borgward died in July 1963, still insisting the company had been technically solvent. This proved to be true in the sense that after the creditors were paid in full, there was still 4.5 million Marks left over from the business.


title: Borgward

text: Reports of difficulties at Borgward surfaced in an article that appeared in Germany's news magazine "Der Spiegel" on 14 December 1960. A "Spiegel" article was highlighted by means of a picture of Borgward, cigar in mouth, on the magazine's front cover. It was strongly critical of his business approach, and included many of the arguments later advanced to explain or justify the company's demise. The widest range of cars from any manufacturer in Germany, produced by three till recently operationally autonomous companies (Borgward, Goliath and Lloyd) was supporting a turnover of only 650 million Marks, placing the overall sales value from the combined Borgward auto businesses only in fifth position among Germany's auto-makers. The 70-year-old Carl Borgward's "hands-on" insistence on an increasingly manic proliferation of new and modified models featuring adventurous, but under-developed technological innovations ("fast manisch[e] Konstruierwut") gave rise to components which too often did not work, broke down or fell apart, resulting in massive bills for pre-delivery remediation and/or post delivery warranty work that found their way back to the company.


title: Borgward

text: The December 1960 "Der Spiegel" article was not the only serious public criticism targeting Borgward at this time: suddenly stridently negative (if more succinct) comments also turned up in the mass-market "Bild" newspaper and in television reports. Critical media commentaries also appeared concerning large loans to the Borgward Group provided by the Landesbank.


title: Borgward

text: It is apparent that the business was confronting cash-flow difficulties at the end of 1960. Capital intensive businesses such as auto manufacturing use their expensive machines and tools most efficiently if they use them constantly at full capacity, but the car market in Europe in the 1950s/60s was more seasonal than today, with sales diminishing in Winter, then peaking in the early summer months: Borgward's inventory of unsold cars at the end of 1960 was higher than usual, reflecting ambitious growth plans, most obviously in respect of the United States market The December 1960 "Der Spiegel" article speculated that of the 15,000 Borgward cars ordered by the North American dealers in 1960 (and of the 12,000 delivered to them) 6,000 might have to be taken back following a slump in North American demand. (Borgward was not the only European auto maker hit by a North American slump in demand for imported cars during 1960. In the same year two ships carrying Renault Dauphines were turned back in mid-Atlantic because the docks in New York were overcrowded with unsold Dauphines.)


title: Borgward

text: At the end of December 1960 Borgward approached the bank for a further one million Marks of credit, the loan to be backed by a guarantee from the Bremen regional government which initially the Bremen senators agreed to provide. However, following the flood of critical press comment the senators withdrew their guarantee. They now required Carl Borgward to pledge the company itself to the state in return for the guarantee. After a tense 13-hour meeting widely reported in a still hostile media, Borgward agreed to the senate's terms on 4 February 1961, thereby averting the bankruptcy of the business.


title: Borgward

text: The Bremen Senate also insisted on appointing its own nominee as chairman of the company's supervisory board. The man they chose was whom reports generally describe as a "Wirtschaftsprüfer" (public auditor), though this designation, especially once translated into English, does less than full justice to the breadth of Semler's career. He had studied law at university and worked initially as a lawyer. The scion of a leading Hamburg political family, in 1945 he had himself been a founding member of the centre-right CSU party, and was a member of the Bundestag between 1950 and 1953. Despite his Hamburg origins, Semler was by this time based in Munich, with a network of contacts in the Bavarian establishment that probably included fellow CSU politician and the future German chancellor, Ludwig Erhard, who in 1948 had succeeded Semler in a top administrative position within the Bizone. The appointment of Johannes Semler as the representative of the Bremen senators to chair the Borgward supervisory board would, in retrospect, contribute to the controversy that followed the Borgward bankruptcy.


title: Borgward

text: On 28 July 1961, Semler, as Chairman of the supervisory board, joined the directors of the three companies Borgward, Goliath and Lloyd to instigate proceedings for the establishment of a "Vergleichsverfahren", which would have provided for a court sanctioned scheme of arrangement enabling the business to continue to trade while at the same time protecting the interests of creditors. Two months later, however, in September 1961, the Borgward and Goliath businesses were declared bankrupt, followed in November by the Lloyd business. Subsequent "conspiracy theorists" have suggested that Semler, for reasons of his own, never had any intention of allowing the Borgward auto-businesses to survive.


title: Borgward

text: The German magazine "Der Spiegel" published a thoughtful piece in 1966, implying that with a little more support, and if the proprietor had been more willing to take advice from his own directors, the Borgward company could have easily overcome its financial problems of 1961. But Carl Borgward was financially naive and reluctant to accept advice: his preferred source of credit had always involved shunning the banks and simply taking extra time to pay his creditors, rejecting advice on the financing of his business from his own Finance Director. By Autumn 1960 he was holding on to unpaid creditor invoices worth more than 100 Million Marks for sheet metal and tyres alone. Given that all the company's creditors were eventually paid in full, the liquidation decision appeared nevertheless to have been taken prematurely.


title: Borgward

text: Borgward Argentina was founded in 1954 as a joint venture of Carl F. Borgward HMBH and IAME (Aeronautics and Mechanical Industries) intended to equip the Rastrojero, a small pickup truck. The engine was manufactured at the plant that Borgward had in the town of Isidro Casanova, Buenos Aires province, at a production rate of 20 units per day with almost 800 employees. The production of Borgward Isabella was carried out in Cordoba city, by using Argentine engines, local components (glass, batteries, tires) and other pieces from Germany. This model production started in 1960 at the booming of Argentina automotive industry development, with a production plan of 500 units for that year.


title: Borgward

text: When the German parent company closed its doors in 1961, the operation happened to have local control, and continued for a short time to complete the total manufacture of 1,050 cars during its short life in Argentine territory.


title: Borgward

text: As part of the bankruptcy process, in 1963, all manufacturing equipment for the Borgward Isabella and P100 was sold to a buyer in Monterrey, Mexico. Production in Mexico was delayed, but was started in August 1967 by entrepreneur and trucking magnate Gregorio Ramirez Gonzalez. Production in Mexico ceased in 1970.


title: Borgward

text: In 2008, the Borgward Group AG was formed in Lucerne by Christian Borgward (grandson of Carl F. W. Borgward) and Karlheinz L. Knöss. The new company later moved to Stuttgart. With both investment and manufacture by Beiqi Foton Motor (a subsidiary of BAIC, a major Chinese automotive group), the Borgward group had started to sell SUVs by January 2017.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: State of Decay is an action-adventure, survival horror, and stealth game developed by Undead Labs and published by Microsoft Studios. It places emphasis on how the player's leaderships skills fare against an onslaught of problems, such as diminishing survival resources, group trust and morale, zombie extermination, base defenses, and people's lives. The game combines elements of shooters, stealth, role-playing and strategy games and the game challenges players to survive by exploring, scavenging, and fighting the undead.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: It was released for the Xbox 360 on June 5, 2013, and was met with positive reviews. A Microsoft Windows version was released on September 20, 2013, via Steam's Early Access, with a release following on November 5, 2013. A remastered version called the "Year-One Survival Edition" was released on April 28, 2015 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox One with mixed reviews.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: "State of Decay 2" was announced at Xbox's E3 2016. The game introduced cooperative multiplayer. It was released on May 22, 2018. An updated version, "State of Decay 2: Juggernaut Edition", launched on May 22, 2020 and overhauled the original game's graphics and added a new map. Upcoming "State of Decay 3" was announced at Xbox's 2020 Games Showcase and is currently in production.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: "State of Decay" contains elements of third person combat and simulation (building base and outposts). The player is in charge of a small group of survivors and can either follow the storyline or perform tasks that ensure their community's survival. The game world is 16 square kilometers, 8 square kilometers of which is playable.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The player can choose from several locations to build a base, then reinforce and improve it with various facilities like watch towers, gardens, sleeping quarters, kitchens, workshops, medical bays, etc. to help keep survivors safe and healthy. Part of the game is balancing the use of resources: food, medicine, ammo and construction materials. They can be obtained by scavenging or trading with NPCs. Only food can be grown at the base.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The player can interact with survivors outside of their group: trading with them, helping them or recruiting them. The game features two relationship meters, the first determines if a survivor can be recruited, and the second dictates if they can be controlled. Only one survivor can be controlled at a time, though the player can ask an AI-controlled survivor to accompany them, and in certain missions, one or more AI-controlled survivors will accompany the player.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The Storyline mode features around 150 characters, with varying facial features and clothing. Each character has a fixed set of "traits" which give them advantages or flaws (such as tire out more easily, or can improve a certain skill faster). Except for the story-related characters, most characters can be assigned to survivor groups and be recruited. Each character also has an "attitude" parameter, affected by game events (a near death experience, death of another character, or having accomplished a difficult task). These attitudes can affect their behaviors, sometimes requiring player intervention.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: Zombies are the main threat in "State of Decay". They respawn infinitely (unless the player establishes an outpost, which prevents spawns), are attracted to noise, and are capable of sprinting nearly as fast as the characters. The player can choose to confront them directly, use stealth to sneak past them, or divert them using items like firecrackers. In addition, there are special types of zombies, such as the animal-like "Ferals" or the tank-like "Juggernauts" that are quite dangerous in one-on-one confrontations. The game doesn't have human enemies, only zombies.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The game features over 100 different weapons, including around 30 melee weapons that can be found while scavenging (they cannot be crafted). Melee weapon and firearms are further divided into sub-categories, which have different attack animations and effects. All weapons have a durability rating, and will break when used excessively without repairs. Besides weapons, the player can find or create various consumables to improve their chances of survival, such as painkillers and pipe bombs. Besides walking, the player has access to several types of cars, each with its own characteristics like maneuverability and speed. All vehicles can be damaged and destroyed when running over zombies or hitting obstacles, although they can be repaired at the home base if they have the necessary facilities.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The story takes place in the fictional Trumbull Valley. The first playable character is Marcus Campbell, a store clerk. After returning from a fishing trip with his friend and a Trumbull local, Ed Jones, he finds that the world has degenerated into a zombie apocalypse. The two are soon joined by Maya Torres, a soldier. They acquire a walkie-talkie and make contact with Lily Ritter. Following her direction, they make their way to a church called the Church of the Ascension, where Lily and several other survivors have made a home base. With Ed wounded, the trio accept Lily's offer to let them stay.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: As the game progresses, the survivors become aware of the United States Army's presence in Trumbull Valley, led by Sergeant Erik Tan and Captain Diane Montressor. They soon learn that the army's top priority is not to evacuate the survivors, but to contain and try to find the cause of the outbreak. The players also find the local civic leader, Judge Lawton, has barricaded the courthouse with the local law enforcement. She places citizens in her care under martial laws, planning to rebuild after the zombie incursion blows over. Finally, the players are also introduced to The Wilkersons, a group of hillbilly gun-runners who are using the apocalypse to profit and exploit other survivors.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: Near the end, the courthouse falls to a zombie attack and Judge Lawton dies. Captain Montressor is evacuated, leaving behind Sergeant Tan and his men. The player, along with Tan, discovers numerous dead bodies dumped at the reservoir, explaining the cause of the, "Black Fever," that has plagued numerous survivors in Trumbull Valley. With their only water source contaminated and long-term survival no longer an option, they plan to leave the valley. After raiding a zombie-infested warehouse to get explosives, the group head to the only road leading out of the valley, now blocked with a massive concrete wall.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: While Tan sets up the explosives, the player holds off incoming zombies. Tan realizes the detonator has malfunctioned, and the explosives cannot be detonated from a safe distance. He volunteers to manually detonate it, claiming he's already infected. He sacrifices himself and sets off the explosives, which destroys the wall. As the smoke clears, the player sees the other side is also filled with destroyed cars and bodies, implying the apocalypse has already spread outside Trumbull Valley. The survivors leave the valley and the game ends.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: On July 20, 2013, in conjunction with the PC development for State of Decay, Undead Labs announced an upcoming downloadable content (DLC) titled "Breakdown" for both PC and console users. The DLC adds a "Sandbox Mode", where the player leads a group of survivors in repairing an RV in order to escape the valley. The DLC allows infinite gameplay and no story line, simply allowing players to put their survival skills to the test. Breakdown adds 6 levels/tiers for players to survive in, and as players progress from one level to the next, the difficulty increases, resulting in numerous faster and stronger zombies, along with higher numbers of special zombies, forcing players to sneak their way around the map and use distractions in order to survive the higher levels. To continue on to the next level, the player needs to find the RV, which spawns in random locations throughout the map with each level. The players are only allowed to take a total of six characters (Lily included) with them to the next level. On November 15, 2013, Undead Labs officially announced the Breakdown release date for November 29, 2013.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: Not long after the release of Breakdown, Undead Labs announced that a second DLC was in development. On February 4, 2014, an addition on the Steam Database confirmed the DLC to be named "Lifeline." On February 11, 2014, Undead Labs officially announced news of the "Lifeline" DLC, also confirming it to include the fictional city of Danforth that can be seen just outside Fairfield. On February 27, it was explained that the DLC will explore the military's side during the first days of the outbreak.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The player will play the role of a military unit by the name of Greyhound One in Danforth City. The player will be tasked with keeping a group of survivors alive long enough to get them to safety, as well as defending the main base by setting traps and planning tactics. But unlike the typical survival only bases that deal with just excesses of hordes, there is a new threat called sieges that get progressively harder with each one that passes. The DLC is set on more of a time-based approach instead of the never-ending approach seen in the Breakdown DLC. At the Pax East 2014 convention, Undead Labs expected it to be released on June 6, 2014. The release date was revealed to be Friday, May 30, earlier than was previously expected. The DLC features a new map and narrative. The DLC has been priced the same as the first DLC, Breakdown, which is $6.99 / £5.59.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: "State of Decay" was first announced in 2011 as an Xbox Live Arcade exclusive title originally titled "Class 3". Jeff Strain, the founder of ArenaNet and co-creator of "World of Warcraft", wanted a game where individual players could make up their own zombie survival plans and put them to the test. Then, he set out to create the game, which runs on CryEngine 3. On May 16, 2013, Undead Labs announced that "State of Decay" had gone into the final certification process and is now ready for testing by the game's publisher, Microsoft Studios. "State of Decay" was envisioned as a step towards Undead Labs' full online console game, "Class4". "Class4" will be one of the first zombie massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) to come to the Xbox One. In a 2014 interview, Undead Labs founder Jeff Strain stated that "State of Decay" had officially become a franchise, with the company's partnership with Microsoft Studios confirmed. He stated that the first "State of Decay" was "just the start of (Undead Labs') long-term ambitions".


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: "State of Decay" has received positive reviews from critics. Sanje of Undead Labs stated that "2013 Was a Damned Good Year" in terms of the positive reviews the game received. Metacritic scores range from 60/100 to 100/100, with an average score of 78/100. The game sold more than 250,000 copies in its first 48 hours of release to the Xbox Live Arcade. As of June 17, 2013, the game has been sold more than 550,000 copies. Within the end of June the game had sold more than 700,000 copies, making it the second-fastest-selling XBLA game of all time. On October 4, 2013 Undead Labs announced that the game had sold one million copies. The figure combined both XBLA and Steam Early Access sales. On November 30, Undead Labs had sold more than one million copies of "State of Decay".


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: "Polygon" gave a positive review, praising the survival and role-playing aspects of the game. Reviewer Arthur Gies wrote, ""State of Decay" is one of the most cohesive, terrifying and engaging open-world games I've ever played."


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: The Australian Classification Board refused classification because "[the game] contains the option of self-administered drugs throughout, in order to restore players' health or boost their stamina". Jeff Strain said "we are going to come up with options, including changing names of certain medications in the game to comply with ratings requirements. Whatever our path forward, it's going to take a bit." On July 11, 2013 "State of Decay" was rated R18+ for high impact violence.


title: State of Decay (video game)

text: A sequel, "State of Decay 2", was announced live at Xbox's 2016 E3 live conference. The game was released on May 22, 2018.


title: Semantic memory

text: Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge that humans have accumulated throughout their lives. This general knowledge (facts, ideas, meanings, and concepts) is intertwined in experience and dependent on culture. We can learn about new concepts by applying our knowledge learned from things in the past.


title: Semantic memory

text: Semantic memory is distinct from episodic memory, which is our memory of experiences and specific events that occur during our lives, from which we can recreate at any given point. For instance, semantic memory might contain information about what a cat is, whereas episodic memory might contain a specific memory of petting a particular cat.


title: Semantic memory

text: Semantic memory and episodic memory are both types of explicit memory (or declarative memory), that is, memory of facts or events that can be consciously recalled and "declared". The counterpart to declarative or explicit memory is nondeclarative memory or implicit memory.


title: Semantic memory

text: The idea of semantic memory was first introduced following a conference in 1972 between Endel Tulving, of the University of Toronto, and W. Donaldson on the role of organization in human memory. Tulving constructed a proposal to distinguish between episodic memory and what he termed semantic memory. He was mainly influenced by the ideas of Reiff and Scheers, who in 1959 made the distinction between two primary forms of memory. One form was entitled "remembrances", the other "memoria". The remembrance concept dealt with memories that contained experiences of an autobiographic index, whereas the memoria concept dealt with those memories that did not reference experiences having an autobiographic index. Semantic memory reflects our knowledge of the world around us, hence the term 'general knowledge' is often used. It holds generic information that is more than likely acquired across various contexts and is used across different situations. According to Madigan in his book titled "Memory", semantic memory is the sum of all knowledge one has obtained—whether it be vocabulary, understanding of math, or all the facts one knows. In his book titled "Episodic and Semantic Memory", Endel Tulving adopted the term "semantic" from linguists to refer to a system of memory for "words and verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, the relations between them, and the rules, formulas, or algorithms for influencing them." The use of semantic memory is quite different from that of episodic memory. Semantic memory refers to general facts and meanings one shares with others whereas episodic memory refers to unique and concrete personal experiences.


title: Semantic memory

text: Tulving's proposal of this distinction between semantic and episodic memory was widely accepted, primarily because it allowed the separate conceptualization of knowledge of the world. Tulving discusses conceptions of episodic and semantic memory in his book titled "Precise of Elements of Episodic Memory", in which he states that several factors differentiate between episodic memory and semantic memory in ways that include


title: Semantic memory

text: In a recent work, researchers Felipe De Brigard, Sharda Umanath, and Muireann Irish argue that Tulving conceptualized semantic memory as different from episodic memory in that "episodic memories were viewed as supported via spatiotemporal relations while information in semantic memory was mediated through conceptual, meaning-based associations."


title: Semantic memory

text: Before Tulving's proposal, this area of human memory had been neglected by experimental psychologists. Since Tulving's inception of these distinctions, several experimenters have conducted tests to determine the validity of his hypothesized differences between episodic and semantic memory.


title: Semantic memory

text: Recent research has focused on the idea that when people access a word's meaning, sensorimotor information that is used to perceive and act on the concrete object the word suggests is automatically activated. In the theory of grounded cognition, the meaning of a particular word is grounded in the sensorimotor systems. For example, when one thinks of a pear, knowledge of grasping, chewing, sights, sounds, and tastes used to encode episodic experiences of a pear are recalled through sensorimotor simulation. A grounded simulation approach refers to context-specific re-activations that integrate the important features of episodic experience into a current depiction. Such research has challenged previously utilized amodal views. The brain encodes multiple inputs such as words and pictures to integrate and create a larger conceptual idea by using amodal views (also known as amodal perception). Instead of being representations in modality-specific systems, semantic memory representations had previously been viewed as redescriptions of modality-specific states. Some accounts of category-specific semantic deficits that are amodal remain even though researchers are beginning to find support for theories in which knowledge is tied to modality-specific brain regions. This research defines a clear link between episodic experiences and semantic memory. The concept that semantic representations are grounded across modality-specific brain regions can be supported by the fact that episodic and semantic memory appear to function in different yet mutually dependent ways. The distinction between semantic and episodic memory has become a part of the broader scientific discourse. For example, researchers speculate that semantic memory captures the stable aspects of our personality while episodes of illness may have a more episodic nature.


title: Semantic memory

text: This study was not created to solely provide evidence for the distinction of semantic and episodic memory stores. However, they did use the experimental dissociation method which provides evidence for Tulving's hypothesis.


title: Semantic memory

text: In the second phase of the experiment, 60 "old words" seen in stage one and "20 new words" not shown in stage one were presented to the subjects one at a time.


title: Semantic memory

text: It displays a strong distinction of performance of episodic and semantic tasks, thus supporting Tulving's hypothesis.


title: Semantic memory

text: The essence of semantic memory is that its contents are not tied to any particular instance of experience, as in episodic memory. Instead, what is stored in semantic memory is the "gist" of experience, an abstract structure that applies to a wide variety of experiential objects and delineates categorical and functional relationships between such objects. Thus, a complete theory of semantic memory must account not only for the representational structure of such "gists", but also for how they can be extracted from experience. There are numerous sub-theories related to semantic memory that have developed since Tulving initially posited his argument on the differences between semantic and episodic memory. One example among these is the belief in hierarchies of semantic memory, in which we associate different information we have learned with specific levels of related knowledge. According to this theory, our brains are able to associate specific information with other disparate ideas despite not having unique memories that correspond to when that knowledge was stored in the first place. This, of course, is only one example among many models of semantic memory which have been proposed; they are summarized below. Additionally, this theory of hierarchies has also been applied to episodic memory, as in the case of work by William Brewer on the concept of autobiographical memory.


title: Semantic memory

text: Networks of various sorts play an integral part in many theories of semantic memory. Generally speaking, a network is composed of a set of nodes connected by links. The nodes may represent concepts, words, perceptual features, or nothing at all. The links may be weighted such that some are stronger than others or, equivalently, have a length such that some links take longer to traverse than others. All these features of networks have been employed in models of semantic memory, examples of which are found below.


title: Semantic memory

text: One of the first examples of a network model of semantic memory is the Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC). In this model, each node is a word, representing a concept (like "Bird"). With each node is stored a set of properties (like "can fly" or "has wings") as well as pointers (i.e., links) to other nodes (like "Chicken"). A node is directly linked to those nodes of which it is either a subclass or superclass (i.e., "Bird" would be connected to both "Chicken" and "Animal"). Thus, TLC is a hierarchical knowledge representation in that high-level nodes representing large categories are connected (directly or indirectly, via the nodes of subclasses) to many instances of those categories, whereas nodes representing specific instances are at a lower level, connected only to their superclasses. Furthermore, properties are stored at the highest category level to which they apply. For example, "is yellow" would be stored with "Canary", "has wings" would be stored with "Bird" (one level up), and "can move" would be stored with "Animal" (another level up). Nodes may also store negations of the properties of their superordinate nodes (i.e., "NOT-can fly" would be stored with "penguin"). This provides an economy of representation in that properties are only stored at the category level at which they become essential, that is, at which point they become critical features (see below).


title: Semantic memory

text: Processing in TLC is a form of spreading activation. That is, when a node becomes active, that activation spreads to other nodes via the links between them. In that case, the time to answer the question "Is a chicken a bird?" is a function of how far the activation between the nodes for "Chicken" and "Bird" must spread, i.e., the number of links between the nodes "Chicken" and "Bird".


title: Semantic memory

text: The original version of TLC did not put weights on the links between nodes. This version performed comparably to humans in many tasks, but failed to predict that people would respond faster to questions regarding more typical category instances than those involving less typical instances. Collins and Quillian later updated TLC to include weighted connections to account for this effect. This updated TLC is capable of explaining both the familiarity effect and the typicality effect. Its biggest advantage is that it clearly explains priming: you are more likely to retrieve information from memory if related information (the "prime") has been presented a short time before. There are still a number of memory phenomena for which TLC has no account, including why people are able to respond quickly to obviously false questions (like "is a chicken a meteor?"), when the relevant nodes are very far apart in the network.


title: Semantic memory

text: TLC is an instance of a more general class of models known as semantic networks. In a semantic network, each node is to be interpreted as representing a specific concept, word, or feature. That is, each node is a symbol. Semantic networks generally do not employ distributed representations for concepts, as may be found in a neural network. The defining feature of a semantic network is that its links are almost always directed (that is, they only point in one direction, from a base to a target) and the links come in many different types, each one standing for a particular relationship that can hold between any two nodes. Processing in a semantic network often takes the form of spreading activation (see above).


title: Semantic memory

text: Semantic networks see the most use in models of discourse and logical comprehension, as well as in Artificial Intelligence. In these models, the nodes correspond to words or word stems and the links represent syntactic relations between them. For an example of a computational implementation of semantic networks in knowledge representation, see Cravo and Martins (1993).


title: Semantic memory

text: Feature models view semantic categories as being composed of relatively unstructured sets of features. The semantic feature-comparison model, proposed by Smith, Shoben, and Rips (1974), describes memory as being composed of feature lists for different concepts. According to this view, the relations between categories would not be directly retrieved, they would be indirectly computed. For example, subjects might verify a sentence by comparing the feature sets that represent its subject and predicate concepts. Such computational feature-comparison models include the ones proposed by Meyer (1970), Rips (1975), Smith, et al. (1974).


title: Semantic memory

text: Early work in perceptual and conceptual categorization assumed that categories had critical features and that category membership could be determined by logical rules for the combination of features. More recent theories have accepted that categories may have an ill-defined or "fuzzy" structure and have proposed probabilistic or global similarity models for the verification of category membership.


title: Semantic memory

text: The "association"—a relationship between two pieces of information—is a fundamental concept in psychology, and associations at various levels of mental representation are essential to models of memory and cognition in general. The set of associations among a collection of items in memory is equivalent to the links between nodes in a network, where each node corresponds to a unique item in memory. Indeed, neural networks and semantic networks may be characterized as associative models of cognition. However, associations are often more clearly represented as an "N"×"N" matrix, where "N" is the number of items in memory. Thus, each cell of the matrix corresponds to the strength of the association between the row item and the column item.