title: Sonoma Raceway

text: In 1994 more than $1 million was spent on a beautification project and construction of a -high, four-sided electronic lap leader board in the center of the road course. In the following years a major $3 million renovation plan included VIP suites and a two-story driver's lounge/emergency medical facility. In 1995 Trans-Am and SportsCar races returned to Sears Point and the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series was added to the major-events schedule. Owner "Skip" Berg sold the track to O. Bruton Smith, chairman of Speedway Motorsports, Inc. in November 1996.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Major renovations began at Sears Point Raceway in 1998 with the creation of "the Chute", an high-speed stretch. The first-ever running of the American Le Mans Series took place at Sears Point in July 1999. In 2000 Sears Point Raceway gained unanimous approval from the Sonoma County Board of Supervisors by a 5–0 vote to begin work on a $35 million Modernization Plan that included 64,000 Hillside Terrace seats, repaving of both the road course and drag strip and increased run-off around the entire track.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: After the turn of the millennium, Infineon Technologies bought the naming rights, and on June 22, 2002, the course was renamed Infineon Raceway. In 2006, the Grand Prix of Sonoma was transferred to the Rolex Sports Car Series, who would limit it to Daytona Prototypes only for 2007–2008 before the event was discontinued altogether. Since 2010, however, the course has seen a mild resurgence, with the circuit becoming a sponsor for various events as well as hosting an increasing amount of lesser series, including the WTCC and the return of the SCCA World Challenge. The year 2012 saw the end of Infineon as the corporate sponsor, with the track renaming itself Sonoma Raceway.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The standard, full length road course at Sonoma Raceway is a 12-turn course. This course was utilized by all competition through 1997. Most races, including the Grand Prix of Sonoma, use the full course. The course is noted for turns two and three, which are negative-camber ("off-camber") turns, with the inside of the turn higher than the outside. This provides a challenge for the driver, as turn two would normally have the drivers moving to the left side of the track.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The raceway also has a dragstrip used for NHRA drag racing events. The drag strip was originally located on part of the front straightaway of the course. Track changes completed in 2002 separated the road course from the drag strip.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: NASCAR returned to using the full circuit in 2019 as a part of the tracks 50th anniversary. The full circuit was used in 2019 & 2021 (event was cancelled in 2020 due to the pandemic), but in 2022 they will return to the modified layout instead of running the original.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The track was closed in 2020 because of government regulations as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. All national events were removed from the schedule.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The track was modified in 1998, adding "the Chute", which bypassed turns 5 and 6 (the Carousel), shortening the course to . The Chute was only used for NASCAR events such as the Toyota/Save Mart 350, and was criticized by many drivers, who prefer the full layout. In 2001, it was replaced with the 70° turn, 4A bringing the track to its current dimensions of .


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The Chute was built primarily for spectator visibility, to increase speeds, and improve competition for the stock cars, which are not necessarily groomed well for road course racing. However, it has been criticized for taking away a primary passing point, and some INDYCAR drivers believe eliminating the Chute and replacing it with a new hairpin at Turn 4A, then rejoining the track at Turn 5, would create a circuit with three passing zones (Turn 4, Turn 7, and Turn 11). Furthermore, the speeds of the current layout with the Chute have been slower than if the full configuration was used.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The layout is now used as a Club circuit with options, as at the end of 2018 season, NASCAR returned to the full circuit in 2019. In 2022, NASCAR will be returning to The Chute layout.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: From 1989 to 2001, the pit road could only accommodate 34 pit stalls. So, during the Toyota/Save Mart 350 Cup Series race, some teams were required to share pit stalls while other teams were forced to pit inside the garage area. When cars dropped out of the race, their pit stalls were reassigned to cars who were sharing.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: After a few years, a makeshift auxiliary pit road was constructed inside the hairpin (turn 11) nicknamed "Gilligan's Island". Cars that had the nine slowest qualifying speeds were relegated to these pit stalls. Pitting in this area was considered an inconvenience and a competitive disadvantage, more so than even the disadvantages one would experience pitting on the backstretch at a short track at the time.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Since the length of the auxiliary pit road was significantly shorter than the main pit road, the cars that pitted there were held from 15 to 20 seconds to make up for the time that would have been spent if the cars had traveled the entire main pit road.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Pitting on "Gilligan's Island" had several other inconveniences. The location (the staging area for drag races) was landlocked by the race course, and crew members were unable to leave once the race began. Teams sent only the primary pit crew to "Gilligan's Island", and once they were there, they could not access the garage area or their transporters to collect spare parts/tools. The only repairs that could be made were routine tire changes and refueling, as well as only minor repairs. Other auxiliary pit crew members, who were not part of the main crew, were staged in the garage area, and would have to service the car if it required major repairs. If a team pitting on "Gilligan's Island" dropped out of the race, the crew was unable to pack up their supplies and prepare to leave (a common practice at other tracks) until the race was over.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Variations of Sonoma's circuits are often used. Motorcycles use a , 12-turn course. It is based on the full layout, and does not include the Chute. This layout, opened in 2003, skips the later section of the Esses (8A and 9) and the run from Turn 10 to Turn 11 (the hairpin), using instead Turn 11a as Turn 11 has no runoff. This hairpin is located just past the drag strip control tower and offers a fairly straight run to the start-finish line. It was used by INDYCAR from 2006 to 2011.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Another factor in removing the hairpin is the fact that the turn is only visible from the garages or the bleachers behind the esses. This is due to grandstands built along the front straight that serve also as the drag strip's grandstands.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The official FIA Grade 2 variant, the Grand Prix layout, was used by INDYCAR from 2012 to 2018 and others. This version uses the end of the dragstrip (instead of the Keyhole) to create a Magny Cours-style hairpin that joints the drag strip to Turn 7 to open an overtaking opportunity. The circuit also modified Turn 9A (the chicane similar to Spa's new Bus Stop) by widening it by to allow for more room. A new Turn 11B has been made, moving further past the drag strip tower (Motorcycle Turn 11), being lengthened by to create a passing zone (it is located just before the race logos painted in Turn 11), and is located where the drag strip staging area is located.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: During the World Touring Car races, the course used most of the Grand Prix layout except for the full Turn 11 hairpin.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: The fastest official all-time track record set during a race weekend on the original Long Grand Prix Road Course is 1:20.683, set by Allan McNish in an Audi R8 during qualifying for the 2000 Grand Prix of Sonoma. The fastest official race lap records at Sonoma Raceway for different classes are listed as:


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Sonoma Raceway has a permanent seating capacity of 47,000. This includes the grandstands and terraces around the track. During major races, hospitality tents and other stages are erected around the track, which brings the total capacity up to 102,000 seats. The facility underwent a major expansion in 2004 which resulted in 64,000 hillside seats, 10,000 permanent grandstand seats, a wastewater treatment facility, of restored wetlands, permanent garages, new retail space, a go-kart track and a new drag strip.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: In the 1970 motorcycle road racing film "Little Fauss and Big Halsy", starring Michael J. Pollard and Robert Redford, Redford's character, Halsy, saw Sears Point as the brass ring in the world of racing, and the film was loosely based around that idea.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Sonoma has been featured in many racing video games, beginning with Papyrus's "NASCAR Racing" for the PC, released in 1994 and has been a frequent addition to NASCAR based games and more recently road course variations have appeared. Bill Elliott's NASCAR Challenge included the course released in 1991. It appeared in "Gran Turismo 4" as Infineon Raceway, and more recently in "Project CARS 2" and recent "Forza Motorsport" titles. It has also been digitally scanned and used in iRacing.


title: Sonoma Raceway

text: Scenes from a Toyota/Save Mart 350 NASCAR race were used in the softcore porn series "Hotel Erotica" in Season 1 Episode 3 "The Fast and the Curious"


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (; ) was the first Russian composer to gain wide recognition within his own country and is often regarded as the fountainhead of Russian classical music. His compositions were an important influence on Russian composers, notably the members of The Five, who produced a distinctive Russian style of music.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Glinka was born in the village of Novospasskoye, not far from the Desna River in the Smolensk Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in the Yelninsky District of the Smolensk Oblast). His wealthy father had retired as an army captain, and the family had a strong tradition of loyalty and service to the tsars, and several members of his extended family had lively cultural interests. His great-great-grandfather was a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth nobleman, Wiktoryn Władysław Glinka of the Trzaska coat of arms who was given lands in the Smolensk Voivodeship. In 1655, Wiktoryn converted to Eastern Orthodoxy with the new name Yakov Yakovlevich (Jacob, son of Jacob), and remained the owner of his lands under the tsar. The coat of arms was originally received after the conversion from Lithuanian Paganism to Catholicism according to the Union of Horodło.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Mikhail was raised by his overprotective and pampering paternal grandmother, who fed him sweets, wrapped him in furs, and confined him to her room, which was kept at Accordingly, he developed a sickly disposition, later in his life retaining the services of numerous physicians, and often falling victim to quacks. The only music he heard in his youthful confinement was the sounds of the village church bells and the folk songs of passing peasant choirs. The church bells were tuned to a dissonant chord, and so his ears became used to strident harmony. While his nurse would sometimes sing folksongs, the peasant choirs who sang using the "podgolosochnaya" technique (an improvised style—literally "under the voice"—using improvised dissonant harmonies below the melody) influenced his independence from the smooth progressions of Western harmony.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: After his grandmother's death, he moved to his maternal uncle's estate some away, where he heard his uncle's orchestra, whose repertoire included Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. At the age of about ten he heard them play a clarinet quartet by Finnish composer Bernhard Henrik Crusell, which had a profound effect upon him. "Music is my soul", he wrote many years later, recalling the experience. While his governess taught him Russian, German, French and geography, he also received instruction on the piano and violin.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: At 13, Glinka went to the capital, Saint Petersburg, to attend a school for children of the nobility. He learned Latin, English, and Persian, studied mathematics and zoology, and considerably widened his musical experience. He had three piano lessons from John Field, the Irish composer of nocturnes, who spent some time in Saint Petersburg. He then continued his piano lessons with Charles Mayer and began composing.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: When he left school his father wanted him to join the Foreign Office, and he was appointed assistant secretary of the Department of Public Highways. The light work allowed Glinka to settle into the life of a musical dilettante, frequenting the city's drawing rooms and social gatherings. He was already composing a large amount of music, such as melancholy romances which amused the rich amateurs. His songs are among the most interesting parts of his work from this period.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: In 1830, at a physician's recommendation, Glinka traveled to Italy with tenor . They took a leisurely pace, ambling through Germany and Switzerland, before settling in Milan. There, Glinka took lessons at the conservatory with Francesco Basili. He struggled with counterpoint, which he found irksome. After three years listening to singers, romancing women with his music, and meeting famous people including Mendelssohn and Berlioz, he became disenchanted with Italy. He realized that his life's mission was to return to Russia, write in a Russian manner, and do for Russian music what Donizetti and Bellini had done for Italian music.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: His return took him through the Alps, and he stopped for a while in Vienna, where he heard the music of Franz Liszt. He stayed another five months in Berlin, where he studied composition under the distinguished teacher Siegfried Dehn. A "Capriccio on Russian Themes" for piano duet and an unfinished "Symphony on Two Russian Themes" were important products of this period.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: When word reached Glinka of his father's death in 1834, he left Berlin and returned to Novospasskoye.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: While in Berlin, Glinka became enamored of a beautiful and talented singer, for whom he composed "Six Studies for Contralto". He contrived a plan to return to her, but when his sister's German maid turned up without the necessary paperwork to cross to the border with him, he abandoned his plan as well as his love and turned north for Saint Petersburg. There he reunited with his mother, and made the acquaintance of Maria Petrovna Ivanova. After a brief courtship, they married, but the marriage was short-lived, as Maria was tactless and uninterested in his music. His initial fondness for her was said to have inspired the trio in the first act of his opera "A Life for the Tsar" (1836), but his naturally sweet disposition coarsened under his wife's and mother-in-law's constant criticism. When the marriage ended, she remarried, and Glinka moved in with his mother, and later with his sister, Lyudmila Shestakova.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: "A Life for the Tsar" was the first of Glinka's two great operas. It was originally entitled "Ivan Susanin". Set in 1612, it tells the story of the Russian peasant and patriotic hero Ivan Susanin who sacrifices his life for the Tsar by leading astray a group of marauding Poles who were hunting him. The Tsar himself followed the work's progress with interest and suggested the change in the title. It was a great success at its premiere on 9 December 1836, under the direction of Catterino Cavos, who had written an opera on the same subject in Italy. The Tsar rewarded Glinka for his work with a ring valued at 4,000 rubles. (During the Soviet era, the opera was staged under its original title, "Ivan Susanin.")


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: In 1837, Glinka was installed as the instructor of the Imperial Chapel Choir, with a yearly salary of 25,000 rubles and lodging at the court. In 1838, at the Tsar's suggestion, he traveled to Ukraine to gather new voices for the choir; the 19 new boys he found earned him another 1,500 rubles from the Tsar.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: He soon embarked on his second opera, "Ruslan and Lyudmila". The plot, based on the tale by Alexander Pushkin, was concocted in 15 minutes by Konstantin Bakhturin, a poet who was drunk at the time. Consequently, the opera is a dramatic muddle, yet the quality of Glinka's music is higher than in "A Life for the Tsar". The override features a descending whole tone scale associated with the villainous dwarf Chernomor, who has abducted Lyudmila, daughter of the Prince of Kiev. There is much Italianate coloratura, and Act 3 contains several routine ballet numbers, but Glinka's great achievement lies in his use of folk melody which becomes thoroughly infused into the musical argument. Much of the borrowed folk material is oriental in origin. When it debuted on 9 December 1842, it was received coolly, but subsequently gained popularity.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Glinka went through a dejected year after the poor reception of "Ruslan and Lyudmila". His spirits rose when he travelled to Paris and Spain. In Spain he met Don Pedro Fernández, his secretary and companion for the last nine years of his life. In Paris, Hector Berlioz conducted some excerpts from Glinka's operas and wrote an appreciative article about him. Glinka in turn admired Berlioz's music and resolved to compose some "fantasies pittoresques" for orchestra. Beginning in 1852, he spent two years in Paris, living quietly and frequently visiting the botanical and zoological gardens. He then moved to Berlin where, after five months, he died suddenly on 15 February 1857, following a cold. He was buried in Berlin, but a few months later his body was taken to Saint Petersburg and reinterred in the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Glinka was the beginning of a new direction in Russian music. Musical culture arrived in Russia from Europe, and for the first time specifically Russian music began to appear, in Glinka's operas. Historical events were often used as its basis, but for the first time they were presented realistically.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: The first to note this new direction was Alexander Serov. He was then joined by his friend Vladimir Stasov, who became the theorist of this cultural trend; it was developed further by composers of "The Five".


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Modern Russian music critic Viktor Korshikov wrote: "Russian musical culture [would not have developed] without...three operas—Ivan Soussanine, Ruslan and Ludmila, and the Stone Guest have created Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov and Borodin. "Soussanine" is an opera where the main character is the people; "Ruslan" is the mythical, deeply Russian intrigue; and in "Guest", the drama dominates over the softness of the beauty of sound." Two of these operas—"Ivan Soussanine" and "Ruslan and Ludmila—"were Glinka's.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Glinka's work, and that of the composers and other creative people he inspired, has been instrumental in the development of a distinctly Russian artistic style that occupies a prominent place in world culture.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: After Glinka's death, the relative merits of his two operas became a topic of heated debate in the musical press, especially between Vladimir Stasov and his former friend Alexander Serov. Glinka's orchestral composition "Kamarinskaya" (1848) was said by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky to be "the acorn from which the oak" of later Russian symphonic music grew.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: In 1884, Mitrofan Belyayev founded the annual Glinka Prize, whose early winners included Alexander Borodin, Mily Balakirev, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Cesar Cui and Anatoly Lyadov.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Outside Russia, several of Glinka's orchestral works have been fairly popular in concerts and recordings. Besides the well-known overtures to the operas (especially the brilliantly energetic overture to "Ruslan"), his major orchestral works include the symphonic poem "Kamarinskaya" (1848), based on Russian folk songs; and two Spanish works, "A Night in Madrid" (1848, 1851) and "Jota Aragonesa" (1845). He also composed many art songs and piano pieces, and some chamber music.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: A lesser work that received attention in the last decade of the 20th century was Glinka's "Patrioticheskaya Pesnya", supposedly written for a contest for a national anthem in 1833. In 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia adopted it as the regional anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which till then was the only Soviet constituent state without its own anthem. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Russian SFSR, the hymn was retained unofficially until it was officially confirmed as the Russian national anthem in 1993, where it remained as such until 2000 when it was replaced by the Soviet anthem with new lyrics.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh named a minor planet 2205 Glinka in his honor. It was discovered in 1973. A crater on Mercury is also named after him.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: Glinkastraße in Berlin was named in Glinka's honor. In the wake of the George Floyd protests, the Berlin U-Bahn station Mohrenstraße was proposed to be renamed "Glinkastraße", which is adjacent to the station. The plan was cancelled due to Glinka's reputed antisemitism.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: In September 2022 a street that was named after Glinka in Dnipro was renamed to honor Queen Elizabeth II.


title: Mikhail Glinka

text: The stirring overture to Glinka's opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" is heard as the theme of the long-running U.S. television comedy series "Mom." Its creators felt the fast-paced, complex orchestral music reflected the characters' struggles to overcome their destructive habits and keep up with the demands of daily life.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The invasion of Iceland (codenamed Operation Fork) by the Royal Navy and Royal Marines occurred on 10 May 1940, during World War II. The invasion took place because the British government feared that Iceland would be used by the Germans, who had recently overrun Denmark, which was in personal union with Iceland and which had previously been largely responsible for Iceland's foreign policy. The Government of Iceland issued a protest, charging that its neutrality had been "flagrantly violated" and "its independence infringed".


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: At the start of the war, the UK imposed strict export controls on Icelandic goods, preventing profitable shipments to Germany, as part of its naval blockade. The UK offered assistance to Iceland, seeking co-operation "as a belligerent and an ally", but the Icelandic government refused and reaffirmed its neutrality. The German diplomatic presence in Iceland, along with the island's strategic importance, alarmed the UK government.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: After failing to persuade the Icelandic government to join the Allies, the UK invaded on the morning of 10 May 1940. The initial force of 746 Royal Marines commanded by Colonel Robert Sturges disembarked at the capital Reykjavík. Meeting no resistance, the troops moved quickly to disable communication networks, secure strategic locations, and arrest German citizens. Requisitioning local transport, the troops moved to Hvalfjörður, Kaldaðarnes, Sandskeið, and Akranes to secure potential landing areas against the possibility of a German counterattack.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: During 1918, after a long period of Danish rule, Iceland had become an independent state in personal union with the Danish king and with common foreign affairs. The newly initiated Kingdom of Iceland declared itself a neutral country without a defence force. The treaty of union allowed for a revision to begin during 1941 and for unilateral termination three years after that, if no agreement was made. By 1928, all Icelandic political parties were in agreement that the union treaty would be terminated as soon as possible.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On 9 April 1940, German forces began Operation Weserübung, invading both Norway and Denmark. Denmark was subdued within a day and occupied. On the same day, the British government sent a message to the Icelandic government, stating that the UK was willing to assist Iceland in maintaining its independence but would require facilities in Iceland to do so. Iceland was invited to join the UK in the war "as a belligerent and an ally." The Icelandic government rejected the offer. On the next day, 10 April, the Icelandic parliament, the Alþingi (or Althing), declared Danish King Christian X unable to perform his constitutional duties and assigned them to the government of Iceland, along with all other responsibilities previously performed by Denmark on behalf of Iceland.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: With Operation Valentine on 12 April 1940, the British occupied the Faroe Islands. After the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, the British government became increasingly concerned that Germany would soon try to establish a military presence in Iceland. They felt that this would constitute an intolerable threat to British control of the North Atlantic. Just as importantly, the British were eager to obtain bases in Iceland for themselves to strengthen their Northern Patrol.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: As the military situation in Norway deteriorated, the Admiralty came to the conclusion that the UK could no longer do without bases in Iceland. On 6 May, Winston Churchill presented the case to the War Cabinet. Churchill maintained that if further negotiations with the Icelandic government were attempted, the Germans might learn of them and act first. A surer and more effective solution was to land troops unannounced and present the Icelandic government with a "fait accompli". The War Cabinet approved the plan.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The expedition was organised hastily and haphazardly. Much of the operational planning was conducted en route. The force was supplied with few maps, most of poor quality, with one of them having been drawn from memory. No one in the expedition was fully fluent with the Icelandic language.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The British planned to land all of their forces at Reykjavík. There, they would overcome any resistance and defeat local Germans. To guard against a German counterattack by sea, they would secure the harbour and send troops by land to nearby Hvalfjörður. The British were also worried that the Germans might airlift troops, as they had done with great success in their Norwegian campaign. To guard against this, troops would drive east to the landing grounds at Sandskeið and Kaldaðarnes. Lastly, troops would be sent by land to the harbour at Akureyri and the landing ground at Melgerði in the north of the country.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The UK Naval Intelligence Division (NID) expected resistance from three possible sources. Local Germans, who were thought to have some arms, might resist or even attempt some sort of coup. In addition, a German invasion force might already be prepared or begun immediately after the British landings. The NID also expected resistance from the Reykjavík police, consisting of some 60 armed men. If by chance a Danish patrol vessel were present in Reykjavík, the Danish sailors might assist the defenders. This concern was needless, as the only Danish naval vessels abroad were in Greenland.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On 3 May 1940, the 2nd Royal Marine Battalion in Bisley, Surrey received orders from London to be ready to move at two hours' notice for an unknown destination. The battalion had been activated only the month before. Though there was a nucleus of active service officers, the troops were new recruits and only partially trained. There was a shortage of weapons, which consisted only of rifles, pistols, and bayonets, while 50 of the marines had only just received their rifles and had not had a chance to fire them. On 4 May, the battalion received some modest additional equipment in the form of Bren light machine guns, anti-tank guns, and 2-inch mortars (). With no time to spare, zeroing of the weapons and initial familiarisation shooting would have to be conducted at sea.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: Assisting arms provided to the force consisted of two 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, four QF 2 pounder naval guns, and two 4-inch coastal defence guns. The guns were manned by troops from the artillery divisions of the Navy and the marines, none of whom had ever fired them. They lacked searchlights, communication equipment, and gun directors.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: Colonel Robert Sturges was assigned to command the force. Aged 49, he was a highly regarded veteran of World War I, having fought in the battle of Gallipoli and the battle of Jutland. He was accompanied by a small intelligence detachment commanded by Major Humphrey Quill and a diplomatic mission managed by Charles Howard Smith. Excluding those, the invasion force consisted of 746 troops.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On 6 May, Force Sturges boarded trains for Greenock on the Firth of Clyde. To avoid drawing attention to itself, the force was divided into two different trains for the journey, but due to delays in rail travel, the troops arrived at the railway station in Greenock about the same time, losing the small degree of anonymity desired. Additionally, security had been compromised by a dispatch uncoded and by the time the troops arrived in Greenock, many people knew that the destination was Iceland.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On the morning of 7 May, the force headed to the harbour in Greenock, where they met the cruisers and , which would take them to Iceland. Boarding commenced but was fraught with problems and delays. Departure was delayed until 8 May, and even then a large amount of equipment and supplies had to be left on the piers.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: At 04:00 on 8 May, the cruisers departed for Iceland. They were accompanied by an anti-submarine escort consisting of the destroyers and . The cruisers were not designed to transport a force of the size assigned to them, and conditions were cramped. Despite reasonably good weather, many of the marines developed severe seasickness. The voyage was used as planned for calibration and familiarisation with the newly acquired weapons. One of the newly recruited marines committed suicide en route. The voyage was uneventful otherwise.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: At 01:47, Icelandic time, on 10 May, HMS "Berwick" used its aircraft catapult to launch a Supermarine Walrus reconnaissance aircraft. The principal aim of the flight was to scout the vicinity of Reykjavík for enemy submarines, which the Naval Intelligence Division had convinced itself were operating out of Icelandic harbours.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The Walrus was given orders not to fly over Reykjavík but – either accidentally or as the result of a miscommunication – it flew several circles over the town, making considerable noise. At this time, Iceland possessed only passenger aircraft, which did not fly at night, so this unusual event awoke and alerted a number of people. Prime Minister of Iceland Hermann Jónasson was alerted about the aircraft, as were the Icelandic Police. The acting chief of police, Einar Arnalds, surmised that it most likely originated from a British warship bringing the expected new ambassador. This was correct, though it was not the whole story.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: , the German consul, was also alerted to the aircraft. Suspecting what was about to happen, he drove down to the harbour with a German associate. With the use of binoculars, he confirmed his fears and then hurried back. At home, he arranged for the burning of his documents and tried unsuccessfully to reach the Icelandic foreign minister by telephone.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: At 03:40, an Icelandic policeman saw a small fleet of warships approaching the harbour, but could not discern their nationality. He notified his superior, who notified Einar Arnalds, the acting chief of police. The laws of neutrality to which Iceland had committed forbade more than three warships from a belligerent nation from making use of a neutral harbour at the same time. Any aeroplanes from such ships were forbidden from flying over neutral territorial waters. Seeing that the approaching fleet was about to violate Icelandic neutrality in two ways, Arnalds began to investigate. Down at the harbour, he viewed the ships for himself and decided they were probably British. He contacted the foreign ministry, which confirmed that he should go out to the fleet and announce to its commander that he was in violation of Icelandic neutrality. Customs officers were ordered to prepare a boat.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: Meanwhile, marines on "Berwick" were being ordered aboard "Fearless", which would take them to the harbour. The seasickness and inexperience of the troops were causing delays and the officers were becoming frustrated. Just before 05:00, "Fearless", loaded with about 400 marines, began moving toward the harbour. A small crowd had assembled, including several policemen still waiting for the customs boat. The British consul had received advance notice of the invasion and was waiting with his associates to assist the troops when they arrived. Uncomfortable with the crowd, Consul Shepherd turned to the Icelandic police. "Would you mind ... getting the crowd to stand back a bit, so that the soldiers can get off the destroyer?" he asked. "Certainly," came the reply.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The "Fearless" started disembarking immediately once it docked. Arnalds asked to speak with the captain of the destroyer, but was refused. He then hastened to report to the Prime Minister, who ordered him not to interfere with the British troops and to try to prevent conflicts between them and Icelanders. Down at the harbour, some of the locals protested against the arrival of the British. One Icelander snatched a rifle from a marine and stuffed a cigarette in it. He then threw it back to the marine and told him to be careful with it. An officer arrived to scold the marine.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The British forces began their operations in Reykjavík by posting a guard at the post office and attaching a flyer to the door. The flyer explained in broken Icelandic that British forces were occupying the city and asked for co-operation in dealing with local Germans. The offices of Landssími Íslands (state telecommunication service), RÚV (broadcasting service), and the Meteorological Office were quickly occupied by the British to prevent news of the invasion from reaching Berlin.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: Meanwhile, high priority was assigned to the capture of the German consulate. Arriving at the consulate, the British troops were relieved to find no sign of resistance and simply knocked on the door. Consul Gerlach opened, protested against the invasion, and reminded the British that Iceland was a neutral country. He was reminded, in turn, that Denmark had also been a neutral country. The British discovered a fire upstairs in the building and found a pile of documents burning in the consul's bathtub. They extinguished the fire and salvaged a substantial number of records.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The British had also expected resistance from the crew of "Bahia Blanca", a German freighter which had hit an iceberg in the Denmark Strait and whose 62-man crew had been rescued by an Icelandic trawler. The Naval Intelligence Division believed the Germans were actually reserve crews for the German submarines they thought were operating out of Iceland. The unarmed Germans were captured without incident.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On the evening of 10 May, the government of Iceland issued a protest, charging that its neutrality had been "flagrantly violated" and "its independence infringed", noting that compensation would be expected for all damage done. The British promised compensation, favourable business agreements, non-interference in Icelandic affairs, and the withdrawal of all forces at the end of the war. In the following days, air defence equipment was deployed in Reykjavík and a detachment of troops sent to Akureyri. However, the initial invasion force was ill-equipped, only partially trained and insufficient to the task of occupation and defence of the island.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: On 17 May, 4,000 additional troops of the Canadian Army arrived to relieve the marines. In July, elements of the 2nd Canadian Division and 3rd Canadian Division were landed. Commonwealth occupation forces eventually totalled 25,000 infantry with elements from the Royal Air Force, Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy. One year after the invasion, forces from the still officially neutral United States were stationed on the island by agreement with the Icelandic government, relieving the bulk of British ground forces. U.S. forces grew considerably after the US joined the war on 7 December 1941, reaching as many as 30,000 army, navy and air force personnel at any one time. The RAF and RCAF continued to operate from two Royal Air Force stations through to the end of the war.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The UK invaded to forestall a German occupation, to provide a base for naval and air patrols, and to protect merchant shipping lanes from North America to Europe. In this the invasion was successful. However, the presence of British, Canadian, and US troops had a lasting impact on the country. Foreign troop numbers in some years equalled 25 percent of the population or almost 50 percent of the native male population. Icelanders were and remain divided about the war and occupation – what is sometimes referred to as "blessað stríðið" or "the Blessed War". Some point to the subsequent economic revival, others to loss of sovereignty and social upheaval.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: The occupation required the building of a network of roads, hospitals, harbours, airfields and bridges across the country, and this did have an enormous positive economic impact. However, the Icelanders severely censured the sexual relationships between troops and local women, which were causing considerable controversy and political turmoil. Women were often accused of prostitution and of being traitors. 255 children were born from these liaisons, the .


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: In 1941, the Icelandic Minister of the Judiciary investigated "The Situation", and the police tracked 500+ women who had been having sex with the soldiers. Many were upset that the foreign troops were "taking away" women, friends, and family. During 1942 two facilities opened to house such women who had relations with the soldiers. Both closed within a year, after investigations determined that most liaisons were consensual. About 332 Icelandic women married foreign soldiers.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: During the occupation, on 17 June 1944, Iceland declared itself a republic. The Keflavík Agreement signed during 1946 between the US and the Republic of Iceland stipulated that the American army would leave the country within six months, and Iceland would take possession of Keflavík Airport. This did not happen for decades, and a substantial US military presence remained in Iceland until 30 September 2006. At the end of hostilities most British facilities were given to the Icelandic government.


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: Although the British action was to forestall any risk of a German invasion, there is no evidence that the Germans had an invasion planned. There was, however, German "interest" in seizing Iceland. In a postwar interview, Walter Warlimont claimed that "Hitler definitely was interested in occupying Iceland prior to [British] occupation. In the first place, he wanted to prevent "anyone else" from coming there; and, in the second place, he also wanted to use Iceland as an air base for the protection of our submarines operating in that area".


title: British invasion of Iceland

text: After the British invasion, the Germans composed a report to examine the feasibility of seizing Iceland, proposed as Operation Ikarus. The report found that while an invasion could be successful, maintaining supply lines would be too costly and the benefits of holding Iceland would not outweigh the costs (there was, for instance, insufficient infrastructure for aircraft in Iceland).


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast belonging to the class Tremellomycetes and an obligate aerobe that can live in both plants and animals. Its teleomorph is a filamentous fungus, formerly referred to "Filobasidiella neoformans". In its yeast state, it is often found in bird excrement. "Cryptococcus neoformans" can cause disease in apparently immunocompetent, as well as immunocompromised, hosts.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: "Cryptococcus neoformans" has undergone numerous nomenclature revisions since its first description in 1895. It formerly contained two varieties: "C. neoformans "var." neoformans" and "C. neoformans " var." grubii". A third variety, "C. neoformans "var." gattii", was later defined as a distinct species, "Cryptococcus gattii". The most recent classification system divides these varieties into seven species. "C. neoformans" refers to "C. neoformans " var." grubii". A new species name, "Cryptococcus deneoformans", is used for the former "C. neoformans "var." neoformans". "C. gattii" is divided into five species.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: The teleomorph was first described in 1975 by K.J. Kwon-Chung, who obtained cultures of "Filobasidiella neoformans" by crossing strains of the yeast "C. neoformans". She was able to observe basidia similar to those of the genus "Filobasidium", hence the name "Filobasidiella" for the new genus. Following changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the practice of giving different names to teleomorph and anamorph forms of the same fungus was discontinued, meaning that "Filobasidiella neoformans" became a synonym of the earlier name "Cryptococcus neoformans".


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: "Cryptococcus neoformans" typically grows as a yeast (unicellular) and replicates by budding. It makes hyphae during mating, and eventually creates basidiospores at the end of the hyphae before producing spores. Under host-relevant conditions, including low glucose, serum, 5% carbon dioxide, and low iron, among others, the cells produce a characteristic polysaccharide capsule. The recognition of "C. neoformans" in Gram-stained smears of purulent exudates may be hampered by the presence of the large gelatinous capsule which apparently prevents definitive staining of the yeast-like cells. In such stained preparations, it may appear either as round cells with Gram-positive granular inclusions impressed upon a pale lavender cytoplasmic background or as Gram-negative lipoid bodies. When grown as a yeast, "C. neoformans" has a prominent capsule composed mostly of polysaccharides. Under the microscope, the India ink stain is used for easy visualization of the capsule in cerebral spinal fluid. The particles of ink pigment do not enter the capsule that surrounds the spherical yeast cell, resulting in a zone of clearance or "halo" around the cells. This allows for quick and easy identification of "C. neoformans". Unusual morphological forms are rarely seen. For identification in tissue, mucicarmine stain provides specific staining of polysaccharide cell wall in "C. neoformans". Cryptococcal antigen from cerebrospinal fluid is thought to be the best test for diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in terms of sensitivity, though it might be unreliable in HIV-positive patients.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: The first genome sequence for a strain of "C. neoformans" (var. "neoformans"; now "C. deneoformans") was published in 2005.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Studies suggest that colonies of "C. neoformans" and related fungi growing on the ruins of the melted down reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant may be able to use the energy of radiation for "radiotrophic" growth.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Infection with "C. neoformans" is termed cryptococcosis. Most infections with "C. neoformans" occur in the lungs. However, fungal meningitis and encephalitis, especially as a secondary infection for AIDS patients, are often caused by "C. neoformans", making it a particularly dangerous fungus. Infections with this fungus are rare in people with fully functioning immune systems, hence "C. neoformans" is often referred to as an opportunistic pathogen. It is a facultative intracellular pathogen that can utilize host phagocytes to spread within the body. "Cryptococcus neoformans" was the first intracellular pathogen for which the non-lytic escape process termed vomocytosis was observed. It has been speculated that this ability to manipulate host cells results from environmental selective pressure by amoebae, a hypothesis first proposed by Arturo Casadevall under the term "accidental virulence".


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: In human infection, "C. neoformans" is spread by inhalation of aerosolized basidiospores, and can disseminate to the central nervous system, where it can cause meningoencephalitis. In the lungs, "C. neoformans" cells are phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Macrophages produce oxidative and nitrosative agents, creating a hostile environment, to kill invading pathogens. However, some "C. neoformans" cells can survive intracellularly in macrophages. Intracellular survival appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to eradication by antifungal agents. One mechanism by which "C. neoformans" survives the hostile intracellular environment of the macrophage involves upregulation of expression of genes involved in responses to oxidative stress.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Traversal of the blood–brain barrier by "C. neoformans" plays a key role in meningitis pathogenesis. However, precise mechanisms by which it passes the blood-brain barrier are still unknown; one recent study in rats suggested an important role of secreted serine proteases. The metalloprotease Mpr1 has been demonstrated to be critical in blood-brain barrier penetration.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: The vast majority of environmental and clinical isolates of "C. neoformans" are mating type alpha. Filaments of mating type alpha have haploid nuclei ordinarily, but these can undergo a process of diploidization (perhaps by endoduplication or stimulated nuclear fusion) to form diploid cells termed blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores are able to undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can then be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. Required for this process is a gene designated "dmc1", a conserved homologue of genes "recA" in bacteria, and "rad51" in eukaryotes (see articles recA and rad51). "Dmc1" mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of double-strand breaks in DNA. One benefit of meiosis in "C. neoformans" could be to promote DNA repair in the DNA-damaging environment caused by the oxidative and nitrosative agents produced in macrophages. Thus, "C. neoformans" can undergo a meiotic process, monokaryotic fruiting, that may promote recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA-damaging environment of the host macrophage, and this may contribute to its virulence.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Infection starts in lungs, disseminates via blood to meninges and then to other parts of the body. Capsule inhibits phagocytosis. Can cause a systemic infection, including fatal meningitis known as "meningoencephalitis" in normal, diabetic and immunocompromised hosts. The infection from "C. neoformans" in the brain can be fatal if untreated. CNS (central nervous system) infection may also be present as a brain abscess known as "cryptococcomas", subdural effusion, dementia, isolated cranial nerve lesion, spinal cord lesion, and ischemic stroke. If cryptococcal meningitis occurs, mortality rate is between 10 and 30%.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Cryptococcosis that does not affect the central nervous system can be treated with fluconazole alone.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Cryptococcal meningitis should be treated for two weeks with intravenous amphotericin B 0.7–1.0 mg/kg/day and oral flucytosine 100 mg/kg/day (or intravenous flucytosine 75 mg/kg/day if the patient is unable to swallow). This should then be followed by oral fluconazole 400–800 mg daily for ten weeks and then 200 mg daily for at least one year and until the patient's CD4 count is above 200 cells/mcl. Flucytosine is a generic, off-patent medicine. However, a market failure exists, with a two-week cost of flucytosine therapy being about $10,000. As a result, flucytosine is currently universally unavailable in low- and middle-income countries. In 1970, flucytosine was available in Africa.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: Intravenous ambisome 4 (mg/kg)/day may be used but is not superior; its main use is in patients who do not tolerate amphotericin B. The dose of 200 mg/kg/day for flucytosine is not more effective, is associated with more side effects and should not be used.


title: Cryptococcus neoformans

text: In Africa, oral fluconazole at a rate of 200 mg daily is often used. However, this does not result in cure, because it merely suppresses the fungus and does not kill it; viable fungus can continue to be grown from cerebrospinal fluid of patients not having taken fluconazole for many months. An increased dose of 400 mg daily does not improve outcomes, but prospective studies from Uganda and Malawi reported that higher doses of 1200 mg per day have more fungicidal activity. The outcomes with fluconazole monotherapy have 30% worse survival than amphotericin-based therapies, in a recent systematic review.


title: Architectural Digest

text: Architectural Digest is an American monthly magazine founded in 1920. Its principal subjects are interior design and landscaping, rather than pure external architecture. The magazine is published by Condé Nast, which also publishes international editions of "Architectural Digest" in Italy, China, France, Germany, India, Spain, Mexico/Latin America and the Middle East


title: Architectural Digest

text: "Architectural Digest" is aimed at an affluent and style-conscious readership, and is subtitled "The International Design Authority." The magazine releases the annual AD100 list, which recognizes the most influential interior designers and architects around the world.


title: Architectural Digest

text: "Architectural Digest" also hosts a popular online video series entitled "Open Door" that gives an in-depth look at the unique homes of various prominent celebrities and public figures.


title: Architectural Digest

text: Originally a quarterly trade directory called "The Architectural Digest: A Pictorial Digest of California's Best Architecture", the magazine was launched in 1920 by John Coke Brasfield (1880–1962). Brasfield, born in Tennessee, moved to southern California in the early 1900s, where he founded the John C. Brasfield Publishing Corporation in Los Angeles. Interiors and exteriors of residences were featured in the magazine, along with floor plans.


title: Architectural Digest

text: By 1963, the magazine's subtitle had been altered to "A Pictorial Digest of Outstanding Architecture, Interior Design, and Landscaping", and it began publishing on a bimonthly schedule. In 1965, "The Architectural Digest" and its publishing company were purchased by Cleon T. Knapp, who was the magazine's "jack-of-all-trades" and Brasfield's grandson. Knapp son of Brasfield's daughter Sarah "Sally" Brasfield Knapp (1910–1996), who served, at various times, as the magazine's editor in chief, managing editor, and associate publisher. The magazine's subtitle was altered to "The Quality Guide to Home Decorating Ideas" in 1966, and was changed again, in 1971, to "The Connoisseur's Magazine of Fine Interior Design", and in 1976 to "The International Magazine of Fine Interior Design". The John C. Brasfield Publishing Company was renamed Knapp Communications Corporation in 1977.


title: Architectural Digest

text: Condé Nast Publications purchased "Architectural Digest", as well as its sister publication "Bon Appétit", from Knapp in 1993.


title: Architectural Digest

text: In 2011 the Chinese version of the magazine, "AD China", was launched. The magazine is also published in other countries, including Germany, India, France Italy, United States and Spain.


title: Architectural Digest

text: Architectural Digest won the 2020 Webby People’s Voice Award for Architecture & Design in the category Web.


title: Architectural Digest

text: "Architectural Digest" employees unionized in 2022. Also in 2022 Architectural Digest Russia closed after Condé Nast pulled out of Russia.


title: Architectural Digest

text: Since the 2010 change in leadership, the magazine has seen a shift towards featuring lighter, more open interiors, brighter photography, and a modern graphic style.


title: Ao-chan Can't Study!

text: Back when she was in kindergarten, Ao Horie shared a short essay about herself, which she soon regrets, because of her father, Hanasaki Horie, who is an author of erotic novels. Ao aims to go to an elite university to finally get away from her father, but soon she meets Takumi Kijima in their first year in high school. Ao can't think of a way to avoid Takumi and constantly thinks of them being with each other as a couple. Ao believes her father has influenced her way of thinking.


title: Ao-chan Can't Study!

text: "Ao-chan Can't Study!", written and illustrated by Ren Kawahara, was serialized in Kodansha's "Shōnen Magazine Edge" magazine from October 2015 to December 2018. Kodansha USA has licensed the manga in North America, which has been releasing the manga digitally in English since September 2018. It was compiled into eight "tankōbon" volumes. A sequel manga began serialization in January 2019.


title: Ao-chan Can't Study!

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced on December 4, 2018. The series is animated by Silver Link and directed by Keisuke Inoue, with Michiko Yokote handled series composition, and Miwa Oshima designed the characters. It aired from April 6 to June 22, 2019 on the Animeism programming block on MBS, TBS, and BS-TBS. Edoga Sullivan performed the series' opening theme song "Wonderful Wonder", while Spira Spica performed the series' ending theme song . Sentai Filmworks has licensed the series for international regions, excluding Asia; an English dub was produced. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, Muse Communication streamed the series on its Muse Asia YouTube channel.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is a city in San Bernardino County, California, United States on the border with neighboring Los Angeles County. The municipality is located at an elevation of 1,242 feet (379 m). As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 79,040, up from 73,732 at the 2010 census and 68,393 at the 2000 census. It was incorporated on May 15, 1906, after previously being named "North Ontario." Upland is located at the foot of the highest part of the San Gabriel Mountains. The suburb is part of the Inland Empire, a metropolitan area situated directly east of the Los Angeles metropolitan area.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is located at the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains on an east–west trail that was used by the Native Americans and Spanish missionaries, part of what is now known as the Old Spanish Trail. To the west, the trail led to the San Gabriel Mission, which Spanish Missionaries built in 1771.


title: Upland, California

text: In 1774, Spanish explorer Juan Bautista de Anza established an overland route from Arizona to California, with part of the trail passing through present day Upland on the way to the San Gabriel Mission. Anza's route went through Yuma, the San Gorgonio Pass and through the San Bernardino Valley. In 1775, Anza led a second expedition consisting of more than 240 people on a journey of over two thousand miles to the San Francisco Bay. En route, the expedition reached the San Gabriel Mission on January 4, 1776. The expedition reached the San Francisco Bay on June 27, 1776, where Anza founded the present day city of San Francisco. Five years later, in 1781, Spanish settlers followed Anza's route to found the city of Los Angeles a few miles west of the San Gabriel Mission.


title: Upland, California

text: Following the Anza expedition, the San Gabriel Mission became an important stopping place for expeditions traveling between Arizona and California. The mission was the first place where supplies could be procured after crossing the desert, and as travel over this road increased, the mission arranged to establish a supply station at some intermediate point east. In 1810, a party of missionaries, soldiers, and Native Americans from San Gabriel mission, under the leadership of Padre Dumetz, were sent out to select a location. On the 20th of May, 1810, they came into the San Bernardino Valley. This, according to the Roman Catholic Calendar of Saints, was the feast day of Saint Bernardino of Siena, and they named the valley in his honor. The expedition named the area around Upland "Cucamonga," which in the Tongvan language meant "sand place."


title: Upland, California

text: Jedediah Smith of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company was the first American to enter California overland. He started from the Yellowstone River, August, 1826, with a party of fifteen men. Their course was down the Colorado River to the Mojave, where they found two Native Americans, who guided them across the desert to San Gabriel Mission. Smith pioneered the route over the Cajon Pass, where he then joined the foothill route established by Anza, arriving at San Gabriel on November 27. California was part of Mexico at the time, so Smith was briefly arrested by the Mexican governor before being released.


title: Upland, California

text: In 1829, Mexican explorer Antonio Armijo led the first successful caravan from Santa Fe to Southern California, joining up with Smith's route to open what would later be called the Old Spanish Trail. The route resulted in immediate commerce between Santa Fe and Los Angeles. Pack trains made annual treks between New Mexico and California, bringing woven Mexican products to California, which lacked sheep, and bartering them for horses and mules, scarce in New Mexico. The trail carried mule-trains over the Cajon Pass, then west through Rancho Cucamonga, Upland, and El Monte, to the region's major settlements at Mission San Gabriel and Los Angeles.


title: Upland, California

text: From the time of the Anza expedition until the Mexican Rancho Period, the land around Upland was used as grazing land by the San Gabriel Mission. Under mission rule, cattle ranching became a major industry. The rangy cattle thrived and bred rapidly in the benign climate, and thousands of cattle wandered across the Cucamonga Rancho. Following the secularization of the missions by the Mexican government, the Cucamonga Rancho was granted to Tiburcio Tapia in 1839. Upon the death of Tapia in 1845, the Rancho passed to his daughter and her husband, Leon V. Prudhomme. An 1886 report by the California Surveyor General listed the size of the Cucamonga Rancho as 13,045 acres.


title: Upland, California

text: California became part of the United States at the end of the Mexican–American War in 1846, and American settlers began to arrive in California in large numbers with the California Gold Rush of 1849. The Cucamonga Rancho changed hands several times, but the area that present-day Upland occupies was little more than an uninhabited ranchland and a place to pass through until the arrival of George Chaffey in 1882. Chaffey, a Canadian shipbuilder from the province of Ontario, had already established the Etiwanda irrigation community in 1881, irrigating the land with a series of flumes carried water from the mountains to a reservoir from which water would then be sent to the relative land sites. In 1882, Chaffey purchased 6,216 acres of land in the Cucamonga Rancho, along with significant water rights from San Antonio Creek, for $60,000 Additional purchases brought the size of the land to over 8,000 acres of land for a total purchase price of $90,000


title: Upland, California

text: Chaffey's master plan called for distributing the water over the whole tract to each farm lot in cement pipes, with each holder to share in the water proportionately to his holding irrespective of distance from the source. Chaffey also laid out the main thoroughfare which ran from one end of the settlement to the other. He also named the "main thoroughfare" Euclid in honor of his favorite mathematician. Euclid Avenue was seven miles long, stretching from the colony's "southernmost boundaries to the mountains." Euclid was planned as a "200-foot-wide double drive ... [with a] center parkway to be flanked by a 65-foot-wide drive on each side. Chaffey also planned for electricity in Ontario with street lamps being placed a mile apart on Euclid and an electric streetcar that would travel up and down Euclid daily. Ontario was available for settlement on November 1, 1882. During the first week, Chaffey sold 190 acres for a total value of $28,500.


title: Upland, California

text: To ensure the success of this irrigation plan and to appeal to potential land buyers, the Chaffey created a "mutual water company" in which each landowner became a stockholder. The San Antonio Water Company was incorporated on October 25, 1882.


title: Upland, California

text: The Ontario colony eventually became known for its citrus groves, but in 1882, orange trees were too scarce and expensive at $100 an acre to turn to citrus, so at first other types of fruit were planted. By 1884, Ontario Nursery owner D.A. Shaw reported that there were "40,000 peach trees, 29,000 pear trees, 15,000 seedling apple trees, 16,000 grafted apple trees, 1,000 cherry trees, and 16,000 grape cuttings set out in orchards and vineyards." However, by 1889, some 2,000 acres of citrus orchards had been planted on Ontario, and Ontario was rated as having the second largest citrus acreage in the state.


title: Upland, California

text: The present-day city of Upland was the originally northern part of Chaffee's Ontario Model Colony, and was known as "North Ontario" or "Magnolia" after a local hotel. The name Upland was first used as the name of the "Upland Citrus Association." Long-time resident Charles D. Adams, organizer and first elected president of the Association, was credited with choosing the name. However, by 1902, the name "Upland" was used to refer to the entire area of North Ontario.


title: Upland, California

text: The railway came to North Ontario in 1887. When the Ontario Colony was founded, downtown was located next to the Southern Pacific tracks. In 1887 the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe completed its connection adjacent to the newly founded Magnolia Tract in North Ontario. Subdividers of Magnolia, the Bedford Brothers, announced plans to erect a depot at the foot of Second Avenue, the primary business street. A notice in the December 1887 Ontario Record indicated that the cost of the station would be $7,000. In the next decades numerous packing houses were built close to the tracks on both sides of A Street. Used for commuting of residents and tourists as well as for freight, the railroad linked Upland to Los Angeles to the west and the rest of the Santa Fe network to the east.


title: Upland, California

text: Ontario officially incorporated in 1891, but the size of incorporation was relatively small; a half-square mile bordered by the “Southern Pacific tract to the south, G Street to the north, Sultana Avenue to the east and Vine Avenue to the west." In 1901, residents of Ontario learned that those living in North Ontario were also thinking of incorporation as their own city. In order to eliminate this possibility, the city expanded their half-square mile to over 10 square miles.


title: Upland, California

text: When Ontario started to push for a larger area of incorporation, Upland residents expressed concern. The area of land that Ontario wanted included the Upland Post Office, the tracks for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, and the train depot. On March 12, 1906, the San Bernardino Board of Supervisors conducted a two-day hearing and agreed that a vote for incorporation should take place. On May 5, 1906, Upland approved their vote for incorporation with 183 in favor and 19 against. The city was officially created on May 15, 1906, by the Secretary of State in Sacramento. In 1935, Upland's boundary lines were redrawn to include the land that was annexed in Ontario's 1902 expansion.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland's first hospital, the San Antonio Hospital, opened on the corner of Arrow Highway and San Antonio Avenue in 1907, one year after Upland was incorporated as a city. The hospital had 18 beds with a medical staff of five physicians. It was built with funds received from community stock sales. The expanded San Antonio Community Hospital was dedicated on Wednesday, July 30, 1924. This new hospital, "commodiously and scientifically constructed," according to a news article in the Upland News, had 35 rooms with a capacity for 50 patients. The total cost for this new facility, located on East San Bernardino Road, was $173,107.10.


title: Upland, California

text: In 1911, the citizens of Upland created a volunteer fire department with F.H. Manker named as the Fire Chief. The first recorded piece of apparatus was a hose cart that was pulled by the first available personnel. In 1913, the first serious fire to occur in the new community destroyed all the businesses on the east side of Second Avenue south of Ninth Street. This fire generated interest in further protecting the community, and in 1915 the fire station on D Street was built. The first motorized fire engine was purchased at this time. In 2017, the Upland Fire Department dissolved and became a part of the San Bernardino County fire district.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland was one of the cities located on the National Old Trails Road, established in 1912 as the first national coast-to-coast highway. In Upland, the national highway ran along Foothill Boulevard, which had been built on the route established by the early Spanish explorers. In 1926, a hundred years after Jedediah Smith's expedition, the western part of the National Old Trails Road became part of the famed Route 66.


title: Upland, California

text: A trolley line in the broad, tree-lined median of Euclid Avenue formerly connected Upland to the Southern Pacific Railroad line in Ontario. The trolley was pulled from Ontario to Upland by a mule, which then climbed aboard an attached trailer for the ride back down.


title: Upland, California

text: The citrus industry in Upland and neighboring Ontario continued to thrive, and by the 1930s, citrus had become the dominant agricultural crop for California. In 1936, the revenue from the citrus industry totaled $97,000,000. This was second in profit only to the California petroleum industry, which totaled $159,500,000. At the height of citrus production, the industry produced sixty percent of the nation's citrus supply and twenty percent of the world's supply. This success continued for citrus growers until the mid-1940s, when the citrus industry as a whole began its decline. After World War II, land values began to skyrocket, and growers began to sell their land to developers.


title: Upland, California

text: In 1954, the San Bernardino Freeway, later part of Interstate 10, was completed, connecting Los Angeles to San Bernardino. The freeway, one of the first in the nation, eased the commute to Los Angeles and accelerated the transition of Upland from a rural citrus area to a residential and commercial community.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is located on the northern edge of the San Bernardino Valley. The San Gabriel Mountains are to the north of Upland. The city terrain is fairly flat but slopes gradually upward to the north. From south to north, the city elevation increases by 825 feet over a distance of 4.25 miles, from 1,175 feet at the intersection of 7th Street and Euclid Avenue (southern city boundary) to an elevation of 2,000 ft at the intersection of 24th Street and Euclid Avenue (northern city boundary). The highest peak in the San Gabriels, Mount San Antonio, known locally as Mount Baldy, is approximately 9.5 miles north of the Upland's northern boundary and caps out at 10,064 feet.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is bordered on the east by Rancho Cucamonga, to the south by Ontario and Montclair, to the west by Claremont, and to the north by the unincorporated community of San Antonio Heights.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland has semi-arid climate with most of the rainfall occurring during the winter months. The average annual rainfall is 24.5 inches. The highest recorded temperature was 113 °F in July 2006. The lowest recorded temperature was 21 °F in January 1963. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Upland has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.


title: Upland, California

text: The 2020 United States Census reported that Upland had a population of 79,040. The population density was . The racial makeup of Upland was 60.6% White (36.8% Non-Hispanic White), 6.5% African American, 0.9% Native American, 8.9% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 9.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 44.1%.


title: Upland, California

text: There were 26,654 households, averaging 2.88 people, with 30.6% of people over the age of five living in a home where a language other then English is spoken. While 90.1% of households had a broadband Internet subscription, 94.7% of households had a computer. Of people over 1 year old, 86.5% lived in the same home a year previously.


title: Upland, California

text: The census reported 5.8% of the population was under the age of 5 and 21.8% under the age of 18. People 65 years of age or older made up 14.9% of the population. The population was 51.9% female and included 3,356 veterans. People born outside the United States made up 17.6% of the population.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland had a median household income of $76,259, with a per capita income of $35,624 annually and 11.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Upland, California

text: Among the population age 16+ years old, 66.3% were in the civilian labor force. Workers in this demographic reported a mean time to work of 31.1 minutes.


title: Upland, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Upland had a population of 73,732. The population density was . The racial makeup of Upland was 48,364 (65.6%) White (44.2% Non-Hispanic White), 5,400 (7.3%) African American, 522 (0.7%) Native American, 6,217 (8.4%) Asian, 159 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 9,509 (12.9%) from other races, and 3,561 (4.8%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 28,035 persons (38.0%).


title: Upland, California

text: The Census reported that 73,050 people (99.1% of the population) lived in households, 305 (0.4%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 377 (0.5%) were institutionalized.


title: Upland, California

text: There were 25,823 households, out of which 9,770 (37.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,400 (51.9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 4,026 (15.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,557 (6.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,533 (5.9%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 219 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,159 households (20.0%) were made up of individuals, and 1,786 (6.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83. There were 18,983 families (73.5% of all households); the average family size was 3.26.


title: Upland, California

text: The population was spread out, with 18,091 people (24.5%) under the age of 18, 7,504 people (10.2%) aged 18 to 24, 19,917 people (27.0%) aged 25 to 44, 19,322 people (26.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 8,898 people (12.1%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males.


title: Upland, California

text: There were 27,355 housing units at an average density of , of which 14,948 (57.9%) were owner-occupied, and 10,875 (42.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 8.3%. 42,560 people (57.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 30,490 people (41.4%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Upland, California

text: During 2009–2013, Upland had a median household income of $62,667, with 13.5% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Upland, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 68,393 people, 24,551 households, and 17,873 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,523.9 inhabitants per square mile (1,746.5/km). There were 25,467 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 67.2% White, 7.6% African American, 0.8% Native American, 7.3% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 12.3% from other races, and 4.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 27.5% of the population.


title: Upland, California

text: There were 24,551 households, out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.2% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.8 and the average family size was 3.2.


title: Upland, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.3% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.7 males.


title: Upland, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $48,734, and the median income for a family was $57,471. Males had a median income of $43,485 versus $29,973 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,343. About 9.1% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Upland, California

text: According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Upland, California

text: Upland Fire Department Museum. The museum is housed in the first fire station in the city. The museum houses fire fighting equipment and photographs. The station building dates back to 1915. The museum houses the original Upland fire truck from 1916.


title: Upland, California

text: Cooper Regional History Museum. The former headquarters of the Ontario-Cucamonga (O.K.) Fruit Exchange is a 1937 Art Moderne style building on the corner of Second Avenue and "A" Street, in Upland. The largest room is dedicated to the wine and citrus history of the area, with a smaller room with Native American photos and tools, and a hallway bursting with photographs and antique furniture.


title: Upland, California

text: Inland Empire Museum of Art (IEMA) was founded 2015 in as a nonprofit art museum located in Upland, California. The museum relies on donations and public support.


title: Upland, California

text: The Upland Lemon Festival began in 1997 and is celebrated annually in April. The festival celebrates the city's citrus industry and includes the Lemon Idol vocal contest, food competitions, and carnival rides. The festival is held in downtown Upland.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is known in Southern California skateboard culture as a spot for vertical skateboarding. Several famous skateboarders have visited the city, known as "Badlands" in skateboarding culture due to its geographical location. On Saturday May 19, 2012, Mayor Ray Musser acknowledged local Stan Hoffman, the owner of the now defunct Pipeline Skatepark, by giving him a lifetime achievement for his contribution to the skate culture.


title: Upland, California

text: In 1929, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed a "Madonna of the Trail" statue in Upland at the intersection of Foothill Boulevard and Euclid Avenue. The twelve "Madonna of the Trail" statues, created by sculptor August Leimbach, mark the route of the National Old Trails road with the westernmost statue being that in Upland. One of the inscriptions on the base of the "Madonna of the Trail" statue notes that, in 1826, Jedediah Smith passed through what later became Upland, leading a band of 16 trappers in an expedition that marked the first American entry into California over land.


title: Upland, California

text: While Route 66 was disestablished in 1985, remnants of the classic highway can still be seen today on Foothill Boulevard in Upland, including a "classic" McDonald's with the original golden arches and the vintage Buffalo Inn, where buffalo burgers have been served since 1929.


title: Upland, California

text: Euclid Avenue was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. The 3-mile Bridle Path runs down the center of Euclid Avenue from Foothill Boulevard to 24th Street. The Bridle Path is also used for walking and jogging.


title: Upland, California

text: The oldest part of Upland is east of Euclid between 8th Street and Arrow Highway, and was originally known as “Old Magnolia”. Historic Downtown Upland, is a group of downtown merchants who work together to promote and enhance the historic business district. Downtown is made up of nearly 200 businesses providing a diversity of merchandise, restaurants, breweries and services. The Upland Farmers Market is held in downtown Upland every Saturday from April through October.


title: Upland, California

text: In the United States House of Representatives, the northern part of Upland is in . The southern part of Upland is in . The dividing line between the two districts mainly follows 14th Street.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is home to Cable Airport, the world's largest family-owned, public use, general aviation airport. Nearby Ontario International Airport and more distant Los Angeles International Airport offer commercial flights.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is served by the Metrolink commuter rail system on the San Bernardino Line. Metrolink's San Bernardino Line runs from Los Angeles Union Station to San Bernardino. The line was built in 1887 by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. AT&SF ceased passenger operations in the late 1960s, but Metrolink acquired the railroad tracks in 1992 and resumed passenger transportation. The Upland Metrolink Station is located at the site of the AT&SF station built in 1937. The 1937 station house is currently used by a retail store, but the rail platform is used for Metrolink operations. The Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway continues to operate rail freight on the line.


title: Upland, California

text: Euclid Avenue is part of California Highway 83, a north–south routh that connects to Ontario and Chino to the south. Foothill Boulevard is part of California Highway 66, an east–west route that was formerly part of U.S. Route 66.


title: Upland, California

text: Interstate 10 runs along Upland's boundary with Ontario, and connects Upland with Los Angeles to the west and San Bernardino the east. The east–west running State Route 210 (future Interstate 210) runs through the northern part of Upland, connecting to Pasadena to the west and San Bernardino to the east.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is served by the Upland Unified School District. Part of Upland falls within the Chaffey Joint Union High School District, but none of the CJUHSD schools are located in Upland.


title: Upland, California

text: Upland is mentioned in the 2008 Keanu Reeves film "Street Kings" as the home of LAPD Internal Affairs Captain James Biggs (played by Hugh Laurie).


title: Upland, California

text: The city is also notable as the location of the TLC TV series "Dr. Pimple Popper". The series is a spin-off of the YouTube channel of dermatologist Sandra Lee, who became a major Internet celebrity after posting videos of her procedures. The primary location for both the TV series and YouTube videos is Skin Physicians & Surgeons, a clinic operated by Lee and her dermatologist husband Jeffrey Rebish.


title: Copolymer

text: In polymer chemistry, a copolymer is a polymer derived from more than one species of monomer. The polymerization of monomers into copolymers is called copolymerization. Copolymers obtained from the copolymerization of two monomer species are sometimes called "bipolymers". Those obtained from three and four monomers are called "terpolymers" and "quaterpolymers", respectively. Copolymers can be characterized by a variety of techniques such as NMR spectroscopy and size-exclusion chromatography to determine the molecular size, weight, properties, and composition of the material.


title: Copolymer

text: Commercial copolymers include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), styrene/butadiene co-polymer (SBR), nitrile rubber, styrene-acrylonitrile, styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS) and ethylene-vinyl acetate, all of which are formed by chain-growth polymerization. Another production mechanism is step-growth polymerization, which is used to produce the nylon-12/6/66 copolymer of nylon 12, nylon 6 and nylon 66, as well as the copolyester family. Copolymers can be used to develop commercial goods or drug delivery vehicles.


title: Copolymer

text: Since a copolymer consists of at least two types of constituent units (also structural units), copolymers can be classified based on how these units are arranged along the chain. "Linear copolymers" consist of a single main chain and include alternating copolymers, statistical copolymers, and block copolymers. "Branched copolymers" consist of a single main chain with one or more polymeric side chains, and can be grafted, star shaped, or have other architectures.


title: Copolymer

text: The "reactivity ratio" of a growing copolymer chain terminating in a given monomer is the ratio of the reaction rate constant for addition of the same monomer and the rate constant for addition of the other monomer. That is, formula_1 and formula_2, where for example formula_3 is the rate constant for propagation of a polymer chain ending in monomer 1 (or A) by addition of monomer 2 (or B).


title: Copolymer

text: The composition and structural type of the copolymer depend on these reactivity ratios r and r according to the Mayo–Lewis equation, also called the copolymerization equation or copolymer equation, for the relative instantaneous rates of incorporation of the two monomers.


title: Copolymer

text: Block copolymers comprise two or more homopolymer subunits linked by covalent bonds. The union of the homopolymer subunits may require an intermediate non-repeating subunit, known as a junction block. Diblock copolymers have two distinct blocks; triblock copolymers have three. Technically, a block is a portion of a macromolecule, comprising many units, that has at least one feature which is not present in the adjacent portions. A possible sequence of repeat units A and B in a triblock copolymer might be ~A-A-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-B-B-A-A-A-A-A~.


title: Copolymer

text: Block copolymers are made up of blocks of different polymerized monomers. For example, polystyrene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) or PS-b-PMMA (where b = block) is usually made by first polymerizing styrene, and then subsequently polymerizing methyl methacrylate (MMA) from the reactive end of the polystyrene chains. This polymer is a "diblock copolymer" because it contains two different chemical blocks. Triblocks, tetrablocks, multiblocks, etc. can also be made. Diblock copolymers are made using living polymerization techniques, such as atom transfer free radical polymerization (ATRP), reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT), ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), and living cationic or living anionic polymerizations. An emerging technique is chain shuttling polymerization.


title: Copolymer

text: The synthesis of block copolymers requires that both reactivity ratios are much larger than unity (r » 1, r » 1) under the reaction conditions, so that the terminal monomer unit of a growing chain tends to add a similar unit most of the time.


title: Copolymer

text: The "blockiness" of a copolymer is a measure of the adjacency of comonomers vs their statistical distribution. Many or even most synthetic polymers are in fact copolymers, containing about 1-20% of a minority monomer. In such cases, blockiness is undesirable. A "block index" has been proposed as a quantitative measure of blockiness or deviation from random monomer composition.


title: Copolymer

text: An alternating copolymer has regular alternating A and B units, and is often described by the formula: -A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-, or -(-A-B-)-. The molar ratio of each monomer in the polymer is normally close to one, which happens when the reactivity ratios r and r are close to zero, as can be seen from the Mayo–Lewis equation. For example, in the free-radical copolymerization of styrene maleic anhydride copolymer, r = 0.097 and r = 0.001, so that most chains ending in styrene add a maleic anhydride unit, and almost all chains ending in maleic anhydride add a styrene unit. This leads to a predominantly alternating structure.


title: Copolymer

text: A step-growth copolymer -(-A-A-B-B-)- formed by the condensation of two bifunctional monomers A–A and B–B is in principle a perfectly alternating copolymer of these two monomers, but is usually considered as a homopolymer of the dimeric repeat unit A-A-B-B. An example is nylon 66 with repeat unit -OC-( CH)-CO-NH-(CH)-NH-, formed from a dicarboxylic acid monomer and a diamine monomer.


title: Copolymer

text: Periodic copolymers have units arranged in a repeating sequence. For two monomers A and B, for example, they might form the repeated pattern (A-B-A-B-B-A-A-A-A-B-B-B).


title: Copolymer

text: In statistical copolymers the sequence of monomer residues follows a statistical rule. If the probability of finding a given type monomer residue at a particular point in the chain is equal to the mole fraction of that monomer residue in the chain, then the polymer may be referred to as a truly random copolymer (structure 3).


title: Copolymer

text: Statistical copolymers are dictated by the reaction kinetics of the two chemically distinct monomer reactants, and are commonly referred to interchangeably as “random” in the polymer literature. As with other types of copolymers, random copolymers can have interesting and commercially desirable properties that blend those of the individual homopolymers. Examples of commercially relevant random copolymers include rubbers made from styrene-butadiene copolymers and resins from styrene-acrylic or methacrylic acid derivatives. Copolymerization is particularly useful in tuning the glass transition temperature, which is important in the operating conditions of polymers; it is assumed that each monomer occupies the same amount of free volume whether it is in a copolymer or homopolymer, so the glass transition temperature (T) falls between the values for each homopolymer and is dictated by the mole or mass fraction of each component.


title: Copolymer

text: A number of parameters are relevant in the composition of the polymer product; namely, one must consider the reactivity ratio of each component. Reactivity ratios describe whether the monomer reacts preferentially with a segment of the same type or of the other type. For example, a reactivity ratio that is less than one for component 1 indicates that this component reacts with the other type of monomer more readily. Given this information, which is available for a multitude of monomer combinations in the “Wiley Database of Polymer Properties”, the Mayo-Lewis equation can be used to predict the composition of the polymer product for all initial mole fractions of monomer. This equation is derived using the Markov model, which only considers the last segment added as affecting the kinetics of the next addition; the Penultimate Model considers the second-to-last segment as well, but is more complicated than is required for most systems. When both reactivity ratios are less than one, there is an azeotropic point in the Mayo-Lewis plot. At this point, the mole fraction of monomer equals the composition of the component in the polymer.


title: Copolymer

text: There are several ways to synthesize random copolymers. The most common synthesis method is free radical polymerization; this is especially useful when the desired properties rely on the composition of the copolymer rather than the molecular weight, since free radical polymerization produces relatively disperse polymer chains. Free radical polymerization is less expensive than other methods, and produces high-molecular weight polymer quickly. Several methods offer better control over dispersity. Anionic polymerization can be used to create random copolymers, but with several caveats: if carbanions of the two components do not have the same stability, only one of the species will add to the other. Additionally, anionic polymerization is expensive and requires very clean reaction conditions, and is therefore difficult to implement on a large scale. Less disperse random copolymers are also synthesized by ″living″ controlled radical polymerization methods, such as atom-transfer radical-polymerization (ATRP), nitroxide mediated radical polymerization (NMP), or Reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization (RAFT). These methods are favored over anionic polymerization because they can be performed in conditions similar to free radical polymerization. The reactions require longer experimentation periods than free radical polymerization, but still achieve reasonable reaction rates.


title: Copolymer

text: There are a variety of architectures possible for nonlinear copolymers. Beyond grafted and star polymers discussed below, other common types of branched copolymers include brush copolymers and comb copolymers.


title: Copolymer

text: Graft copolymers are a special type of branched copolymer wherein the side chains are structurally distinct from the main chain. Typically, the main chain is formed from one type of monomer (A) and branches are formed from another monomer (B), or the side-chains have constitutional or configurational features that differ from those in the main chain.


title: Copolymer

text: The individual chains of a graft copolymer may be homopolymers or copolymers. Note that different copolymer sequencing is sufficient to define a structural difference, thus an A-B diblock copolymer with A-B alternating copolymer side chains is properly called a graft copolymer.


title: Copolymer

text: For example, polystyrene chains may be grafted onto polybutadiene, a synthetic rubber which retains one reactive C=C double bond per repeat unit. The polybutadiene is dissolved in styrene, which is then subjected to free-radical polymerization. The growing chains can add across the double bonds of rubber molecules forming polystyrene branches. The graft copolymer is formed in a mixture with ungrafted polystyrene chains and rubber molecules.


title: Copolymer

text: As with block copolymers, the quasi-composite product has properties of both "components." In the example cited, the rubbery chains absorb energy when the substance is hit, so it is much less brittle than ordinary polystyrene. The product is called high-impact polystyrene, or HIPS.


title: Copolymer

text: Block copolymers can "microphase separate" to form periodic nanostructures, such as styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer. The polymer is known as Kraton and is used for shoe soles and adhesives. Owing to the microfine structure, transmission electron microscope or TEM was used to examine the structure. The butadiene matrix was stained with osmium tetroxide to provide contrast in the image. The material was made by living polymerization so that the blocks are almost monodisperse to create a regular microstructure. The molecular weight of the polystyrene blocks in the main picture is 102,000; the inset picture has a molecular weight of 91,000, producing slightly smaller domains.


title: Copolymer

text: Microphase separation is a situation similar to that of oil and water. Oil and water are immiscible (i.e., they can phase separate). Due to the incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. Since the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically like water and oil. In "microphase separation," the blocks form nanometer-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block, several morphologies can be obtained. In diblock copolymers, sufficiently different block lengths lead to nanometer-sized spheres of one block in a matrix of the second (e.g., PMMA in polystyrene). Using less different block lengths, a "hexagonally packed cylinder" geometry can be obtained. Blocks of similar length form layers (often called lamellae in the technical literature). Between the cylindrical and lamellar phase is the gyroid phase. The nanoscale structures created from block copolymers can potentially be used to create devices for computer memory, nanoscale-templating, and nanoscale separations. Block copolymers are sometimes used as a replacement for phospholipids in model lipid bilayers and liposomes for their superior stability and tunability.


title: Copolymer

text: Polymer scientists use thermodynamics to describe how the different blocks interact. The product of the degree of polymerization, "n", and the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter, formula_5, gives an indication of how incompatible the two blocks are and whether they will microphase separate. For example, a diblock copolymer of symmetric composition will microphase separate if the product formula_6 is greater than 10.5. If formula_6 is less than 10.5, the blocks will mix and microphase separation is not observed. The incompatibility between the blocks also affects the solution behavior of these copolymers and their adsorption behavior on various surfaces.


title: Copolymer

text: Block copolymers are able to self-assemble in selective solvents to form micelles among other structures.


title: Copolymer

text: In thin films, block copolymers are of great interest as masks in the lithographic patterning of semiconductor materials for applications in high density data storage. A key challenge is to minimise the feature size and much research is in progress on this.


title: Copolymer

text: Characterization techniques for copolymers are similar to those for other polymeric materials. These techniques can be used to determine the average molecular weight, molecular size, chemical composition, molecular homogeneity, and physiochemical properties of the material. However, given that copolymers are made of base polymer components with heterogenous properties, this may require multiple characterization techniques to accurately characterize these copolymers.


title: Copolymer

text: Spectroscopic techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and UV spectroscopy, are often used to identify the molecular structure and chemical composition of copolymers. In particular, NMR can indicate the tacticity and configuration of polymeric chains while IR can identify functional groups attached to the copolymer.


title: Copolymer

text: Scattering techniques, such as static light scattering, dynamic light scattering, and small-angle neutron scattering, can determine the molecular size and weight of the synthesized copolymer. Static light scattering and dynamic light scattering use light to determine the average molecular weight and behavior of the copolymer in solution whereas small-angle neutron scattering uses neutrons to determine the molecular weight and chain length.


title: Copolymer

text: Differential scanning calorimetry is a thermoanalytical technique used to determine the thermal events of the copolymer as a function of temperature. It can indicate when the copolymer is undergoing a phase transition, such as crystallization or melting, by measuring the heat flow required to maintain the material and a reference at a constantly increasing temperature.


title: Copolymer

text: Thermogravimetric analysis is another thermoanalytical technique used to access the thermal stability of the copolymer as a function of temperature. This provides information on any changes to the physicochemical properties, such as phase transitions, thermal decompositions, and redox reactions.


title: Copolymer

text: Size-exclusion chromatography can separate copolymers with different molecular weights based on their hydrodynamic volume. From there, the molecular weight can be determined by deriving the relationship from its hydrodynamic volume. Larger copolymers tend to elute first as they do not interact with the column as much. The collected material is commonly detected by light scattering methods, a refractometer, or a viscometer to determine the concentration of the eluted copolymer.