title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: From the beginning of his reign, Fath-Ali Shah tried to present himself as a pious king in the eyes of Shiite clerics and went so far as to declare his monarchy a subrogation for the "ulama". During his reign, Isfahan once again took on the image of the religious capital of Iran, and the government left the hands of Shiite clerics free to persecute religious minorities. Sufis suffered the most. Fath-Ali Shah took upon himself to lead their persecution; In such ways like ordering to "suffocate" the Sufi leaders of Tabriz.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Mirza was born on 5 January 1808 in Tabriz. He was the eldest son of Crown prince Abbas Mirza and Glin Khanum, daughter of Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Davallu. During his childhood and youth, Mohammad Mirza was a "quiet" and "shy" boy with no apparent political ambitions. He completed his traditional princely education in Tabriz and became a skilled calligrapher and painter, and learned painting under Robert Ker Porter. His level of knowledge, however, was limited compared to that of his brothers, especially Djahangir Mirza and Farhad Mirza, who excelled in writing and other "branches of science". An important moment of his life was when Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam, the majordomo of Abbas Mirza, summoned the dervish Haji Mirza Aqasi to his father's household. By Mirza Bozorg's orders, Aqasi was appointed the chief tutor to Mohammad, who quickly became devoted to Aqasi and his Sufi teachings. Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, another of Mohammad's tutors, tried to dissuade Mohammad from studying under Aqasi but Aqasi's influence on Mohammad increased.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: When Mohammad Mirza was 12 years old, Fath-Ali Shah summoned him from Tabriz to Tehran to marry Malek Jahan Khanom, the daughter of Mohammad Qasim Khan Zahir al-Dawla, to establish solidarity between the royal family and the Davallu cadet branch of the Qajar dynasty. The marriage, which took place in September 1819, was loveless. As a result of recurring deaths of their infants, Mohammad Mirza developed resentment towards Malek Jahan. Of their children, only Naser al-Din Mirza, who later became the crown prince and then king of Iran; and Ezzat ed-Dowleh, who married Amir Kabir, later the chief minister of Naser al-Din Shah; survived into adulthood.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: The Second Russo-Iranian War began with the declaration of "jihad" by Shiite scholars. During the war, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army consisting of the tribes of Khajevandi and Abdul Maliki to protect the fortress of Ganja. There, with the command of Amir Khan Sardar—Abbas Mirza's maternal uncle—Mohammad launched an attack on the Russian army. In the resulting battle, Amir Khan was killed and Mohammad was severely defeated and forced to retreat; he, however, was praised for his efforts during the war and was nicknamed as "Gazi" (warrior of Islam). After the war, Fath Ali Shah appointed Abbas Mirza to rule Khorasan and regulate the security of that area, which experienced constant raids by Prince Kamran, whom the Iranian government had previously appointed as the governor of Herat and now styled himself "Shah". Mohammad Mirza also accompanied his father on this trip. In one of his missions, Mohammad released nearly 20,000 Iranians held captive by Central Asian Sunni tribes; in honor of this victory, he named his newborn child "Naser al-Din" (defender of the faith).


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Abbas Mirza spent two years in Khorasan suppressing rebel khans; Khiva and Herat supported these revolts, and promised aid but Mohammad's victories discouraged them. In 1832, Abbas Mirza summoned Kamran Shah, the ruler of Herat, to pay tribute but Kamran sent his vizier Yar Mohammad Khan. Feeling insulted, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army to Herat. Mohammad Mirza advanced directly to Herat and began preparing for a siege while Abbas MIrza was bringing him an army of reinforcement when he suddenly died in Mashhad. Upon hearing of his death, Mohammad Mirza and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, who was also a leading figure in the siege, were forced to negotiate with Kamran. It was agreed Kamran would accept the sovereignty of Iran, pay 15,000 tomans in gold and fifty Kashmir shawls, and release the Iranian prisoners who had been captured during the war. Mohammad appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza the governor of Khorasan and, with Qa'em-Maqam, went to Tehran to claim the title of crown prince.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: At Nowruz (Iranian New Year, which was held at the March equinox) of 1834, Mohammad Mirza was appointed as crown prince and took the governorship of Azarbaijan—the office of his father—and left Tehran for Tabriz. As crown prince, Mohammad Mirza was under the complete influence of Qa'em-Maqam, on whose orders, Mohammad imprisoned four of his brothers, including Djahangir Mirza and Khosrow Mirza, in Ardabil and later blinded them to invalidate their claims to the throne. The appointment of Mohammad as the crown prince angered Fath-ali Shah's fifth son Hossein Ali Mirza, the Prince-Governor of Fars, who thought the appointment would deprive him of his rights and was a sign of submission to Russian demands.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In October 1834, Fath-Ali Shah, with the intention of collecting 200,000 tomans tax arrears from Hossein Ali Mirza and a hidden motive to revoke him of his lands, went to Fars but died "en route" at Isfahan. Couriers were quickly sent to Tabriz but otherwise, the shah's death remained secret. His body was then taken to Fatima Masumeh Shrine for burial; only then the death it was publicly announced. As expected, his death sparked riots across the country, and a number of princes, including Hossein Ali Mirza in Shiraz and Ali Shah Mirza in Tehran, proclaimed themselves kings.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In early November, John Campbell and Comte Ivan Simonich, British and Russian envoys respectively, arrived in Tabriz to proclaim their support for Mohammad Mirza. They provided him an army led by Col. Henry Lindsay Bethune that set off for Tehran, where Ali Shah Mirza had proclaimed himself king. Mohammad's army met the 15,000 Ali Shah's men, who were led by Ali's brother Imam Verdi Mirza, in Takestan, west of Qazvin. After a brief confrontation, Imam Verdi Mirza sought to surrender and recognize Mohammad. The new king agreed to waive his uncles' punishment. In early 1835, Mohammad entered the capital with Qa'em-Maqam, his courtiers and Russian and British ambassadors, and was crowned king on 14 January.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In February 1835, Mohammad sent an army under command of Manouchehr Khan Gorji to liberate Isfahan from Hossein Ali Mirza's forces, who were under the command of his brother Shoja al-Saltanah. After reconquering Isfahan, Manouchehr Khan marched to Shiraz, where he captured Hossein Ali Mirza and ended his rebellion. Hossein Ali was imprisoned in Ardabil and soon died of cholera; with his defeat, the other rebel princes surrendered their claims and recognized Mohammad as the king of Iran.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah appointed Qa'em-Maqam as his grand vizier but his premiership did not last long. Qa'em-Maqam was already losing influence over Mohammad but his policies and ideas made him adversaries in the court. As soon as he became the grand vizier, Qa'em-Maqam had the royal princes swear an oath of fealty to Mohammad, otherwise he had them imprisoned, a fate that befell many Qajar princes such as Mahmud Mirza, the governor of Kashan, who refused to relinquish his claim and thus lost his title and wealth. Soon, Qa'em-Maqam was attacked by rivals, the most prominent being Allahyar Khan Asef ol-Dowleh—Mohammad Shah's uncle from the Davallu tribe—and a coalition led by Aqasi. Qa'em-Maqam's adversaries soon extended to British envoy John Campbell, who expected grand privileges for his contribution to Mohammad's enthronement but was refused by Qa'em-Maqam. To lessen British influence over the court, Qa'em-Maqam tried to improve Iran's relations with the Ottoman Empire. His rivals, with slanderous accusations, urged Mohammad to have Qa'em-Maqam ousted from his position and Mohammad was later persuaded to do so. On 22 June 1835, he arrested and imprisoned Qa'em-Maqam in Negarestan Palace and four days later, he ordered Qa'em-Maqam's execution.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah then spent a few month without a grand vizier. Campbell expressed his support for Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi while his courtiers supported Abdollah Amin al-Dowleh, an erstwhile grand vizier of Fath-Ali Shah, but Mohammad chose Aqasi, who filled this position for most of Mohammad's reign. By this time, Mohammad's health had become a concern for the kingdom's future and the four-year-old Naser al-Din Mirza was appointed the crown prince. Mohammad Shah granted the governorship of Azarbaijan, which the Qajar kings bestowed upon the heir apparent, to his firstborn son and appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza as Naser al-Din's regent. Ghahreman Mirza was in close contact with the Russian government; when he died in 1839, Mohammad replaced him with his last-surviving brother Bahman Mirza.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In 1837, a rebellion broke out in Kerman; it was led by Hassan Ali Shah, better known as Agha Khan I, the leader of Nizari Ismailis The Nizari Muslims, though few in number, lived in Iran under the leadership of Hassan Ali Shah, who asserted his place by marrying Fath-Ali Shah's daughter Sarveh Jahan Khanum and acquiring the title Aga Khan. When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, on the advise of Qa'em Maqam, he appointed Agha Khan the governor of Kerman, a rebellious state that was governed by Shoja al-Saltanah, a brother of Hossein Ali Mirza. Agha Khan pacified the state but his governorship was short-lived; in 1837, he was recalled to Tehran and was replaced with Firouz Mirza, the shah's brother. Agha Khan raised arms and declared a rebellion against the shah, and withdraw with his forces to Bam. Mohammad Shah sent an army under the command of Sourab Khan; they besieged Bam and took severely injured brother of Agha Khan prisoner. After eight months, Agha Khan surrendered and was imprisoned; his belongings were plundered and his was not allowed to receive his religious due sent from India, Khurasan and Badakhshan. Agha Khan was a prisoner of the shah until 1838, when he was allowed to retreat to his familial lands in Mahallat.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: After asserting his authority, Mohammad Shah's main objective was to annex Herat. This alarmed Kamran Shah and promted him to attempt to gather neighboring tribes such as the Jamshidi, Tumani and Hazara in Herat to resist Mohammad in the event of a military campaign. These mobilizations alarmed the British government, which sent Alexander Burnes and Eldred Pottinger to Kabul and Herat respectively. Among Britain's concerns was Article 11 of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which allowed Russia to establish consulates and trade missions with up to ten members throughout Iranian territory, implanting influence on Afghanistan and therefore becoming a threat to British India. The UK accused the Russian government of encouraging Iran to invade Herat. Iran wanted to retake of Herat partly because of Mohammad's desire to unite the Persian-speaking tribes of the Afghan highlands with Iran, and because wanted to free Iranian prisoners who were taken by Sunni tribes who lived near Khorasan. Conquest of Herat was also the first step in a plan to extend Iran's influence up to Amu Darya. In late 1836, Mohammad ordered his army to be mustered for the following spring. This gave John McNeill, the British envoy in Iran, time to arrange an agreement in which Herat would resume paying tributes. Yar Mohammad Khan, however, would not tolerate Iranian sovereignty and Kamran Shah would not withdraw unless the city was conquered.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In 1837, Mohammad Shah marched on Herat. British officers were expelled from the Iranian army and the British embassy was closed. Mohammad took personal command of Iran's 80,000 troops whereas Kamran Shah had gathered a few thousand poorly equipped soldiers. The ruler of Herat had little hope of resisting Mohammad Shah because the city's population, who had been terrorized by their overlord and dispirited by economic decline, were unlikely to put up any fight; also, the crumbling fortification of the city's walls were in poor repair and would not withstand an assault. Kamran Shah's only source of hope was the support of Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara, the Amir of Qala e Naw, who vowed a fight to death for Kamran Shah, and brought about 4,000 foot soldiers and numerous horsemen to Herat's army. Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara also organized an alliance between Aimaq, Uzbek and Turkman tribes under the banner of Sunni Islam. Thus, with the leadership of Sher Mohammad and Kamran Shah's son Nader Mirza, ten-to-twelve-thousand horsemen assembled around Qala e Naw and threatened to attack Iran's borders.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: On 28 October, Mohammad Shah camped at Torbat-e Jam, where to counteract, he ordered 12,000 of his best soldiers under the command of Mohammad Khan Asef al-Dowleh, the governor of Khorasan, to march to Qala e Naw. By the middle of November, he had seized the city and its surrounds, dividing Sher Mohammad's army in two; one part was camped in Kushk under the command of Mohammad Zaman Jamshidi and the other was already retreating to Herat. The Jamshidi army faced Asef al-Dowleh's men and were scattered in a desperate fight; two-or-three-hundred men were killed and as many taken prisoner. Despite their victory, the Iranian army faced a difficult time, suffering the winter cold that reached the mountains much earlier than it reached Herat and a shortage of supplies that could only be purchased at high prices. Eventually, Asaf al-Dowleh and his men marched through the mountains to Bala Murghab and from there to Maymana, where he defeated another host of the Afghan army under the command of Sher Mohammad Khan. After this victory, Asaf al-Dowleh sent an ambassador to his opponent's camp, and promised them freedom and wealth if they surrendered to Mohammad Shah. His offer was received positively and Sher Mohammad agreed to send two of his sons to Herat to proffer their submission to Mohammad Shah.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: On 23 November, Mohammad Shah with a part of his army reached the outskirts of Herat, where they faced fierce resistance from the defenders but eventually forced them to retreat behind the city walls. Mohammad Shah set up his camp south-east of Herat and began a long siege of the city. The Iranian army had a dilemma; Aqasi wanted to wait for Russian aid whereas Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri argued for crushing the city walls. Mohammad Shah faced problems feeding his men; his army quickly ran out of supplies, and the lines back to Mashhad were insecure and often impassable. The fields around Herat were already harvested by the residents and the remains had been destroyed. The problem was only solved after the spring of 1838, when Mohammad Shah ordered his men to plant their crops.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In March 1838, John McNiell arrived at Mohammad Shah's camp as the British representative; he failed to dissuade Mohammad and thus on 7 June 1838, he withdrew from Herat and ended British-Iran relations. Ten days later, the British Indian fleet from Bombay occupied Kharg Island and threatened further military actions. Under pressure to end the campaign, Mohammad Shah ordered a full-scale assault of Herat, which failed with many casualties. The British sent an ultimatum threatening war if the siege continued. The Russians abandoned Mohammad Shah's cause and withdrew their support. These, along with news of rebellions, led Mohammad Shah to give up his campaign and withdraw from the siege. Although he failed to conquer Herat, Mohammad's army still occupied Ghurian and other forts; a number of Afghan warlords such as Kohendil Khan of Kandahar would remain loyal to Mohammad Shah.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Bagher Shafti was one of the most distinguished religious figures of the time; with a fortune of two-and-a-half million francs. Shafti rebelled against Mohammad Shah in 1834, when he tried to seize the city Isfahan from its Prince-Governor Sayf ol-Dowleh. Over four years, Shafti took control of the city's Luti population and in 1838, he raised against the governor of the city, Gholam Hossein Khan Sepahdar, and therefore Mohammad Shah. Shafti's men, who were known for their acts of murder, robbery and rape, looted the city and took the booty to Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. There, Shafti declared their leader Ramazan as Ramazan Shah and ordered the striking of coins in his name. The roots of this revolt lay in a letter from McNiell to Shafti, in which he implied the cause of the war in Herat was the Shah's warmongering and obduracy. The rebellion was supported by a Safavid descendant called Nawab Safavi, which further encouraged the rebels to kill the city's deputy governor.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: As a result, between 1838 and 1840, Isfahan was in the hands of insurgents, especially the Lutis, whose numbers were increasing because the city's poor people were joining the Lutis and Shafti's cause. To end their rebellion, Mohammad Shah went to Isfahan with 60,000 troops on the return journey from Herat. It was unprecedented for the shah to take arms against the state's clergy, especially Shafi, who was considered a clergy leader and Isfahan was regarded as the religious capital of Iran. Modern historian Homa Nategh noted this act as a "coup d'état".


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Upon reaching the city, Mohammad Shah ordered the cannons to bombard Isfahan. Shafti, fearing great losses, opened the city's northern gate and the Lutis deserted from the southern gate. Mohammad Shah triumphantly entered the city and instantly ordered the execution of the remaining Lutis. He could not charge Shafti in any extreme measures but exiled his son to Astrabad. The Luti king Ramazan Shah died while under torture and of his men, 240 were killed and 400 were arrested. Mohammad Shah ordered a court to be set up so that the people could recount Lutis' crimes. Mohammad took the lands and properties Shafti and the Lutis had usurped, and made them part of his demesne lands. Harsh penalties were made to ensure stability and fear, and to prevent future rebellions. Mohammad Shah celebrated his victory greatly, trying to erase the memory of his failure in Herat. To declare Shafti's cause blasphemy, Mohammad Shah adopted the title Ghazi (the warrior of Islam), which was previously given to him for the war with the Russian empire.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Hostilities with the Ottomans and tensions over the borderlands of the two empires were unresolved by the treaty of Erzurum and later led to incidents during Mohammad Shah's reign that pushed him to start a war, such as an incident caused by Ali Reza Pasha, the governor of Baghdad, who sacked the city of Khorramshahr in 1837. Thereafter, the peace over the frontier of Iran and the Ottoman Empire became a prioritized European project in the early 1840s. Negotiations between the two nations began in 1842 in Erzurum, a sizeable frontier town. The Iranian commission included Mirza Taqi Khan Farahani, later known as Amir Kabir, whose involvement in the treaty brought him to attention in political circles. On the Ottoman side was Enveri Sadullah Efendi, a member of the Supreme Council of Justice whose arrogance and occasional undiplomatic language created so many problems that he was considered to be replaced. Negotiations began on 15 May 1843; Mohammad Shah had demanded the Iranian plenipotentiaries to resolve the negotiations quickly or he would raise arms against the Ottoman Empire. Negotiations lasted for four years, mostly because of delays caused by political and military crises such as the Ottoman massacre of 22,000 Shi'i Iranian pilgrims on the road to Karbala that caused the suspension of the negotiations for three months.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Negotiations were resumed by British and Russian mediators. Territorial restitution were confined to the cities Khorramshahr, Zohab and Sulaymaniyah, and the Iranian dominance over the Shatt al-Arab. Ownership of Zohab was a heated argument between negotiators; the town, which was insignificant in itself, was captured by Mohamad Ali Mirza Dowlatshah, the firstborn son of Fath-Ali Shah, during the Ottoman-Persian war of 1821 and Iran retained sovereignty although in the First Treaty of Erzurum, Iran had agreed to return it. At first, Iran tried to keep the town because Farahani suggested Zohab be divided between the two nations but the Iranian party later agreed to return sovereignty of the town to the Ottomans who, in return, would forsake their desire to dominant the Shatt al-Arab's trade route. When the commissioners began discussing Khorramshahr, Farahani declared the town has always been part of Khuzistan and demanded £1 million in compensation for the 1837 sacking of the city. Despite the Ottoman protests and arguments, Khorramshahr was stated as a part of Iran after Farahani's firm efforts.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In May 1846, the first drafts of the treaty were written. Russia and Britain were to draw up a map of the border areas, and both parties would accept it. In the meantime, Farahani fell ill and a riot broke out in Erzurum, his house was looted and two of his companions were torn to pieces by rebels. Negotiations were suspended for several months; their continuation was subject to the punishment of the rioters and the payment of damages. The Ottoman government formally apologized to Iran, imprisoned 300 rioters and paid 15,000 tomans in compensation. Negotiations resumed and a contract including an introduction and nine articles was drafted. The Ottoman party, however, were unsatisfied with the outcome and threatened to leave the negotiations. The mediators, determined to avoid such results, continued to give the Ottomans assurances but kept the Iranians ignorant of them, hoping Mohammad Shah would endorse the new results. On 31 May 1847, Farahani and Efendi signed the treaty and left Erzurum, and on 26 June, Mohammad Shah also ratified the treaty.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: While the tensions seemed to be resolved, the Ottoman government secretly added three more articles to the treaty with the support of British and Russian ambassadors. Based on these articles, Iran's rights on the Shatt al-Arab were revoked and those on Khorramshahr were reduced. Contrary to the agreements, control of Shatt al-Arab, except a few islands, was handed to the Ottoman Empire. At the end of January 1848, Mirza Javad, a courier from Tehran, arrived in Istanbul with Mohammad Shah's ratified copies of the treaty; the Ottoman government insisted they would not ratify the treaty unless the shah agreed to the new articles. Not wanting to raise Mohammad Shah's suspicion, the British and Russian ambassadors persuaded Miza Mohammad Ali Khan, Iran's envoy to France who was in Istanbul at the time, to agree to the new articles. Mirza Mohammad Ali agreed to the articles, alternatively called the "Explanatory Note", only if the ambassadors signed an official statement whereon they informed Mohammad Shah it was necessary for maintaining the treaty. Mohammad Shah did not accept the new terms and declared the treaty false and invalid. The tensions between Iran and the Ottomans persisted even after the fall of the Ottoman Empire because the newly established country Iraq inherited these disputes with Iran.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In the 1840s, an estimated four-to-five-thousand slaves were sold in the Persian Gulf each year. When Justin Sheil succeeded John McNiel as the envoy to Iran in 1844, he and his wife observed the slavery and decided to act against it. He sent a letter to Aqasi and pleaded for its abolition. Mohammad Shah, however, did not respond to this diplomatic pressure so Sheil brought up the moral aspect of slavery, emphasizing its negative impacts on the African population. Mohammad Shah remained unmoved and said abolition would contradict the Islamic tradition. Sheil further argued his points but Mohammad responded such interference would undermine diplomatic relations between the two nations.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In late 1847, Sheil was recalled to London and replaced with Colonel Francis Farrant, who also negotiated for abolition with Aqasi. Farrant was more successful, especially for the newly signed treaty of Erzurum that put him a good light for the grand vizier. Farrant argued if the Ottoman Empire could abolish slavery in their nation, Iranians could do the same. The argument appealed to Aqasi, who suggested it to Mohammad Shah. Mohammad was ready to adapt the changes similar to those of the Ottomans because it is clear from the letter he sent to Farrant. In this way, he could appease the British without challenging Islamic tradition. Mohammad wrote thus to Farrant regarding the abolition of slavery in the Ottoman Empire:


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Between the religions of Europe and our religion there is great distinction and difference, and we cannot observe or join in matters which are in accordance with their religion and in opposition to ours, why we wrote that the exalted English government should make enquiries of the Turkish government on this subject, was because that government being a Mahomedan state and in that country the traffic in slaves being much more extensive than any where else, we might observe what answer it will give, that then we may give a reply which should not be opposed to tenets of the Mahomedan faith.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah agreed to the abolition of the slave trade through the Persian Gulf but having slaves and trading them over land was still allowed. On Mohammad's behest, Aqasi sent three letters to the governors of Fars, Kerman, and Isfahan, ordering the governors not to partake in the slave trade in the Persian Gulf and expressing his concerns of the shah's health. On the advice of both Sheil and Farrant, Aqasi also approached the major "ulama" of Tehran to ask their consent should the slave traders accuse them of blasphemy. The results were unfavorable; most of the "ulama" regarded slavers as legal according to Mohammedan law. Sheil, however, was successful in obtaining a "fatwa" in support of the shah's decision.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Throughout his life, Mohammad Shah suffered from gout and endured recurrent attacks. He also suffered pain from the medicines given to him by his Jewish doctor, who was assigned to Mohammad when Aqasi dismissed the British and French doctors. The Jewish doctor's traditional remedies resulted to a severe paroxysm of Mohammad Shah's illness, upon which Mohammad became so weak his death was reported throughout Tehran. He recovered but lost the use of one leg. Aqasi, however, refused to let any foreign-trained physician, especially English ones, approach Mohammad; only a French doctor named Labat was allowed to treat him. Under Labat's care, Mohammad recovered somewhat but was still so feeble he could only move with the help of two persons. Becoming infirm and debilitated, Mohammad lost the will to rule; he turned the government to Aqasi, leading to political and social turmoil.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad's dire health prompted the foreign powers to reassert their pledge on the order of the succession in February 1842, and declare their support of Mohammad's eldest son Naser al-Din Mirza. Bahman Mirza, who served as regent for Naser al-Din Mirza, however, began mobilizing forces at Tabriz for a scenario in which he would pressure his nephew to become his regent in the event of Mohammad's death. Bahman Mirza had support from the Count Medem and John McNiel, the Russian and British envoys respectively, but the British withdraw their support when Shiel succeeded McNiel; and he Russians promoted Bahman Mirza as a successor to Mohammad. To counteract the Russians, in 1845, Aqasi arranged a marriage for Naser al-Din Mirza with the daughter of Ahmad Ali Mirza, a son of Fath-Ali Shah. This wedding that brought the young prince into politics. Mohammad's health slightly improved, and the realm and its succession seemed stable and secure. Rebellions, however, broke out in Khorasan, one of which Hasan Khan Salar led in support of Bahman Mirza's claim; another was led by Allah-Qoli Khan Ilkhani, a grandson of Fath-Ali Shah through his mother and a protégé of Aqasi to press his own claim. Both rebellions continued after Mohammad's death into the early years of Naser al-Din Shah.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: After Mohammad ceased his role in the government, Aqasi had an increased influence on him. Aqasi, now Iran's most powerful figure, was also becoming avaricious of his position and was less inclined to govern because his mind was affected by opium. Mohammad, thinking highly of Aqasi, was happy to let him govern as he liked. In mid-to-late 1848, Mohammad suffered a combination of gout and erysipelas, from which it was clear he would not recover.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah Qajar died at around 21:00 on 4 September 1848. He was buried in Fatima Masumeh Shrine located in Qom and his tomb was placed near the shrine's sanctuary.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In his patronage of Sufism, Mohammad Shah was compared to Ismail I. He denoted Sufi Islam as the rival of Shi'ia and the "ulama". The Sufis, who were persecuted during Fath-Ali Shah's reign, could now freely promote their beliefs. Mohammad was very dependent on his Sufi teacher Aqasi and gave court positions to Aqasi's Sufi friends such as Mirza Mahdi Khui, who became chief scribe of the court. Concurrent with their new patronage, Sufis took the idea of the Hidden Imam from the Shi'ia and connected it to their Sufi saints. Figures such as Safi-ad-din Ardabili became messengers of the Hidden Imam and the Sufi "murshids" (spiritual guides) were the only knowledgeable people who could read these communications, often through dreaming. The Sufis despised acts of torture and violence; when Aqasi became the grand vizier, he pleaded for their reduction. Mohammad would not accept it in his early years, arguing a culprit does not deserve sympathy, but as he aged and grew weaker from gout, he ordered the complete abolition of torture.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad's approach to the Shi'ia clergy was one of hostility and conflict. He abandoned Fath-Ali Shah's attempts to reconcile the demands of piety and the tasks of the absolute ruler. He never asked for a theoretical acknowledgment of his coronation and was more inclined to search his spiritual guide in the dervishes and Sufis than in the "ulama" of the state. On 24 November 1842, Mohammad issued a firman abolishing the rights of sanctuary. He would constantly try to undermine the orthodox "ulama" position with the promotion of Sufism, and with the rise of Báb and Bábism. When Sayyid Ali Muhammad Shirazi first claimed to be the Báb (gateway to the Hidden Imam), the "ulama" declared a fatwa saying he must be killed. Mohammad, however, called Báb to Tehran and promised him shelter. This alarmed Aqasi, who had the Báb sent to Maku in Azerbaijan, where he was kept under confinement. Facing dissent from Mohammad, however, he took no drastic measures against the Báb and his followers.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Although Mohammad had no enmity towards any branches of Christianity, he preferred to allow the French Lazarist missionaries into Iran rather than the English Anglicans. In hope of bringing modern education to the nation, he issued an edict that allowed missionaries to open schools. The head of the Lazarists was Eugène Boré, who in 1839 opened a school in Tabriz with both Christian and Muslim students. Boré's school triggered unrest among "ulama" of Tabriz but under the protection of Mohammad, they could not harm Boré.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: During his tenure as the governor of Azerbaijan, Abbas Mirza sent several students to France, mainly with the goal of improving the military. Mohammad Shah took his father's path and sent seven students of noble birth to Europe, among whom were Mirza Hosein Khan Moshir od-Dowleh, the future grand vizier of Naser al-Din Shah; and Mirza Malkam Khan, who put in place the basis of the Iranian Enlightenment. These students were to master skills in military, painting, medicine, and geometry. Another 10 people were to be sent to France in 1847 but it is uncertain they were sent.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: In 1837, on the orders of Mohammad, Mirza Saleh Shirazi published the first Iranian newspaper in Tehran. This newspaper was untitled and was referred to as "Kaghaz-e Akhbar" (news-paper). It lasted only for one issue but Mirza Saleh's determination led to him publishing another newspaper called "Akhbar-i Vaqa-a" which became Iran's first regular newspaper. Many lithographic printing presses were established in Tehran, Urmia, Tabriz and Isfahan on the orders of Mohammad.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: As a result of various wars and the continual unrest throughout Iran, Mohammad Shah's treasury was virtually empty. In hope of improving financial conditions, he sought to revive barren fields that were burned in the wars with Russia and the local insurgencies. He asked the French foreign minister for a French irrigation expert but nothing came of it. With Mohammad's efforts, however, 1,438 villages—of these villages were part of the royal domain—were made habitable. Mohammad inherited many domain lands from Fath-Ali Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan, and he greatly increased the amount. He confiscated properties of Aqasi and through revoking the lands of Hossein Ali Mirza, gained ownership over Fars and Persian Iraq. He also confiscated properties seized by the Lutis during the Isfahan rebellion, which was disliked by major landowners. On his orders, the number of the royal domains were recorded in the "Raqabat-e Mohammadshahi", which included and superseded all previous inventories.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Most of these domains were given to the villagers and the tribes who wanted a settlement. A part of Nader Shah's personal domains were returned to the Afshar tribe, who inherited the lands once the Afsharid dynasty died out. Despite granting two crores of land per person, many of these lands still belonged to the crown and under the administration of the contemporary Mostowfi ol-Mamalek, Mohammad was unable to return more of them and his successor, Naser al-Din Shah, completely ignored the Afshar's pleads and petitions. The same Mostowfi ol-Mamalek secretly extorted money and forced villagers to pay taxes.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad reinstated governmental positions that had once been part of the Safavid bureaucracy. They bore mixed results; they improved the state's efficiency but led to a corrupt administration that reached its peak in Naser al-Din Shah's reign. Positions such as Mostowfi ol-Mamalek became hereditary and many holders of these offices accepted bribery for the lack of a regular salary. Aqasi enlarged governmental titles and promoted his kinsmen so the once-rudimentary bureaucracy of Agha Mohammad Khan became filled with positions with the same duties but under different names.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah continued the military reforms his father had started; these included abolishing tribal cavalry and modeling it on Frederick the Great's cavalry using Western military technology on a very small scale with Abbas Mirza's personal army of 1,000 regular infantry and 500 regular cavalry.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, the Iranian army was disorganized, undisciplined and rigidly hierarchical. Mohammad could hardly muster more than 20,000 men, and those were in poor shape. Instead of carts and wagons, transportation took place by mules, camels and horses. Other than Abbas Mirza's cavalry, the army was filled with tribal cavalry who recognized only their tribal chief. To counter these problems, Mohammad Shah put forth a three-staged plan in which he would centralize the command, create arsenals, and recover from the losses suffered in the wars with Russia. He consolidated power upon himself and Aqasi to centralize the military. To create arsenals, he founded the Tehran foundry, which provided his army with 600 bronze canons, 200 mortars; and rifles, muskets and Zamburaks.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: At Mohammad's request, Henry Rawlinson was sent to Kermanshah in April 1835 to train Bahram Mirza's troops in the style of Nizam-e Jadid. The Italian F. Colombari was also sent to Iran; he reformed the Zamburak units of the Iranian army with the new cannon saddles and new falconets he designed for them.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Despite his short reign, Mohammad Shah left a lasting mark on Iran's foreign policy. He had resentment towards Russia and Britain, even though both nations supported him for the succession. The weight of Russian military bordering Azerbaijan and their navy anchoring in the port of Anzali Lagoon put Mohammad Shah in a state of paranoia at the thought of another war. The Russians argued that per the Treaty of Turkmenchay they were free to anchor their ships in the Caspian Sea but neither Mohammad nor Aqasi counted Anzali as part of the sea. To keep the Russian navy away, Mohammad ordered the army of Anzali to shoot at the Russians if they approached. These events led to Nicholas I exchanging letters with Mohammad. In a diplomatic sense, Mohammad allowed the Russian navy to anchor in Anzali. Another source of tension was Russian merchants in Tabriz and Tehran who owed money to Iranians but would not pay them in full. In 1843, Mohammad issued a "firman" ordering full payments of the debts to prevent fraudulent bankruptcies.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: During his reign, various matters disturbed Anglo-Iranian relations, the most troublesome of which was Mohammad's campaign to Herat which led the British, for the first time in their relation with Iran, to invade Iran's southern islands in the Persian Gulf. In 1841, Mohammad signed a treaty with the British ambassador under which Britain could reopen their consulates in Tehran, Tabriz and Bushehr but had to withdraw from Kharg Island. This treaty was not ideal for either side; the British did not have the right to reside outside the three cities and their goal was to establish a consulate in Gilan near the Russian border. For Mohammad, the treaty was considered shameful and a surrender to his enemy's demand. After the signing of the agreement, inexpensive British goods entered Iran through the Tabriz-Trabzon trade zone and filled the country's markets, causing the bankruptcy of a number of Iranian businessmen in Tabriz. In 1844, Iranian merchants petitioned to Mohammad to prohibit the importing of European merchandise. In the following year, traders from Kashan implored Mohammad to defend their manufacturers against European merchandise. Both cases were rejected.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah was an avid Francophile and most excited to build diplomatic relations with France in lieu of Britain and Russia. As a child, Mohammad learned French from Madame de la Marininere, a tutor in the court of Abbas Mirza. He denoted French as the diplomatic language of Iran and ensured diplomats and ambassadors from other nations were fluent in French. In 1839, to resume political relations with France, Mohammad sent Mirza Hossein Khan to Paris, where Hossein Khan was brought before King of France Louis Philippe I. The Iranian delegation took with them numerous gifts, including a translation of Shahnameh and the portrait of Mohammad, which is now kept in Louvre Museum. With Mohammad's insistence, the France embassy in Iran was reopened and France–Iran relations resumed, resulting in Iran sending students to France, a tradition that continued throughout modern Iranian history.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah, in comparison to other Qajar kings, had a modest harem, either from disliking sex with women or because of his severe illness. By the time he died, he had seven wives, with whom he sired four sons and five daughters. Of his consorts, a woman named Khadija was Mohammad's favourite; she bore him his best-loved son Abbas Mirza III, who was named after Mohammad's father Abbas Mirza and a deceased son of the same name. Mohammad, however, never showed fatherly affection to his son with Malek Jahan Khanom or the future king Naser al-Din. In 1839, Mohammad summoned the Naser al-Din to Tehran and treated him coldly. For most of his early childhood, Naser al-Din was no more than a nuisance for Mohammad and his grand vizier.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Mohammad Shah's short reign resembles an interregnum between the reigns of Fath-Ali Shah and Naser al-Din Shah. An interregnum in which, the ulama possessed little influence over the crown. Mohammad's reliance on Sufi theology and his neglect of the traditional relations with the Shi'ia "ulama" was the most lasting aspect of his reign and a result of the intimate relations with Aqasi. Mohammad had a passive character, was withdrawn from everyday life, and most of the time was physically unwell, he relied on Aqasi to govern while taking a ceremonial rule. The extent of Aqasi's influence over Mohammad increased in Mohammad's last years, when he became very dependent on his grand vizier; Aqasi, however, had little ability to rule, and mismanaged the economy and the military. Along with costly wars and maladministration, at the end of Mohammad's reign, Iran suffered from instability, turmoil and chaos.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: Most historians present Mohammad as sedentary and aloof from governmental matters, an image that is accurate when applied to his later years. In his youth, Mohammad, though Europeanised, was a soldier like his father and his grandfather. Mohammad was contrary to the traditional appearances of Fath-Ali Shah, which included Persian ornamented long robes, high heels and a long beard, and presented a contrast in the Iranian countenance with semi-Europeanised dress and short beard. James Baillie Fraser, who met Mohammad in 1834, described him as "the worthiest of all the numerous descendants of Fath-Ali Shah, particularly in the points of moral and private character". the Comte de Sercey praised Mohammad for his political capacities; he also mentioned the inabilities of Aqasi. Mohammad was the last Qajar shah to lead his army into war. He was praised for his bravery, in particular from the contemporaneous historian Mirza Mohammad Taqi Sepehr, who wrote; “Until now, in Shiʿite realms, I never heard about a sovereign endowed with such a pure nature and so perfect manners and natural perfection. Bravery and firmness perfectly appeared in his demeanours.”


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: On his seal is the text "al-Sultan ibn al-Sultan Mohammad Shah Ghazi" and on a portrait that was painted between 1836 and 1837, he is identified as "al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan", an effort to legitimate his right of rule by remarking on his lineage. Mohammad used the titles "Khaqan son of Khaqan", a Turko-Mongol title; and Shahanshah, an ancient Iranian title, to follow the styles of Fath-Ali Shah, who used both Khaqan and Shahanshah.


title: Mohammad Shah Qajar

text: His coins bear the inscription "Mohammad, Shahanshah-i Anbiya" (Mohammad, King of the Prophets). Mohammad Shah's coins display artistic aestheticism that is different to the coins of Fath-Ali and Naser al-Din, both of whom developed a love for glitter.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: The Anatomy of Melancholy (full title: The Anatomy of Melancholy, What it is: With all the Kinds, Causes, Symptomes, Prognostickes, and Several Cures of it. In Three Maine Partitions with their several Sections, Members, and Subsections. Philosophically, Medicinally, Historically, Opened and Cut Up) is a book by Robert Burton, first published in 1621, but republished five more times over the next seventeen years with massive alterations and expansions.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: On its surface, the book is presented as a medical textbook in which Burton applies his vast and varied learning, in the scholastic manner, to the subject of melancholia (or clinical depression). Although presented as a medical text, "The Anatomy of Melancholy" is as much a "sui generis" (unique) work of literature as it is a scientific or philosophical text, as Burton covers far more than the nomitive subject. "Anatomy" uses melancholy as a lens through which all human emotion and thought may be scrutinized, and virtually the entire contents of a 17th-century library are marshalled into service of this goal. It is encyclopedic in its range and reference.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: In his satirical preface to the reader, Burton's persona and pseudonym "Democritus Junior" explains, "I write of melancholy by being busy to avoid melancholy." This is characteristic of the author's style, which often supersedes the book's strengths as a medical text or historical document as its main source of appeal to admirers. Both satirical and serious in tone, the "Anatomy" is "vitalized by (Burton's) pervading humour", and Burton's digressive and inclusive style, often verging on a stream of consciousness, consistently informs and animates the text. In addition to the author's techniques, the "Anatomy"s vast breadth – addressing topics such as digestion, goblins, the geography of America, and others – make it a valuable contribution to multiple disciplines.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: Burton was an obsessive editor of his own work, publishing five revised and expanded editions of "The Anatomy of Melancholy" during his lifetime. It has often been out of print, particularly between 1676 and 1800. Because no original manuscript of the "Anatomy" has survived, later reprints have drawn more or less faithfully from the editions published during Burton's life. Early editions have entered the public domain, with several available from online sources such as Project Gutenberg. In recent decades, increased interest in the book, combined with its public domain status, has resulted in new print editions, most recently a 2001 reprinting of the 1932 edition by "The New York Review of Books" under its "NYRB Classics" imprint ().


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: In expounding on his subject, Burton drew from nearly every science of his day, including psychology and physiology, but also astronomy, meteorology, theology, and even astrology and demonology.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: Much of the book quotes ancient and medieval medical authorities, beginning with Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen. Hence the "Anatomy" is filled with more or less pertinent references to the works of others. A competent Latinist, Burton included a great deal of Latin poetry in the "Anatomy", much of it from ancient sources left untranslated.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: "The Anatomy of Melancholy" is especially lengthy, the first edition being a single quarto volume nearly 900 pages long; subsequent editions were even longer. The text has three major sections plus an introduction, written in Burton's sprawling style. Characteristically, the introduction includes not only an author's note (titled "Democritus Junior to the Reader"), but also a Latin poem ("Democritus Junior to His Book"), a warning to "The Reader Who Employs His Leisure Ill", an abstract of the following text, and another poem explaining the frontispiece. The following three sections proceed in a similarly exhaustive fashion: the first section focuses on the causes and symptoms of "common" melancholies, the second section deals with cures for melancholy, and the third section explores more complex and esoteric melancholies, including the melancholy of lovers and all manner of religious melancholies. The "Anatomy" concludes with an extensive index (which "The New York Times Book Review" called "a readerly pleasure in itself"). Most modern editions add explanatory notes and translate most of the Latin.


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: Admirers of "The Anatomy of Melancholy" range from Samuel Johnson, Holbrook Jackson (whose "Anatomy of Bibliomania" [1930] was based on the style and presentation), George Armstrong Custer, Charles Lamb and John Keats (who said it was his favourite book) to Northrop Frye, Stanley Fish, Philip Pullman, Cy Twombly, Jorge Luis Borges (who used a quote as an epigraph to his story "The Library of Babel"), O. Henry (William Sidney Porter), Amalia Lund, William Gass (who wrote the Introduction to the NYRB Classics 2001 reprint), Nick Cave, Samuel Beckett and Jacques Barzun (who sees it anticipating 20th-century psychiatry). According to "The Guardian" literary critic Nick Lezard, the "Anatomy" "survives among the cognoscenti". Washington Irving quotes from it on the title page of "The Sketch Book".


title: The Anatomy of Melancholy

text: Burton's solemn tone and his endeavour to prove indisputable facts by weighty quotations were ridiculed by Laurence Sterne in "Tristram Shandy". Sterne also mocked Burton's divisions in the titles of his chapters, and parodied his grave and sober account of Cicero's grief for the death of his daughter Tullia.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: The Theory of Basic Human Values is a theory of cross-cultural psychology and universal values that was developed by Shalom H. Schwartz. The theory extends previous cross-cultural communication frameworks such as Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory. Schwartz identifies ten basic human values, each distinguished by their underlying motivation or goal, and he explains how people in all cultures recognize them. There are two major methods for measuring these ten basic values:


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: A particular value can conflict or align with other values, and these dynamic relationships are typically illustrated using a circular graphic in which opposite poles indicate conflicting values.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: In a 2012 article, Schwartz and colleagues refined the Theory of Basic Values with an extended set of 19 individual values that serve as "guiding principles in the life of a person or group".


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: The Theory of Basic Human Values recognize ten universal values, which can be organized in four higher-order groups. Each of the ten universal values has a central goal that is the underlying motivator.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Conformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Tradition Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that one's culture or religion provides.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Benevolence Preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact (the ‘in-group’).


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Universalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Spirituality was considered as an additional eleventh value, however, it was found that it did not exist in all cultures.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: In addition to identifying the ten basic values, the theory also explains how these ten values are interconnected and influence each other, since the pursuit of any of the values results in either an accordance with one another (conformity and security) or a conflict with at least one other value (benevolence and power). Tradition and conformity share particularly similar motivational goals and consequently are consolidated in the same wedge. Values can lightly or more strongly oppose each other, which has led to the organization of the values in a circular structure along two bipolar dimensions. The first dimension is openness to change versus conservation, which contrasts independence and obedience. The second bipolar dimension is self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and is concerned on the one side with the interests of one-self and on the other side of the welfare of others.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Although the theory distinguishes ten values, the borders between the motivators are artificial and one value flows into the next, which can be seen by the following shared motivational emphases:


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Furthermore, people are still able to follow opposing values through acting differently in different settings or at different times. The structure of Schwartz's 10-value type model (see graph above) has been supported across over 80 countries, gender, various methods such as importance ratings of values (using the surveys listed below), direct similarity judgment tasks, pile sorting, and spatial arrangement, and even for how the values of other people, such as family members, are perceived.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Several models have been developed to measure the basic values to ensure that the values theory is valid independent of the methodology employed. The main differentiator between the Schwartz Value Survey and the Portrait Values Questionnaire is that the former is explicit, while the latter is implicit.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: The Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) reports values of participants explicitly, by asking them to conduct a self-assessment. The survey entails 57 questions with two lists of value items. The first list consist of 30 nouns, while the second list contains 26 or 27 items in an adjective form. Each item is followed by a brief description for clarification. Out of the 57 questions 45 are used to compute the 10 different value types, of which the number of items to measure a certain value varies according to the conceptual breath. The remaining 12 items are used to allow better standardisation in calculation of an individual's value.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: The importance of each of value item is measured on a nonsymmetrical scale in order to encourage the respondents to think about each of the questions.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: The Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) has been developed as an alternative to the SVS. The PVQ has been created primarily for children from 11–14, however, also has shown to produce coherent results when given to adults. In comparison to the SVS the PVQ relies on indirect reporting. Hereby, the respondent is asked to compare himself/herself (gender-matched) with short verbal portraits of 40 different people. After each portrait the responded has to state how similar he or she is to the portrait person ranging from “very much like me” to “not like me at all”. This way of research allows to how the individual actually acts rather than research what values are important to an individual. Similar to the SVS the portraits for each value varies according to the conceptual breath.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: One of the main limitations of this theory lies in the methodology of the research. The SVS is quite difficult to answer, because respondents have to first read the set of 30 value items and give one value the highest as well as the lowest ranking (0 or −1, depending on whether an item is opposed to their values). Hence, completing one questionnaire takes approximately 12 minutes resulting in a significant amount of only half-filled in forms.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Furthermore, many respondents have a tendency to give the majority of the values a high score, resulting in a skewed responses to the upper end. However, this issue can be mitigated by providing respondents with an additional filter to evaluate the items they marked with high scores. When administering the Schwartz Value Survey in a coaching setting, respondents are coached to distinguish between a "must-have" value and a "meaningful" value. A "must-have" value is a value you have acted on or thought about in the previous 24 hours (this value item would receive a score of 6 or 7 on the Schwartz scale). A "meaningful" value is something you have acted on or thought about recently, but not in the previous 24 hours (this value item would receive a score of 5 or less).


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Another methodological limitations are the resulting ordinal, ipsatised scores that limit the type of useful analyses researchers can perform.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Recent studies advocate that values can influence the audience's reaction to advertising appeals. Moreover, in the case that a choice and a value are intervened, people tend to pick the choice that aligns more with their own values. Therefore, models such as the Theory of Basic Human Values could be seen as increasingly important for international marketing campaigns, as they can help to understand values and how values vary between cultures. This becomes especially true as it has been shown that values are one of the most powerful explanations of consumer behaviour. Understanding the different values and underlying defining goals can also help organisations to better motivate staff in an increasingly international workforce and create an according organizational structure.


title: Theory of Basic Human Values

text: Recently, Schwartz's work—and that of Geert Hofstede—has been applied to economics research. Specifically, the performance of the economies as it relates to entrepreneurship and business (firm) creation. This has significant implications to economic growth and might help explain why some countries are lagging behind others when labor, natural resources, and governing institutions are equal. This is a relatively new field of study in economics, however the recent empirical results suggest that culture plays a significant role in the success of entrepreneurial efforts across countries—even ones with largely similar governmental structures. Francisco Liñán and José Fernandez-Serrano found that these cultural attributes accounted for 60% of the difference in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) variance per capita in countries within the European Union (EU).


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Christoph Kramer (born 19 February 1991) is a German professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach. He represented the Germany national team.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: After a season in their reserve team, Kramer was promoted to Bayer Leverkusen's first team in 2011. He then spent two seasons on loan at second-tier VfL Bochum, and a further two at Borussia Mönchengladbach.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer made his full international debut for the Germany national team on 13 May 2014, and later that year was part of the German squad which won the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer joined local club BV Graefrath in 1995 before being snapped up by Bayer Leverkusen at age eight. But Kramer was cut from the Leverkusen youth squad at age 15 in 2006 because of his relatively small height. After two years with the Fortuna Düsseldorf youth squad, Kramer returned to Leverkusen in 2008, signed his first senior contract in 2010 and was promoted to Bayer Leverkusen II for the 2010–11 season. He gained promotion to the senior squad in 2011 and was immediately loaned out to 2. Bundesliga side VfL Bochum for the 2011–12 season.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer made his professional debut on 18 July 2011, coming on as a second-half substitute for Andreas Johansson in a 2–0 defeat of Bochum to Fortuna Düsseldorf. His first goal for the club came on 25 February 2012, scoring a consolation goal in a 6–2 defeat to Greuther Fürth. During the 2012–13 2. Bundesliga season, Kramer was involved in 852 tackles, the most by any player in the league, and won 50% of them. In the process, he committed 73 fouls but was only given eight yellow cards. In his two seasons in the second division with Bochum, Kramer made 61 league appearances and scored four goals. Following his spell at Bochum, he became a season-ticket holder at the RewirpowerSTADION.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Following his two-year spell with Bochum in the second division, Kramer joined Borussia Mönchengladbach in July 2013 on a two-year loan deal. He made his Bundesliga debut on 9 August 2013, starting in midfield for Gladbach in a 3–1 loss to defending champions Bayern Munich. He scored his first goal for Gladbach in the following round of fixtures, netting the club's second goal in a 3–0 victory over Hannover 96. Kramer scored Borussia Mönchengladbach's third goal of a 3–1 victory over Mainz 05 on 3 May 2014, securing the club a place in the UEFA Europa League for the following season. In the final league match of the season, Kramer scored his third Bundesliga goal as Gladbach fell to VfL Wolfsburg 3–1, confirming that Gladbach would finish just behind Wolfsburg, in sixth place.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer returned to Gladbach following his exploits in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, making his season debut on 24 August 2014, coming off the bench and scoring his side's last-minute equalizer in a 1−1 draw with VfB Stuttgart. On 9 November, away to Borussia Dortmund, he scored an own goal from inside the centre circle which gave his opponents a 1–0 victory.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: On 22 December 2014, Leverkusen announced Kramer would be returning to Leverkusen from his loan spell at Gladbach in summer 2015 as planned and that his contract had been extended by two further years until 30 June 2019.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Shortly before the end of his first Bundesliga season, Kramer was first invited on 8 May 2014 to the Germany senior team, when he was nominated as part of a so-called "perspective squad" for the preparation match for the 2014 World Cup in the Volksparkstadion in Hamburg against Poland, as many players could not join because they still had to play for their clubs. In this friendly match on 13 May, he played the full 90 minutes of a 0–0 draw. A day later, he was subsequently nominated for the preliminary squad. He won his second cap for the national side on 1 June, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 2–2 draw with Cameroon. The following day, Kramer was included by Joachim Löw in Germany's final 23-man squad for the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer made his first appearance of the tournament in Germany's round of 16 match against Algeria as a 109th-minute substitute for Bastian Schweinsteiger. He started the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, due to an injury to Sami Khedira minutes before kick off. Kramer, however, was forced to leave the game in the first half after taking a hit to the head, and André Schürrle came on to replace him. It was later revealed that Kramer may have suffered a concussion from his collision with Argentine centre-back Ezequiel Garay. Referee Nicola Rizzoli admitted that 14 minutes after the collision, Kramer came to him, asking if the match was the final. Rizzoli then informed Schweinsteiger and Kramer was substituted off. The incident was later satirized by his national teammates Thomas Müller, Manuel Neuer and retired national team captain Philipp Lahm in a video which was shown during Kramer's appearance on the German sports show "Das aktuelle sportstudio".


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer studied at Grundschule Meigen in Solingen from 1997 to 2001. He continued secondary education at August-Dicke-Schule and finished his Abitur examination in 2010, with a grade of 3.6.


title: Christoph Kramer

text: Kramer was the first Solingen citizen to have played for the Germany national team at a World Cup when he participated in the 2014 World Cup. Four years later, during 2018 FIFA World Cup, he appeared on German TV station "Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen" as a "TV expert" to deliver match analyses.


title: Euclidean division

text: In arithmetic, Euclidean division – or division with remainder – is the process of dividing one integer (the dividend) by another (the divisor), in a way that produces an integer quotient and a natural number remainder strictly smaller than the absolute value of the divisor. A fundamental property is that the quotient and the remainder exist and are unique, under some conditions. Because of this uniqueness, "Euclidean division" is often considered without referring to any method of computation, and without explicitly computing the quotient and the remainder. The methods of computation are called integer division algorithms, the best known of which being long division.


title: Euclidean division

text: Euclidean division, and algorithms to compute it, are fundamental for many questions concerning integers, such as the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two integers, and modular arithmetic, for which only remainders are considered. The operation consisting of computing only the remainder is called the "modulo operation", and is used often in both mathematics and computer science.


title: Euclidean division

text: Euclidean division is based on the following result, which is sometimes called Euclid's division lemma.


title: Euclidean division

text: In the above theorem, each of the four integers has a name of its own: is called the , is called the , is called the and is called the .


title: Euclidean division

text: The computation of the quotient and the remainder from the dividend and the divisor is called or — in case of ambiguity — . The theorem is frequently referred to as the (although it is a theorem and not an algorithm), because its proof as given below lends itself to a simple division algorithm for computing and (see the section Proof for more).


title: Euclidean division

text: Although "Euclidean division" is named after Euclid, it seems that he did not know the existence and uniqueness theorem, and that the only computation method that he knew was the division by repeated subtraction.


title: Euclidean division

text: Before the discovery of Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which was introduced in Europe during the 13th century by Fibonacci, division was extremely difficult, and only the best mathematicians were able to do it. Presently, most division algorithms, including long division, are based on this notation or its variants, such as binary numerals. A notable exception is Newton–Raphson division, which is independent from any numeral system.


title: Euclidean division

text: The term "Euclidean division" was introduced during the 20th century as a shorthand for "division of Euclidean rings". It has been rapidly adopted by mathematicians for distinguishing this division from the other kinds of division of numbers.


title: Euclidean division

text: Suppose that a pie has 9 slices and they are to be divided evenly among 4 people. Using Euclidean division, 9 divided by 4 is 2 with remainder 1. In other words, each person receives 2 slices of pie, and there is 1 slice left over.


title: Euclidean division

text: This can be confirmed using multiplication, the inverse of division: if each of the 4 people received 2 slices, then 4 × 2 = 8 slices were given out in total. Adding the 1 slice remaining, the result is 9 slices. In summary: 9 = 4 × 2 + 1.


title: Euclidean division

text: In general, if the number of slices is denoted formula_1 and the number of people is denoted "formula_2", then one can divide the pie evenly among the people such that each person receives "formula_3" slices (the quotient), with some number of slices formula_4 being the leftover (the remainder). In which case, the equation formula_5 holds.


title: Euclidean division

text: If 9 slices were divided among 3 people instead of 4, then each would receive 3 and no slice would be left over, which means that the remainder would be zero, leading to the conclusion that 3 "evenly divides" 9, or that 3 "divides" 9.


title: Euclidean division

text: Euclidean division can also be extended to negative dividend (or negative divisor) using the same formula; for example −9 = 4 × (−3) + 3, which means that −9 divided by 4 is −3 with remainder 3.


title: Euclidean division

text: The following proof of the division theorem relies on the fact that a decreasing sequence of non-negative integers stops eventually. It is separated into two parts: one for existence and another for uniqueness of "formula_3" and "formula_7". Other proofs use the well-ordering principle (i.e., the assertion that every non-empty set of non-negative integers has a smallest element) to make the reasoning simpler, but have the disadvantage of not providing directly an algorithm for solving the division (see for more).


title: Euclidean division

text: Consider first the case . Setting and , the equation may be rewritten as and the inequality may be rewritten as . This reduces the existence for the case to that of the case .


title: Euclidean division

text: Similarly, if and , setting , , and , the equation may be rewritten as , and the inequality may be rewritten as . Thus the proof of the existence is reduced to the case and — which will be considered in the remainder of the proof.


title: Euclidean division

text: Let and , then these are non-negative numbers such that . If then the division is complete, so suppose . Then defining and , one has with . As there are only non-negative integers less than , one only needs to repeat this process at most times to reach the final quotient and the remainder. That is, there exist a natural number such that and .


title: Euclidean division

text: This proves the existence and also gives a simple division algorithm for computing the quotient and the remainder. However, this algorithm is not efficient, since its number of steps is of the order of .


title: Euclidean division

text: The pair of integers and such that is unique, in the sense that there can no be other pair of integers that satisfy the same condition in the Euclidean division theorem. In other words, if we have another division of by , say with , then we must have that


title: Euclidean division

text: In general, an existence proof does not provide an algorithm for computing the existing quotient and remainder, but the above proof does immediately provide an algorithm (see Division algorithm#Division by repeated subtraction), even though it is not a very efficient one as it requires as many steps as the size of the quotient. This is related to the fact that it uses only additions, subtractions and comparisons of integers, without involving multiplication, nor any particular representation of the integers such as decimal notation.


title: Euclidean division

text: In terms of decimal notation, long division provides a much more efficient algorithm for solving Euclidean divisions. Its generalization to binary and hexadecimal notation provides further flexibility and possibility for computer implementation. However, for large inputs, algorithms that reduce division to multiplication, such as Newton–Raphson, are usually preferred, because they only need a time which is proportional to the time of the multiplication needed to verify the result—independently of the multiplication algorithm which is used (for more, see Division algorithm#Fast division methods).


title: Euclidean division

text: In Euclidean division with as divisor, the remainder is supposed to belong to the interval of length . Any other interval of the same length may be used. More precisely, given integers formula_8, formula_1, formula_10 with formula_11, there exist unique integers formula_3 and formula_7 with formula_14 such that formula_15.


title: Euclidean division

text: In particular, if formula_16 then formula_17 . This division is called the "centered division", and its remainder formula_7 is called the "centered remainder" or the least absolute remainder".


title: Euclidean division

text: This is used for approximating real numbers: Euclidean division defines truncation, and centered division defines rounding.


title: Euclidean division

text: Given integers formula_1, formula_8 and formula_21 with formula_22 and formula_23 let formula_24 be the modular multiplicative inverse of formula_25 (i.e., formula_26 with formula_27 being a multiple of formula_8), then there exist unique integers formula_3 and formula_7 with formula_31 such that formula_32.


title: Euclidean division

text: Euclidean domains (also known as Euclidean rings) are defined as integral domains which support the following generalization of Euclidean division:


title: Euclidean division

text: Uniqueness of and is not required. It occurs only in exceptional cases, typically for univariate polynomials, and for integers, if the further condition is added.


title: Euclidean division

text: Examples of Euclidean domains include fields, polynomial rings in one variable over a field, and the Gaussian integers. The Euclidean division of polynomials has been the object of specific developments.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The O'Neill dynasty (Irish: "Ó Néill") are a lineage of Irish Gaelic origin, that held prominent positions and titles in Ireland and elsewhere. As kings of Cenél nEógain, they were historically the most prominent family of the Northern Uí Néill, along with the O'Donnell dynasty. The O'Neills hold that their ancestors were kings of Ailech during the Early Middle Ages, as descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Two of their progenitors were High Kings of Ireland, Niall Glúndub (from whom they take their name) and Domnall ua Néill. From 1232 until 1616, the O'Neill were sovereign kings of Tír Eógain, holding territories in the north of Ireland in the province of Ulster; particularly around modern County Tyrone, County Londonderry and County Antrim, in what is now Northern Ireland. After their realm was merged with the Kingdom of Ireland and the land was caught up in the Plantation of Ulster, they were involved in a number of significant events, such as Tyrone's Rebellion, the Flight of the Earls, the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and the Irish Confederate Wars.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The O'Neill lineage claims descent from Niall Glúndub, a 10th-century king of Ailech as well as High King of Ireland. Niall descended from the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill. The first to adopt the patronymic surname was Niall Glúndub's great-grandson, Flaithbertach Ua Néill.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The lineage does not receive a mention in non-Irish recorded history sources between the 1080s and 1160s, from which they emerge from a "very murky background". In 1167, King of Ireland Ruaidrí Ua Conchobhair marched north and divided the kingdom of Ailech into two. The portion north of Slieve Gallion, was given to Niall Mac Lochlainn (McLaughlin), with the portion south of Slieve Gallion, given to Áed Ua Néill. After this the two rival dynasties contested for control over Tír Eoghain until the battle of Caimeirge in 1241, where the O'Neills wiped out the MacLoughlin leadership.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: After 1241, the O'Neill lineage dominated and displaced other lineage, using the disruption of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 to their benefit and were able to consolidate. The Bruce Invasion of Ireland devastated the Norman Earldom of Ulster, which held sway over eastern Ulster and most of its north coast all the way to Derry. Its collapse in 1333 allowed a branch of the O'Neill that had been on good terms with the Normans, Clandeboye, to step into the power vacuum and take control over large parts of eastern Ulster.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The dominant Gaelic and Norman-Irish leaders were in tune with their contemporary peers of the Middle Ages in terms of education, international trade, and diplomacy. The O'Neills had strong family relationships with the FitzGerald dynasty, both the Earls of Kildare and Earls of Desmond; the Earl of Pembroke via de Clare's marriage to the Irish house of Diarmuid, King of Leinster; and the MacDonnells, Bissetts, MacLeans, and Campbells.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: In 1171, King Henry II of England came to Ireland to remove the authority of the English lords in Ireland. He met the leading Irish kings and received the pledge of fealty from them. During the Middle Ages, the O'Neills were active politically and militarily throughout Ireland, occasionally sending nobility to fight within Ireland and in campaigns in Europe. From 1312 to 1318, their kings were staunch supporters of King Robert the Bruce and his brother Edward Bruce. They sent troops and supported Edward in his attempt to become King of Ireland in 1315. In the 14th century Edward III of England called Tyrone "the Great O'Neill" and invited him to join a campaign against the Scots, and another O'Neill prince accompanied the English king on a crusade to the Holy Land. In 1394 Richard II of England deemed King Niall Mór "Le Grand O'Neill" upon a friendly hosting of the two kings. In 1493, Henry VII of England referred to Henry O'Neill, King of Tyrone, as "the Chief of the Irish Kings" and gave him a gift of livery.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The O'Neills' independent stature within Ulster began to change with the ascent of King Henry VIII in England in 1509. Soon after he took the English throne, Henry decided to grasp Ireland via a reputed papal bull that claimed to grant the lordship of Ireland to English kings. This was spurred by the 1537 Rising of Silken Thomas Fitzgerald. The O'Neills supported their FitzGerald dynasty cousins in that rebellion and had to maneuver politically to keep the English from toppling their power in Ulster when the rising failed. Henry began a policy to reduce the kings in Ireland to the same rank and structure as the English nobility. In the policy called Surrender and regrant Irish monarchs were forced to surrender their titles and independent lands to Henry, and in return he created them Earls of the Kingdom of Ireland and "granted" them their own lands back. The last King of Tyrone and first original earldom was one such grant by Henry VIII in 1542 to Conn Bacach O'Neill, on the creation of the Kingdom of Ireland. Conn wanted to be named the Earl of Ulster, but Henry refused that royal honor out of spite for Conn's previous warfare against his crown. The earldom of Tyrone was eventually granted in 1542. The submission of Conn O'Neill led to a 50-year civil war within Ulster that eventually led to downfall of O'Neill power in 1607 with the departure of the third earl for Rome and exile.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Shane O'Neill, known as or 'Shane the Proud' (1530–1567), the eldest surviving, legitimate son of Conn Bacach O'Neill, was styled Prince of Tyrone, Prince of Ulster, and Dux Hibernicorum (Prince of Ireland) by his European peers. He did not share the moderate relationship with the English that his father had cultivated. He was almost always at war with the Lord Lieutenant in Dublin. An act of the English Parliament in 1562 gave Shane O'Neill the English title of Lord O'Neill until his claim for his father's estate was settled. The writ for Shane to be named the second Earl of Tyrone was written, but held up on Dublin. Shane rebelled and was killed before he could be invested and in 1569, the retrospective attainder of Shane O'Neill banned the use of the title of The O'Neill Mór.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The title The O'Neill Mór was not a patrilineal hereditary one, but was conferred on the man elected and inaugurated to rule Tír Eoghain. The title did not have to be from a Tyrone sept, as at least two Clannaboy chiefs also served as The O'Neill Mór. However, there are a few families that may, and some do, claim the rights of O'Neill of Tyrone. These claimants are made up of descendants of the last King and sons of the first Earl (Conn): Shane, Ferdocha (Mathew), and Phelim Caoch. These claimants include O'Neill of Corab, O'Neill of Waterford, McShane-Johnson O'Neills of Killetragh, and O'Neill of Dundalk, as well as the primogeniture of the Marqués de Larraín who still use the titular title of Prince of Tyrone. All descend from one of the last chiefs of the O'Neills of Tyrone.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Upon the death of Shane, his tanist and cousin, Turlough Luineach O'Neill became the paramount Ulster chief. Turlough was the son of Conn Bacach's uncle, and was the fourth son of Niall Connallach macArt óg O'Neill, Tanist of Tyrone (1519–1544). Turlough assumed the position of The O'Neill Mor and held it through a great deal of fighting until 1595 when he died. During his Chiefship, Turlough initially battled the sons of his predecessor Shane, who were called the MacShanes, but soon after established a peace with the brothers, granting them the eastern third of his lands (Glenconkeyn and parts of Tir Eoghan along the western side of Lough Neagh) in return for their military loyalty. MacShanes Conn and his brother Shane both served as Turlough's tanists at different times. At the same time, Turlough battled the up-and-coming Baron of Dungannon, Hugh Rua O'Neill who was placed in Ulster as a counterweight to Turlough's power by the English. Hugh Rua eventually succeeded to the title of Earl of Tyrone and upon Turlough's death, became The O'Neill Mor himself.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: After nearly a decade of warfare with the English forces in Ireland, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, surrendered in 1603, just days after the death of his enemy Queen Elizabeth. Hugh stayed in Ulster as the Earl for another five years. But after numerous threats to his life, he secretly departed Ireland for the French coast in 1607 in what is famously called the Flight of the Earls. Hugh continued to use his title after he fled to the Continent in the Flight of the Earls, although in the law of the Kingdom of Ireland it was forfeit by act of the Irish Parliament a year later. So did his son Shane O'Neill, whose will left his title to his only, if illegitimate, son Hugo Eugenio O'Neill; when he died in 1641 at the head of his regiment in Spain. Other Spanish exiled descendants of Hugh Rua continued to use the title and command the Ulster Irish Regiment in the Spanish Army through the seventeenth century.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The barony of Dungannon was created in 1542 as the title designated for the declared heir of the Earldom. Ferdocha or Mathew O'Neill, natural son of Conn Bacach the 1st Earl, was the first to hold the title of Baron Dungannon. The line that descended from Mathew kept the Baron of Dungannon as one of its junior titles at least through the death of Don Eugenio O'Neill, Conde de Tiron in 1695. There were other titles laid out in the will of Don Juan (John/Shane/Sean) O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, in 1660. They include Viscount of Tyrone, Viscount of Montoy, Baron of Strabane, and Lord of the Clannaboy. There is a later account of the O'Neills acquiring the comital title of Clanawley. Although the title of Baron of Dungannon would traditionally still be preserved with the title of Count/Earl of Tyrone, it is not currently used by anyone in the extended O'Neill family.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Another of the more famous O'Neills of Tyrone was Owen Roe O'Neill (c. 1590–1649), a brilliant 17th-century military commander and one of the most famous of the O'Neill family of Ulster. He was the son of Art O'Neill, a younger brother of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone. As a young man, he left Ireland in the Flight of the Earls to escape the English conquest of his native Ulster. He grew up in the Spanish Netherlands and spent 40 years serving in the Irish regiment of the Spanish Army, mainly in the Eighty Years' War against the Dutch Republic in Flanders, notably at the siege of Arras, where he commanded the Spanish garrison. O'Neill was, like many Gaelic Irish officers in the Spanish service, hostile to the English Protestant invasion of Ireland. He returned to Ireland during the Irish Rebellion of 1641 to command the Irish Ulster Army during the Irish Confederate Wars. He was reportedly poisoned by Cromwell's supporters and died in 1649.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: This is another branch of the Tyrone O'Neills which started in the mid 15th century. The name translates to "of the sept of Art". Eoghan Mór O'Neill (Owen the Great), King of Tír Eoghan (Tyrone) from 1432 to 1456 had four sons who each started independent lines. His eldest, Henry, was King of Tyrone from 1455 to 1489 and was the grandfather of Conn Bacach. Aodh, his second son started the line of the Fews. Art, his third son, was King of Tyrone 1509–1514. This branch of the family held its lands in western Tyrone and was typically at a distance from those O'Neills centered on the traditional capitol of Dungannon. Art was unable to elevate his son to the kingship, but his grandson was Sir Turlough Luineach O'Neill, The O'Neill Mor 1567–1593, the Earl of ClanConnell, and de jure King of Tyrone for a rocky period during the 1570s. On his deathbed he passed his chiefship to his cousin Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone. That family, after Sir Turlough's death, remained hostile to the Earl and often sided with the English when in conflict with the rest of the Tyrone O'Neills.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Hugh Boy, son of Donnell Og O'Neill, grandson of Aodh Meith O'Neill (Hugh the Fat), and great-grandson of Áed in Macáem Tóinlesc, all kings of Cenél nEógain of the Northern Uí Néill, was the eponymous ancestor of the O'Neill Clandeboy line. He had come to an arrangement with the Norman Earls of Ulster which allowed his sons, particularly Brian, to consolidate O'Neill power within The North at the expense of the O'Donnells. Hugh Boy was married to Eleanor de Nangle, a kinswoman to his nominal enemy, Walter de Burgh, the Earl of Ulster and Jocelyn de Angulo; Hugh died in 1283. The lineage he established remained senior among the O'Neill's, becoming semi-independent with a distinct territory. Having helped the Anglo-Norman barons in a rebellion against their fellow Norman lord, the Earl of Ulster, the family was granted land outside the North, in Ulster within what is now south County Antrim. That was the official establishment of the Lordship of Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, or the O'Neills of Clandeboye, though the English retained lordship over the much-reduced Earldom of Ulster.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The family fought on both sides of the wars that racked Ireland from the 1530s to 1690s, whose end result was a significant loss of territory and influence due to political alliances and an influx of new families flowing in from Scotland and England.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The issue of Sir Henry O'Neill, who had been granted the Edenduffcarrick estate and majority of the Clandeboye lands by conforming to English ways and converting to Anglicanism, died out in 1855. At this time, the barrister Charles Henry O'Neill of the O'Neills of the Feevah, descendant of the last tanaiste of Clandeboye, Sir Henry's uncle Con Mac Brian O'Neill, became officially recognized as The O'Neill Clanaboy. "The descendants of Prince Con MacBryan O'Neill, Tanist of Clanaboy, remained loyal, under every vicissitude, to the traditions of their house, and saved little out of the general wreck of confiscation. They seemed to have preferred fulfilling the solemn pledge of their ancestor, Donald O'Neill, King of Ulster, to 'fight out as long as life should last' rather than adapt themselves to altered circumstances, as the descendants of Shane MacBryan had wisely done," according to Burke's Peerage. In fact both Sir Henry and his daughter Rose willed the Shane's Castle estate to the descendants of Prince Con mac Brian. While Charles Henry assumed the title, the Clandeboye O'Neill estate was passed to William Chichester through his grandmother Mary O'Neill – a move highly disputed. Charles Henry O'Neill had his first and only child, a daughter named Elizabeth Catherine Theresa Mary O'Neill, in 1845, during the Great Hunger, and had no further issue. From the death of Charles Henry O'Neill until Jorge O'Neill assumed the chieftainship the family had no chief.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: In the beginning of the 18th century Felix O'Neill: senior male in linear descent of the line of Brian Ballach O'Neill, and Niall Mór O'Neill's second eldest son, was dispossessed of all his estate through the confiscation applied via the Penal Laws, which led him to emigrate to France. He was a cavalry officer who took part in many battles with the heroic Irish Brigade of the French Army. He fought with the French against the British, the Austrians, and the Dutch (during the War of the Spanish Succession), in the celebrated Battle of Malplaquet, where he died on 11 September 1709.[1][2]


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: His son Conn (Constantine) O'Neill was an officer who spent his life in exile in France and married to Cecilia O'Hanlon. Their eldest son, João O'Neill (Shane O'Neill), was born in Richhill Village in the parish of Kilmore, Tyrone, and died in Santos o Velho, Lisbon, on 21 January 1788. He left France with his brothers and established their noble line permanently under in the Kingdom of Portugal. He was the titular head of the Clanaboy O'Neill dynasty, whose family have been in Portugal ever since. The current head of the Clanaboy O'Neill dynasty, a descendant of João, is Hugo Ricciardi O'Neill, the son of Jorge Maria O'Neill, of Portugal.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: In 1896 Jorge O'Neill of Portugal submitted his genealogy to the Somerset Herald in London. Five years later, Sir Henry Farnham Burke, KCVO, CB, FSA, Somerset Herald stated in 1900 that "the only Pedigree at present on record in either of the Offices of Arms showing a lineal male descent from the House of O'Neill, Monarchs of Ireland, Kings of Ulster, and Princes of Tyrone and Claneboy, is the one registered in the fifty-ninth year of the Reign of Our Sovereign Lady Victoria, in favor of His Excellency Jorge O'Neill of Lisbon". He then recognized him as the Representative of the House of O'Neill and as the Representative of the Earldom created in 1542 for his kinsman Conn Baccagh O'Neill. All of this was granted under Letters Patent issued by the English College of Heralds. Later, the Ulster and Norroy King of Arms granted him the undifferenced arms as the head of the House of O'Neill. Upon that Letters Patent, Pope Leo XIII, the King of Spain, and the King of Portugal all recognized Jorge O'Neill as the Prince of Clanaboy, Tyrone, Ulster, as the Count of Tyrone, and the Head of the Royal House of O'Neill and all of its septs. It was from this grant that the Chief Herald of Ireland recognized the family as the Princes of Clannaboy in 1945. The grandson of Jorge and present Prince of Clanaboy, Hugo, has not pressed his senior claim to the entire House of O'Neill out of respect for his O'Neill chief cousins and their own histories.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Hugo Ricciardi O'Neill is recognised by the offices of arms throughout Europe as titular "Prince and Count of Clanaboy". He uses the title and style of "The O'Neill of Clanaboy". The name Clanaboy (or Clandeboye) is a corruption of the Gaelic family name of 'Cloinne Aodha Buidhe' or 'Family of Fair-Haired Hugh'. The O'Neills of Bellaghy are of this line. Count O'Nelley of the Austro-Hungarian Army (circa 1750) is of this line and from the MacShanes, as are the O'Neills of the Feeva. The traditional title of the head of this family branch is The O'Neill Buidhe or The O'Neill of Clannabuidhe. The O'Neill of Clanaboy is the only O'Neill prince recognized as one of the hereditary Chiefs of the Name of Ireland. They are a dominant family to this day in Counties Antrim, Louth, and eastern Armagh.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The castle at Edenduffcarrick now called Shane's Castle has long been a key family in the Clannaboy clan of O'Neills. Shane MacBrien O'Neill changed the name to Shane's Castle in 1722. After the Plantation of Ulster, some O'Neill families converted to the Church of Ireland and began to intermarry with the new nobility coming from England. One such union between Mary O'Neill, the daughter of Henry O'Neill the lord of Shane's Castle, and Arthur Chichester. It is through this marriage that the present day Barons of Shane's Castle trace their lineage to the royal family of O'Neill. The present day title of Baron O'Neill of Shane's Castle is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1868 for the musical composer The Reverend William O'Neill. Born William Chichester, he succeeded to the estates of his cousin John Bruce Richard O'Neill, 3rd Viscount O'Neill, in 1855 (on whose death the viscountcy and barony of O'Neill became extinct) and assumed by Royal licence the surname of O'Neill in lieu of Chichester in order to inherit the lands of his cousin, despite not being descended in the male line from an O'Neill, daughter of Henry O'Neill of Shane's Castle. Lord O'Neill was the patrilineal great-great-great-grandson of John Chichester, younger brother of Arthur Chichester, 2nd Earl of Donegall. The latter two were both nephews of Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, and grandsons of Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester (see the Marquess of Donegall for more information). Lord O'Neill was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He sat as a Conservative Member of Parliament for Antrim.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: His eldest son and heir apparent, the Hon. Arthur O'Neill, represented Antrim Mid in the House of Commons as a Conservative from 1910 until 1914, when he was killed in action during the First World War, the first MP to die in the conflict. The second Baron was therefore succeeded by his grandson, Shane O'Neill, 3rd Baron O'Neill (the son of the Hon. Arthur O'Neill). He was killed in action in Italy during the Second World War where he served as a Battalion Commander of the North Irish Horse regiment. His wife later remarried to the famous spy novelist, Ian Fleming.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: As of 2017 the title is held by his son, the fourth Baron, Sir Raymond O'Neill who succeeded in 1944. He was Lord Lieutenant of Antrim from 1994 to 2008 for which he was knighted in 2014. As a descendant of the first Viscount Chichester he is in remainder to the barony and viscountcy of Chichester and, according to a special patent in the letters patent, the earldom of Donegall, titles held by his kinsman the Marquess of Donegall. Two other members of the O'Neill family have been elevated to the peerage. Hugh O'Neill, 1st Baron Rathcavan, was the youngest son of the second Baron O'Neill, while Terence O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of the Maine, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, was the youngest brother of the third Baron.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: The family seat is Shane's Castle, near Randalstown, County Antrim where they are involved in the commercial cattle business.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: "The Fews" is an area in County Armagh, Northern Ireland, that was a sub-territory under the O'Neills of Tyrone. This O'Neill branch is related to the O'Neill of Tyrone through King Eoghan Mor, circa 1432–1436. The king's younger son Aodh (Hugh) pushed into the territory known as the Fews and founded a lordship there based largely on the unlawful confiscation of considerable amounts of land belonging to the archbishop of Armagh.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: In the rebellion of 1642, Sir Henry O'Neill, a member of the Fews O'Neills, sided with the English crown while his sons and brothers played a prominent part in the rising. Despite his choice of sides his lands were confiscated and divided among a number of Cromwellian settlers. The chief beneficiary was Thomas Ball, whose grants totalled more than . Sir Henry O'Neill was banished to Connacht, to land in County Mayo, Ireland. Exiled with him was his son Captain Sean/Shane O'Neill. Shane's sons took the surname MacShane, or son of Shane. His grandson William anglicized the name to Johnson. He was a major-general in the American Colonial Army and fought the French at Niagara, New York in French-Indian War. For his significant victory he was granted a baronetcy and made Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet of New York in 1753. The present holder of that estate is Sir Colpoys Johnson, 8th Baronet of New York.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: When the Williamite War began in Ireland in 1689, Sir Henry O'Neill's son Turlough was dead and so was Turlough's son Con. The heir to the family's Mayo estate was Con's son Henry, who was a minor and had been sent to France for his education. Despite their non-participation in the war, the O'Neill estates were seized by the Crown. Henry (1676-1745) should subsequently have recovered the confiscated lands; his relatives on the continent feared to send him back to Ireland to stake his claim and the property went by default and was sold in 1702–3. Henry had a heroic career in the French army, rising to become a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Regiment of Clare. He was killed at the Battle of Fontenoy in May 1745, aged 69. Henry was the last undisputed claimant to the lordship of the Fews.


title: O'Neill dynasty

text: Some O'Neill families today claim descent from this Henry O'Neill, but contemporary documentation show that he died without leaving any descendants. Following Henry's death, Felix O'Neill (c1720-1792) was identified by contemporaries as the "person to whom the Lordship of the Fews in the North of Ireland in right and justice belongeth". Indeed, Felix was considered to have a valid claim to be the Chief of the entire O'Neill clan. In his book "History of Ireland" (1758–62) Abbé James MacGeoghegan of the Irish College in Paris wrote of the house of the O'Neills that "the present representative is Felix O'Neill, the chief of the house of the Fews, and an officer of rank in the service of his Catholic Majesty".