title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The Peaceful Revolution (), as a part of the Revolutions of 1989, was the process of sociopolitical change that led to the opening of East Germany's borders with the west, the end of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) in the German Democratic Republic (GDR or "East Germany") and the transition to a parliamentary democracy, which enabled the reunification of Germany in October 1990. This happened through non-violent initiatives and demonstrations. This period of change is referred to in German as (, "the turning point").


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: These events were closely linked to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's decision to abandon Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe as well as the reformist movements that spread through Eastern Bloc countries. In addition to the Soviet Union's shift in foreign policy, the GDR's lack of competitiveness in the global market, as well as its sharply rising national debt, hastened the destabilization of the SED's one-party state.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Those driving the reform process within the GDR included intellectuals and church figures who had been in underground opposition for several years, people attempting to flee the country, and peaceful demonstrators who were no longer willing to yield to the threat of violence and repression.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Because of its hostile response to the reforms implemented within its "socialist brother lands", the SED leadership was already increasingly isolated within the Eastern Bloc when it permitted the opening of the border at the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. Through a change in leadership and a willingness to negotiate, the SED attempted to win back the political initiative, but control of the situation increasingly lay with the West German government under Chancellor Helmut Kohl.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: From December 1989, the GDR government of Prime Minister Hans Modrow was influenced by the Central Round Table, which put into action the dissolution of the Stasi and prepared free elections. After an election win for a coalition of parties that supported German reunification, the political path within the GDR was clear.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: A fundamental shift in Soviet policy toward the Eastern Bloc nations under Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s was the prelude to widespread demonstrations against the Socialist Unity Party, which had ruled East Germany since the country was founded on 7 October 1949. Previous uprisings – East Germany (1953), Czechoslovakia (1953), Poland (1956), Hungary (1956) and the Prague Spring (1968) – were harshly put down by Soviet troops. The Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981 was already one of non-intervention.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Having initiated a policy of "glasnost" (openness) and emphasized the need for "perestroika" (economic restructuring), in July 1989, Gorbachev permitted the Warsaw Pact nations to initiate their own political and economic reforms within the terms of the treaty.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The policy of non-interference in Soviet Bloc countries' internal affairs was made official with Gorbachev's statement on 26 October 1989 that the "Soviet Union has no moral or political right to interfere in the affairs of its East European neighbors". This was dubbed the Sinatra Doctrine, by Gorbachev's spokesman Gennadi Gerasimov who joked "You know the Frank Sinatra song, 'I Did It My Way'? Hungary and Poland are doing it their way."


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Following the reforms, by 1988 relations had soured between Gorbachev and Honecker, although the relationship of KGB and the Stasi was still close.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: In November 1988, the distribution of the Soviet monthly magazine "Sputnik", was prohibited in East Germany because its new open political criticisms annoyed upper circles of the GDR leadership. This caused a lot of resentment and helped to activate the opposition movement. After a year, the sale of the magazine was reinstated, and censored editions of the issues from the preceding year were made available in a special edition for East Germans.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: East Germany's economy was stronger than other Eastern Bloc countries and it was the most successful of the CMEA countries. It was the Soviet Union's most important trading partner, although it was very much subordinate. It was a net exporter of technology. Its shared language, cultural and personal connections with West Germany helped to boost its economy. Its trade with West Germany was 50 to 60 percent of its total trade with Western nations.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Although it was hailed as a communist success story, by the late 1980s its economic growth had slowed to less than 1% per annum and the government's economic goals were not reached. It had to deal with increasing global competition with run-down industrial infrastructure, and shortages of labour and raw materials. From 1986, its products were often seen as inferior and orders delivered to the Soviet Union were increasingly rejected due to poor quality control standards. Other communist countries were pursuing market-led reforms, but the government of Erich Honecker rejected such changes, claiming they contradicted Marxist ideology. More than one-fifth of the government's income was spent on subsidising the costs of housing, food and basic goods.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Poor sewerage and industrial infrastructure led to major environmental problems. Half the country's domestic sewage was untreated, as was most industrial waste. Over a third of all East Germany's rivers, and almost a third of its reservoirs and half of its lakes were severely polluted. Its forests were damaged by sulphur dioxide and air pollution in cities was a problem. Protests about these environmental problems played a large part in the Peaceful Revolution.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Workers in East Germany earned more than those in other communist countries and they had better housing than most of them. But East German workers compared themselves with West Germans, who were much better off, which was another cause of dissatisfaction.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: In practice, there was no real choice in GDR elections, which consisted of citizens voting to approve a pre-selected list of National Front candidates. The National Front was, in theory, an alliance of political parties, but they were all controlled by the SED party, which controlled the Volkskammer, the East German parliament. The results of elections were generally about 99% "Yes" in favour of the list. However, before the 7 May 1989 election there were open signs of citizens' dissatisfaction with the government and the SED was concerned that there could be a significant number of "No" votes. The number of applications for an "Ausreiseantrag" (permission to leave the country) had increased and there was discontent about housing conditions and shortages of basic products.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: In the weeks before the election, opposition activists called for it to be boycotted, and distributed a leaflet criticising Erich Honecker's regime. Nevertheless, the result of the election was proclaimed as 98.5% "Yes". Clear evidence of electoral fraud was smuggled to the West German media. When this information was broadcast, it was picked up in East Germany, instigating protests.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Citizens demanded their legal right to observe the vote count. Election monitors from churches and other groups showed the figures had been falsified. About 10% of voters had put a line through every name on the list, indicating a "No" vote, and about 10% of the electorate had not voted at all. After the initial protests on 7 May, there were demonstrations on the seventh of every month in Alexanderplatz in Berlin.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc states had strongly isolationist policies and they developed complex systems and infrastructure to restrict their citizens travel beyond the Iron Curtain. About 3.5 million people left the GDR for West Germany before the building of the Berlin Wall and the Inner German border in August 1961. After that it was still possible to leave legally, by applying for and receiving an (permission to leave). Between 1961 and 1988 about 383,000 people left this way.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The government also forcibly exiled people, and political prisoners and their families could be ransomed to the West German government, although those involved had no choice in the matter. Between 1964 and 1989 a recorded 33,755 political prisoners and about 250,000 of their relatives and others were "sold" to West Germany.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Most of those who tried to escape illegally after 1961 travelled to other Eastern Bloc countries, as they believed their western borders were easier to breach than East Germany's. Around 7,000–8,000 East Germans escaped through Bulgaria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia between 1961 and 1988. However, the majority of attempts were thwarted and those caught were arrested and sent back to face the East German legal system. Some were also shot and killed by border guards.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The Hungarian leader, János Kádár, retired on 22 May 1988 and other political parties were formed which challenged the old socialist order in Hungary, leading to a period of liberalisation. Almost a year later, on 2 May 1989, the Hungarian government began dismantling its border fence with Austria. This encouraged East German citizens to start travelling to Hungary in the hope of being able to get to the west more easily, not only over the border, but also by going to the West German embassy in Budapest and seeking asylum. On 27 June 1989 the Hungarian foreign minister Gyula Horn and his Austrian counterpart Alois Mock symbolically cut the border fence just outside Sopron. After the demolition of the border facilities, the patrols of the heavily armed Hungarian border guards were tightened and there was still a shooting order.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 10 August 1989, Hungary announced it would be further relaxing its handling of first-time East German border offenders, which had already become lenient. It stamped the passports of people caught trying to illegally cross the border, rather than arresting them or reporting them to the East German authorities; first-time offenders would just get a warning, and no stamp. It also announced a proposal to downgrade illegal border crossing from a crime to a misdemeanour.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The Pan-European Picnic at the Austro-Hungarian border followed on 19 August 1989. This was a celebration of more open relationships between east and west, near Sopron, but on the Austrian side of the border. The opening of the border gate then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR or an Iron Curtain, and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. The idea of opening the border at a ceremony came from Otto von Habsburg and was brought up by him to Miklós Németh, the then Hungarian Prime Minister, who promoted the idea. The border was temporarily opened at 3 pm, and 700–900 East Germans, who had travelled there after being tipped off, rushed across, without intervention from Hungarian border guards. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The local organization in Sopron took over the Hungarian Democratic Forum, the other contacts were made via Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State Imre Pozsgay. Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the Paneuropean Union, which was then headed by Karl von Habsburg, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron. Habsburg and Imre Pozsgay saw the event also as an opportunity to test Mikhail Gorbachev’s reaction to an opening of the border on the Iron Curtain. In particular, it was examined whether Moscow would give the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary the command to intervene. The West German government was already prepared for the mass escape, and trains and coaches were ready to take the escapees from Vienna to Giessen, near Frankfurt, where a refugee reception centre was waiting for the new arrivals. After the Pan-European Picnic, Erich Honecker dictated to the "Daily Mirror" of August 19, 1989: “Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West.” But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: About 100,000 East Germans then travelled to Hungary, hoping to also get across the border. Many people camped in the garden of the West German embassy in Budapest, in parks and around the border areas. Although the East German government asked for these people to be deported back to the GDR, Hungary, which had signed the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees on 14 March 1989, refused.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: From 10 September 1989, the Hungarian government allowed all East Germans to cross the Austro-Hungarian border without hindrance. Tens of thousands left and many also travelled to Czechoslovakia, whose government also gave in to demands to open its western border.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The East German government gave in to pressure to allow special trains carrying East German refugees from Prague to West Germany, to travel via East Germany. Between the first and eighth of October 1989, 14 so-called "Freedom Trains" (German: ) carried a total of 12,000 people to Hof, in Bavaria. Large crowds gathered to cheer the trains as they passed.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: As a result of new hopes inspired by the mass exodus of East Germans via Hungary, several opposition groups formed in Autumn 1989, with the aim of bringing about the same sorts of reforms in the GDR that had been instituted in Poland and Hungary.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The largest of these was the New Forum (German:"Neues Forum"). It was founded by the artist Bärbel Bohley along with Jens Reich and . It had over 200,000 members within a few weeks of being set up. On 20 September 1989 it applied to field candidates in the March 1990 general election. New Forum acted as an umbrella organisation for activist groups across the country. Other new political organisations including Democratic Awakening, United Left, and the Socialist Democratic Party formed. They all had similar aims, wanting greater democracy and environmental reforms.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: East Germans could see news about the Tiananmen Square democracy demonstration between April and June 1989 on West German television broadcasts. When the Chinese regime brutally crushed the demonstration on 3–4 June, several hundred and possibly several thousand protesters were killed. This caused concern for the nascent East German protest movement, that had demonstrated against electoral fraud in May. "We too feared the possibility of a 'Chinese solution,'" said Pastor Christian Fuehrer of the Nikolaikirche in Leipzig.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The "Neues Deutschland", the official newspaper of the SED, supported the crackdown by the Chinese authorities. The German People's Congress proclaimed it was "a defeat for counter-revolutionary forces." Sixteen civil rights activists in East Berlin were arrested for protesting against the actions of the Chinese government.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: However, growing political agitation in East Germany was part of wider liberalisation within the Soviet bloc resulting from Gorbachev's reforms – the country was not as isolated as China. Although Gorbachev visited Beijing in May 1989 to normalize Sino-Soviet relations, and the Chinese people were enthusiastic about his ideas, he had no influence with the Chinese government. Rather than stifle the East Germans' protests, the Tiananmen Square demonstration was further inspiration for their desire to instigate change.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Celebrations for Republic Day on 7 October 1989, the 40th anniversary of the founding of the GDR, were marred by demonstrations. There had been protests in the preceding weeks, and Hungary and Czechoslovakia now allowed East Germans to travel freely across their borders to the west. From 1 to 8 October, 14 "Freedom Trains" took 12,000 East German refugees from Prague across GDR territory to West Germany, with cheers from East Germans as they passed. All were signs that the anniversary, which Mikhail Gorbachev attended, would not run smoothly.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Although there were almost 500,000 Soviet troops stationed in the GDR, they were not going to help suppress any demonstrations. It later emerged that Gorbachev had ordered that the troops were to stay in their barracks during the commemorations. As the reformist Gorbachev was paraded along Unter den Linden, cheering crowds lining the street called out "Gorbi, Gorbi," and "Gorbi, help us." However, there were still fears of a Tiananmen Square-style crackdown, as on 2 October, the SED party official Egon Krenz was in Beijing, at the anniversary of the founding of People's Republic of China. There, he said, "In the struggles of our time, the GDR and China stand side by side."


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 7 October, a candelight demonstration with 1,500 protesters around Gethsemane Church in Prenzlauer Berg, Berlin was crushed by security forces, who beat people up and made around 500 arrests. Other protests outside the Palace of the Republic were also brutally repressed.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: There were protests throughout the country, the most organised being three consecutive demonstrations in Saxony on 7, 8 and 9 October in Plauen, Dresden and Leipzig respectively. In Leipzig, there was no violence, as the 70,000 participants were too many for the 8,000 armed security forces present to tackle. "The message from Leipzig soared over the entire country: The masses had the power to topple the regime peacefully".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: When numerous East Germans were arrested for protesting the 40th-anniversary celebrations, many of them sang "The Internationale" in police custody to imply that they, rather than their captors, were the real revolutionaries.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 18 October, only eleven days after these events, Honecker was removed as head of the party and the state and was replaced by Egon Krenz.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: In addition to the GDR 40th anniversary demonstrations and the protests against electoral fraud, from September 1989 there were regular weekly pro-democracy demonstrations in towns and cities across the country. They are referred to as "Monday demonstrations" as that was the day they occurred in Leipzig, where they started, but they were staged on several days of the week. In Erfurt, for example, they happened on Thursdays. The first wave of these was from 4 September 1989 to March 1990. They continued sporadically until 1991.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The protesters called for an open border with West Germany, genuine democracy, and greater human rights and environmental protections. The most noted slogan protesters shouted was ""Wir sind das Volk"" ("We are the people"), meaning that in a real democracy, the people determine how the country is governed. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, in demonstrations calling for German reunification, this morphed into ""Wir sind ein Volk"" ("We are one people").


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Churches were often pivotal in the demonstrations. The Leipzig "Monday demonstrations" stemmed from Monday prayer meetings at the Nikolaikirche (Church of St Nicholas). Prayers were said for people who had been mistreated by the state authorities, so the meetings took on a political character. The numbers attending grew and on 4 September 1989, it became a demonstration of over 1000 people in front of the church. The Stasi arrived to break it up, taking some demonstrators away in trucks.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The demonstrations became a regular weekly event in Leipzig and around the country, with tens of thousands joining in. There were mass arrests and beatings at the Leipzig demonstrations on 11 September and going through until 2 October. After the demonstration on 9 October, in which the security forces were completely outnumbered by the 70,000 protesters and unable to hinder them, the demonstrations in Leipzig and elsewhere remained relatively peaceful. The largest gatherings were the Alexanderplatz demonstration in Berlin on 4 November 1989, and 11 November in Leipzig, each with an estimated 500,000 protesters, although there are claims that up to 750,000 were at the Berlin demonstration.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On the 28 October 1989, to try to calm the protests, an amnesty was issued for political prisoners being held for border crimes or for participation in the weekly demonstrations.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The first wave of demonstrations ended in March 1990 due to the forthcoming free parliamentary elections on 18 March.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 8 October 1989, Erich Mielke and Erich Honecker ordered the Stasi to implement "Plan X"—the SED's plan to arrest and indefinitely detain 85,939 East Germans during a state of emergency. According to John Koehler, Plan X had been in preparation since 1979 and was, "a carbon copy of how the Nazi concentration camps got their start after Hitler came to power in 1933."


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: By 1984, 23 sites had been selected for "isolation and internment camps." Those who were to be imprisoned in them ran into six categories; including anyone who had ever been under surveillance for anti-state activities, including all members of peace movements which were not under Stasi control.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: However, when Mielke sent the orders, codenamed "Shield" (), to each local Stasi precinct to begin the planned arrests, he was ignored. Terrified of an East German version of the mass lynchings of Hungarian secret police agents during the 1956 Revolution, Stasi agents throughout the GDR fortified their office-buildings and barricaded themselves inside.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 18 October 1989, the 77-year-old Erich Honecker was replaced as the General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party by Egon Krenz. After the vote to oust Honecker passed, Stasi chief Erich Mielke "got nasty," and accused Honecker of political corruption. Honecker responded that Mielke should not open his mouth so much. Mielke responded by putting the last nail in Honecker's coffin. He announced that the Stasi had a file on the now-ousted leader. It contained proof of Honecker's corrupt business practices, sexual activities, and how, as a member of the underground Communist Party of Germany during the Nazi years, he had been arrested by the Gestapo and had named names.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Officially Honecker resigned due to ill health, but he had been sharply criticized by the party. Although Krenz, 52, was the youngest member of the Politburo, he was a hardliner who had congratulated the Chinese regime on its brutal crushing of the Tiananmen Square demonstration. The New Forum were doubtful about his ability to bring about reform, saying that "he would have to undertake 'tremendous efforts' to dispel the mistrust of a great part of the population."


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Günter Mittag, who was responsible for managing the economy, and , editor of the "Neues Deutschland" and head of propaganda, were also removed from office.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On 7 November 1989, the entire Cabinet of the East German government, the 44-member Council of Ministers, led by Prime Minister Willi Stoph, resigned as a consequence of the political upheaval caused by the mass exodus of citizens via the Hungarian and Czechoslovakian borders and the ongoing protests. The Politburo of the SED remained the real holders of political power. Over 200,000 members of the SED had left the party during the previous two months. Hans Modrow became the prime minister and 17 November he formed a 28-member Council of Minister which included 11 non-SED ministers.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Krenz, the last SED leader of the GDR, was only in office for 46 days, resigning on 3 December, along with the rest of the SED Politburo and the Central Committee of the party. The country was then in practice run by Prime Minister Modrow. Krenz was succeeded as head of state by Manfred Gerlach.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: After Hungary and Czechoslovakia allowed East Germans to cross to the west via their borders, there was nothing the GDR government could to do to prevent people leaving. Between 4–5 November, the weekend before the Berlin Wall was opened, over 50,000 people left. Party official Günter Schabowski announced at a press conference on the evening of Thursday 9 November 1989 that East Germans were free to travel through the checkpoints of the Berlin Wall and the inner German border.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: After some initial confusion, with 20,000 people arriving at the Bornholmer Straße border crossing by 11.30 pm, chanting "Open the gate", Harald Jäger, a border official, allowed people to pass through into West Berlin. Over the next few days streams of cars queued at the checkpoints along the Berlin Wall and the inner German border to travel through to West Germany.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: From 10 November, East Germans who had crossed the border queued outside West German banks to collect their Begrüßungsgeld ("Welcome Money"). This was a payment that the West German government had given to visiting East Germans since 1970. In 1989 the amount was 100 Deutsche Marks once per annum. Because East Germans' travel to the west had been very restricted, until the middle of the 1980s only about 60,000 visitors had received "Welcome Money". However, between 9 and 22 November alone, over 11 million East Germans had crossed into West Berlin or West Germany. In November and December about 4 billion DM was paid out, and the system was stopped on 29 December 1989.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The fall of the Berlin Wall and opening of the inner German border set new challenges for both the government and the opposition in the GDR as well as those in power in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). General opinion was that the fate of the GDR rested with the attitude of the Soviet Union. In his memoirs, West German chancellor Helmut Kohl wrote that he had confronted Gorbachev in June 1989 with the view that German unity would arrive as surely as the Rhine would arrive at the sea; Gorbachev did not dispute this.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: After 9 November there was not only a wave of demonstrations across the GDR but also a strong shift in the prevailing attitude to solutions. Instead of the chant "we are the people", the new refrain was "we are one people!" A problem for both the East and the West remained the continually high numbers moving from the GDR to the FRG, which created a destabilizing effect in the GDR while also placing a larger burden on the FRG to handle and integrate such large numbers.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: On the day the Berlin Wall fell, West German chancellor Kohl and his foreign minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher were on a state visit to Poland, which was cut short for the new situation. Only a day earlier, Kohl had set out new conditions for closer collaboration with the GDR leadership: the SED's abandonment of its monopoly on power, the allowing of independent parties, free elections, and the building up of a market economy. During a telephone conversation on 11 November 1989 with SED General Secretary Egon Krenz, who insisted that reunification was not on the agenda, Kohl conceded that the creation of "reasonable relations" was currently most pressing.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: At first Kohl refrained from pushing for reunification to avoid raising annoyance abroad. His closest foreign adviser, Horst Teltschik, took heart though from opinion polls on 20 November 1989, which showed 70% of West Germans in favor of reunification and 48% considered it possible within ten years. More than 75% approved of financial aid for the GDR, though without tax increases. From Nikolai Portugalow, an emissary of Gorbachev's, Teilschik learned that Hans Modrow's suggestion of a treaty between the German states had prompted the Soviets to plan for "the unthinkable".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: With Kohl's blessing, Teltschik developed a path for German unification. To his "Ten Point Program for Overcoming the Division of Germany and Europe", Kohl made some additions and read it aloud in parliament on 28 November 1989. Starting with immediate measures, the path included a contractual arrangement and the development of confederative structures to conclude with one federation.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The plan was broadly accepted in parliament with the exception of the Green Party, which endorsed the independence of the GDR in "a third way". The Social Democratic Party (SPD) was skeptical and divided. Former chancellor Willy Brandt coined the expression "Now grows together, what belongs together" on 10 November 1989. Oscar Lafontaine, soon to be the SPD's chancellor candidate, emphasised the incalculable financial risks and the curtailment of the number of those leaving.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The sudden announcement of Kohl's plan irritated European heads of states and Soviet chief Gorbachev. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher saw international stability becoming endangered and raised doubts about the peacefulness of a united and restrengthened Germany. French President François Mitterrand was concerned that the German government could give up its commitment to the European integration process and instead focus on its national interests and ambitions for power. In early December 1989, he and Gorbachev sought to ensure "that the whole European process develops faster than the German question and that it overtakes the German development. We must form pan-European structures." Gorbachev informed West German foreign minister Genscher that Kohl was behaving "like a bull in a china shop".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: In light of these frosty reactions, the West German government viewed a meeting of the four Allied powers on 11 December 1989 as a demonstrative affront. Only the United States government, under George H. W. Bush, offered the West German chancellor support by setting out its own interests in any potential German reunification the day after Kohl's plan.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Kohl stressed that the driving factor behind the developments was the GDR populace and not the FRG government, which was itself surprised by the events and had to react. He aimed to preempt a state visit by Mitterrand on 20–22 December 1989 and planned talks with Minister President Modrow. In Dresden on 19 December, Kohl spoke before a crowd of 100,000, who broke out into cheers when he stated: "My goal remains—if the historical hour allows—the uniting of our nation".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: When Mitterrand realized that controlling development from outside was not possible, he sought to commit the West German government to a foreseeable united Germany on two matters: on the recognition of Poland's western border and on hastened European integration through the establishment of a currency union. In January 1990, the Soviet Union sent understanding signals by appealing to West Germany for food deliveries. On 10 February 1990, Kohl and his advisers had positive talks with Gorbachev in Moscow.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: After his election as Minister President in the People's Chamber on 13 November 1989, Hans Modrow affirmed on 16 November that, from the GDR viewpoint, reunification was not on the agenda.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: Since the end of October, opposition groups had called for the creation of a round table. They released a communal statement: "In light of the critical situation in our country, which can no longer be controlled by the previous power and responsibility structures, we demand that representatives of the GDR population come together to negotiate at a round table, to established conditions for constitutional reform and for free elections."


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: East German author Christa Wolf, who on the night before the opening of the border had called for people to remain in the GDR, read an appeal titled "For Our Country" on 28 November 1989; it was supported by GDR artists and civil liberties campaigners as well as critical SED members. During a press conference the same day, the author Stefan Heym also read the appeal, and within a few days it had received 1.17 million signatures. It called for "a separate identity for the GDR" to be established and warned against a "sell-out of our material and moral values" through reunification, stating there was still "the chance to develop a socialist alternative to the FRG as an equal partner amongst the states of Europe".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: At the first meeting of the Central Round Table on 7 December 1989, the participants defined the new body as an advisory and decision-making institution. Unlike the Polish example, where the Solidarity delegates confronted the government, the Central Round Table was formed from representatives of numerous new opposition groups and delegates in equal number from the SED, bloc parties, and the SED-linked mass organizations. Church representatives acted as moderators.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: The socialist reform program of Modrow's government lacked support both domestically and internationally. On a visit to Moscow in January 1990, Modrow admitted to Gorbachev: "The growing majority of the GDR population no longer supports the idea of the existence of two German states; it no longer seems possible to sustain this idea. … If we don't grasp the initiative now, then the process already set in motion will spontaneously and eruptively continue onward without us being able to have any influence upon it".


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: To expand the trust in his own government for the transitional phase until free elections, on 22 January 1990 Modrow offered the opposition groups the chance to participate in government. The majority of these groups agreed to a counteroffer of placing candidates from the Central Round Table in a non-party transitional government. Modrow considered this an attempt to dismantle his government and rejected it on 28 January. After lengthy negotiations and Modrow's threatening to resign, the opposition relented and accepted a place in the government as "ministers without portfolio". However, when Modrow committed to a one-nation Germany a few days later, the United Left withdrew its acceptance due to "a breach of trust" and rejected being involving in the government.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: After the entry into the cabinet on 5 February 1990, all nine new "ministers" traveled with Modrow to Bonn for talks with the West German government on 13 February. As with Kohl's visit to Dresden two months earlier, Modrow was denied immediate financial support to avoid the threat of insolvency (although a prospective currency union had been on offer for several days). The talks were largely unproductive, with Kohl unwilling to make any decisive appointments with the pivotal election only weeks away.


title: Peaceful Revolution

text: "Die Wende" means "the turn" or "the turning point". It was first used in reference to the Peaceful Revolution on 16 October 1989 in "Der Spiegel". The term was first used publicly in East Germany on 18 October by the last communist leader, Egon Krenz, in a speech to the Volkskammer upon his election as General Secretary.


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: Vijayta Pandit is an Indian actress and playback singer, most famous for her first film "Love Story" (1981).


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: Vijayta comes from a musical family originating from Pili Mandori Village in Hissar district of Haryana state. Pandit Jasraj is her uncle. Her older sister is Sulakshana Pandit, and like her, is an actress and playback singer. Her brothers are music directors Jatin Pandit and Lalit Pandit, better known as Jatin–Lalit.


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: Rajendra Kumar cast her alongside his son Kumar Gaurav in "Love Story" (1981), which became a "blockbuster" at the box office. She and Gaurav played star-crossed lovers, and they also developed a relationship off-screen. After the film became a hit, she turned down film offers wanting to be with Gaurav. But the relationship ended, due to family tensions. Vijayta went back to films and had another hit "Mohabbat" (1985).


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: She was also briefly married to film director "Sameer Malkan" who directed her in the flop "Car Thief" (1986). After a few more films, she quit acting and concentrated on playback singing. Her husband, composer Aadesh Shrivastava has produced a pop album titled "Propose – Pyaar ka Izhaar" which marks Vijayta's debut as a pop singer. Actress Madhuri Dixit launched the album for the press in February 2007.


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: Some films wherein Vijayta played the lead are "Jeete Hain Shaan Se" (1986), "Deewana Tere Naam Ka" (1987), "Zalzala" (1988), "Pyar Ka Toofan" (1990). She also sang for films like "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar" (1992), "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa" (1993), "Saazish" (1998), "Dev" (2004) and "Chingaari" (2006).


title: Vijayta Pandit

text: Apart from Hindi films, she has also starred in the blockbuster Bengali film "Amar Sangi" (1987) along with Prasenjit directed by Sujit Guha. She also sang a song for Bengali movie Biyer Phool.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam, known historically as Ratnapuri (lit. "gem city"), is a city in the northwestern part of the Malwa region in Madhya Pradesh state of India. The city of Ratlam lies above sea level. It is the administrative headquarters of Ratlam district, which was created in 1947 after the independence of India.It is located 294 kilometres west of the state capital Bhopal.


title: Ratlam

text: In 2019 Indian general election, Guman Singh Damor of Bharatiya Janata Party was elected as the Member of Parliament from Ratlam.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam State was founded in 1652 by a great-grandson of Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur, namely Raja Ratan Singh Rathore, son of Mahesh Das of Jalore. The latter, father, and son, had performed important military services for the Emperor Shah Jahan by defeating the Persians and Uzbeks in Afghanistan. In reward for their services and in recognition of their great deeds of valour, large territories in the south-western districts of Rajputana and northern Malwa were conferred on them. Their capital became Ratram (named after Raja Ratan Singh and his first son Ram Singh) which later got translated to Ratlam.


title: Ratlam

text: Maharaja Ratan Singh Rathore 1652/1658, courageous in youth, he gained Shah Jahan's notice by calming the Emperors favourite elephant which had run amok in the Agra Palace Garden, fought for the Emperor against the Persians in Kabul and Qandahar, later in 1652, the Emperor substituted Jalore for the pargana of Ratlam and many other areas, and he became the first Raja of Ratlam. In 1658 a false rumour of the death of the Emperor resulted in a frenzied scramble for succession to the throne amongst his sons. Dara Shikoh who was officiating for his father, sent a combined army of Rajputs and Muslims under the command of Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, against his brother Aurangzeb. The Maharaja, as head of the Rathore clan, was persuaded to hand over command of the Imperial army to Maharaja Ratan Singh. Non-co-operation by the Muslim commanders resulted in the army sustaining heavy losses in the fierce battle at Dharmat, as well as the death of Ratan Singh (said to have sustained 80 sword wounds on his body).


title: Ratlam

text: Ratan Singh had married (among others), Maharani Sukhroopde Kanwar Shekhawat Ji Sahiba, daughter of Kunwar Purshottam Das of Jhajhar [Shekhawati], and had an issue. He died in 1658 in battle at Dharmat near Ujjain.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam was one of the first commercial cities established in Central India. The city quickly became known for trading in opium, tobacco, and salt, as well as for its bargains called "Sattas". Before the opening of the Rajputana State Railway to Khandwa in 1872, there was no better place to trade than in Ratlam.


title: Ratlam

text: The city is known for its love of food, its taste particularly the world popular salty snack 'Ratlami Sev'. The purity of Gold Jewellery and Saree Market of Ratlam outshines in India.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam was part of the Malwa Agency of Central India during the British Raj. The state's capital was Ratlam town in modern Ratlam district of Madhya Pradesh. Ratlam was originally a huge state, but the then ruler Ratan Singh opposed Aurangzeb in the Battle of Dharmatpur and was killed after a brave fight. The state was then reduced and the title of Maharaja has eventually stripped away; the title was later restored by the British during Maharaja Sajjan Singh's rule. On 5 January 1819 Ratlam State became a British protectorate.


title: Ratlam

text: The state had an area of 81,767 sq mi, which was closely interlaced with the territories of the princely state of Sailana. In 1901, Ratlam State had a population of 83,773, with the city population of 36,321. The state had an estimated revenue of £34,000 and paid a £2,850 tribute.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam is located at coordinates: (23.316667, 75.066667). The city has an area of . It is very close to the borders of Rajasthan and Gujarat.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam, like most of Madhya Pradesh, has humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") zone. Three distinct seasons are observed: summer, monsoon and winter. Summers start in mid-March and can be extremely hot from April through June. Highs can reach , although the humidity is extremely low. The monsoon season starts in late June, with temperatures averaging around , with sustained, torrential rainfall and high humidity. The average rain fall is . Winters start in mid-November and are dry, cool and sunny. Temperatures average about , but can fall close to freezing on some nights. Ratlam gets moderate rainfall of from July through September, due to the southwest monsoon.


title: Ratlam

text: According to the 2011 Census, the city of Ratlam has a population of 264,914 of which 134,915 are male and 129,999 are female. The sex ratio is 964 females to 1000 males. Children between the 0 to 6 years of age constitute 29,763 individuals. The total number of literates in Ratlam was 204,101, which constituted 77.0% of the population with male literacy of 81.2% and female literacy of 72.8%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Ratlam was 86.8%, of which male literacy rate was 91.7% and female literacy rate was 81.8%. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes population was 27,124 and 12,567 respectively.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam Junction is a major junction on Delhi-Mumbai and Ajmer-Khandwa Rail routes and rail division of Indian Railways on broad gauge lines on Western Railways Zone. Ratlam junction is Divisional headquarters of Western Railway Zone. There are four major railway tracks passing through Ratlam City, leading to Mumbai, Delhi, Ajmer and Khandwa. It is one of the major Railway Junction of Western Railways. Ratlam Junction experiences halt of around 157 trains on a daily basis. All the major superfast trains like Rajdhani, Garib Rath have their staff changing stoppage at Ratlam Junction.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam is also the first ever clean train station of Indian Railways network. Under this scheme, Indian Railways has introduced cleaning of coaches of a train en route while it halts at a particular station for 15 to 20 minutes. The entire train is cleaned with vacuum cleaners and toilets are washed with handheld portable HP cleaners.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam Junction is referred in 2007 Hindi romantic comedy film Jab We Met. though the shooting had not happened actually in Ratlam and the places and locations mentioned in the film do not exist in the city.


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam is connected to Indore and Neemuch via National Highway 79. This four-lane highway runs from Indore to Chittorgarh to join the Golden Quadrilateral.


title: Ratlam

text: The city has regular bus services to Udaipur, Banswara, Mandsaur, Neemuch, Indore, Bhopal, Dhar, Ujjain, Nagda, Petlawad, Jhabua etc.


title: Ratlam

text: The city does not have any airport but has an airstrip on Banjali. The nearest airport is Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Airport at Indore (), Raja Bhoj Airport at Bhopal (), Maharana Pratap Airport at Udaipur (), Vadodara Airport at Vadodara (), Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport at Ahmedabad ().


title: Ratlam

text: Ratlam has several industries which manufacture copper wire, plastic ropes, chemicals and oxygen, among other products. Ratlam is also very well known for Gold, Silver, Ratlami Sev, Ratlami Saari and handicrafts.


title: Ratlam

text: Many Big companies are situated in ratlam city. Public listed companies like Dp wires, Dp abhushan ltd and katria wire ltd. manufacturing unit of Ambi wines is also situated in Ratlam


title: Ratlam

text: The major crops grown in the district include Soybean, Wheat, Maize, Gram, Cotton, Garlic, Onion, Peas, Guava, Pomegranate, Grapes & Opium in the region of Jaora Tehsil of Ratlam.


title: Ratlam

text: This Temple is a Shwetambar Jain Temple dedicated to Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankar of Jainism. This temple is situated at the junction line of the border of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan State. This temple is considered very miraculous. Moolnayak of this temple is a green colored Parshwanath with hood of 7 cobras. This 13 feet idol is carved from a single emerald stone. The idol is around 2850 years old. It is believed that this statue was crafted by Dharnendra. Near the Lord's idol, there are also other idols of Lord Shri Shantinath Swami & Lord Shri Mahavir Swami. On the wall, behind the 7 faces of the snake that is spread over the idol's head as a shelter, is a hole which houses a snake, The snake is rarely seen coming out from its hole. A lucky person can only have a glimpse of it. It is either seen in black or white color.


title: Ratlam

text: Bibrod Tirth is a 13th-century Temple. This temple is dedicated to Adinath, the 1st Tirthankara of Jainism. Moolnayak is a black-colored idol of Bhagawan Adinath in the Padmasana posture. The inscription on his idol belongs to a period earlier than even the thirteenth century. This tirth is also famous for its annual fair which is popularly known as "Bibrod Mela".


title: Ratlam

text: This temple well-known Hindu temple and gathering place with popular gardens and nearby street food vendors. This temple is established by the royal family. The temple has a pond which is called jhali talab in the name of a queen. Every year a fair takes place in the ground which covers the jhali talab.


title: Ratlam

text: This is a Hindu temple located in the ratlam city, it is a very famous temple of lord hanuman, each year on


title: Dawn Richard

text: Dawn Angeliqué Richard (born August 5, 1983) is an American singer-songwriter. She started her career after auditioning for "Making the Band 3" in 2004. During this time, Richard became a member of girl band Danity Kane, from 2005 to 2009, and reformed the group with 3 of the original 5 members in late 2013. In 2009, Richard joined the duo Dirty Money with fellow singer-songwriter Kalenna Harper, and label boss Sean "Diddy" Combs to form Diddy – Dirty Money. With the group, they released the highly successful album "Last Train to Paris", as well as two additional mixtapes before their disbandment in 2012.


title: Dawn Richard

text: In 2011, following her departure from Bad Boy Records, Richard began her career as a solo artist, performing first as DΔWN, more recently as DAWN. Her debut album "Goldenheart" was released on January 15, 2013, by Our Dawn Entertainment; it received universal acclaim from music critics. In 2015 Richard's second album "Blackheart" peaked at number two on Billboard's


title: Dawn Richard

text: Dance/Electronic charts. On November 18, 2016, Richard released the final installation to her album trilogy, "Redemption". In April 2021, Richard released her sixth studio album "Second Line" through Merge Records and Entertainment One, to critical acclaim. She also played the main role in the erotic action thriller "Kinky."


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard is of Louisiana Creole and Haitian descent and was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. She has one brother. She later moved to Baltimore, Maryland due to being displaced following Hurricane Katrina. Music has played an influential part in her life since early childhood. Her father is Frank Richard, former lead singer and percussionist of the popular funk/soul band Chocolate Milk. Her mother owned a dancing school where Richard spent much of her childhood developing her choreography and singing skills, but currently works at a school in Baltimore, Maryland.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Early in her teens, Richard began performing with a local New Orleans group called "Realiti". Discovered as a solo artist by Kemic A. Smothers at a 2004 live performance at Tipitina's Uptown in New Orleans, Richard was soon signed under the name "Dawn Angelique" to an exclusive recording contract/development deal with Octarve Anderson, Jr. and his Atlanta independent record label, Yeah! Brother Records. Recording in Los Angeles, Atlanta and New Orleans, Richard and Yeah! Brother records, along with platinum awarded production team The NexMen, Rochad Holiday and Curtis "Sauce" Wilson, crafted a studio solo album called "Been a While", featuring the single "So What" which was co-produced by Ne-Yo. Yeah! Brother Records and its New Orleans management company, Scratch Entertainment, headed by Kemic A. Smothers, Esq., agreed after negotiations with Sean "Diddy" Combs of Bad Boy Records, to postpone release of the album while arranging an immediate release from her exclusive recording contract with Yeah! Brother Records. Although it had no releases and did not chart, the studio album "Been a While" was still good enough to secure her a spot as the opening act for Anthony Hamilton in Tallahassee, Florida. During the recording of the album, she focused on touring and live performances, dance, and becoming an NBA cheerleader for the New Orleans Hornets while attending the University of New Orleans.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard's "big break" came in 2005 when she auditioned for the MTV show "Making the Band 3" in Orlando, where she was chosen to compete for a spot in Combs' future girl group. After the negotiated release from her contract with Yeah! Brother Records, she elevated her career by signing with Bad Boy Worldwide Entertainment. She beat out numerous contestants to secure herself a spot, along with Aubrey O'Day, Aundrea Fimbres, Wanita Woodgett (now known as "D. Woods"), and Shannon Bex.


title: Dawn Richard

text: The newly formed group became Danity Kane. The idea for the name came from one of Richard's drawings. An avid fan of manga, while Danity Kane was in the studio, Richard drew a female superhero which caught the attention of Combs. When asked what the character's name was, she replied, "Danity Kane". To Combs, this represented the girls of "Making the Band 3". He then decided that it should be the name of the group. The name and story were first introduced during Danity Kane's "Total Request Live" appearance on June 14, 2006.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard has also remixed a song with London-based artist Cherri V, titled "Fast Car". The song has since become one of the most listened to songs on Cherri V's MySpace page.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Early in 2008, a song called "Phase" was leaked onto the Internet and featured Lil Wayne. Although it was buzzed as a Danity Kane track, only Richard's voice was featured on the song, which caused speculation that it was a solo demo. In July 2008, two new tracks were released onto the internet, one called "Rush Love" which featured Flo Rida, and another called "Strobe Light", written by Mary Brown and produced by Chad Beatz (Tastemaker Music). It is still unknown if this was part of a future solo endeavor.


title: Dawn Richard

text: During an MTV News break, it was stated that Richard was working on an untitled comic book. Richard also said in an interview that she would be releasing a soundtrack for the Danity Kane comic book, to be released in March 2009. Included would be the leaked track "Falls Away".


title: Dawn Richard

text: On January 27, 2009, Richard confirmed to MTV News in an interview that Danity Kane had completely split up. In the same interview, she said that she still considered herself a member of Danity Kane (along with Aundrea Fimbres), and had hopes that each girl would be willing to work as a group again.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On the April 16, 2009, episode of "Making the Band", Combs revealed that he had released O'Day and Woods, along with Bex, from their contracts, and would be releasing Fimbres as well. He told Richard that she would stay on the label and that if there were any future plans for a new Danity Kane, she would be the only returning member. However, on the April 23, 2009, finale of the series, Combs stated that all five original members would be returning if he ever decides to reunite the group.


title: Dawn Richard

text: In 2009, Richard began working with Bad Boy Records, writing for artist Cassie and Combs himself. Soon after Danity Kane's breakup, Richard was featured in a commercial for the opposition of California's Prop 8. Richard became a member of the Diddy-Dirty Money collective, which includes Combs and singer-songwriter Kalenna Harper. She featured in Keri Hilson's video for "The Way You Love Me" as "Money". She is the first member of Danity Kane to have released professional music under a major label after their split, with the "Dirty Money" album.


title: Dawn Richard

text: During 2010, Richard started putting the finishing touches on her mixtape, "The Prelude to A Tell Tale Heart". Before the full mix-tape release Richard released a few songs, including "Me Myself & Y", which she released as a promotional single on globalgrind.com. Others are "These Tears", a heavy ballad, and "Let Love In", another ballad with heavy vocal harmonies. The mixtape "The Prelude to A Tell Tale Heart" (alternate title: "#ATellTaleHeart") was released on February 7, 2011, on her official website. It contains 15 tracks. It was called "the prelude to..." because there will also be an official debut studio album by Dawn Richard entitled "A-Tell Tale Heart", which she has been working on for three years. She worked with Trendsetter (the producer) on a few tracks for that album.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On June 19, 2011, a buzz track entitled "Stuck on Mad" was released to the public. followed by a release of a remix to Frank Ocean's "Novacane". The remix, which was co-written by songwriter Intyce, hit the internet on June 21, 2011, and reached over 5,000 downloads within a few hours.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Dawn released the visual for her first promotional single "SMFU (Save Me From U)" on "106 & Park" in January 2012. Other promotional singles such as "Fly, Change, and Black Lipstick" came after. She quickly followed with a leading single titled "Bombs". The video has been compared to Beyonce's "Run The World (Girls)" and Nicki Minaj's "Massive Attack". The video shows heavy choreography in a desert. After the success of "Bombs", Richard's next official single from "Armor On" was released: "Automatic", the most urban track from the EP. The video was released on June 18 and premiered on "106 & Park". The following music video was filmed in July 2012. Richard released three video trailers on YouTube for her singles "Faith" and "Wild N'Young", which were meshed into one music video released on August 29, 2012, as the final release from "Armor On".


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard announced that her major solo debut project will be a trilogy of albums entitled "Goldenheart", "BlackHeart", and "RedemptionHeart". "GoldenHeart" was expected to be released on October 16, 2012. "SMFU (Save Me from U)" was released on the internet on October 31, 2011, and will on the first album. The video premiered on "106 & Park" on January 5, 2012. Druski is the main producer on this entire project.


title: Dawn Richard

text: In celebration of her one million Twitter followers, Richard introduced the set-up for her album "GoldenHeart" on July 17, 2012, with a track entitled "Pretty Wicked Things". "It's the story of the beautiful things in life that get ruined by the wicked," explained Richard. It was produced and co-written by "Armor On" collaborator Druski, and is available on iTunes.


title: Dawn Richard

text: "Goldenheart" was released on January 15, 2013, in stores and through online retailers. Originally intended for release in October 2012, Richard delayed the release after signing a distribution deal with independent company Altavoz Distribution, which would release physical copies to retailers, and provide a wider marketing reach. The album's lead single, "'86", was released as a digital download on September 26.


title: Dawn Richard

text: "Goldenheart" was released in the United States on January 15, 2013. Richard released the album independently, as she felt record labels were "taking a bit longer than we want". It debuted at number 137 on the "Billboard" 200, number 2 on the Top Heatseekers Albums, and number 10 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The album also reached the top of the iTunes Store's R&B chart, which prompted music retailer f.y.e. to preemptively release its physical CD.


title: Dawn Richard

text: "Goldenheart" received universal acclaim from music critics, who hailed Richard as one of the best new acts in pop and R&B.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard was scheduled to release the second installment in her album trilogy, "BlackHeart", in October 2013, but announced that the album would be released after the Danity Kane project. On New Year's Day of 2014, the unreleased music video for "Riot/Northern Lights" was leaked online. The video was originally shelved in May 2013 after Richard and producer Drew Scott parted ways. The video received positive reviews as it continued where the "86" music video left off.


title: Dawn Richard

text: During the 2013 MTV VMAs pre-show, the four remaining members of Danity Kane announced that they were reuniting and returning on their own terms, without Diddy. Original group member D. Woods did not take part in the reunion. The group's first official reunion single, "Lemonade", was released on the Internet via SoundCloud. The single was produced by the Stereotypes, and features rapper Tyga over a production sampled from "Grindin'", the 2002 hit song by Clipse.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On May 16, 2014, the first night of their #DKNoFilter Tour after performing several songs with Danity Kane, Fimbres announced that she would be leaving the group at the end of their tour, and that O'Day, Bex, and Richard would be continuing on as a trio.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On August 4, 2014, while in a Los Angeles recording studio, a fight ensued in which Richard allegedly punched O'Day. After days of speculation, O'Day and Bex released a public statement announcing the group's second disbandment. Despite the group's break-up, their third album, "DK3", was released on October 27, 2014.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On October 29, 2014, two days after "DK3"s release, Richard debuted the music video for her lead single "Blow" to Vevo. Along with the video, she announced the new release date for her second album "Blackheart", January 15, 2015. "With the help of my long time creative/business partner, Kyle Cabrol, I was able to create something we are proud of," said Dawn. "This project is very special to me. We set out to redefine the term 'independent' and really push the limits on what could be done. We are just two people but we act as a label that has an entire staff. Both of us are extremely excited to share this art with the hearts."


title: Dawn Richard

text: On September 28, 2015, Richard debuted "Dance", the first single from The Red Era. About the single she said: "I wanted to create a vibrant atmosphere, The Red Era is about moving on, redeeming yourself, and finding redemption. The official music video premiered on October 5, 2015, mashed with "Billie Jean" from "Blackheart".


title: Dawn Richard

text: On January 29, 2016 "Not Above That" was released through UK label Local Action. On March 12, 2016, Dawn started her Redemption Live show tour and performed the first ever YouTube live 360 performance.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On August 10, 2016, Richard made a cameo appearance on Season 2 of the TV series "Rosewood" with Morris Chestnut and Gabrielle Dennis.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On September 15, 2016, Richard began filming the lead role, Joyce, in the 2017 movie "Kinky", written by Jean-Claude Lamarre and starring Robert Ri'chard, Gary Dourdan and Vivica A. Fox.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On November 10, 2016 "Redemption", Richard's fourth album, was made available to stream exclusively on NPR one week ahead of its release. The album was officially released on November 18, 2016.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard provided guest vocals on the song "Cool Your Heart" from Dirty Projectors' self-titled album, which was released February 21, 2017.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On January 25, 2019, Richard released her 5th solo album, "New Breed". In September 2020 according to Deadline Hollywood, Richard joined the cast of the Indie thriller "Issac" alongside Dove Cameron and RJ Mitte.


title: Dawn Richard

text: On April 30, 2021, Richard released her sixth solo album, "Second Line: An Electro Revival". The album received generally favorable reviews. Mark Richardson wrote for the "Wall Street Journal" that the album "just might be her best", and in "Paste" Max Freedman wrote that "Richard largely makes up for her retreading with some of her sharpest hooks to date."


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard has been vegan since 2013. She posed naked for one PETA ad campaign promoting the lifestyle, and appeared in another protesting the use of leather.


title: Dawn Richard

text: Danity Kane, Day26, and Donnie J. Klang were featured on the second season of "Making the Band 4". The series showed the two groups doing performances and living together, and the relationships between members of the bands. The series showed Richard's relationship with Day26's Qwanell Mosley grow, and the two entering into a romantic relationship. The two broke up after a five-year relationship. Richard said it was Mosley's infidelity that broke them up in a radio interview for "Sway in the Morning".


title: Dawn Richard

text: In 2013 Richard partnered with Coco & Breezy to release her own line of sunglasses to accompany her debut album. In 2014 she launched a capsule collection of women's shoes via Lust for Life, and a new addition of shades to accompany the "Blackheart" album release. In 2016 Richard released a limited edition sterling silver and red USB necklace to accompany the trilogy finale "REDEMPTION".


title: Dawn Richard

text: Richard began working with Adult Swim during summer 2016 as a content creator, recording several Adult Swim singles. In July 2020 she announced a partnership with Adult Swim as a creative consultant, seeking out black animators and artists to create content for the channel.


title: Generalized least squares

text: In statistics, generalized least squares (GLS) is a technique for estimating the unknown parameters in a linear regression model when there is a certain degree of correlation between the residuals in a regression model. In these cases, ordinary least squares and weighted least squares can be statistically inefficient, or even give misleading inferences. GLS was first described by Alexander Aitken in 1936.


title: Generalized least squares

text: In standard linear regression models we observe data formula_1 on "n" statistical units. The response values are placed in a vector formula_2, and the predictor values are placed in the design matrix formula_3, where formula_4 is a vector of the "k" predictor variables (including a constant) for the "i"th unit. The model forces the conditional mean of formula_5 given formula_6 to be a linear function of formula_6, and assumes the conditional variance of the error term given formula_6 is a "known" nonsingular "covariance matrix" formula_9. This is usually written as


title: Generalized least squares

text: Here formula_11 is a vector of unknown constants (known as “regression coefficients”) that must be estimated from the data.


title: Generalized least squares

text: Suppose formula_12 is a candidate estimate for formula_13. Then the residual vector for formula_12 will be formula_15. The generalized least squares method estimates formula_13 by minimizing the squared Mahalanobis length of this residual vector:


title: Generalized least squares

text: Taking the gradient of this quadratic form with respect to formula_12 and equating it to zero (when formula_21) gives


title: Generalized least squares

text: The quantity formula_24 is known as the "precision matrix" (or "dispersion matrix"), a generalization of the diagonal weight matrix.


title: Generalized least squares

text: The GLS estimator is unbiased, consistent, efficient, and asymptotically normal with formula_25 and formula_26. GLS is equivalent to applying ordinary least squares to a linearly transformed version of the data. To see this, factor formula_27, for instance using the Cholesky decomposition. Then if we pre-multiply both sides of the equation formula_28 by formula_29, we get an equivalent linear model formula_30 where formula_31, formula_32, and formula_33. In this model formula_34, where formula_35 is the identity matrix. Thus we can efficiently estimate formula_13 by applying Ordinary least squares (OLS) to the transformed data, which requires minimizing


title: Generalized least squares

text: This has the effect of standardizing the scale of the errors and “de-correlating” them. Since OLS is applied to data with homoscedastic errors, the Gauss–Markov theorem applies, and therefore the GLS estimate is the best linear unbiased estimator for "β".


title: Generalized least squares

text: A special case of GLS called weighted least squares (WLS) occurs when all the off-diagonal entries of "Ω" are 0. This situation arises when the variances of the observed values are unequal (i.e. heteroscedasticity is present), but where no correlations exist among the observed variances. The weight for unit "i" is proportional to the reciprocal of the variance of the response for unit "i".


title: Generalized least squares

text: If the covariance of the errors formula_38 is unknown, one can get a consistent estimate of formula_38, say formula_40, using an implementable version of GLS known as the feasible generalized least squares (FGLS) estimator. In FGLS, modeling proceeds in two stages: (1) the model is estimated by OLS or another consistent (but inefficient) estimator, and the residuals are used to build a consistent estimator of the errors covariance matrix (to do so, one often needs to examine the model adding additional constraints, for example if the errors follow a time series process, a statistician generally needs some theoretical assumptions on this process to ensure that a consistent estimator is available); and (2) using the consistent estimator of the covariance matrix of the errors, one can implement GLS ideas.


title: Generalized least squares

text: Whereas GLS is more efficient than OLS under heteroscedasticity (also spelled heteroskedasticity) or autocorrelation, this is not true for FGLS. The feasible estimator is, provided the errors covariance matrix is consistently estimated, "asymptotically" more efficient, but for a small or medium size sample, it can be actually less efficient than OLS. This is why some authors prefer to use OLS, and reformulate their inferences by simply considering an alternative estimator for the variance of the estimator robust to heteroscedasticity or serial autocorrelation.


title: Generalized least squares

text: But for large samples FGLS is preferred over OLS under heteroskedasticity or serial correlation. A cautionary note is that the FGLS estimator is not always consistent. One case in which FGLS might be inconsistent is if there are individual specific fixed effects.


title: Generalized least squares

text: In general this estimator has different properties than GLS. For large samples (i.e., asymptotically) all properties are (under appropriate conditions) common with respect to GLS, but for finite samples the properties of FGLS estimators are unknown: they vary dramatically with each particular model, and as a general rule their exact distributions cannot be derived analytically. For finite samples, FGLS may be even less efficient than OLS in some cases. Thus, while GLS can be made feasible, it is not always wise to apply this method when the sample is small.


title: Generalized least squares

text: A method sometimes used to improve the accuracy of the estimators in finite samples is to iterate, i.e. taking the residuals from FGLS to update the errors covariance estimator, and then updating the FGLS estimation, applying the same idea iteratively until the estimators vary less than some tolerance. But this method does not necessarily improve the efficiency of the estimator very much if the original sample was small.


title: Generalized least squares

text: A reasonable option when samples are not too large is to apply OLS, but throwing away the classical variance estimator


title: Generalized least squares

text: (which is inconsistent in this framework) and using a HAC (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent) estimator. For example, in autocorrelation context we can use the Bartlett estimator (often known as Newey–West estimator estimator since these authors popularized the use of this estimator among econometricians in their 1987 "Econometrica" article), and in heteroskedastic context we can use the Eicker–White estimator. This approach is much safer, and it is the appropriate path to take unless the sample is large, and "large" is sometimes a slippery issue (e.g. if the errors distribution is asymmetric the required sample would be much larger).


title: Generalized least squares

text: For simplicity consider the model for heteroscedastic and not autocorrelated errors. Assume that the variance-covariance matrix formula_44 of the error vector is diagonal, or equivalently that errors from distinct observations are uncorrelated. Then each diagonal entry may be estimated by the fitted residuals formula_45 so formula_46 may be constructed by


title: Generalized least squares

text: It is important to notice that the squared residuals cannot be used in the previous expression; we need an estimator of the errors variances. To do so, we can use a parametric heteroskedasticity model, or a nonparametric estimator. Once this step is fulfilled, we can proceed:


title: Generalized least squares

text: Under regularity conditions any of the FGLS estimator (or that of any of its iterations, if we iterate a finite number of times) is asymptotically distributed as


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Skittles is a historical lawn game and target sport of European origin, from which the modern sport of nine-pin bowling is descended. In regions of the United Kingdom and Ireland the game remains as a popular indoor pub game.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Skittles is usually played indoors on a bowling alley, with one or more heavy balls, usually spherical but sometimes oblate, and several (most commonly nine) , or small bowling pins. The general object of the game is to use the ball(s) to knock over the skittles, either specific ones or all of them, depending upon game variant. Exact rules vary widely on a regional basis.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In this variant of the game, pins are counted only if the front pin is knocked over first. If the front pin is missed, any pins that are knocked over are not reset. In Devon Summer League, this rule is played frequently. In Bristol, this is the form of the game played and "all in" skittles tends to be looked down upon as involving less skill. In Worcestershire this type of game is also known as 'king pin'.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In this variant of the game, the player has to nominate the pin that will be hit first before the throw. Unless this pin is knocked over, the player will not score. The names given to the pins may vary from region to region; in Wiltshire they are usually referred to as "front pin", "front right quarter", "front left quarter", "outside right" (or "right winger"), "centre pin", "outside left" (or "left winger"), "back right quarter", "back left quarter", and "back pin".


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In this variant of the game, only four pins (the two coppers, the front and back pins) are put up and must be hit with the front pin first. It is often used in conjunction with nomination as well. It is currently used in North Somerset Cup games.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: A variant of nomination but with only the landlord and two coppers set up, i.e. one has to hit a pin with each ball and nominate which one each time.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: A game for any number of people. Each starts with 3 lives. Each bowls only one ball at a time. The first bowls at a full frame and the skittles are not stuck up until all 9 are hit down. Each time a player fails to hit at least one pin, they lose a life. The winner is the last one left with a life intact. Usually played for small amounts of money, with the winner taking the collected entry fees of each player - typically £1 or 50p per game for each player. It is found in the Wiltshire, Somerset, and Bristol areas. Players might claim a "tactical miss" when they have multiple lives remaining and fail to hit the only pin still standing, to avoid giving the following player a full frame.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Another game for any number of people. Each player has one hand of 6 balls at a full frame. If all nine pins are knocked down within the hand, then they are reset, meaning that a player may score anywhere between 0 and 54. The winner is the player with the highest score. It is similar to killer in that it is usually played for money with the winner taking the pot.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Also known as Old English Skittles, the Greater London version uses nine pins (made of wood) and a thick circular disc known as a 'cheese'. The cheese is thrown at the pins using a swinging motion whilst stepping forwards. After an initial throw, the remaining pins (the 'broken frame') may end up in a variety of formations - each of which has a distinctive (and usually London-based) name, such as a London Bridge or a Portsmouth Road. Knocking down all the pins at once is known as a 'floorer' and is highly respected. The last time a player is known to have thrown three floorers in succession was in 1960.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: While it was once a popular game played in pubs all over London (generally sited by the Thames river), it is now only played at the Freemasons Arms in Hampstead. The origins of this skittles game are vague, but it is thought by some to have been started by Dutch sailors, possibly playing on the decks of moored barges.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Sarnia Skittles League of Guernsey, the teams are made up of six players playing five legs of three balls. Currently there are 25 teams playing across three leagues and each Team plays the others three times during the season. The season runs from September to April.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Tewkesbury and District Skittles League, teams consist of 10 players playing 8 hands each. The league runs from early September through to the following April. The league was formed in September 1960. Each game has 10 points available with two points available for the first, second and third leg with another four for the match result. The highest ever individual score is 99 scored by Dougy for the DM4s team at the Spartans caldron 17 April 2014.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Stroud and District Skittle League, teams are made up of 10 players (Men's Sections) each having eight hands of three balls. In the Ladies Sections each team consists of eight players each having 10 hands of three balls. Games are played in two equal halves. The league runs from early September through to the following May.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Cheltenham Skittles League, skittles is played with either a team of 12 (winter skittles) or six (summer skittles). Each player plays six hands of three balls. However, in Gloucester, the players play 10 hands of three balls, and a team is made up of 10 players.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Berkeley and District Skittles League was formed in 1957 and has in excess of 100 teams playing in seven divisions in a geographical area of around eight miles in diameter in the southern end of the county. Teams are made up of eight players and each player bowls eight hands of three balls. The pins (skittles) used in the League vary in size, but are between in height and in diameter at the widest (centre) point, and are either made of wood (traditionally sycamore or beech) or plastic. Balls are between in diameter and again are either made of wood (lignum vitae) or a composite rubber. Alleys, on which games are played, are between in length and are generally of a wooden construction, although one alley is linoleum over a concrete base. The League runs from September through to the following April.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Cirencester & District Men's Skittle League, teams are made up of nine players each having six hands of three balls. The league runs from early September through to the following May


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Hereford & District Invitation Skittle League, skittles is played with either a team of 12 (winter skittles) or 6 (summer skittles). In the Winter league each player plays four hands of three balls, and in the Summer League they play six hands of three balls.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The winter league comprises 70 teams competing in five divisions, five cups competitions (KO, Front Pin, Man v Man, Champion of Champions, and Charity eight-a-side) and also singles and pairs competitions.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Devizes Skittles League, 9-pin skittles is played with a team of 9 players. Each player throws 3 balls. A team's aggregate score decides the leg - 2 points are awarded for each leg won (1 point each for a draw). Two points for the overall aggregate number of pins, for a total of 10 points available for the match. The team with the most points wins the match. The league runs from August to April. There are approximately 40 teams across 4 divisions, playing within a 5-mile radius of Devizes. The top division plays front-pin rules whereby only pins knocked down after the front pin count.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Westbury Town Mid-Week Skittles League, teams consist of 8 players, games consist of 5 legs, and players throws 3 balls per leg. Points are awarded to the winning team by aggregate score; 1 point per leg (1/2 for a draw) and 2 points for the game (1 for a draw) for a total of 7 points per game. As of the 2019/20 season (called off due to Covid-19) there were 43 teams across 3 divisions (none currently playing front-pin rules). The league also hosts Singles, Pairs, Nomination, and Knock Out Cup competitions (all decided by game aggregate score).


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Malmesbury and District League is played with nine players per team, divided into three legs. Each player has six goes with three balls. Two points are awarded for each winning leg, and a further four points are awarded to the overall winning team, so ten points are available per game. Games typically last around 1 hour 40 minutes and are played Tuesday to Friday. This is one of the larger leagues in the area with 95 teams playing on 20 different alleys within a ten-mile radius of Malmesbury Abbey. The league begins in September and concludes in April, although various cup matches occur in August and April.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Swindon & District Friday Skittles League is played with twelve players per team, divided into four legs; hence, each is called a 'Horse' (because a horse has four legs). Points are awarded thus - 2 points per Horse, plus 6 points for winning. There are currently 36 teams in three sections. The league runs from September to June. There are Cup Knockout Competitions throughout the season.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The rules and team formats of "Somerset" skittles vary. Major skittles areas include Bridgwater, Wells, Yeovil, Taunton, Weston-super-Mare, and Burnham-on-Sea. Bristol is also included in the "Somerset" skittles "set". Depending on where the leagues play, there may be 6 players per side (normally in summer leagues), or 8 per side (winter). There are mixed leagues (males and females in each team) and there are all male leagues and all female leagues. The highest known score in a game of 8 man skittles was in the Street and District league, this was by Ryan Church for the Carrot Crunchers. He scored 97 in 6 hands including two 26 spares.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Traditionally, Somerset skittles uses wooden balls (made from apple wood or similar) and wooden pins. Times have changed and for various reasons, some alleys now use composite rubber balls and nylon pins.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In North Somerset, teams are of 12 (winter leagues) and 9 (summer leagues). Players may be organised in sets of 3 or 4 (teams of 12 only).


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Bristol and North Somerset alleys have, in the past been known for their "camber". Some alleys were (and still are) raised in the middle, making bowling an accurate art.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: As with all variations of skittles the pins are laid out in a diamond and played on an alley, with the pins placed on painted squares known as plates. In the Worcestershire Leagues there is no set measurement for this, instead the size of the diamond should be 'not less than and no greater than .


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The pins and balls are known as the 'Kit' and the balls should be made of wood, Tufnol or rubber and 'must not exceed five and a quarter inches in diameter and no less than four and three quarter inches in diameter'. Despite guidelines for the diamond and balls there is no uniform size of pin needing only 'to be uniform size and painted white, one and a half inches around the top.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Alley itself should be 'clean and well lit, with a bowling line approximately 33 ft to the front pin of the diamond'. However this rule is not strictly enforced with some alleys being shorter than others. The Alley itself can be either Lino or Wood.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The front pin is known as the 'King' and is painted with a white, one and a half inch wide vertical stripe. The two pins to either side are known as the 'Quarter pins' and are marked with either a triangle or the numbers 1 and 2, in order to identify them. Traditionally the 'King' is the heaviest pin, with the 'Quarters' being heavier than the rest of the pins but not heavier than the 'King'. Directly behind the 'King' is the middle pin which is known as the 'Birdie', as the other pins form a 'cage' around it. The back pin sits directly behind the 'Birdie', the 'Back quarters' directly behind the 'Quarter' pins, and the 'Wingers' on the outside of the diamond. The 'Birdie', 'Back Quarters', 'Back Pin' and 'Wingers' are non-specific pins and are not marked so any of the six unmarked pins can be placed on any of the six plates.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Because of the lack of guidelines on pin size, the pins themselves vary in size. this leads to some 'Kits' being higher scoring than others and some alleys being higher scoring than others, due to variations in length and diamond size


title: Skittles (sport)

text: All balls must touch the Alley before the 'Line' to be deemed as legal. However the 'Linesman' (a member of the opposing team who sits and watches the line) must call 'Over' before the ball strikes a pin. If they fail to do this, the pins felled will count.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In Worcester skittles all pins are live until they land in the pit behind the diamond, or leave the alley on an open side. They can rebound off a side wall back into the diamond taking down other pin(s). In some alleys, such as the Saracens Head in Worcester, the Diamond is flanked by two side walls making the possibility of a spare, achieved by bouncing pins off the wall more of a possibility. It is more than common to hear the cries of 'let it roll' go out in the alleys of the city to stop an over enthusiastic 'sticker up' (a young person employed to put the pins back up after they have been knocked down) removing a pin from the alley before it has finished knocking down the others. However, if a ball hits the cush, or wall or passes through the diamond and bounces back out of the pit before felling pins the frame must be reset.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: A Player scoring no pins after bowling three balls in the leg is known as scoring a 'Spider'. A spider is recorded by drawing legs and a face onto the zero on the board and is greeted with delight when the opposing team returns to the alley. A 'Spare' where the pins are reset after being felled with balls to spare is denoted on the board by a circle drawn around the score. This is not greeted so favourably. The maximum score in a 9-pin frame is 27, however this is virtually unheard of, the highest spare in the history of the Worcester and District was thought to be a 24 scored by Gary Sandbrook whilst playing for the Independents Skittle team in the early 1990s, the highest spare in the friendly league was achieved by Scott Heywood with a full house score of 27 at the Alma tavern whilst playing for the Rushwick Cavalier on 18 September 2014. Spares are not uncommon however, and a good score in the Worcester game is 40 plus.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Worcester and District Skittle League, 12 players, playing 5 legs of 3 ball (winter league, men only, Tuesday nights) is the oldest skittle league running in the county, having been restarted post-war in 1946, and is a founder member of the Three cities Association. The Worcester and District is the county representative in the Three City Cup competition, played between Worcestershire, Gloucestershire and Herefordshire between September and May each season.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The rivalry between the District and the younger Friendly leagues (WFSL) in Worcester has always been great; however, in season 2004/05 it was decided by the District League that players signed on for a team registered for their competition were free to play for a team affiliated with the WFSL. Up to that point playing for a team in the WFSL while being signed on to a team affiliated with the Worcester and District would lead to a lifetime ban from the District League.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Until the end of season 2009/10 the scoring system was different for both leagues, with the Worcester and District League opting for the traditional 2 points for a win and 1 for a draw, and the WFSL opting for a system which awards 2 points for winning a leg and 10 points for the game, a total of twenty points. However at the start of season 2010/11 the same scoring system as the WFSL was adopted by the Worcester and District in order to increase the competitive nature of the League and hopefully stem the declining interest in the sport. In recent years, the popularity of Skittles has declined with the District League and WFSL both having to reduce the number of divisions from 5 down to 3.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The District League compete for a number of cup competitions, with matches taking place on both Tuesday and Friday evenings. The premier cup competition being the Team Knock Out, but also the King Pin Cup (a variation in the rules applied so the front pin, or King pin as its known in Worcester has to be knocked over before scoring can commence) and the Mick Potter Memorial Trophy. There are also Singles (solo players) and Doubles (Teams of two) as well as a Six a side Trophy held each year.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The County Cup is played between the representative sides of the WFSL, Worcester and District, Worcester Ladies, Malvern Men's League and the Malvern Ladies League. It is played on a Round Robin basis, with ten fixture dates (to include one bye), a play off, and a final. The Evesham League is not included, possibly due to too many rule variations (player v player format, mixed teams).


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Worcester Friendly Skittle League (WFSL) of Worcestershire, both the men's and ladies' winter leagues are made up of 12 players. Men's Matches are played on Monday and Wednesday Nights and Ladies on Thursdays.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Malvern Men's Skittle League has been running for over 35 years within the Malvern area. This includes Great Malvern, Malvern Link, Madresfield, Barnards Green, Cradley, West Malvern, Hanley Swan, Colwall and Suckley.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: League and Cup games are played on Thursday evenings, over a 42-week period beginning in September running through to the following June. With over 400 members from 31 teams who meet with their friends and teammates to play skittles; this makes Thursday night one of the busiest in the Malvern area's pubs and clubs.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Each team consists of 9 players (although teams can sign as many players as they wish), league matches consist of 5 'legs' (each player bowling 3 balls), the winning team of each 'leg' gaining one point. The team scoring most 'pins' overall is also awarded 6 points. League matches are enhanced with team (Ken Baker Cup), 4 a side, doubles and singles cup competitions all played on Thursday evenings.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The league was formed in the early 1970s and is based around the Vale of Evesham and surrounding districts. It is played mostly in Public Houses, Working Men's Clubs, British Legion Clubs, Social and Recreational Clubs within a 12 - 15 mile radius of Evesham in Worcestershire. The league consisted of six divisions with a total of 72 teams competing These teams play from Monday to Thursday during the season, which stretches from early September through to late May. Teams included both men and women.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Evesham League game has been structured upon the Long alley-Western type of game, whereby 9 pins are formed in the shape of a diamond facing the player The pins are normally placed upon a steel plate, which bear markings to identify placement of each pin The League allows pins to be made from either wood or high density polyurethane and the design is based upon the Gloucester pin Balls can be made from wood or composite material and are approximately in diameter. The League stipulates that the front pin facing the player should always be marked and is known as the 'King' pin. The two pins next to the 'King' pin are also marked and these are known as the 'Quarter' pins All the alleys within the Evesham League are wood and are based upon general guidelines in terms of length and width.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Each Team consists of 10 Players, each player playing six legs consisting of 3 balls per leg. The game consists of 6 legs for each team, each player bowling once(3 balls) per leg. Points are awarded on the basis of each leg won, plus a further 6 points for an overall win, making a full six leg win 12 Points. Many years ago the League introduced a system of play, whereby each player bowls alternatively against a player of the opposing team for each leg. This proved to be a successful format creating tension and excitement down to the last leg - last man.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The game is also very common in the southwest counties of Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset. In Dorset some games are played by bowling a technique known as the 'Dorset flop', it is mainly used by those without proper technique. This is where the bowler crouches on the alley and throws themselves and the ball forward landing on their stomach and letting the ball go between two bowling lines. In some parts of Somerset the ball has to hit a pitch plate (a diamond painted on the alley) in order for it to be a legal ball. It is also popular in South Wales.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Cardiff and District skittles league the teams are made up of 12 players playing 5 legs of three balls. The league was founded in 1909 and is still very popular in the region with 10 men's divisions. Other leagues within the Cardiff area are The Cardiff Combined clubs league with 9 men's and 9 women's divisions, Skittles Cardiff (a recent addition formed in 2010) and the Whitchurch and district skittles league


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Newport and District skittle league (started ), Men-only teams are made up of 12 players playing in groups of four v four (three sections) each playing 3 legs of 3 balls, the league did have 7 men's divisions of up to 15 teams but now down to 4 divisions, Premier, 1st, 2nd and 3rd (2016/17).


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the 2012/13 season, the scoring changed from 2 points for a win and 1 point for a draw to 1 point for each leg and 2 points for the game. If the leg are drawn no points are awarded; however, if the game is drawn the a point is awarded to both sides.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: They also play in the summer (started ) a mixed league. This has 3 divisions (2017), playing for 2 points a leg and 3 points for the game. There are cups to play for which are 8-a-side and also singles, pairs and fours. In 2016, Divisions 1, 2 & 3 were won by Dean Street, Windsor A and The Nightingale respectively.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In the Conservative league (Men only), the scoring is slightly different, with 1 point for each leg and 2 points for the game. However, points are shared between both sides for a draw for the legs and the game.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The ("nine-pin skittle game") of France, also known simply as or just , is a complicated variant with similarities to both British skittles and pétanque. It is popular only in the southwest of the country. It is an indoor game which is played on a hard-packed surface. The skittles are placed on a square court, each resting on a round piece of wood called or , apart from each other. A skittle measures about and weighs , and is made of beech wood. The bowl (ball) weighs about and has a diameter; it is made of walnut wood. There is also an eight-pin version, , and a version played with a mallet, , which is related to ground billiards and its variants such as croquet and paille-maille, and which has experienced a resurgence in Gascony since 1973.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The Irish sport is a game played with five pins and three pieces of wood (skittles). Pins are numbered from 1 to 5, each representing a number of points. Throwers must toss the skittles towards the pins over a distance of approximately (this varies from county to county) in order to score points with the aim to scoring exactly 41. Points are recorded in descending order. If a player should score too many points ("go bust", as in darts) they return to a score of 9 left, unless their previous score was above this in which case they return to that score.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The game is played frequently in pubs and Gaelic athletic clubs in various parts of the island with team leagues and cup matches.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The German sport kegel or nine-pin bowling is played in widely organized leagues through the country and is also popular in many other countries with long German connections, including Austria, Switzerland, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary and Liechtenstein and is currently gaining popularity in Australia. A variant was once also the dominant bowling game in the United States, but today only survives in a small area of rural Texas.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: Scattles is a version of skittles in which all the pins are numbered. Players take turn in throwing the baton at the pins with a view to totalling exactly 50 points. If more than one pin is knocked over, the score received is that quantity of pins. But if only one pin is knocked over, the value on it is scored. If a player exceeds 50, their total reduces to 25. Pins are then placed upright where they stand, thus scattering. Scattles is made by Jaques of London and reminiscent of the older Cornish game, smite, itself based on the Finnish skittles game "mölkky".


title: Skittles (sport)

text: The phrase "beer and skittles" refers to indulgently spending one's time at a pub, drinking and playing the game, and by extension any indulgent, irresponsible lifestyle choice.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: A table-top version of the game is also featured in the first season of the Netflix series "Easy", specifically episode seven.


title: Skittles (sport)

text: In an episode of "Malcolm in the Middle"; specifically, season 2, episode 8, Dewey is a natural, according to Hal, and asks Dewey if he wants to be the next Chap Sanders.


title: Condensation reaction

text: In organic chemistry, a condensation reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single molecule, usually with the loss of a small molecule such as water. If water is lost, the reaction is also known as a dehydration synthesis. However other molecules can also be lost, such as ammonia, ethanol, acetic acid and hydrogen sulfide.