title: Moonlight Graham

text: Graham started the 1905 season with the Binghamton Bingoes in the Class B New York State League. He was purchased by the Giants, who had won the National League pennant the previous year (and had refused to play the Boston Americans in a World Series), reporting to the team on May 23, 1905. On June 29, the Giants were the visiting team against the Brooklyn Superbas at Washington Park. At the conclusion of the eighth inning, Graham replaced right fielder George Browne. In the top of the ninth inning, Graham was on deck when Claude Elliott flied out, resulting in the third and final out. Graham played the bottom of the ninth in right field, recording no putouts or assists. That game turned out to be his only appearance in the major leagues.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: Graham returned to the New York State League, appearing with the Scranton Miners for the rest of the season and in 1906. For the 1905 minor league season, playing for two teams, he hit .288 in 64 games. The following season, he hit a career-best .329, split between two teams: Scranton, where he hit .336 in 124 games; and the Memphis Egyptians of the Class A Southern Association, where he hit .262 in a dozen games. He returned to Scranton for the 1907 and 1908 seasons, where he hit .285 and .263 in 131 and 130 games, respectively. Graham ranked second in batting average for the New York State League, losing the 1906 batting title by four points. However, according to "The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball, 2nd Edition" (Lloyd Johnson, Miles Wolff editors), he led the league in batting with an average of .336.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: Graham completed his medical degree from the University of Maryland in 1905. While there, he had also played on the school's 1904 and 1905 baseball teams. Graham had also added some weight to his 5’ 10" frame and resumed his collegiate football career. He played halfback for Maryland's football team in 1904 and 1905. He obtained his license the following year and began practicing medicine in Chisholm, Minnesota.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: "Doc" Graham, as he became known after his career as a ballplayer, served the people of Chisholm for fifty years. From 1909 to 1959, Graham was the doctor for the Chisholm schools. For many years, "Doc" Graham made arrangements to have used eyeglasses sent to his Chisholm office. On Saturdays, he would have the children of the Iron Range (Minnesota) miners, from Grand Rapids to Virginia, come to his office, have their eyes checked and then fit them with the proper set of glasses, all free of charge.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: Graham died in Chisholm in 1965. He is buried in Rochester, Minnesota. The Graham Scholarship Fund, established in his honor, provides financial assistance to two Chisholm High School graduating seniors each year. The award is given to one boy and one girl, $500 to each.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: A biography of Graham, "Chasing Moonlight: The True Story of Field of Dreams' Doc Graham", was written by sportswriter Brett Friedlander and college professor Robert W. Reising in April 2009.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: In 1975, author W. P. Kinsella happened to notice Graham's entry in "The Baseball Encyclopedia". He made note of his unusual career, and then incorporated Graham as a character in his 1982 novel "Shoeless Joe", on which the movie "Field of Dreams" was based. Much of the description of Graham's life in the novel came from the people of Chisholm as Kinsella visited seeking information on him.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: In the novel, the dates of Graham's big-league appearance and death are kept as in real life, making the 1905 appearance 74 years prior to the book's 1979 timeframe, and the Ray Kinsella character quickly finds out that Graham has been dead since 1965. The time-travel scene has Kinsella meeting Graham in 1955, ten years prior to Graham's death.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: In the movie, the Fenway Park scoreboard shows Graham's appearance as having taken place in 1922, 66 years prior to the film's 1988 time frame. A woman in Chisholm, a long-time friend of Graham's who wrote his obituary in the newspaper on the day of his death, later tells Ray Kinsella (Kevin Costner) and author Terrance Mann (James Earl Jones) that Graham had died in 1972. In the time-travel sequence of the movie, lead character Ray Kinsella goes back to the year of Graham's death, and is told by "Doc" Graham (Burt Lancaster) that his appearance was on the final day of the season, rather than the middle.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: Also from the movie, Graham does not play professional baseball at all after his one appearance in the major leagues. In real life, Graham played three additional seasons in the minor leagues (1906 through 1908) after the one major league game that he played in 1905.


title: Moonlight Graham

text: In the film, Graham, played by Whaley, is seen batting right-handed, but he in fact batted left-handed.


title: Atta flour

text: Atta/Ata (Urdu: ; Hindi: , Bengali: আটা, romanized: Āṭā) or chakki atta is a wholemeal wheat flour, originating from the Indian subcontinent, used to make flatbreads such as chapati, roti, naan, paratha and puri. It is the most widespread flour in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Atta flour

text: Whole common wheat ("Triticum aestivum") is generally used to make atta; it has high gluten content, which provides elasticity, so dough made out of atta flour is strong and can be rolled into thin sheets.


title: Atta flour

text: The word ‘whole’ is used to describe atta as it includes every component of the grain, meaning the bran, germ and the endosperm.


title: Atta flour

text: Atta was traditionally ground in the home on a stone chakki mill. This is useful when using a tandoor, where the flatbread is stuck to the inside of the oven, and also makes chapatis softer as the dough absorbs more water.


title: Margao

text: Margao or Madgaon is the commercial capital of the Indian state of Goa. It stands on banks of the Sal river and is the administrative headquarters of Salcete sub-district and South Goa district. It is Goa's second largest city by population after Vasco.


title: Margao

text: "Margão" is the Portuguese spelling, with ("Madgao") being used in Konkani. The etymology of the name has been debated, with theories ranging from the name having evolved from the pre-colonial Mahargao (“village of Mahars”, a large community of weavers) to being derived from the Sanskrit ("Maṭhagrāma") which means "a village of monasteries" owing to the shrines of Matsyendranath and Gorakhnath in "Ravanphond", now a suburb of Margao.


title: Margao

text: Alternatively Margão may be derived from Mharuganv, “village of demons”, or Maravile, Portuguese for “marvellous village.”


title: Margao

text: Margao in pre-Portuguese times was one of the important settlements in Salcete and known as "Matha Grama" (the village of Mathas) as it was a temple town with nine Mathas in temple schools. Its replacement in 1579 was destroyed by raiders. The present church was built in 1675.


title: Margao

text: While the western side of the Holy Spirit Church developed as a market place, the settlement grew on the eastern side, that is, the Borda region.


title: Margao

text: The Municipality during the erstwhile Portuguese regime was known as "Câmara Municipal de Salcete", catering to all the villages in Salcete Taluka for over 300 years until the Goa Municipalities Act of 1968 came into force. The Câmara Municipal de Salcete is now reconstituted into Margao Municipal Council. The Members of the Câmara Municipal de Salcete were then nominated by the Government, but after the reconstitution of the Municipal Council, the Members to all the 25 wards (13 in Margao & 12 in Fatorda) are elected by the Members of the council.


title: Margao

text: Margao's importance as an administrative and commercial area grew with the increasing dependence of the surrounding towns and villages; leading to the administrative center with the town hall at its center being built in the south.


title: Margao

text: In 1961, Annexation of Goa led to its incorporation into the Republic of India, and Margao was declared as the administrative center of the district of South Goa.


title: Margao

text: By road, Margao is located approximately from the capital Panjim, and from Dabolim Airport , South of Mumbai


title: Margao

text: Nestled on the banks of the Sal River, Portuguese style mansions dot its landscape. One of the fastest growing cities in Goa, its fast growing suburbs include Aquem, Fatorda, Gogol, Borda, Comba, Navelim and Davorlim.


title: Margao

text: Margao features a tropical monsoon climate. Summers are warm whereas winters are mild. Summers last from March–May when the temperature reaches up to and winters from December–February when it is usually between . Monsoons occur from June–September with heavy rainfall and gusty winds. The annual average rainfall is .


title: Margao

text: As of the 2011 census of India, Margao had a population of 87,650. Males constituted 51% of the population and females 49%. It had an average literacy rate of 90%; male literacy was 93%, and female literacy 86.8%. In Margao, 9.8% of the population was under 7 years of age. With a population of 106,484 in the metropolitan area, Margao is second largest Urban agglomeration in Goa.


title: Margao

text: Konkani is the most widely spoken language in Margao, followed closely by English. Portuguese is still spoken and understood by a small number of people. Hindi is also spoken and understood by a majority of the city's population as a language to converse with non-konkani, non-English speaking people. The dialect of Konkani in South Goa differs notably from that spoken in North Goa. Marathi is also understood to a significant level. A sizable fraction of the flower and vegetable merchants converse in Kannada.


title: Margao

text: The city is also claimed as the cultural capital of Goa. A cultural center named 'Ravindra Bhavan' was inaugurated by the then Chief Minister of Goa, Digambar Kamat in July 2008 at Fatorda which is also an Official Venue For International Film Festival of India . It also has Goa's biggest sports stadium, the Nehru Stadium at Fatorda. The Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan was held in 1964.


title: Margao

text: Some of the theatres in Margao include the Gomant Vidya Niketan, OSIA Multiplex, Vishant and Lata; in addition to Goa's biggest theater, the Metropole. Inox has recently launched a multiplex with a capacity of 904 seats. The Gomat Vidya Niketan is a premier centre for arts in the town.


title: Margao

text: People from all over Goa congregate at the special market to buy spices and dried fish to be used during the oncoming rainy season.


title: Margao

text: The usual specialities that are found in the cuisine of Goa are also to be found in Margao. The curry of Margao is a praised local speciality. Cans of curry of Margao are currently exported to Portugal and elsewhere.


title: Margao

text: The town has many sights and destinations. These include the "Mercado de Afonso de Albuquerque" which roughly translates to closed market and colloquially known as "Pimplapedd" or "Pimpalakatta", the municipal building ("Câmara Municipal"), the municipal garden named after benefactor Prince Aga Khan, Anna Fonte (natural springs), Old Market or "Mercado Velho", Holy Spirit Church, grand colonial mansions such as the Seven Gables House, the chapel at Monte Hill.


title: Margao

text: Some of the town suburbs include Pajifond, Aquem, Gogol, Borda, Malbhat, Madel, Kharebandh, Old Market, Navelim and Comba, the last two being the oldest parts of the town.


title: Margao

text: There are a number of temples and churches in Margao city The famous churches in Margao are the Holy Spirit Church, the Grace Church, The St Sebastian Church in Aquem (The Old St. Sebastian Chapel, popularly known as the Pandava Copel still stands next to the modern St. Sebastian Church) and the Monte Hill Chapel. The famous temples are the 'Damodar Temple' (Saal), the 'Hari Mandir', the 'Maruti Mandir' at Davorlim the 'Saibaba Temple' at Davorlim, the 'Shiv Temple' (Ling) at Fatorda near Nehru Stadium (which is the original Temple of Damodara). There are two mosques in Margao, one in the Malbhat area and one on the Monte hill. There is also a Jain temple and a Jama'at Khana for the Khoja faith in Pajifond. There is also a Muslim community of Nizaris living in Margao.


title: Margao

text: In the centre of the town is the Municipal Garden, known as Praça Jorge Barreto, around which most restaurants and office buildings are located. On the park's south side like the colonial style red-washed Municipal building, known as Margao Town Hall which was built in 1905, and the Library. The northern segment of the Municipal garden was developed by the Mavany family and is named after His Highness Prince Shah Karim Al Hussaini, Aga Khan IV/Imam of Nizari Ismaili Muslims who visited Goa just before its liberation. The entire garden is now municipal property and is maintained by the Margao Municipal Council.


title: Margao

text: The Largo de Igreja, or the Church of the Holy Spirit, was built by the Portuguese in 1675 and boasts a pristine white façade and an interior dripping with gilt crystal and stucco. The Municipal Garden square is defined on one side by the church with its baroque architecture and the parochial house, and on the other side by the palatial mansions of affluent elite Catholics, positioned in a row. The "Associação das Communidades" (Communities Association) building and the school being the odd exceptions which add to its character and sense of scale. They have a maximum height of two stories, and "balcões" balconies and "varandas" (verandas) facing the square. Parallel to the church square is the commercial street (old market). There is also a landscaped area next to the church called "Praça da Alegria" (Joy Square). The church feast is celebrated before the monsoons, it is a time when many residents make pre-monsoon purchases to stock up for a prolonged rainy season.


title: Margao

text: Just within walking distance of the Holy Spirit Church, is the famous "House of Seven Gables" or "Sat Burzam Ghor". This magnificent mansion was built by Inacio Sebastiao da Silva, emissary and private secretary of the Portuguese Viceroy, in 1790. Today, only three of the seven gables remain. The family church with its Baroque and Rococo workmanship, exhibits the loftiness of the Portuguese time.


title: Margao

text: The Narcinva D. Naik residence houses Margao's well-known temple-hall known as Damodar Sal or Dambaba Saal. The house played host to Swami Vivekananda during his visit to Goa in October 1892 before proceeding to Chicago to address the Parliament of Religions


title: Margao

text: The nearest airport to Margao is Goa's international airport ( Dabolim Airport ) which is 23 km away.


title: Margao

text: Madgaon railway station is a railway junction positioned at the intersection of the Konkan Railway and the South Western Railway (Guntakal–Vasco da Gama section) and is Goa's busiest. Due to its location and connectivity, the station is often used as a transit stop by many people who either head off down south to popular tourist destinations such as Palolem (38 km) or to Benaulim and Colva .


title: Margao

text: Margao hosted the test track for the Skybus Metro project, an elevated rail system patented by the Konkan Railway Corporation, This project was allegedly scrapped due to an accident which occurred during the test drive killing one engineer and seriously injuring three crew members. B Rajaram who had invented the rail system has stated that in his opinion the accident was avoidable.


title: Margao

text: Margao is connected by road to other cities like Mangalore, Udupi, Bhatkal, Kumta, Karwar, Ratnagiri, and Mumbai through the National Highway 66 (NH66). Also, there is road which connects Margao to Ponda, São José de Areal, Sanvordem, Chandor, and other towns of Goa state.


title: Margao

text: Margao is home to many schools and colleges, the alumni of which have made significant contributions to Goa's cultural and scientific landscape. Most schools function in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Directorate of Education and the Goa Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.The oldest, the Loyola High School (Goa) near the Old Bus Stand, is a Jesuit-run school. Other schools include Bhatikar Model English High School (established in 1935) named after its founder Late Pandurang Raya Bhatikar and Mahila & Nutan High School which was established as Samaj Seva Sangh's Mahila Vidyalay for girls in 1933 and started co-ed intake in June 1972. Manovikas English Medium School and Vidya Vikas Academy affiliated to the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations and Central Board of Secondary Education are highly sought after. The other educational institutes in Margao include St.Joseph High School at Aquem, Govt. High School Vidyanagar, Holy Spirit Institute, Presentation Convent High School, Fatima Convent High School, Perpetual Convent High School located in Navelim, and Popular High School in Comba near police station.


title: Margao

text: The colleges in Margao include The Parvatibai Chowgule College which was housed in Portuguese Military Barracks opposite Multipurpose High School in Vidyanagar. The college moved to its present location in 1972 under the direction of then principal P. S. Rege. Shree Damodar College of Commerce and Economics and Govind Ramnath Kare College of Law provide post secondary education in Commerce and Law respectively. Schools such as Shree Damodar Higher Secondary School Of Science and R.M.S Higher Secondary School focus exclusively on higher secondary education. There are also ITIs (Industrial Training Institutes) which impart technical education. Don Bosco College of Engineering located at Fatorda is the sole technical degree granting institute in the town.


title: Shoney's

text: Shoney's is an American restaurant chain headquartered in Nashville, Tennessee. It operates restaurants in 17 states, primarily in the South with additional locations in the Midwest and lower Mid-Atlantic states.


title: Shoney's

text: Founder Alex Schoenbaum opened the first Parkette Drive-In in 1947, and became a licensee of Big Boy Restaurants in 1952. Two years later the name was changed to Shoney's, and aggressive subfranchising followed. Thirty years later, having outgrown its Big Boy territory, Shoney's dropped the Big Boy affiliation.


title: Shoney's

text: Shoney's is owned by Scott Steiner who purchased the company in 2006 through Royal Hospitality Corporation in Atlanta.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1947, Alex Schoenbaum opened the Parkette Drive-In next to his father's bowling alley in Charleston, West Virginia. After meeting with Big Boy founder Bob Wian in 1951, Schoenbaum became a Big Boy franchisee on February 7, 1952, now calling his several locations the Parkette Big Boy Shoppes. In May 1954, a public "Name the Parkette Big Boy Contest" was announced, and in June 1954 Schoenbaum's five Parkette Drive-Ins were rebranded as Shoney's.


title: Shoney's

text: Shoney's (the Parkette) was originally the Big Boy franchisee for West Virginia; however, Schoenbaum rapidly grew the chain through subfranchising, expanding his Big Boy territory through the southeastern United States, excluding Florida where the rights already belonged to fellow Big Boy franchisee Frisch's.


title: Shoney's

text: Schoenbaum's earliest subfranchisees operated under their own names. In 1955, Leonard Goldstein became a subfranchisee in Roanoke, Virginia. Originally operating as Shoney's, he eventually changed to Lendy's Big Boy after another Shoney's subfranchisee called Yoda's Big Boy opened across town. In 1956 a subfranchise was sold to the Boury brothers in northern West Virginia, who operated as Elby's. Elby's, Lendy's, and Yoda's units were originally listed with Shoney's units on the back of the Shoney's menu. Also in 1956, Schoenbaum sold a subfranchise to Abe Becker in Rochester, New York, for Becker's Big Boy. Two Philadelphia area subfranchises, Tunes and Arnold's, were opened during this period as well. In 1959 subfranchisee Abe Adler opened Adler's Big Boy in Lynchburg, Virginia, which was later sold to Lendy's. Also in 1959 Shap's Big Boy was subfranchised in Chattanooga, Tennessee, later assuming the Shoney's name. After this, all subfranchises went by the name Shoney's.


title: Shoney's

text: A Shoney's franchisee purchased the parent company in 1971. Under his leadership Shoney's doubled in size every four years, eventually operating or licensing over one third of the Big Boy restaurants nationwide.


title: Shoney's

text: Selling vending machines in the late 1950s, Ray Danner noticed the popularity of Frisch's Big Boy and other drive–in restaurants. Danner, who had operated small businesses, wanted a single Big Boy in his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky. Because Frisch's had a Louisville franchisee, he and business partner James Craft contacted Alex Schoenbaum and bought the Shoney's Nashville franchise for $1000. In 1959, the pair opened their first Shoney's Big Boy in Madison, a Nashville suburb, built four more by 1961, and a total of seven Shoney's Big Boys when Danner bought Craft's interest. Then known as "Shoney's Big Boy of Middle Tennessee", by 1966 the company operated 10 Big Boys. That year Danner acquired the Louisville Kentucky Fried Chicken franchise, which would grow to 22 stores over 15 years.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1969, "Shoney's Big Boy of Middle Tennessee" and the KFC subsidiary became a public company and was renamed "Danner Foods, Inc.", with Danner as president. The company now included 14 Big Boy restaurants, and by 1970, added one Big Boy in Columbus, Georgia and another in Opelika, Alabama. Danner wanted additional Shoney's territory but Schoenbaum was developing those areas himself, so the company opened a similar "Danner's Family Restaurant" in Louisville, the first of several.


title: Shoney's

text: Danner Foods opened a fast-food seafood and hamburger concept, Mr. D's Seafood and Hamburgers. Launched on August 15, 1969, 9 stores would open by January 1971, growing to 32 stores by 1975, when Danner's namesake Mr. D's would remove hamburgers from the menu, focusing on seafood entirely and being renamed Captain D's, along with franchises being offered. By 1977, over 140 restaurants had opened and "Hamburger" was dropped from the "Captain D's Seafood" name. The number of Captain D's restaurants would quadruple over the following decade. Danner Foods also opened "Mr. D's Islander Restaurant" in Huntsville, Alabama, which offered gourmet dining including seafood, steaks and Cantonese cuisine.


title: Shoney's

text: By 1971, Danner's company had become the second largest Shoney's franchisee by number of units. That year, Danner Foods bought the Shoney's trademark and assets from Alex Schoenbaum, Danner becoming president and CEO, moving the headquarters and commissary from Charleston to Nashville; Danner also changed the legal name of the companies from "Shoney's Big Boy Franchising Companies, Inc.", "Parkette Commissary, Inc." and his "Danner Foods, Inc." to "Shoney's Big Boy Enterprises, Inc.". Schoenbaum became Chairman of the Board of Directors. As director of a public company, he was forced to close his personally owned Shoney's #1, the original Parkette Drive–in, by 1975.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1976, five years after being renamed "Shoney's Big Boy Enterprises, Inc.", stockholders approved changing the company name to "Shoney's, Inc." Shoney's said this reflected the company's diverse food service brands, but added, "Shoney's is not the southern reincarnation of Frisch's Big Boy." However, as Schoenbaum's wife Betty said, the change would permit Shoney's to continue expansion beyond the boundary of its Big Boy territory.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1978, the several Danner's Family Restaurants in Louisville, were renamed "Danner's Towne and Country" using logos increasingly similar to Shoney's. In 1982, the company opened two Towne and Country restaurants in Tallahassee, Florida, also Frisch's Big Boy territory, but these were co–branded as "Shoney's Towne and Country". This caused Frisch's to sue for unfair competition, claiming a strong association of both the "Shoney's" name and "Towne and Country" concept with "Big Boy". Frisch's had already filed similar civil actions against the Wheeling, West Virginia–based Elby's Big Boy franchise, which in 1971, broke ties with Frisch's and operated non–Big Boy Elby's restaurants in Ohio. In March 1984, a Federal district court denied Frisch's request for a temporary injunction blocking Shoney's building additional units in Kentucky and Florida. (Frisch's appealed, but in April 1985, a Federal appeals court affirmed the ruling.)


title: Shoney's

text: After "Big Boy" was removed from the company name in 1976, the Big Boy was becoming less and less prominent at Shoney's, disappearing completely from the company's 1983 annual report. Once called "a meal in one on a double–deck bun", a company official now called the Big Boy hamburger, "a Depression burger, a lot of bread and no meat". Following the March 1984 federal court ruling favoring Shoney's, Marriott Corporation, then owner of the Big Boy trademark, negotiated a settlement that would allow Shoney's to buy out its Big Boy franchise agreement. And in April 1984, Shoney's withdrew from the Big Boy system, paying Marriott $13 million (equivalent to $ million in ). (In August 1984, Elby's likewise dropped its remaining Big Boy affiliation in West Virginia and Pennsylvania.) At the time Shoney's was the largest Big Boy franchise, with 392 Shoney's Big Boy Restaurants, representing more than a third of the national Big Boy chain. Like the former "Big Boy" stores, the "Towne and Country" units were renamed simply "Shoney's". Additional Shoney's restaurants opened in Frisch's Big Boy territory, three in the Cincinnati area, with plans to open three more annually until the market was saturated.


title: Shoney's

text: In April 1989, a class action lawsuit was filed in Pensacola, Florida charging Shoney's with widespread racial discrimination where African American applicants were denied employment, and African American employees were denied promotion, harassed or terminated without cause, based on race, and that white managers were harassed or terminated for objecting to the practices. The case, joined by the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, was filed by nine named plaintiffs: five black employees and four white managers.


title: Shoney's

text: The lawsuit claimed that racial policies were systemic, involving upper management including chairman Ray Danner, who was named individually as a co-defendant. On restaurant visits, Danner would allegedly tell managers to "lighten the place up" if he felt too many blacks were employed at the location, as "the number of blacks [needed] to coincide with [the] neighborhood ethnic group". Restaurant managers testified that Danner didn't want blacks seen by customers, because no one wanted to eat at a restaurant where "a bunch of niggers" were working. (Danner responded that he could not remember making such statements, and denied use of the racial epithet or having such racial policies.) Managers also testified that company officials instructed them to "blacken the in the Shoney's logo (or the "A" in Application) on job applications of African Americans.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1993, the court approved an award of $105 million, ($132.5 million including costs and fees) the largest discrimination settlement at the time. Danner, who in the interim became a life member of the NAACP, surrendered shares of company stock worth $65 million toward the settlement, and resigned from Shoney's board of directors. The court also ordered a detailed company-wide affirmative action program, including training and educational programs.


title: Shoney's

text: Among an estimated 40 thousand persons in the class, compensation was awarded to every African American person employed at Shoney's company-owned restaurants between February 4, 1985 and November 3, 1992. Eleven persons received the maximum $100,000, (). The suit included company-owned food service operations such as Shoney's, Captain D's and Lee's Famous Recipe, but excluded franchised restaurants.


title: Shoney's

text: At its peak in 1998, the restaurant chain operated or franchised over 1,800 restaurants in 34 states. None of those businesses remains a part of the Shoney's restaurant enterprise today. In 2000, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was acquired by Texas-based investment group Lone Star Funds two years later.


title: Shoney's

text: On January 1, 2007, Lone Star announced that the Shoney's chain - at this point down to 272 restaurants - was being sold to David Davoudpour, founder and CEO of the Atlanta-based Royal Capital Corporation, the largest franchisee of Church's Chicken restaurants. At the time of purchase, there were 61 corporate owned stores. Davoudpour began purchasing franchisee locations and rebranding the restaurants, including offering new menu items and upgrades to individual locations.


title: Shoney's

text: In January 2014, Shoney's opened a location in Sugarloaf Mills in Lawrenceville, Georgia. The restaurant served as a prototype for the company brand, offering alcohol service and being the company's first mall-based location. At the time of the opening, Shoney's operated 165 restaurants in 16 states. In 2017, the chain began modernizing locations with a contemporary look. As of 2019, Shoney's operates locations in 17 states. It also had "Shoney's On The Go" for takeout orders which is used in smaller locations such as malls and airports.


title: Shoney's

text: Shoney's is a family casual restaurant, offering traditional American-style food such as hamburgers, chicken, steaks, fish, sandwiches, salads and desserts. Some of its iconic menu items include its hot fudge cake and strawberry pie. Shoney's also became known for its breakfast bar beginning in the 1980s. It offers full-menu dining service with some locations having buffets and alcohol service.


title: Shoney's

text: In 1975, the restaurant chain founded Shoney's Inn, a motel chain. After the motels were sold off in 1991, Shoney's continued to collect royalties on the name. Between 2002 and 2006, the last remaining Shoney's Inns were re-branded as GuestHouse.


title: Unwound

text: Unwound is an American post-hardcore band. The band was formed in 1988 in Tumwater and Olympia, Washington by vocalist/guitartist Justin Trosper, bassist Vern Rumsey and drummer Brandt Sandeno, and was largely based in Olympia throughout the 1990s until the band's dissolution in 2002. Unwound's best known lineup included Trosper, Rumsey and longtime drummer Sara Lund, who replaced Sandeno in 1992.


title: Unwound

text: Often classified as noise rock in addition to post-hardcore, Unwound played a sharply dissonant and angular style that made use of unusual guitar tones, and garnered attention locally for their relentless touring schedules, favour towards "all ages" venues and their strong DIY ethics. Unwound was largely associated with the independent record label Kill Rock Stars throughout the 1990s, with the band's debut album, "Fake Train" (1993), being the first non-spoken word release from the label. Unwound's wider stature grew with the release of the band's fifth and sixth studio albums "Repetition" (1996) and "Challenge for a Civilised Society" (1998), which saw the band experiment with their sound beyond noise rock. "Kerrang!" labelled Unwound as "one of the most prolific American underground bands of recent years" in 1998, however, unlike several of their contemporaries from the Pacific Northwest, Unwound failed to break into the mainstream during their existence, in part due to the band's strong DIY stance. Unwound's self-produced seventh album, "Leaves Turn Inside You" (2001), was the band's only double album, and saw the band stylistically shift into post-rock and avant-garde territory; it was critically acclaimed and later appeared on several best-of album lists of the 2000s.


title: Unwound

text: Following a disastrous U.S. tour in support of "Leaves Turn Inside You", Unwound announced their disbandment in 2002, citing the bandmembers' geographical differences and Vern Rumsey's worsening alcoholism, caused by the stress of touring. Plans for a reunion were repeatedly brought up and shot down throughout the 2010s due to Rumsey's continuous health struggles, and ultimately never occurred before his death in August 2020. In July 2022, Trosper and Lund reformed Unwound for a 2023 tour in Rumsey's memory, with Jared Warren filing in on bass.


title: Unwound

text: Unwound has frequently been seen as one of the most influential bands of the 1990s, with "The A.V. Club" labelling Unwound as "the best band of the 90s" in 2013. Unwound spawned numerous side projects in the wake of their disbandment.


title: Unwound

text: Formed in 1988 while still in high school under the name Giant Henry, the band initially consisted of Justin Trosper (vocals, guitar, songwriting), Vern Rumsey (bass), and Brandt Sandeno (drums). In July 1991, Giant Henry was renamed to Cygnus X-1 and then Unwound, and released a full demo tape in 1991, and recorded an album in early 1992 (though it would not be released until 1995 as "Unwound"). In July 1992, Sara Lund replaced her friend Sandeno as the drummer for the band. This line-up would remain in place until the band's dissolution in 2002.


title: Unwound

text: The group released several singles and albums, primarily on the Kill Rock Stars label. Unwound's "Fake Train" was their debut album, and the first full-length musical release on Kill Rock Stars; it had been strictly a spoken-word label until its owner Slim Moon attended an Unwound concert and decided he had to release their upcoming album. Unwound also had the maiden releases for several other key underground record labels, including Gravity Records and Troubleman Unlimited Records; side project Replikants had the first release on 5 Rue Christine, an esoteric KRS offshoot. Unwound and sonic/geographic contemporaries Sleater-Kinney were generally considered KRS's flagship bands of the 1990s. Although Unwound was not part of the riot grrrl movement, the band supported gender equality. The band made an appearance in the 1994 cult road movie "Half-Cocked".


title: Unwound

text: In April 2001, Unwound released their seventh studio album, "Leaves Turn Inside You". The album, which saw the band venture into post-rock territory, was critically lauded. Unwound embarked on a 37-date tour of the United States in support of the album as a expanded five-piece, with the inclusion of guitarist David Scott Stone and Brandt Sandeno re-joining the band on keyboards. The tour was beset with numerous problems, including the band being poorly rehearsed for the expanded line-up's shows, which resulted in the band performing poorly at the start of their tour, and the cancellation of their biggest shows in Boston and New York City due to the September 11 attacks. Making matters worse was Vern Rumsey's alcoholism, which had become worse due to the stress of touring; Rumsey was often intoxicated during live performances and played a number of shows in agonising pain after punching a wall and breaking his hands following a show in San Diego, and his relationships with Trosper and Lund became strained.


title: Unwound

text: Following the conclusion of the US tour, Unwound cancelled all of their European and Japan tour dates and regrouped. After returning to Olympia, Rumsey became reluctant to tour and suggested converting Unwound into a studio-only band (in the vein of the Beatles) in order to combat his alcoholism, which Lund and Trosper were reluctant to do. Ultimately, owing to this as well as issues with the band's members being located in different cities, Unwound decided to disband.


title: Unwound

text: Unwound announced their disbandment on April 1, 2002, shortly after co-headlining that year's All Tomorrow's Parties festival. The fact that they broke up on April Fool's Day fueled speculation that they would, in actuality, remain together; an early band T-shirt had the inscription "Unwound 1991–2091". Troubleman Unlimited's Mike Simonetti after hearing of the band's breakup posted a quick eulogy to Unwound on his record label's Web site: "Unwound were (and still are) beautiful people. Unwound was one of the most influential and vital bands of the '90s, and their last record was a masterpiece. You just don't know it yet. Unwound's influence will live on for a long time to come, and they were everything a band should be: independent and non-compromising in every aspect."


title: Unwound

text: After Unwound broke up Vern Rumsey formed Flora v. Fauna. Sara Lund formed Hungry Ghost with Andrew Price from the Irving Klaw Trio as well as joining The Corin Tucker Band. In 2011, Brandt Sandeno and Justin Trosper formed Survival Knife.


title: Unwound

text: In 2011, Lund, Trosper and Rumsey reunited in person to discuss the release of "Live Leaves", a live album documenting various performances of the band's final tour in 2001. The meeting led to the trio seriously considering reforming the band, though this was struck down when Trosper and Lund realised that Rumsey was still struggling with his alcoholism, which made them reluctant to play shows. "He had gotten a DUI and was being court ordered to go to AA meetings. It was clear he [Rumsey] was just annoyed and it wasn’t a wake-up call", Trosper later recounted to "Pitchfork" in 2022; "I came away from that meeting like, 'Well, I guess we’re not gonna play. I’m not getting back into a relationship with him if he’s still committed to his drinking.'" "Live Leaves" was eventually released in 2012. An Unwound online archive, curated by the members and fans of the band, was also launched in anticipation to the new release. In 2013, Unwound licensed their back catalog to The Numero Group. They released their pre-Unwound band, Giant Henry, on Record Store Day in 2013 and proceeded to release four box sets, consisting of the band's entire studio output.


title: Unwound

text: In the summer of 2017, Rumsey was forced into sobriety following a health crisis brought on by liver failure, which brought forward the possibility again for a reunion; with the help of The Numero Group, Rumsey was put through to MusiCares and was sent to rehab in spring 2018. However, after he left rehab Rumsey relapsed into his alcoholism. In April 2019, Trosper and Lund attempted a rehearsal of some Unwound songs with Rumsey, but he was physically unable to play. Following this, Trosper and Lund decided to take matters into their own hands and told Rumsey that they were intending to play shows without him, and were subsequently given Rumsey's blessing to do so. In March 2020, Jared Warren, formerly of Unwound's one-time labelmates Karp, rehearsed with the band on bass to positive results. Warren planned on talking to Vern about the reunion shows, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, he was never able to. On August 6, 2020, Vern Rumsey passed away at the age of 47. No cause of death was given.


title: Unwound

text: On July 11, 2022, the band launched an Instagram account and posted a teaser video, which was crossposted to the Numero Group's social media channels. Trosper, Lund, and Warren are seen practicing, though the album version of "Corpse Pose" is heard. The next day, the band announced a 2023 reunion tour; Trosper and Lund enlisted their Nocturnal Habits bandmate Scott Seckington to complete the new lineup on guitar and keyboards.


title: Unwound

text: Unwound's influences included Sonic Youth, Melvins, Fugazi, The Jesus Lizard, Wipers, Black Flag, Can, Mission of Burma, Hüsker Dü, Nation of Ulysses, Flipper, and Gang of Four. Evidence of the Black Flag influence can be seen in Trosper and Sandeno's side band with Tim Green (of Nation of Ulysses), The Young Ginns (named after Black Flag guitarist/songwriter Greg Ginn), and in their interpolation of Black Flag's lyric "I'm not a machine" in their song "Machine" (on Replikants' debut album). Trosper and Sandeno were also in a band called Worst Case Scenario that released an album on Vermiform Records. Unwound's early work was characterized by intense vocals, jagged guitar lines, and more complex drumming than the band's peers. Trosper's lyrics were highly existential, cryptic, and generally bleak. From this angular, atonal starting point, the band developed their signature sound over the course of several albums and numerous singles. With 1996's "Repetition", Unwound added synthesizers to the mix. Free-jazz style saxophone found its way onto 1998's "Challenge For A Civilized Society". The band recorded Peel sessions with John Peel at the BBC in 1998; these were broadcast over the radio, and were released as the semi-official bootleg "Unwound - Live in London" (on Love Letter). This new direction set a precedent that the band would follow for their remaining albums, culminating in the release of 2001's "Leaves Turn Inside You", a double album the band recorded themselves over the course of two years. Unwound never covered any other artists' songs on their albums, though they did cover "Plight" by The Minutemen and "Torch Song" by the (pre Versus) band Flower on singles.


title: Unwound

text: The band was known for its nonstop touring of the U.S. and Europe, and occasionally Japan. It shared stages over the years with the likes of the following, with earliest known date in parentheses: Sonic Youth ('95), Polvo ('95), Fugazi ('95), Hovercraft (European tour w/ them, '96), Lowercase, Polar Goldie Cats, Deerhoof ('98), Mogwai ('99), Slug, The PeeChees ('98), Clikatat Ikatowi (approx. '94), Chokebore, The Most Secret Method ('99), Yind ('99), Blonde Redhead ('95), Dub Narcotic Sound System, xbxrx (who formed after attending an Unwound concert in Biloxi, Mississippi, in 1998) (2001), Bikini Kill, and many more (members of Unwound and Yind occasionally performed live as "avant-Sverige" "supergroup" Shag Bath). During their final (2001–02) tour, Unwound enlisted David Scott Stone as an additional guitarist and original drummer Brandt Sandeno on keyboards, percussion and guitar.


title: Unwound

text: The band was known for having an all-ages policy at almost every concert which it headlined. This meant that they would often choose to play at unconventional locations such as basements, Jaycee halls, and college auditoriums, rather than at the traditional 18+ or 21+ (alcohol-serving) music clubs. They did this because they frequented all-ages shows in Olympia as teens, so they wanted to let fans of any age attend their own gigs.


title: Unwound

text: Trosper played several kinds of odd guitars, including the Univox Hi-Flier (made famous by Kurt Cobain), generally preferring guitars with P-90 pickups. He sometimes played a clear Lucite (Plexiglas), Electra or Ventura, Japanese budget copy of the expensive originals designed by Dan Armstrong and produced by Ampeg. He sometimes used an Echoplex in the band's spacier ambient passages. Rumsey generally played a Fender Jazz Bass. He and Trosper often used Sunn and Kustom amplifiers, generally solid-state models; Trosper's main amp up to 1999 was a Sunn Concert Lead. Lund played a 1970s Ludwig drum kit.


title: Unwound

text: "Fake Train"'s cover art is a defiled copy of the Tom Jones LP cover for "Tom", which had been hanging over Trosper's doorway. The front cover photo to "New Plastic Ideas" is taken from the Philippe Entremont record "Grieg: Concerto in A Minor for Piano and Orchestra". The cover and inner artwork of "The Future of What" are illustrations by Soviet (now Ukrainian) constructivist artist Yakiv Chernikhov (1889–1951). A photo of Boston's stained-glass Mapparium adorns the cover of "Challenge For A Civilized Society". Coincidentally, a similar photo of the Mapparium appeared on the cover of "National Geographic" magazine a month after "Challenge" was released. The cover artwork of the band's four Numero Group LP box sets, "Kid Is Gone", "Rat Conspiracy", "No Energy", and "Empire" are all taken from the band's live shows.


title: Unwound

text: LP versions of Unwound's albums and their reissues are packaged with elaborate inserts, including posters and lyric sheets that the CD versions lack. The aforementioned box sets are all packaged with a corresponding booklet, featuring essays and band photos that to align to the respective era of the band, along with reprints of tour flyers, tour schedules and setlists.


title: Unwound

text: According to Fred Thomas of AllMusic, despite being "[a]nnexed to the less mainstream channels of indie releases, low-budget touring, and a circuit of basement and underground shows, Unwound still managed to create some of the more influential and lasting work of their era, with their cloudy moods and explosively tense group dynamics culminating in some truly transcendent albums." Carrie Brownstein of Sleater-Kinney wrote for "NPR" that Unwound's "influence and successors far outshine its own story. Which is a shame, because Unwound synthesized all that was exciting about Olympia and music in the Pacific Northwest. Its music dark and often experimental; it had pop riffs that grew out of murkiness only to disappear again; its songs gave you glimmers of light but never flooded you with sun; there was angst but not brutality; it possessed an uneven wilderness, which is all you'd ever want from music, something unexpected emerging from what we already know." "The A.V. Club" called Unwound the best band of the 90s, with Jason Heller writing:Unwound is "the" best band of the ’90s. Not just because of how prolific, consistent, and uncompromising it was, but because of how perfectly Unwound nested in a unique space betweenn [sic] some of the most vital forms of music that decade: punk, post-rock, indie rock, post-hardcore, slow-core, and experimental noise. That jumble of subgenres doesn’t say much; in fact, it falls far short of what Unwound truly synthesized and stood for. Unwound stood for Unwound. But in a decade where most bands were either stridently earnest or stridently ironic, Unwound wasn’t stridently anything. It was only itself. In one sense Unwound was the quietest band of the ’90s, skulking around like a nerdy terror cell. In another sense it was the loudest, sculpting raw noise into contorted visions of inner turmoil and frustration.


title: Unwound

text: Heavy metal magazine "Decibel" recognized them as an influence on bands "like Botch, Young Widows, KEN Mode, Coliseum, Helms Alee and so on and so forth." Conrad Keely of ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead named "Fake Train" one of 10 albums that had changed his life forever, stating that it had "epitomized America's disaffected, self-hating white middle-class guilt victims screaming about the fact that they have nothing to do with their time other than be bored, nothing to speak out against other than their own ennui and unwarranted discontent. And although that might sound like a criticism or an indictment, the fact is that this sentiment existed, it was shared by a lot of us, and it found its voice in albums like Fake Train (and Fugazi's Thirteen Songs)." Kazu Makino of Blonde Redhead picked "The Future of What" as her favorite album of all time, calling it "absolutely timeless. When I listen to each member separately it astonishes me how gifted and original they are on their own [...] if I could only play this music to Bach or Mozart or any classical greats I think they would totally get it." Modest Mouse were recognized by many sources as being influenced by the band, and Isaac Brock's label Glacial Pace would later go on to release albums by both Survival Knife & Nocturnal Habits. Other bands & musicians that have cited Unwound as being an influence on their music include Speedy Ortiz, Gouge Away, True Widow, Dirty Dishes, Drumcorps, Black Dice, Garden Variety, Pg. 99, Portraits of Past, Shamir, and Super Unison.


title: Unwound

text: Members of Unwound participated in a number of projects that ran concurrent to Unwound, each self-styled as highly conceptual and distinct from the parent band.


title: Unwound

text: Trosper and Sandeno, who have collaborated musically since the mid-'80s, helmed an experimental venture called Replikants (not to be confused with the band Replicants, which featured members of Failure and Tool). Early on, they each acted as multi-instrumentalists for the group. Inspired by John Cage, Can, and Miles Davis, they combined jazz, ambient music, tape loops, musique concrète and vocal samples atop a krautrock-propelled base. Debut album "This Is Our Message" (1997) consisted of home recordings from 1994 to 1996 (the CD version contained ten bonus tracks not included on the vinyl version due to time constraints). William Goldsmith of Foo Fighters and Sunny Day Real Estate played drums for a period in 1996 before they started playing with drummer Joe Plummer of Bare Minimum/ The Black Heart Procession and later of Modest Mouse and The Shins and a rotating cast of members. With more of an electro-rock sound, their second and final album "Slickaphonics" was released on 5RC in 1999.. A West Coast tour ensued that summer and after it, Trosper shelved Replikants to focus his energy on finishing Unwound's next (final) album. Sandeno and Trosper also collaborated with video artist Slater Bradley on a number of projects between 1999 and 2005 including a piece in the 2004 Whitney Biennial. They stopped performing as the Replikants in 2002.


title: Unwound

text: Rumsey and friend Greg Allen recorded as enigmatic New Romantic-styled pop band Long Hind Legs in the 1990s. Rumsey used the pseudonym "Wolfgang" and Allen used the alias "Paul", with only astute Unwound fans aware of their real identities. Following a slew of singles, their debut self-titled album came out in 1997 on Kill Rock Stars. The 12" EP "Open Wide" (+ remixes)/ "Alphabets Of Unreason" was released simultaneously. Atop peppy, carnival-esque backing music, "Alphabets Of Unreason" features the odd lyrics, "Atoms, boys' cars, dead-end fags/ God, his image, and Jerry's Kids/ Love-making noon orgies/ I want to kill, I want to kill.../ Pills, quinine reveries... Scornful tramps, unwitting vamps, wasted xenophobes & all the young zeroes/ I want to kill, I want to kill..." (note the first letter of each of the main words in the verses, then refer back to the song title). The "February 4–14, 1998" EP was released in 1998 on Kill Rock Stars.


title: Unwound

text: Trosper and Sandeno also played together in two other bands, the Young Ginns, and Worst Case Scenario. The Young Ginns also featured Tim Green of The Nation Of Ulysses on guitar (Justin played bass). The project was first conceived in 1991 when Brandt and Justin were stuck at Tim's house while on tour with Unwound. The band later became a reality when Green moved to Olympia. They released a 7" on Gravity Records in 1993. In 1998, all their recordings were compiled and released on CD by Honey Bear Records. After the Young Ginns, Sandeno and Trosper formed Worst Case Scenario. Worst Case Scenario released two 7"s, one on Troubleman Unlimited and the other on Lookout! Records, and an album on Vermiform Records. Vermiform would release the group's entire discography on CD in 1997. Both the Young Ginns and Worst Case Scenario displayed a hardcore punk sound.


title: Unwound

text: Justin Trosper also performed in Severed Lethargy (with members of Bikini Kill) and Sara Lund and Vern Rumsey performed with the musical collective Witchypoo. Rumsey also played bass on Blonde Redhead's "Fake Can Be Just as Good" album. In 2010, Lund became drummer of The Corin Tucker Band, on which she works along the former Sleater-Kinney vocalist and guitarist, as well as with the Golden Bears' Seth Lorinczi.


title: Unwound

text: Rumsey founded and ran Punk In My Vitamins? Records, releasing material by Lowercase, Yind, the Bangs, Karp, Thrones, Dub Narcotic Sound System and Chokebore. Trosper published several issues of his own underground rock fanzine in the early 1990s.


title: Unwound

text: Trosper formed Survival Knife with Brandt of Unwound and later, the well-received band Nocturnal Habits with Sara Lund. Vern Rumsey joined up with David Pajo, Lauren K. Newman and Conan Neutron for Household Gods, as well as performing solo as Red Rumsey.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: A cable car (usually known as a cable tram outside North America) is a type of cable railway used for mass transit in which rail cars are hauled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are distinct from funiculars, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: The first cable-operated railway, employing a moving rope that could be picked up or released by a grip on the cars was the Fawdon Wagonway in 1826, a colliery railway line. The London and Blackwall Railway, which opened for passengers in east London, England, in 1840 used such a system. The rope available at the time proved too susceptible to wear and the system was abandoned in favour of steam locomotives after eight years. In America, the first cable car installation in operation probably was the West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway in New York City, as its first-ever elevated railway which ran from 1 July 1868 to 1870. The cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, proving cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, reopening with steam locomotives.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Other cable cars to use grips were those of the Clay Street Hill Railroad, which later became part of the San Francisco cable car system. The building of this line was promoted by Andrew Smith Hallidie with design work by William Eppelsheimer, and it was first tested in 1873. The success of these grips ensured that this line became the model for other cable car transit systems, and this model is often known as the "Hallidie Cable Car".


title: Cable car (railway)

text: In 1881 the Dunedin cable tramway system opened in Dunedin, New Zealand and became the first such system outside San Francisco. For Dunedin, George Smith Duncan further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too sharp to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: In Australia, the Melbourne cable tramway system operated from 1885 to 1940. It was one of the most extensive in the world with 1200 trams and trailers operating over 15 routes with 103 km (64 miles) of track. Sydney also had a couple of cable tram routes.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace horsecar (or mule-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large stables of draft animals that had to be fed, housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus, for a period, economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: For example, the Chicago City Railway, also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in Chicago in 1882 and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of incline, but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's "California Cars", Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: In 1883 the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used steam locomotives to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After 1896 the system was changed to one on which a motor car was added to each train to maneuver at the terminals, while en route, the trains were still propelled by the cable.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: On 25 September 1883, a test of a cable car system was held by Liverpool Tramways Company in Kirkdale, Liverpool. This would have been the first cable car system in Europe, but the company decided against implementing it. Instead, the distinction went to the 1884 Highgate Hill Cable Tramway, a route from Archway to Highgate, north London, which used a continuous cable and grip system on the 1 in 11 (9%) climb of Highgate Hill. The installation was not reliable and was replaced by electric traction in 1909. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the Glasgow District Subway, the first underground cable car system, in 1896. (London, England's first deep-level tube railway, the City & South London Railway, had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in 1890.) A few more cable car systems were built in the United Kingdom, Portugal, and France. European cities, having many more curves in their streets, were ultimately less suitable for cable cars than American cities.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by 1890 the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate electrically-powered trolley or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually operated system to survive—Dunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in 1957.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: In the last decades of the 20th-century, cable traction in general has seen a limited revival as automatic people movers, used in resort areas, airports (for example, Toronto Airport), huge hospital centers and some urban settings. While many of these systems involve cars permanently attached to the cable, the Minimetro system from Poma/Leitner Group and the Cable Liner system from DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car both have variants that allow the cars to be automatically decoupled from the cable under computer control, and can thus be considered a modern interpretation of the cable car.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: The cable is itself powered by a stationary engine or motor situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant depending on the number of units gripping the cable at any given time.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: The cable car begins moving when a clamping device attached to the car, called a "grip", applies pressure to ("grip") the moving cable. Conversely, the car is stopped by releasing pressure on the cable (with or without completely detaching) and applying the brakes. This gripping and releasing action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated people mover type systems. Gripping must be applied evenly and gradually in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring passengers.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of pliers, and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car. As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable. In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes the mishap and halts the cable.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: One apparent advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency. This is due to the economy of centrally located power stations, and the ability of descending cars to transfer energy to ascending cars. However, this advantage is totally negated by the relatively large energy consumption required to simply move the cable over and under the numerous guide rollers and around the many sheaves. Approximately 95% of the tractive effort in the San Francisco system is expended in simply moving the four cables at . Electric cars with regenerative braking do offer the advantages, without the problem of moving a cable. In the case of steep grades, however, cable traction has the major advantage of not depending on adhesion between wheels and rails. There is also the advantage that keeping the car gripped to the cable will also limit the downhill speed of the car to that of the cable.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Because of the constant and relatively low speed, a cable car's potential to cause harm in an accident can be underestimated. Even with a cable car traveling at only , the mass of the cable car and the combined strength and speed of the cable can cause extensive damage in a collision.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: A cable car is superficially similar to a funicular, but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway in 1883, a car would leave the terminal every 15 seconds.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described as cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are:


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original Wellington Cable Car, in the New Zealand city of Wellington. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in 1979 and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: The best-known existing cable car system is the San Francisco cable car system in the city of San Francisco, California. San Francisco's cable cars constitute the oldest and largest such system in permanent operation, and it is the one of the few still functioning in the traditional manner, with manually operated cars running in street traffic. Other examples of cable powered systems can be found on the Great Orme in North Wales. and in Lisbon in Portugal. All of these however are slightly different to San Francisco in that the cars are permanently attached to the cable.


title: Cable car (railway)

text: Several cities operate a modern version of the cable car system. These systems are fully automated and run on their own reserved right of way. They are commonly referred to as people movers, although that term is also applied to systems with other forms of propulsion, including funicular style cable propulsion.


title: Spinning Man

text: Spinning Man is a 2018 thriller film directed by Simon Kaijser based on a novel by George Harrar and adapted to screenplay by Matthew Aldrich. It stars Guy Pearce, Pierce Brosnan, Minnie Driver, Alexandra Shipp, Clark Gregg and Odeya Rush. The film was released on video on demand as well as experiencing limited release by Lionsgate Premiere on April 6, 2018.


title: Spinning Man

text: Evan Birch (Guy Pearce) is a family man and esteemed professor of philosophy at a distinguished college. When Joyce Bonner, a high school student, goes missing, Evan's previous off-campus dalliances cause his wife, Ellen (Minnie Driver), to question his alibi. Meticulous police detective Robert Malloy (Pierce Brosnan) has even more reason to be suspicious when crucial evidence makes Evan the prime suspect in Joyce's disappearance. Suddenly, the questions Evan faces are not merely academic – they are a matter of life or death.


title: Spinning Man

text: First announced in May 2016 by Film Bridge International, the picture was intended to be Danish film-maker, Peter Flinth's directorial debut in the US, with Nikolaj Coster-Waldau set to star as the lead character alongside Greg Kinnear and Emma Roberts, while filming was originally set to commence in Minnesota a month later. However, in April 2017, a new cast and crew were revealed, putting Guy Pearce in the shoes of the main protagonist, a troubled professor, co-starring with Pierce Brosnan, Minnie Driver and Alexandra Shipp, while Simon Kaijser was announced as the director. Jamie Kennedy also joined the cast the next day, with Clark Gregg coming on board a month later. Principal photography began in May 2017.


title: Spinning Man

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of , based on reviews, and an average rating of . On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: The Pont Alexandre III is a deck arch bridge that spans the Seine in Paris. It connects the Champs-Élysées quarter with those of the Invalides and Eiffel Tower. The bridge is widely regarded as the most ornate, extravagant bridge in the city. It has been classified as a French "monument historique" since 1975.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: The Beaux-Arts style bridge, with its exuberant Art Nouveau lamps, cherubs, nymphs and winged horses at either end, was built between 1896 and 1900. It is named after Tsar Alexander III, who had concluded the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1892. His son Nicholas II laid the foundation stone in October 1896. The style of the bridge reflects that of the Grand Palais, to which it leads on the right bank.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: The construction of the bridge is a marvel of 19th century engineering, consisting of a high single span steel arch. The design, by the architects and Gaston Cousin, was constrained by the need to keep the bridge from obscuring the view of the Champs-Élysées or the Invalides.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: The bridge was built by the engineers Jean Résal and . It was inaugurated in 1900 for the Exposition Universelle ("universal exhibition") World's Fair, as were the nearby Grand Palais and Petit Palais.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: Four gilt-bronze statues of "Fames" watch over the bridge, supported on massive masonry socles, that provide stabilizing counterweight for the arch, without interfering with monumental views. The socles are crowned by Fames restraining Pegasus.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: The nymph reliefs are at the centres of the arches over the Seine, memorials to the Franco-Russian Alliance. The "Nymphs of the Seine" has a relief of the arms of Paris, and faces the "Nymphs of the Neva" with the arms of Imperial Russia. They are both executed in hammered copper over forms by Georges Récipon.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: In the same political spirit, the Trinity Bridge in Saint Petersburg was conceived as a memorial to the Franco-Russian Alliance. It was designed by Gustave Eiffel, and the first stone was laid in August 1897 by French president Félix Faure.


title: Pont Alexandre III

text: In June 2017, with Paris competing against Los Angeles to host the 2024 Olympics, Paris turned some of its world-famous landmarks over to sports and installed diving boards on the Alexandre III bridge that spanned the Seine.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: Paradise Square is a stage musical, with music by Jason Howland, lyrics by Masi Asare and Nathan Tysen, and a book by Christina Anderson, Larry Kirwan and Craig Lucas. Set in New York City during the Civil War and the New York City draft riots, the musical follows conflict between Irish Americans and Black Americans. The production is directed by Moisés Kaufman and choreographed by Bill T. Jones, with intimacy direction by Gaby Labotka. The musical opened on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on April 3, 2022.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: The show received mixed reviews from critics, and earned 10 nominations at the 75th Tony Awards, including Best Musical, with Joaquina Kalukango winning Best Actress.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: The musical is based on "Hard Times," conceived by Kirwan, which was originally presented Off Off Broadway in 2012 at Nancy Manocherian's the cell theatre, under the direction of Kira Simring.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: The musical premiered at Berkeley Repertory Theatre in Berkeley, California on December 27, 2018, for a limited run which was extended to March 3, 2019.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: It had a pre-Broadway run at the Nederlander Theatre in Chicago from November 2 to December 5, 2021. The production opened to mostly positive reviews.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: The musical began previews at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre in New York City on March 15, 2022, prior to an official opening on April 3, 2022. It received mixed reviews and was subsequently closed briefly due to widespread COVID-19 issues amongst the cast and crew.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: On July 11, 2022, it was announced the musical would play its final Broadway performance on July 17, due to low ticket sales. After several cast members and stage managers spoke out against the working conditions and unpaid benefits, Actors' Equity announced plans to put producer Garth Drabinsky on the "Do Not Work" list, effectively banning him from producing any future Broadway shows.


title: Paradise Square (musical)

text: An Original Broadway Cast Recording is expected to be released in September, with a national tour currently in development for the 2023-24 season, and international productions also in the works.


title: Larry B. Scott

text: Larry B. Scott (born August 17, 1961) is an American actor whose film debut was in the 1978 movie "A Hero Ain't Nothin' But a Sandwich". He played Gerald LeFlore in the 1978 movie "". He is best known for playing Lamar Latrelle, the openly gay fraternity member in the "Revenge of the Nerds" series of comedy films from 1984 to 1994.


title: Larry B. Scott

text: In the 1986 film "SpaceCamp" he played opposite a young Joaquin Phoenix as the character Rudy Tyler. In "Fear of a Black Hat", he played Tasty-Taste, a pastiche of rappers Flavor Flav and Eazy-E. Scott also makes an appearance in "The Karate Kid" and is one of the first competitors to lose to Daniel LaRusso in the film's finale. He also appeared in the movie "Iron Eagle". He then co-starred in "Extreme Prejudice" directed by Walter Hill. He played a role in the S.E. Hinton adaptation "That Was Then... This Is Now", alongside Emilio Estevez.


title: Larry B. Scott

text: Scott has also made appearances in several television sitcoms, including "Barney Miller", "The Jeffersons", "Seinfeld", "St. Elsewhere", "Magnum P.I." and "Martin" along with the television movie "Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry", and he starred as tech genius F.X. Spinner on the sci-fi action adventure series "Super Force" for two seasons. He was also the voice of the Paladin in the game "Diablo II".


title: Sun NXT

text: Sun NXT is an Indian video on demand service run by Sun TV Network. It was launched in June 2017 and has content in six languages - Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Bengali, Marathi . Sun NXT app is available for Android and iOS devices, Smart TVs and other devices.


title: Sun NXT

text: The service was launched in June 2017. Within four days of its launch, the app had obtained 1.1 million downloads. By November it was about seven million. In August 2019, Sun TV Network planned to invest in the platform over 18 months. In February 2020, the platform's subscriber base grew to about 15 million users and started making profit. However, it had expected 20 million subscribers by the end of 2019. It has more than 4000+ Movies and 30+ Live TV Channels. Sun NXT despite not having two mil subscribers, the platform is approximately earning most of its revenue on the contractual basis of content sharing with partnership of network companies. Sun NXT content is available free for consumers on Jio Platforms, V! movies & TV previously known as Vodafone Play.


title: Sun NXT

text: At the time of launch the platform had over 4000 movies, allowed live streaming of over 40 television channels and catch-up TV in four languages. Content available apart from TV and movies are news, comedy clips, originals and music. As of February 2020, it had 410+ shows and 4100+ movies.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang Ji-hwan (born Jo Tae-gyu; March 20, 1977) is a South Korean actor. He began his career in musical theatre, and has since starred in television dramas such as "Be Strong, Geum-soon!" (2005), "Capital Scandal" (2007), "Hong Gil-dong" (2008), Lie to Me (2011), Incarnation of Money (2013), Big Man (2014) and Children of a Lesser God (2018) as well as the films "Rough Cut" (2008) and "My Girlfriend Is an Agent" (2009).


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Jo Tae-gyu made his acting debut in musical theatre in 2002, in the Korean stagings of popular musicals "The Rocky Horror Show" and "Grease". From 2003 to 2004, using the stage name Kang Ji-hwan, he began appearing in small roles on television, which included the sitcom "Nonstop 4" and the Korean dramas "Summer Scent" and "Save the Last Dance for Me".


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang shot to fame in 2005 with "Be Strong, Geum-soon!", in his first onscreen leading role as a fastidious doctor who falls for a widowed hairdresser (played by Han Hye-jin). The drama increased his pan-Asian popularity, particularly in Japan, China, and Taiwan. He then made his big screen debut in the role of a Jehovah's Witness who befriends an unemployed professor in the independent film "Host and Guest", which traveled the international film festival circuit.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang continued acting on television but his 2006 dramas "Fireworks", about two cosmetics firm employees who plot revenge against their exes (opposite Han Chae-young), and "90 Days, Time to Love", about a terminally ill married man who's in love with his cousin (opposite Kim Ha-neul), received low viewership ratings. In 2007, he and Han Ji-min starred in "Capital Scandal", a period drama adapted from Lee Sun-mi's novel set in Japanese-occupied Korea. His portrayal of a carefree playboy who transforms into an independence fighter garnered positive reviews.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: 2008 became a successful year for Kang. He was cast as the titular Joseon folk hero in "Hong Gil-dong", written by the Hong sisters. Kang said his portrayal was inspired by Stephen Chow, and the fusion-period-dramedy became a TV cult hit. Later that year, he also starred in "Rough Cut", a low-budget film directed by Jang Hoon and written by Kim Ki-duk about a gangster who wants to become an actor and a hot-tempered star who acts like a thug. Kang and costar So Ji-sub were praised for their performances, and both won several Best New Actor awards.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang then reunited with previous leading lady Kim Ha-neul in "My Girlfriend Is an Agent", a 2009 action-romantic comedy in which their characters are former lovers and spies trying to conceal their professions from each other. It became the fourth highest grossing Korean film of that year, with more than 4 million tickets sold. Afterwards, he played a looks-oriented architect whose eye problem magically causes him to see the homely heroine (played by Lee Ji-ah) as beautiful in "The Relation of Face, Mind and Love", a "telecinema" which received a brief theatrical release and a TV run.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: In 2010, Kang starred in romantic comedy series "Coffee House", in which he played an eccentric novelist who is caught in a love triangle with his publisher (played by Park Si-yeon) and his assistant (played by Ham Eun-jung). This was followed by his return to the stage in the musical revival "Cafe In", a love story between a male sommelier and a female barista. Kang produced the show's Korean and Japanese runs, and he also starred in the latter, becoming the first Korean actor to perform at the Tokyo Globe Theatre.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang and Yoon Eun-hye then starred in 2011's "Lie to Me", playing a hotelier and a civil servant who fake being married to each other after she tells a white lie that quickly spreads through the gossip channels.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: The 2012 comedy film "Runway Cop" reunited him with previous costar Sung Yu-ri (from "Hong Gil-dong") and director Shin Tae-ra (from "My Girlfriend Is an Agent"). During filming, Kang gained 12 kilograms and shed 15 kilograms two weeks later for his role as an overweight and messy detective who goes undercover as a fashion runway model to solve a case. Following that, he and Lee Ki-woo appeared in a 25-minute "music video drama" to promote Kim Hyung-jun's EP "Escape".


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: In 2013, Kang starred in "Incarnation of Money", in the role of a prosecutor with ties to a loan shark. Then in 2014's "Big Man", he played a "good-for-nothing" orphan who is tricked into thinking that he is the long-lost eldest son of a wealthy tycoon's family, when they only want to harvest his heart for a transplant.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang and Yoon Jin-seo shot the gangster love story "Heartbreak Hotel" in Los Angeles and Las Vegas, and the indie was released in 2015. He was next cast in the Korean-Chinese romantic comedy "A-lister Fall from the Sky", about a scandal-ridden Hallyu star who goes to China and encounters his biggest fan (played by Jiang Yuan).


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: Kang reunited with "Hong Gil-dong" and "Runaway Cop" co-star Sung Yu-ri in revenge melodrama "Monster", which aired in 2016. In 2018, Kang starred in his first cable drama "Children of a Lesser God", playing a genius detective. The same year, he starred in the workplace comedy "Feel Good to Die".


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: In 2019, Kang starred in the series "Joseon Survival Period", but due to sexual assault allegations against him, he was replaced by Seo Ji-seok from episode 11 onward.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: In 2010, Kang was sued for breach of contract by his former talent agency Jambo Entertainment. Kang had signed with S-Plus Entertainment after asking to be released from his contract with Jambo, which the latter claimed was still valid for eight months. S-Plus stated that of the six years that Kang was with Jambo, he was without a contract for three years, and after receiving no response from their overtures regarding Jambo's "unfair terms," they took steps to legally terminate Kang's contract. Upon mediation, the Corea Entertainment Management Association (CEMA) instructed Kang to suspend his entertainment activities for eight months, but when he starred in "Coffee House" anyway, CEMA members threatened to boycott him unless he dropped out of playing the leading role in "Faith".


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: In 2012, S-Plus Entertainment moved to extend Kang's contract with them for an additional eight months, citing his lack of projects for that same length of time due to CEMA's edict. When Kang refused and began entrusting his business affairs to his lawyer, S-Plus sued him for breach of contract. In 2013, the Seoul Central District Court dismissed the lawsuit and upheld the validity of the original contract; the court also ordered S-Plus to pay Kang in damages after the agency defamed him in the press.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: On July 9, 2019, Kang was arrested over allegations that he sexually molested and assaulted two of his agency's female employees at his home. Kang stated that he remembered drinking with them but did not remember what happened afterwards. Kang’s agency, Huayi Brothers, issued an apology and sought another actor to replace Kang in his ongoing TV series. On July 15, 2019, Kang admitted to all charges against him and apologized to the victims. Following this, Huayi Brothers terminated their contract with Kang on July 16, 2019 and he decided to retire from the entertainment industry. On July 26, 2019, Kang was indicted with the criminal charges of quasi-rape and quasi-indecent acts by force. During the first trial, in September 2019, it was revealed that Kang had offered the victims a settlement before the trial, but they rejected it.


title: Kang Ji-hwan

text: On December 5, 2019, Kang was found guilty and sentenced to two years and six months imprisonment, suspended for three years of probation, by the Suwon District Court. Kang was also ordered to conduct 120 hours of social service, take part in 40 hours of sexual offender treatment and be restricted from employment for three years.


title: 2022 in aviation

text: Many aviation-related events are expected to take place in 2022. The aviation industry is recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: History of marketing

text: The study of the history of marketing, as a discipline, is meaningful because it helps to define the baselines upon which change can be recognised and understand how the discipline evolves in response to those changes. The practice of marketing has been known for millennia, but the term "marketing" used to describe commercial activities assisting the buying and selling of products or services came into popular use in the late nineteenth century. The study of the history of marketing as an academic field emerged in the early twentieth century.


title: History of marketing

text: Marketers tend to distinguish between the history of marketing practice and the history of marketing thought:


title: History of marketing

text: Although the history of marketing thought and the history of marketing practice are distinct fields of study, they intersect at different junctures. Marketing practitioners engage in innovative practices that capture the attention of marketing scholars who codify and disseminate such practices. At the same time, marketing academics often develop new research methods or theories that are subsequently adopted by practitioners. Thus developments in marketing theory inform marketing practice and vice versa. The history of marketing will remain incomplete if one disassociates academia from practitioners.


title: History of marketing

text: The publication, in 1960, of Robert J. Keith's article, "The Marketing Revolution", was a pioneering work in the study of the history of marketing practice. In 1976, the publication of Robert Bartel's book, "The History of Marketing Thought", marked a turning-point in the understanding of how marketing theory evolved since it first emerged as a separate discipline around the turn of last century.


title: History of marketing

text: According to etymologists, the term 'marketing' first appeared in dictionaries in the sixteenth century where it referred to the process of buying and selling at a market. The contemporary definition of 'marketing' as a process of moving goods from producer to consumer with an emphasis on sales and advertising first appeared in dictionaries in 1897. The term, marketing, is a derivation of the Latin word, "mercatus" meaning market-place or merchant.


title: History of marketing

text: Historians of marketing tend to fall into two distinct branches of marketing history - "the history of marketing practice" and "the history of marketing thought". These branches are often deeply divided and have very different roots. The history of marketing practice is grounded in the management and marketing disciplines, while the history of marketing thought is grounded in economic and cultural history. This means that the two branches ask very different types of research questions and employ different research tools and frameworks.


title: History of marketing

text: Historians of marketing have undertaken considerable investigation into the emergence of marketing practice, yet there is little agreement about when marketing first began. Some researchers argue that marketing practices can be found in antiquity while others suggest that marketing, in its modern form, emerged in conjunction with the rise of consumer culture in seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe while yet other researchers suggest that modern marketing was only fully realised in the decades following the industrial revolution in Britain from where it subsequently spread to Europe and North America. Hollander and others have suggested that the different dates for the emergence of marketing can be explained by problems surrounding the way that marketing has been defined - whether reference to 'modern marketing' as a planned, programmed repertoire of professional practice including activities such as segmentation, product differentiation, positioning and marketing communications versus 'marketing' as a simple form distribution and exchange.


title: History of marketing

text: A number of studies have found evidence of advertising, branding, packaging and labelling in antiquity. Umbricius Scauras, for example, was a manufacturer of fish sauce (also known as garum) in Pompeii, circa 35 B.C. Mosaic patterns in the atrium of his house were decorated with images of amphora bearing his personal brand and quality claims. The mosaic comprises four different amphora, one at each corner of the atrium, and bearing labels as follows:


title: History of marketing

text: The reputation of Scauras' fish sauce was known to be of very high quality across the Mediterranean and its reputation travelled as far away as modern France. Curtis has described this mosaic as "an advertisement... and a rare, unequivocal example of a motif inspired by a patron, rather than by the artist." In Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum, archaeological evidence also points to evidence of branding and labelling in relatively common use. Wine jars, for example, were stamped with names, such as "Lassius" and "L. Eumachius;" probably references to the name of the producer. Carbonised loaves of bread, found at Herculaneum, indicate that some bakers stamped their bread with the producer's name.


title: History of marketing

text: David Wengrow has argued that branding became necessary following the urban revolution in ancient Mesopotamia in the 4th century BCE, when large-scale economies started mass-producing commodities such as alcoholic drinks, cosmetics and textiles. These ancient societies imposed strict forms of quality control over commodities, and also needed to convey value to the consumer through branding. Producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which over time were transformed into clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with the producer's personal identity thus giving the product a personality.


title: History of marketing

text: Diana Twede has argued that the "consumer packaging functions of protection, utility and communication have been necessary whenever packages were the object of transactions" (p. 107). She has shown that amphoras used in Mediterranean trade between 1500 and 500 BCE exhibited a wide variety of shapes and markings, which provided information for transactions. Systematic use of stamped labels dates from around the fourth century BCE. In a largely pre-literate society, the shape of the amphora and its pictorial markings conveyed information about the contents, region of origin and even the identity of the producer which were understood to convey information about product quality. Not all historians agree that these markings can be compared with modern brands or labels. Moore and Reid, for example, have argued that the distinctive shapes and markings in ancient containers should be termed "proto-brands" rather than modern brands.


title: History of marketing

text: In England and Europe during the Middle Ages, market towns sprang up. Some analysts have suggested that the term, 'marketing,' may have first been used in the context of market towns where the term 'marketing' may have been used by producers to describe the process of carting and selling their produce and wares in market towns. Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and the emergence of merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralised market towns.


title: History of marketing

text: Braudel and Reynold have made a systematic study of these European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week, while daily markets were more common in the larger cities and towns. Over time, permanent shops began to open daily and gradually supplanted the periodic markets. Peddlers filled in the gaps in distribution by travelling door-to-door in order to sell produce and wares. The physical market was characterised by transactional exchange, bartering systems were commonplace and the economy was characterised by local trading. Braudel reports that, in 1600, goods travelled relatively short distances - grain 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, following the European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar - calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World.


title: History of marketing

text: Although the rise of consumer culture and marketing in Britain and Europe have been studied extensively, less is known about developments elsewhere. Nevertheless, recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early marketing practices; including branding, packaging, advertising and retail signage. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding was used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 AD. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite (p. 212). The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection and the brand concepts of baoji, hao, lei, gongpin, piazi and pinpai, which roughly equate with Western concepts of family status, quality grading, and upholding traditional Chinese values (p. 219). Eckhardt and Bengtsson's analysis suggests that brands emerged in China as a result of the social needs and tensions implicit in consumer culture, in which brands provide social status and stratification. Thus, the evolution of brands in China stands in sharp contrast to the West where manufacturers pushed brands onto the market in order to differentiate, increase market share and ultimately profits (pp 218–219).


title: History of marketing

text: Scholars have identified specific instances of marketing practices in England and Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As trade between countries or regions grew, companies required information on which to base business decisions. Individuals and companies carried out formal and informal research on trade conditions. As early as 1380, Johann Fugger travelled from Augsburg to Graben in order to gather information on the international textile industry. He exchanged detailed letters on trade conditions in relevant areas. In the early 1700s British industrial houses were demanding information, that could be used for business decisions. In the early 18th-century, Daniel Defoe, a London merchant, published information on trade and economic resources of England and Scotland. Defoe was a prolific publisher and among his many publications are titles devoted to trade including; "Trade of Britain Stated," 1707; "Trade of Scotland with France," 1713 and "The Trade to India Critically and Calmly Considered," 1720; all books that were highly popular with merchants and business houses of the period. While such activities might now be recognised as marketing research, at that time they were known as "commercial research" or "commercial intelligence" and not seen as part of the repertoire of activities that make up contemporary marketing practice.


title: History of marketing

text: Eighteenth century advertising showed a high level of sophistication in its execution and ability to reach mass audiences. In a major review of consumer society, McKendrick, Brewer and Plumb found extensive evidence of eighteenth century English entrepreneurs inventing modern marketing techniques, including product differentiation; sales promotion; loss leader; planned obsolescence; fashion magazines; national advertising campaigns, fancy showrooms, and concentration on elite taste-setting customers. English pottery makers Josiah Wedgewood (1730–1795) and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) were the pioneers of modern mass marketing methods. Wedgewood introduced direct mail, travelling salesmen and catalogues in the eighteenth century. Wedgewood's marketing was highly sophisticated and recognisably 'modern' in that he planned production with the sale in mind. He carried out serious investigations into the fixed and variable costs of production and recognised that increased production would lead to lower unit costs. He also inferred that selling at lower prices would lead to higher demand and recognised the value of achieving scale economies in production. By cutting costs and lowering prices, Wedgewood was able to generate higher overall profits. Similarly, one of Wedgewood's colleagues Matthew Boulton, pioneered early mass production techniques and product differentiation at his Soho Manufactory in the 1760s. He also practiced planned obsolescence and understood the importance of 'celebrity marketing' - that is supplying the nobility, often at prices below cost and of obtaining royal patronage, for the sake of the publicity and cudos generated.


title: History of marketing

text: Fullerton argues that the practice of market segmentation emerged well before marketers used the notion formally. Certain strands of evidence suggest that simple examples of market segmentation were evident prior to the 1880s. The business historian, Richard S. Tedlow, argues that any attempt to segment markets prior to 1880 was highly fragmented since the economy was characterised by small, regional suppliers who mostly sold goods on a local or regional basis. When retail shops began to appear from the 15th century, retailers needed to separate the "riff raff" from wealthier customers. Outside the major metropolitan cities, few stores could afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively. However, gradually retail shops introduced innovations that would allow them to separate wealthier customers from the lower classes and peasants. One technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into vogue from the late sixteenth century was to invite favoured customers into a back-room of the store, where goods were permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in the shopkeeper's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. Evidence of early marketing segmentation has also been noted across Europe. A study of the German book trade found examples of both product differentiation and market segmentation in the 1820s.


title: History of marketing

text: Until the nineteenth century, Western economies were characterised by small regional suppliers who sold goods on a local or regional basis. However, as transportation systems improved from the mid nineteenth century, the economy became more unified allowing companies to distribute standardised, branded goods at national level. This gave rise to a much broader mass marketing mindset. Manufacturers tended to insist on strict standardisation in order to achieve scale economies with a view to keeping production costs down and also to achieving market penetration in the early stages of a product's life cycle. The Model T Ford was an example of a product being manufactured at a price that was affordable for the burgeoning middle classes.


title: History of marketing

text: In the early twentieth century, as market size increased, it became more commonplace for manufacturers to produce a variety of models pitched at different quality points designed to meet the needs of various demographic and lifestyle market segments, giving rise to the widespread practice of market segmentation and product differentation. Between 1902 -1910 George B Waldron, working at Mahin's advertising agency, used tax registers, city directories and census data to show advertisers the proportion of educated versus illiterate consumers and the earning capacity of different occupations in what is believed to be the first example of demographic segmentation of a population. Within little more than a decade, Paul Cherington had developed the 'ABCD' household typology - the first socio-demographic segmentation tool. By the 1930s, market researchers such as Ernest Dichter were carrying out qualitative research into brand purchasers realised that demographic factors alone were insufficient to explain different marketing behaviour of various user groups. This insight led to the exploration of other factors such as lifestyles, values, attitudes and beliefs in market segmentation and advertising.