title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The force met heavy resistance trying to cross the Charbagh Canal, but succeeded after nine out of ten men of a forlorn hope were killed storming a bridge. They then turned to their right, following the west bank of the canal. The 78th Highlanders took a wrong turning, but were able to capture a rebel battery near the Qaisarbagh palace, before finding their way back to the main force. After further heavy fighting, by nightfall the force had reached the Machchhi Bhawan. Outram proposed to halt and contact the defenders of the Residency by tunnelling and mining through the intervening buildings, but Havelock insisted on an immediate advance. (He feared that the defenders of the Residency were so weakened that they might still be overwhelmed by a last-minute rebel attack.) The advance was made through heavily defended narrow lanes. Neill was one of those killed by rebel musket fire. In all, the relief force lost 535 men out of 2000, incurred mainly in this last rush.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: By the time of the relief, the defenders of the Residency had endured a siege of 87 days, and were reduced to 982 fighting personnel.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Originally, Outram had intended to evacuate the Residency, but the heavy losses incurred during the final advance made it impossible to remove all the sick and wounded and non-combatants. Another factor which influenced Outram's decision to remain in Lucknow was the discovery of a large stock of supplies beneath the Residency, sufficient to maintain the garrison for two months. Lawrence had laid in the stores, but died before he had informed any of his subordinates. (Inglis had feared that starvation was imminent.)


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Instead, the defended area was enlarged. Under Outram's overall command, Inglis took charge of the original Residency area, and Havelock occupied and defended the palaces (the Farhat Baksh and Chuttur Munzil) and other buildings east of it. Outram had hoped that the relief would also demoralise the rebels, but was disappointed. For the next six weeks, the rebels continued to subject the defenders to musket and artillery fire, and dug a series of mines beneath them. The defenders replied with sorties, as before, and dug counter-mines. Twenty-one shafts were sunk and 3,291 feet of gallery were constructed by the defenders. The rebels dug 20 mines: three caused loss of life, two did no injury, seven were blown in, and seven were tunnelled into and their galleries taken over.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The defenders were able to send messengers to and from the Alambagh, from where in turn messengers could reach Cawnpore. (Later, a semaphore system made the risky business of sending messengers between the Residency and the Alambagh unnecessary.) A volunteer civil servant, Thomas Henry Kavanagh, the son of a British soldier, disguised himself as a sepoy and ventured from the Residency aided by a local man named Kananji Lal. He and his scout crossed the entrenchments east of the city and reached the Alambagh to act as a guide to the next relief attempt. For this action, Kavanagh was awarded the Victoria Cross and was the first civilian in British history to be honoured with such an award for action during a military conflict.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The rebellion had involved a very wide stretch of territory in northern India. Large numbers of rebels had flocked to Delhi, where they proclaimed the restoration of the Mughal Empire under Bahadur Shah II. A British army besieged the city from the first week in June. On 10 September, they launched a storming attempt, and by 21 September they had captured the city. On 24 September, a column of 2,790 British, Sikh and Punjabi troops under Colonel Greathed of the 8th (The King's) Regiment of Foot marched through the Lahore Gate to restore British rule from Delhi to Cawnpore. On 9 October, Greathed received urgent calls for help from a British garrison in the Red Fort at Agra. He diverted his force to Agra, to find the rebels had apparently retreated. While his force rested, they were surprised and attacked by the rebel force, which had been close by. Nevertheless, they rallied, defeated and dispersed the rebel force. This Battle of Agra cleared all organised rebel forces from the area between Delhi and Cawnpore, although guerrilla bands remained.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Shortly afterwards, Greathed received reinforcements from Delhi, and was superseded in command by Major General James Hope Grant. Grant reached Cawnpore late in October, where he received orders from the new commander-in-chief in India, Sir Colin Campbell, to proceed to the Alambagh, and transport the sick and wounded to Cawnpore. He was also strictly enjoined not to commit himself to any relief of Lucknow until Campbell himself arrived.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Campbell was 64 years old when he left England in July 1857 to assume command of the Bengal Army. By mid-August, he was in Calcutta preparing his departure upcountry. It was late October before all preparations were completed. Fighting his way up the Grand Trunk Road, Campbell arrived in Cawnpore on 3 November. The rebels held effective control of large parts of the countryside. Campbell considered, but rejected, securing the countryside before launching his relief of Lucknow. The massacre of British women and children following the capitulation of Cawnpore was still in recent memory. In British eyes, Lucknow had become a symbol of their resolve. Accordingly, Campbell left 1,100 troops in Cawnpore for its defence, leading 600 cavalry, 3,500 infantry and 42 guns to the Alambagh, in what Samuel Smiles described as an example of the "women and children first" protocol being applied.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: British warships were dispatched from Hong Kong to Calcutta. The marines and sailors of the "Shannon", "Pearl" and "Sanspareil" formed a Naval Brigade with the ships' guns (8-inch guns and 24-pounder howitzers) and fought their way from Calcutta until they met up with Campbell's force.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The strength of the rebels investing Lucknow has been widely estimated from 30,000 to 60,000. They were amply equipped, the sepoy regiments among them were well trained, and they had improved their defences in response to Havelock's and Outram's first relief of the Residency. The Charbagh Bridge used by Havelock and Outram just north of the Alambagh had been fortified. The Charbagh Canal from the Dilkusha Bridge to the Charbagh Bridge was dammed and flooded to prevent troops or heavy guns fording it. Cannon emplaced in entrenchments north of the Gumti River not only daily bombarded the besieged Residency but also enfiladed the only viable relief path. However, the lack of a unified command structure among the sepoys diminished the value of their superior numbers and strategic positions.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: At daybreak on 14 November, Campbell commenced his relief of Lucknow. He had made his plans on the basis of Kavanagh's information and the heavy loss of life experienced by the first Lucknow relief column. Rather than crossing the Charbagh Bridge and fighting through the tortuous, narrow streets of Lucknow, Campbell opted to make a flanking march to the east and proceed to Dilkusha Park. He would then advance to La Martiniere (a school for British and Anglo-Indian boys) and cross the canal as close to the River Gumti as possible. As he advanced, he would secure each position to protect his communications and supply train back to the Alambagh. He would then secure a walled enclosure known as the Secundrabagh and link up with the Residency, whose outer perimeter had been extended by Havelock and Outram to the Chuttur Munzil.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: For as the column moved to the east of the Alambagh, no opposition was encountered. When the relief column reached the Dilkusha park wall, the quiet ended with an outburst of musket fire. British cavalry and artillery quickly pushed past the park wall, driving the sepoys from the Dilkusha park. The column then advanced to La Martiniere. By noon, the Dilkusha and La Martiniere were in British hands. The defending sepoys vigorously attacked the British left flank from the Bank's House, but the British counter-attacked and drove them back into Lucknow.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The rapid advance of Campbell's column placed it far ahead of its supply caravan. The advance paused until the required stores of food, ammunition and medical equipment were brought forward. The request for additional ammunition from the Alambagh further delayed the relief column's march. On the evening of 15 November, the Residency was signalled by semaphore, "Advance tomorrow."


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The next day, the relief column advanced from La Martiniere to the northern point where the canal meets the Gumti River. The damming of the canal to flood the area beneath the Dilkuska Bridge had left the canal dry at the crossing point. The column and guns advanced forward and then turned sharp left to Secundra Bagh.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The Secundra Bagh is a high-walled garden approximately 120 yards square, with parapets at each corner and a main entry gate arch on the southern wall. Campbell's column approached along a road that ran parallel to the eastern wall of the garden. The advancing column of infantry, cavalry and artillery had difficulty manoeuvering in the cramped village streets. They were afforded some protection from the intense fire raining down on them by a high road embankment that faced the garden. Musket fire came from loopholes in the Secundra Bagh and nearby fortified cottages, and cannon shot from the distant Kaisarbagh (the former King of Oudh's palace). Campbell positioned artillery to suppress this incoming fire. Heavy 18-pounder artillery was also hauled by rope and hand over the steep road embankment and placed within of the enclosure. Although significant British casualties were sustained in these manoeuvres, the cannon fire breached the southeastern wall.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Finding the breach too small to accommodate the mass of troops, the Punjab Infantry moved to the left and overran the defences at the main garden gateway. Once inside, the Punjabis, many of whom were Sikhs, emptied their muskets and resorted to the bayonet. Sepoys responded with counter-attacks. Highlanders pouring in by the breach shouted, "Remember Cawnpore!" Gradually the din of battle waned. The dwindling force of defenders moved northward until retreat was no longer possible. The British numbered the sepoy dead at nearly 2000.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: By late noon, a detachment of the relief column led by Adrian Hope disengaged from the Secundra Bagh and moved towards the Shah Najaf. The Shah Najaf, a walled mosque, is the mausoleum of Ghazi-ud-Din Haider, the first king of Oudh in 1814. The defenders had heavily fortified this multi-story position. When the full force of the British column was brought to bear on the Shah Najaf, the sepoys responded with unrelenting musketry, cannon grape shot and supporting cannon fire from the Kaisarbagh, as well as oblique cannon fire from secured batteries north of the Gumti River. From heavily exposed positions, for three hours the British directed strong cannon fire on the stout walls of the Shah Najaf. The walls remained unscathed, the sepoy fire was unrelenting and British losses mounted. Additional British assaults failed, with heavy losses.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: However, retiring from their exposed positions was deemed equally dangerous by the British command. Fifty Highlanders were dispatched to seek an alternate access route to the Shah Najaf. Discovering a breach in the wall on the opposite side of the fighting, sappers were brought forward to widen the breach. The small advance party pushed through the opening, crossed the courtyard and opened the main gates. Seeing the long sought opening, their comrades rushed forth into the Shah Najaf. Campbell made his headquarters in the Shah Najaf by nightfall.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Within the besieged residency, Havelock and Outram completed their preparations to link up with Campbell's column. Positioned in the Chuttur Munzil, they executed their plan to blow open the outer walls of the garden once they could see that the Secundra Bagh was in Campbell's hands.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The Moti Mahal, the last major position that separated the two British forces, was cleared by charges from Campbell's column. Only an open space of now separated the two forces. Outram, Havelock and some other officers ran across the space to confer with Campbell, before returning. Stubborn resistance continued as the sepoys defended their remaining positions, but repeated efforts by the British cleared these last pockets of resistance. The second relief column had reached the Residency.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: Although Outram and Havelock both recommended storming the Kaisarbagh palace to secure the British position, Campbell knew that other rebel forces were threatening Cawnpore and other cities held by the British, and he ordered Lucknow to be abandoned. The evacuation began on 19 November. While Campbell's artillery bombarded the Kaisarbagh to deceive the rebels that an assault on it was imminent, canvas screens were erected to shield the open space from the rebels' view. The women, children and sick and wounded made their way to the Dilkusha Park under cover of these screens, some in a variety of carriages or on litters, others on foot. Over the next two days, Outram spiked his guns and withdrew after them.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: At the Dilkusha Park, Havelock died (of a sudden attack of dysentery) on 24 November. The entire army and convoy now moved to the Alambagh. Campbell left Outram with 4,000 men to defend the Alambagh, while he himself moved with 3,000 men and most of the civilians to Cawnpore on 27 November.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The rebels were left in control of Lucknow over the following winter, but were prevented from undertaking any other operations by their own lack of unity and by Outram's hold on Alambagh, which was easily defended. Campbell returned to retake Lucknow, with the attack starting on 6 March. By 21 March 1858 all fighting had ceased.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: During the siege, the Union Jack had flown day and night (against the usual practice, which is to strike national flags at dusk), as it was nailed to the flagpole. After the British re-took control of Lucknow, by special dispensation (unique within the British Empire), the Union Jack was flown 24 hours a day on the Residency's flagpole, for the rest of the time the British held India. The day before India became independent, the flag was lowered, the flagpole cut down, and the base removed and cemented over, to prevent any other flag from ever being flown there.


title: Siege of Lucknow

text: The largest number of Victoria Crosses awarded in a single day was the 24 earned on 16 November, during the second relief, the bulk of these being for the assault on the Secundrabagh. Among the recipients was William Hall, a Black Nova Scotian, for manning a gun at the Shah Najaf action despite the loss of all but one of his crew mates.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: "One Last Time" is a song recorded by American singer Ariana Grande for her second studio album "My Everything". It was written by David Guetta, Savan Kotecha, Giorgio Tuinfort, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk. The song was produced by the latter two, with Tuinfort serving as a co-producer and Ilya serving both as a co-producer and vocal producer. "One Last Time" was first released on the iTunes Store on August 22, 2014, as the second promotional single from the album. On February 10, 2015, the song was sent to contemporary hit radio as the fifth and final single from the album. A French version of the song featuring French singer Kendji Girac, alternatively titled "Attends-moi", was released on February 16, 2015, in France, Belgium and Switzerland. It is also included on the deluxe version of Girac's debut studio album "Kendji" (2015). An Italian version of the song featuring Italian rapper Fedez was released on May 26, 2015, only in Italy.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: "One Last Time" is a dance-pop and EDM song. Its instrumentation consists of sampled drums and a synth line. The single reached the top-twenty in twelve countries, including Australia, Canada, France, the United Kingdom and the United States, where it became Grande's sixth top-twenty single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The single's peak of number 13 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 ended Grande's streak of consecutive top ten hits from 2014. It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: The song's accompanying music video was released on February 15, 2015, and was directed by Max Landis. The music video is visually presented as a found footage, similar to Landis' previous work. The video faced controversy due to its similarity to the music video for the Australian band SAFIA's single "You Are the One", with Grande and Landis being accused of intellectual property theft. Grande promoted the song with a live performance on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", the 2015 NBA All-Star Game halftime show, and during her first world tour, The Honeymoon Tour (2015).


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Grande re-released "One Last Time" as a charity single in June 2017, following the Manchester Arena bombing at her concert the previous month. This resulted in the song reaching a new peak of number 2 on the UK Singles Chart following the One Love Manchester concert, as well as reaching a new peak of number 15 in the Irish Singles Chart and peaked at number one in Scotland. Grande donated all proceeds from the re-release to the We Love Manchester Emergency Fund to aid the victims of the bombing and their families. Overall, the song reached a top-ten peak in Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Italy, Lebanon, the Netherlands, Slovakia, the United Kingdom and the top-twenty of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, Spain and the United States.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: "One Last Time" was written by the songwriting team Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub and Carl Falk, with Dutch producer Giorgio Tuinfort and French disc jockey David Guetta. Kotecha had already previously collaborated with Grande when producing the first, second, third and fourth single from "My Everything". Guetta was working on his album "Listen", and while making the album he chose to give "One Last Time" to Grande, since "[he] had like 120 songs and [was] trying to make an album that ma[de] sense because some of the songs can be great, but that doesn’t mean that they would fit together. ["One Last Time" is] one example," he claimed. "One Last Time" was strongly considered to be "My Everything"s lead-single, according to Republic Records' executive vice president Charlie Walk, however "Problem" was chosen instead, being the song that best "set the tone for the project". Later, ""Break Free" felt like summer," Walk claimed, while "Bang Bang" helped usher in Jessie J's album "Sweet Talker", and "fall/winter felt like the best time for "Love Me Harder", since it's a heavier, darker record," he added.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Before being released as an official single, "One Last Time" was released for free via iTunes Stores as the album's second promotional single on August 22, 2014, following "Best Mistake", which was released on August 12, 2014. Ultimately, "One Last Time" was released as the album's fifth and final single, being serviced to rhythmic crossover and contemporary hit radio stations on February 10, 2015, in the US. The song was also released in French as a duet with French singer Kendji Girac, winner of the of "The Voice: la plus belle voix". The version titled "Attends-moi" ("Wait for Me") was released in Belgium, France and Switzerland on February 16, 2015. It is included on the deluxe version of his debut studio album "Kendji" (2015). According to Girac, the duet was arranged by his artistic director, since he and Grande share the same music corporation, Universal Music Group. On May 26, 2015, an Italian version of the song featuring Italian rapper Fedez was released in Italy.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: The song was re-released in June 2017 as a charity single, with proceeds being donated to the We Love Manchester Emergency Fund.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: The song was produced by Falk and Yacoub, co-produced by Tuinfort and Ilya, with vocal production being done by Ilya, Kotecha and Yacoub. "One Last Time" is a dance-pop and EDM song, with a total length of three minutes and seventeen seconds (3:17). Its instrumentations consist in "pummeling drums and a three-note synth line". "One Last Time" is written in the key of A-flat major, with a moderately fast tempo of 125 beats per minute. Grande's vocals range from A3 to F5. Lyrically, the song describes a female protagonist who asks her former lover to spend one last time with her, even though they have already moved on from her and is with someone new. As noted by Jason Lipshut of "Billboard", "the downbeat admission of 'I know/that you got everything/But I got nothing here without you' is the pained sound of a narrator racked with guilt, the chorus sets aside that humiliation and scoops up a sense of hope," with the singer pleading, "One last time/I need to be the one who takes you home/One more time/I promise after that, I'll let you go". Rob Copsey of The Official Charts Company noted that the song " reminded him of Swedish's recording artist, Loreen's 2012 Eurovision winning song "Euphoria".


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic picked the song as one of the album's highlights, while Jason Lipshut of "Billboard" praised the track for "demonstrat[ing] Grande's newfound maturity and ambition". Rob Copsey wrote for the Official Charts Company that 'One Last Time' "suits her better than you’d think, [with] the singer reign[ing] in her powerful pipes on this breezy and wistful club track". while Anne Zaleski of "The A.V. Club" thought the song "channels a more powerful version of "On the 6"-era Jennifer Lopez," also calling it an "electronica-dusted [song]". AXS's Lucas Villa praised her performance for "exud[ing] sincerity and grace" and added that "[t]his baby-come-back tune showcases a softer side to the singer that highlights her dulcet vocals." FDRMX writer John Mychal Feraren gave "One Last Time" a rating of 4.2 out of 5 stars, calling it "an excellent addition to her list of hit songs" and claiming that "its astounding musical production is effortlessly matched by [the] singer's sultry voice [...] transform[ing] an empty song into a masterpiece." PPcorn.com described the song as "an excellent addition to her list of hit songs", declaring: "after the lyrical ambivalence of 'Love Me Harder', here comes a song that actually means something. It's about admitting your shortcomings in a previous relationship, and trying to make up for it. However, doesn't it sound a bit pathetic when your ex-lover tells you, 'Need to be the one who takes you home / One more time / I promise after that, I'll let you go.'"


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Mikael Wood, while reviewing the album for "Los Angeles Times", called it a "delight [with] surging dance beats," while "Digital Spy"s Lewis Corner named it a "restrained sibling" of "Break Free", having "speckles of electronica to save it from falling into dwindling balladry". Jean-Luc Marsh of "Pretty Much Amazing" noted that the "otherworldly notes that Grande hits on 'One Last Time' and 'Why Try' remain standouts several listens through". Similarly, "The National"s Adam Workman claimed Grande is "far more effective when she leaves the musical school of 'why sing one note when you can stretch it out for several bars across three different octaves?'," citing the "lower-key" song as an example. Kathy Iandoli from Idolator labeled it ".. smooth yet eerily resemble when an adult contemporary artist attempts dance music..." Nick Levine of "Time Out" concluded that the song "serves club pop with a side of melancholy". In contrast, Evan Sawdey of "PopMatters" observed that the song "strikes all the dance-pop and EDM-lite poses it needs to without leaving any significant impression afterwards".


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: After being released as a promotional single for the parent album in August 2014, "One Last Time" initially debuted at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, before officially debuting on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 80 on the week of February 28, 2015. The song jumped to number 34 the following week, while staying behind Grande's "Love Me Harder". It later climbed to number 18, becoming Grande's fifth consecutive top-twenty single from the same album and sixth overall. The song eventually peaked at number 13, on the week of May 2, 2015, becoming Grande's first radio promoted song from "My Everything" to not enter the top ten in the country, effectively ending Grande's streak of consecutive top ten hits from 2014. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song peaked at number six, also becoming her fifth top ten single on the Pop charts. As of June 2020, "One Last Time" had sold 918,000 digital units in the US, and was certified Platinum by the RIAA. Similar to the US, the song has also become her fifth consecutive top-twenty single in Canada, peaking at number 12.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: In Australia, "One Last Time" debuted on the ARIA Charts on the week of March 8, 2015 at number 27 and went on to reach a peak of number 15 on April 5, 2015, becoming her fifth top-twenty single there. Meanwhile, in New Zealand the song debuted at number 32, and a week later it peaked at number 22. It was higher than her previous single, "Love Me Harder", which peaked at number 28, and promotional single "Best Mistake", which charted at number 29.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Across Europe, "One Last Time" proved to be moderately successful initially. In France, both versions of the song charted; the original version of the song reached number ten, becoming her highest charting-single there and her first top-ten single, while the French version, "Attends-moi" with Kendji Girac, debuted and peaked at number 11, becoming her highest single debut, second highest charting-single and third top-twenty there. In Italy, the song peaked at number six on the FIMI Singles Chart, becoming her first top-ten hit in that country, and was certified double platinum by the FIMI.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: In the United Kingdom, "One Last Time" originally peaked at number 24 on the UK Singles Chart in early 2015, marking Grande's fourth top-forty single in the country, following number one singles "Problem" and "Bang Bang" as well as top-twenty single "Break Free". It was later certified gold by the BPI for reaching 400,000 sales+streaming figures. As of March 2021, "One Last Time" is Grande's fourth most-streamed song in the United Kingdom and overall 24th most-streamed song by a female artist in the country.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: In the wake of the Manchester Arena bombing, a resurgence of popularity and meaning for the single came as a homage to the victims of the event, with Grande's fans starting petitions to get the song charting again. The song re-entered charts across several countries, including the UK, where it subsequently rose to a new peak of number two on the UK Singles Chart following the One Love Manchester benefit concert, as well as a new chart peak of number sixteen in Ireland, which was topped the week after by a chart move to number fifteen. It was certified platinum soon after, on June 9, 2017, by the BPI for selling over 600,000 copies, and then double platinum on February 23, 2018, for shipments of over 1.2 million copies in the country, her first single to do so. In Scotland, "One Last Time" also re-entered following the incident, and eventually topped the Scottish Singles chart on the issue dated June 9, 2017. The song also reached number 35 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, and number 23 in France and number 11 in Spain.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: In August 2016, Alex Greggs filed a lawsuit against Grande, David Guetta, Rami Yacoub, Carl Falk, Universal Music Group and Republic Records for alleged copyright infringement of the song "Takes All Night" by Skye Stevens, which Greggs wrote. The lawsuit alleged that the "harmonic background remains the same in both songs for the entire sixteen measures of the chorus. ... Although the rhythm of the two compositions may differ ... there is substantial similarity on the most important rhythmic placement of the pitches on strong melodic and harmonic beats (1 and 3)". Greggs sought $150,000 per infringement. The case was later dismissed after both sides filed a Joint Stipulation for Dismissal.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Grande came up with the idea of the music video and contacted Max Landis, known for his 2012 film "Chronicle". In an interview, Grande explained: "It's very unique, it's very different, I called Max [Landis] up and I said 'hey I want to do something that ends exactly like this' and I described the ending shot to him and then I said I also want it to be (a) one take [music video]… and I want the ending shot to look like this, And I described those two things to him and he’s like, 'wow, that's ambitious and it’s brave and it’s different, but let's try it". A day later, Grande discussed the video's concept and said that it was "the coolest concept ever and he killed it and it's very different. I'm very nervous about it because it's so unique and weird and I feel like brave and different, but it’s exciting".


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: The music video was filmed in early January 2015 and it also stars Matt Bennett, who was also Grande's co-star from the Nickelodeon sitcom "Victorious". Max Landis also confirmed that one of the voices of the news reporters in the beginning of the video was actress Elizabeth Gillies, who also co-starred in "Victorious" with Grande and Bennett. Gillies previously appeared Grande's music video for her single "Right There" (2013). Around that time, Max Landis revealed "One Last Time" as Grande's next single after tweeting, "Earth will pass catastrophically through the tail of the comet Eurydice in one week. Gather family and lovers close, one...last...time". The lyric video for "One Last Time" was released on Grande's official Vevo on February 6, 2015, at the same time it was announced that the music video was finished. On February 12, 2015, three days before the release of the music video, Grande released a teaser of the music video via Instagram. The music video was visually presented as a found footage, similar to Landis' previous work "Chronicle". The "One Last Time" music video was released on February 15, 2015, on Vevo. It surpassed 100 million views on June 8, making it Grande's sixth Vevo-certified music video after "Love Me Harder".


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: The music video displays news anchor reports about the Earth on course to pass through the tail of a comet named Eurydice, as well as displaying a worldwide panic. The rest of the video then is presented through the use of a handheld video camera. Grande is in a Fiat car as the passenger, with her boyfriend (played by Matt Bennett), who is recording. They are stuck in traffic as they try to leave the city, implied to be Los Angeles, California. While everyone around them is panicking, Grande seems to be calm as she wants to get a closer look at the comet. Impatient, she leaves the car while Bennett tries to stop her, and then follows. They make their way through the crowds, but are stopped by the police who are barricading the street. Meanwhile, the comet erupts in the sky and begins to crash to the ground as the song starts. Grande manages to get through but Bennett is unable to, so he goes through an open ambulance and manages to catch up with her in an alleyway with stairs leading up into an apartment complex. Ariana notices the comet in the sky. The two enter a home of a frightened family and try to leave through the other door, only for the comet to crash into the building, nearly killing both of them. Frightened, the two continue on and enter a room filled with television screens of the comet and an old man sitting at a desk. As the former two of them try to leave, the latter tries to stop them, but they knock him to the ground, and all the screens change to the same countdown timer. Grande and Bennett eventually make their way up the rooftop after subduing the old man again, who had caught up with them. The camera is then set down, and shows the two of them embracing each other One Last Time until the comet crashes down, destroys everything and leads the Earth to an end.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Ariana Bacle of "Entertainment Weekly" called the music "very "Chronicle"", comparing the video to Max Landis' previous work. Rachel Paoletta of "MTV News" describes the music video as "a decidedly darker and more badass video" compared to her "sexy, sultry, and sandy video for 'Love Me Harder'". She also stated that "Ariana Grande's new video takes us to the end of the world, and brings us to the edge of our seats". In response to similarities between the Grande video and the music video accompanying Australian band SAFIA's single "You Are the One", Grande and Landis were accused of intellectual property theft. The controversy centered on similarities in the shared apocalyptic themes and stylistic format (a single, tracking shot) as well as parallels in the beginning of both videos (where a female protagonist exits a vehicle despite the protests of the male driver) and final shot (a lover's embrace as the world comes to an end around them). Members of the band described the similarities as an instance of when "big labels and/or big film firms steal ideas from small independent creatives who are trying really hard to make something different for a change". Despite acknowledging similarities between the two videos, Landis denied that his ideas are stolen from them and commented that both music videos had much in common with a third earlier music video by Perth group Injured Ninja.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: Grande performed "One Last Time" for the first time live on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" on February 1, 2015. She sang the song once more at the NBA All-Star Game halftime show on February 15, 2015, along with her other past hit songs. During "One Last Time", she introduced the song "with some fluttering notes that eventually congealed into an impressive melisma", as noted by "Billboard"s Jason Lipshut. "One Last Time" has also been on her setlists for The Honeymoon Tour and the Dangerous Woman Tour. During The Honeymoon Tour in Paris on May 15, 2015, Grande performed the French version of "One Last Time" with Kendji Girac for the first time. On May 27, 2015, she sang the song on the third season finale of "The Voice of Italy".


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: On June 4, 2017, Grande performed "One Last Time", joined on-stage by other participating artists, as part of the finale of One Love Manchester, a benefit concert for the victims of the Manchester Arena bombing.


title: One Last Time (Ariana Grande song)

text: From March 18 to April 5, 2019, Grande included a shortened remix of "One Last Time" on her Sweetener World Tour setlist. The song was however later removed due to emotional reasons. An acoustic version of the song was later performed during her set at Manchester Pride on August 25, 2019.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome (RTS) is a rare genetic condition characterized by short stature, moderate to severe learning difficulties, distinctive facial features, and broad thumbs and first toes. Other features of the disorder vary among affected individuals. These characteristics are caused by a mutation or deletion in the CREBBP and/or EP300 gene located on chromosome 16.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: People with this condition have an increased risk of developing noncancerous and cancerous tumors, leukemia, and lymphoma. This condition is sometimes inherited as an autosomal dominant pattern and is uncommon. Many times it occurs as a de novo (not inherited) occurrence. It occurs in an estimated 1 in 125,000-300,000 births.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome presents itself from birth, and is usually hallmarked by delayed physical and cognitive growth.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: A 2009 study found that children with RTS were more likely to be overweight and to have a short attention span, motor stereotypies, and poor coordination. The study hypothesized that the identified CREBBP gene impaired motor skills learning. Other research has shown a link with long-term memory (LTM) deficit.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: It is diagnosed when a heterozygous pathogenic variant of the CREBBP gene is identified in the individual. It exhibits an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, but some documented cases show heterozygous individuals exhibiting germline mosaicism. This condition affects men and women equally, and is often misdiagnosed with other diseases or disabilities that result in delayed mental development.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome is a microdeletion syndrome involving chromosomal segment 16p13.3 and is characterized by mutations in the CREBBP gene. Varying amounts of material are deleted from this section of the chromosome and accounts for the spectrum of physiological symptoms.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: The CREBBP gene makes a protein that helps control the activity of many other genes. The protein, called CREB-binding protein, plays an important role in regulating cell growth and division and is essential for normal fetal development. If one copy of the CREBBP gene is deleted or mutated, cells make only half of the normal amount of CREB binding protein. A reduction in the amount of this protein disrupts normal development before and after birth, leading to the signs and symptoms of Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Mutations in the EP300 gene are responsible for a small percentage of cases of Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome. These mutations result in the loss of one copy of the gene in each cell, which reduces the amount of p300 protein by half. Some mutations lead to the production of a very short, nonfunctional version of the p300 protein, while others prevent one copy of the gene from making any protein at all. Although researchers do not know how a reduction in the amount of p300 protein leads to the specific features of Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome, it is clear that the loss of one copy of the EP300 gene disrupts normal development.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: A mouse model has been identified in order to perform experimental research procedures. The model has exhibited the same clinical symptoms seen in humans and has become a foundation for future research.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Unfortunately, in nearly 40% of cases, neither gene, CREBBP or EP300, can be implicated in the cause of the disease. In these cases, there is no mutation on the 16th chromosome leaving many more questions yet to be answered. However, new research shows that around 55% of cases involve a mutation in the CBP gene, further suggesting that this disease has its origins in mutation of the regulatory mechanisms of transcription (Izumi, 2016).


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: There is no existing treatment that reverses or cures RTS. There are, however, ways to manage and reduce symptoms for patients. Patients with RTS suffer from a diverse breadth of symptoms. These include cognitive-developmental impairment, heart abnormalities, delayed bone growth and skeletal abnormalities, auditory impairment, urinary tract abnormalities, including kidney problems, and dental and speech problems. Not every patient will suffer from all or multiple symptoms, and not every patient will experience the same symptoms, meaning they differ from patient to patient. Due to there being a wide range of symptoms, RTS patients are referred to specialists that focus on each specific symptom. There is not a specialist for RTS. For example, patients will go to an orthopedic surgeon and physical therapy for skeletal and growth abnormalities, like scoliosis but will go to a cardiologist if they suffer from heart abnormalities or a dentist if they suffer from dental abnormalities. Individuals suffering from cognitive developments usually are part of special education programs and speech therapy. The specialists the individuals go to match the symptoms the individuals have. Regular check-ups and monitoring are needed for cardiac, dental, auditory, and renal abnormalities. Genetic counseling is also recommended for affected individuals and their families.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome was first unofficially mentioned in a French orthopedic medical journal in 1957 by Greek physicians' doctors: Michail, Matsoukas, and Theodorou. The medical journal reported a case concerning a seven-year-old boy with radically deviated/arched thumbs, long nose, muscular hypotonia, along with physical and mental underdevelopment. At this point in time the case study mentioned by the Greek physicians was considered to be an anomaly due to the fact that there hadn't been any other reported cases of children with these specific physical and mental characteristics. The doctors accredited with discovering the syndrome and therefore bear its name-sake were unaware of this journal at the time of their discovery. However, it is acknowledged that the 1957 case reported in the French journal of orthopedic medicine is most likely the first reported case of RTS.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: Dr. Jack Herbert Rubinstein, an American pediatrician reported assessing a three-year-old girl with unusual facial and digital findings in 1958. Similarly, that same year Rubinstein had evaluated another child with similar characteristics, this time a seven-year-old boy. Having sensed a striking similarity between these two unrelated cases Rubinstein tried distributing photos and information concerning these two cases to other clinics in the U.S. from 1959 to 1960. Rubinstein graduated from Harvard Medical School and worked as the director of the Hamilton County Diagnostic Clinic for the Mentally Retarded. He has worked in behavioral and developmental pediatrics for many years prior to the discovery of this new syndrome.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: In 1961, Dr. Hooshang Taybi, an Iranian-American pediatric radiologist, reported having assessed a three-year-old boy that appeared to have the same syndrome as described by Rubinstein. During the summer of 1963 Dr. Taybi reported having evaluated seven children with characteristics such as broad thumbs and great toes, "unusual" facial features, and intellectual disabilities – these findings went on to appear in the "American Journal of Diseases of Children" documenting these characteristics as a syndrome. Dr. Hooshang Taybi graduated from Tehran University School of Medicine and worked for the Ministry of Health. Later in his career he taught and practiced pediatric radiology in Oklahoma and Indiana. He had identified three new syndromes with his colleagues, among them is Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome.


title: Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome

text: In 1992 the first genetic abnormalities that act as markers for Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome were identified. These abnormalities are said to affect either chromosome 16 or chromosome 22. The specific chromosome impacted by a mutation determines the type of Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome that may occur. A mutation of the CREBP gene on chromosome 16 gives rise to the first form of RTS (most common). While a mutation of the EP300 gene on chromosome 22 is characteristic of the second form of RTS.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Jean-Baptiste Frédéric Isidor, Baron Thielemans (29 April 1922 – 22 August 2016), known professionally as Toots Thielemans, was a Belgian jazz musician. He was mostly known for his chromatic harmonica playing, as well as his guitar and whistling skills, and composing. According to jazz historian Ted Gioia, his most important contribution was in "championing the humble harmonica", which Thielemans made into a "legitimate voice in jazz". He eventually became the "preeminent" jazz harmonica player.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: His first professional performances were with Benny Goodman's band when they toured Europe in 1949 and 1950. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1951, becoming a citizen in 1957. From 1953 to 1959 he played with George Shearing, and then led his own groups on tours in the U.S. and Europe. In 1961 he recorded and performed live one of his own compositions, "Bluesette", which featured him playing guitar and whistling. In the 1970s and 1980s, he continued touring and recording, appearing with musicians such as Oscar Peterson, Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Bill Evans, Dizzy Gillespie, Kenny Werner, Pat Metheny, Jaco Pastorius, Mina Mazzini, Elis Regina, Quincy Jones, George Shearing, Natalie Cole, Billy Joel, Paul Simon and Paquito D'Rivera.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans recorded the soundtracks for "The Pawnbroker" (1964), "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), "The Getaway" (1972), "Cinderella Liberty" (1973), "The Sugarland Express" (1974) and "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977). His harmonica theme song for the popular "Sesame Street" TV show was heard for 40 years. He often performed and recorded with Quincy Jones, who once called him "one of the greatest musicians of our time." In 2009 he was designated a Jazz Master by the National Endowment for the Arts, the highest honor for a jazz musician in the United States.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans was born in Brussels on 29 April 1922. His parents owned a café. He began playing music at an early age, using a homemade accordion at age three. During the German occupation of Belgium beginning in 1940, he became attracted to jazz, but was then playing on a full-size accordion or a harmonica, which he taught himself to play in his teens.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: After being introduced to the music of Belgian-born jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt, he became inspired to teach himself guitar, which he did by listening to Reinhardt's recordings. At the time he was a college student majoring in mathematics. By the war's end in 1945, he considered himself a full-time musician. He said in 1950, "Django is still one of my main influences, I think, for lyricism. He can make me cry when I hear him." During an interview in 1988, he recalled, "I guess I was born at the right time to live and adapt and be touched by the evolution in the jazz language."


title: Toots Thielemans

text: He played in two Silverio Pisu stories: "Giacomino passerotto vagabondo" and "Manolo gattino sognatore".


title: Toots Thielemans

text: In 1949 he joined a jam session in Paris with Sidney Bechet, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Max Roach and others. He first heard the faster bebop style of jazz from records by Parker and Dizzy Gillespie after they had reached Belgium after the war. They became his musical "prophets." As his small collection of jazz records grew, the music of Benny Goodman and Lester Young began to impress him the most.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: During a visit to the U.S. in 1948, an agent of Benny Goodman heard him play at a small New York music club. Not long after he returned to his home in Belgium, he received a letter inviting him to join Goodman's band while they toured in Europe. He readily accepted the invitation and joined their tours in 1949 and 1950. During the tour, Goodman was "shocked" when he learned that these tours were the first time Thielemans had earned money from his playing. Although Thielemans was hired on as a guitarist, when Goodman's group debuted at the London Palladium, he played the harmonica due to union restrictions.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: During those years, he also made his first record with fellow band member, tenor saxophonist Zoot Sims. In 1951 he toured with singer-songwriter and compatriot Bobbejaan Schoepen, performing strictly as a guitarist.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans moved to the United States in 1952 where he was a member of Charlie Parker's All-Stars and worked with Miles Davis and Dinah Washington. In 1957 he became a U.S. citizen. From 1953 to 1959 he played guitar and harmonica with the George Shearing Quintet. With Shearing, he added whistling to his repertoire. While playing in Hamburg in 1960 on tour with Shearing, a young musician and observer —John Lennon— noticed that Thielemans played a Rickenbacker guitar. Lennon was impressed, and felt he had to have an American guitar, on the principle that "if was good enough for Thielemans it was good enough for me." Lennon and the Beatles helped make Rickenbacker guitars world-famous.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: In 1955, Thielmans recorded his first album as a band leader, "The Sound." During the 1950s, Thielemans had dominated the "miscellaneous instrument" category in "Down Beat" magazine's poll. Jerry Murad, of Jerry Murad's Harmonicats recalls Thielemans's mastery:


title: Toots Thielemans

text: From 1959 on he toured internationally with his small group along with intermittently recording in the studio. He recorded with singers and musicians including Ella Fitzgerald, Pat Metheny, Jaco Pastorius, Stephane Grappelli, J.J. Johnson, Oscar Peterson, Shirley Horn, Joe Pass, and jazz pianist Bill Evans, among others. Thielemans says that his recording with Evans's trio, "Affinity," (1979) was one of his favorites.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Toots Thielemans wrote "Bluesette," a jazz standard, which he performed on harmonica or while playing the guitar and whistling in unison. He said, "If there's a piece of music that describes me, it's that song." First recorded by him in 1962, with lyrics added by Norman Gimbel, the song became a major worldwide hit. It has since been covered by over one hundred artists. Toots also wrote the ballad "Lady Fingers," which appeared on Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass's album "Whipped Cream and Other Delights."


title: Toots Thielemans

text: He worked both as a bandleader and as a sideman, including many projects with composer/arranger Quincy Jones. In the 1960s he performed on television with Peggy Lee. In 1969 he recorded "Honeysuckle Rose Aquarela Do Brasil" with singer Elis Regina and performed with her on Swedish television special.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: During his career he performed on many film soundtracks, such as "The Pawnbroker" (1964), "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), "The Getaway" (1972), "Turkish Delight" (1973), "Cinderella Liberty" (1973), "The Sugarland Express" (1974), "The Yakuza" (1974), "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977), "The Wiz" (1978), "Jean de Florette" (1986), and "French Kiss" (1995). His closing theme to the popular "Sesame Street" television show was heard for 40 years.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: His music was heard on the Belgian television series "Witse," and in the Netherlands, for the "Baantjer" program. He composed the music for the 1974 Swedish film "Dunderklumpen!," in which he also provided the voice of the animated character Pellegnillot. His whistling and harmonica playing was heard on Old Spice commercials in the 1960s. He played harmonica on "Night Game" on Paul Simon's 1975 album "Still Crazy After All These Years".


title: Toots Thielemans

text: During the early 1980s Thielemans was a guest a number of times on "Late Night with David Letterman." He performed with the bassist Jaco Pastorius, and in 1983 he contributed to Billy Joel's album "An Innocent Man," in the song, "Leave A Tender Moment Alone." (The two later collaborated on this selection in concert, and this was recorded on video.) A year later, he appeared on the Julian Lennon song "Too Late for Goodbyes" from the album "Valotte."


title: Toots Thielemans

text: In 1984, he recorded with Billy Eckstine on the singer's final album ("I Am a Singer"), featuring ballads and standards arranged and conducted by Angelo DiPippo. In the 1990s, Thielemans embarked on theme projects that included world music. In 1998 he released a French-flavoured album titled "Chez Toots" featuring guest singer Johnny Mathis.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: During those years, he often recorded songs as personal tributes to those who were influential during his career. On "Chez Toots", for example, he included "Dance For Victor," which he dedicated to his sometimes keyboard accompanist, Victor Feldman. Similarly, he recorded "Waltz for Sonny" as a tribute to saxophonist Sonny Rollins. In June 1998, at Germany's Jazzbaltica, he paid tribute to Frank Sinatra who died a month earlier. And during the first Caspian Jazz and Blues Festival in Azerbaijan in 2002, he performed his recorded version of "Imagine," his tribute to its writer, John Lennon.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans was well liked for his modesty and kind demeanor in his native Belgium, and was known for describing himself as a Brussels ""ket,"" which means "street kid" in old Brussels slang.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: He was nominated for the title of the Greatest Belgian in 2005. In the Flemish version, he finished in 20th place, and in the Walloon version he came 44th. On 23 January 2009, he joined guitarist Philip Catherine on stage at the Liberchies church (Belgium) in memory of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Django Reinhardt. In 2012, the Jazz at Lincoln Center concerts in New York celebrated Thieleman's 90th birthday with, among others, Herbie Hancock, Eliane Elias, and Kenny Werner. He performed for the occasion and left the stage standing among his friends.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Because of health issues that led to show cancellations, Thielemans announced his retirement on 12 March 2014, cancelling all scheduled concerts. He was also hospitalized for a broken arm. His manager stated that Thielemans "wants to enjoy the rest he deserves." However, he did make one more stage appearance, unannounced, in August 2014, at the Jazz Middelheim Festival in Antwerp.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: After the announcement, the Netherlands-based jazz and pop orchestra Metropole Orkest, along with American musician Quincy Jones, performed at London's Royal Albert Hall in Thielemans' honor. Another concert was performed at the Grand-Place, Brussels.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans was buried on 27 August 2016 in La Hulpe, just outside Brussels. Pianist Kenny Werner read a personal message from U.S. President Barack Obama for his widow, Huguette. It read: "Dear Huguette. I was deeply saddened when I heard about your husband's passing. I hope that shared memories will soften your suffering. Lift faith from the support of friends and family. Know that you will be in my thoughts for the next days. May Toots' music lead you and offer you consolation. I'm sure it will do this for all of us."


title: Toots Thielemans

text: In December 2016, the Music Division of the Royal Library of Belgium acquired the Toots Thielemans Collection. The collection consists of hundreds of sound recordings (78 rpm, vinyl records and CDs) and thousands of documents, such as photographs, press articles, scores, letters and concert programmes.


title: Toots Thielemans

text: Thielemans received a joint honorary doctorate from the Université libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium. In 2001, he was raised into the Belgian nobility by King Albert II and created "Baron" Thielemans for life, this in recognition of his contribution to music. Herewith, he chose the motto "Be yourself, no more no less".


title: Toots Thielemans

text: In 2006, Thielemans was honoured by an all-star tribute concert for him at Carnegie Hall. Pianist Herbie Hancock and clarinetist Paquito D'Rivera were among the performers. In 2009, he was awarded the highest U.S. honour that can be accorded to a jazz musician, the distinction of "Jazz Master," by The National Endowment for the Arts. He was celebrated by a Google Doodle on his 100th birthday, 29 April 2022.


title: Council–manager government

text: The council–manager government is a form of local government used for municipalities, counties, or other equivalent regions. It is one of the two most common forms of local government in the United States along with the mayor–council government form, and is common in Ireland. The council–manager form is also used in New Zealand for regional councils, and in Canada and many other countries for city and county councils.


title: Council–manager government

text: The city manager–council form is much like a publicly traded corporation. Under the form, an elected governing body, usually called a city council, board of aldermen, or similar title, is responsible for legislative functions such as establishing policy, passing local ordinances, voting appropriations, and developing an overall vision, similar to a corporate board of directors. The council appoints a city manager to oversee the administrative operations, implement its policies, and advise it. The manager position is similar to that of a corporate chief executive officer appointed by a board of directors. The position of "mayor" present in this type of legislative body is a largely ceremonial title, and may be selected by the council from among its members or elected as an at-large council member with no executive functions, similar to a non-executive chairman in a corporation.


title: Council–manager government

text: The International City/County Management Association (ICMA), a professional organization for city managers, has listed at least three defining characteristics that distinguish a true council–manager government:


title: Council–manager government

text: This system of government is used in 40.1% of American cities with populations of 2,500 or more, according to the 2011 Municipal Yearbook published by ICMA.


title: Council–manager government

text: The concept of the council–manager form of government was a product of a confluence of the prevailing modes of thought during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Probably the foremost influence was the Progressive Movement; following along the thought lines of the movement, the municipal reformers of that time wanted to rid municipalities of the pervasive "political machine" form of government and the abuses of the spoils system. The thought was to have a politically impartial administrator or manager to carry out the administrative function.


title: Council–manager government

text: Staunton, Virginia, is credited as the first American city to appoint a city manager, which it did in 1908. This appointment attracted attention to the fledgling profession and caught the eye of Richard S. Childs, who would become known as the "father" of the council–manager form of government. The first large city to adopt the council–manager form was Dayton, Ohio, in 1913.


title: Council–manager government

text: The council–manager system has grown considerably in popularity since the start of the 20th century. In 1935, ICMA recognized 418 U.S. cities and seven counties using the system.


title: Council–manager government

text: The council–manager form of government developed, at least in part, as a response to some perceived limitations of the city commission government form. Since it relies on candidates being elected at-large, minority populations are often unable to elect candidates of their choice. In addition, it may concentrate too much power in individual commissioners, who also manage city departments. The council–manager form became the preferred alternative for progressive reform. After World War I, few cities adopted the commission form and many cities using the commission plan switched to the council–manager form.


title: Council–manager government

text: By 2001, 3,302 cities with a population over 2,500 and 371 counties used the council–manager system. Phoenix, Arizona, is the largest city in the United States to retain a council–manager government.


title: Council–manager government

text: Since the turn of the 21st century, there have been studies about hybrid forms of local governments that take elements of both council–manager and mayor–council forms. The cities that have modified their organizational structure from one of the pure forms have been called "adaptive" forms.


title: Council–manager government

text: Following the turmoil of World War I (1914–1918), the 1916 rising, the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921), and the Irish Civil War (1921–1923), the Irish government found it necessary to remove the members of several local authorities and replace them temporarily by paid commissioners.


title: Council–manager government

text: Both Dublin and Cork city councils were so removed. In both cities, there was a body of opinion that the services provided by the councils were delivered more efficiently and fairly under the commissioners than under the previous system, where the executive function had been, in effect, vested in the councils and their committees.


title: Council–manager government

text: In 1926, a committee of commercial and industrial interests in Cork came together to consider a scheme of city government. Having regard to the city's experience of commissioners and recent experience in the United States a council–manager plan of city government was proposed.


title: Council–manager government

text: After discussion between the minister for local government and local representatives, the minister, Richard Mulcahy, introduced as a government measure, the "Cork City Management Bill 1929" and it became law despite opposition. The minister proposed and the Oireachtas enacted similar provision for Dublin City in 1930. Similar laws were passed for Limerick in 1934 and Waterford in 1939 under the Fianna Fáil government.


title: Council–manager government

text: Under the "County Management Act 1940", which was brought into operation in August 1942, a "county manager" is the manager of every borough or town in that county, but since the 1990s, has the power to delegate these functions to any other officer of that borough or town council.


title: Council–manager government

text: The system was modified also in subsequent legislation, particularly the "City and County Management (Amendment) Act 1955", which made some adjustments to give greater power to the council members, and the "Local Government Act 1985", which provided for the council–manager system in Galway City once detached for local government purposes from County Galway.


title: Council–manager government

text: The above acts have been replaced since that time, in substantially the same form, by the "Local Government Act 2001".


title: IKEA effect

text: The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias in which consumers place a disproportionately high value on products they partially created. The name refers to Swedish manufacturer and furniture retailer IKEA, which sells many items of furniture that require assembly.


title: IKEA effect

text: A 2011 study found that subjects were willing to pay 63% more for furniture they had assembled themselves than for equivalent pre-assembled items.


title: IKEA effect

text: The IKEA effect was identified and named by Michael I. Norton of Harvard Business School, Daniel Mochon of Yale, and Dan Ariely of Duke, who published the results of three studies in 2011. They described the IKEA effect as "labor alone can be sufficient to induce greater liking for the fruits of one's labor: even constructing a standardized bureau, an arduous, solitary task, can lead people to overvalue their (often poorly constructed) creations."


title: IKEA effect

text: Norton, Mochon, and Ariely cited other researchers' previous work on "effort justification" which had demonstrated that the more effort someone put into something, the more someone will value it. This phenomenon had been observed by Leon Festinger (1957) and in realms ranging from psychotherapy (Axsom & Cooper, 1985) and brainwashing (Schein, 1956).


title: IKEA effect

text: Product designers were familiar with the IKEA effect long before it was given a name. Norton and his colleagues noted that, while not yet named or scientifically established, it had been recognized by marketers for a long time. Norton and his fellow researchers cited the Build-a-Bear product, which allows people to make their own teddy bears. Many consumers enjoy this option, even though they are charged a high price for a product for which, thanks to their labor, the manufacturer does not have to pay production costs. In addition, the researchers pointed out the popularity of "haycations," whereby city people pay to do farmers' work for them. In all these cases, the researchers posit, people seem more willing to pay for an item into which they have put a degree of their own labor.


title: IKEA effect

text: The researchers pointed out that as a result of earlier consumer psychology studies that essentially pointed to the existence of the IKEA effect, many firms transitioned from viewing consumers as "recipients of value" to instead "co-creators of value." One element of this shift was the involvement of consumers in product design, marketing, and testing.


title: IKEA effect

text: A 1959 study by Aronson and Mills that has been described as a "classic" produced results that seem to reflect either the IKEA effect or a closely related phenomenon. Female participants were required to undergo "no initiation, a mild initiation, or severe initiation" before entering a discussion group. The women's later appraisal of the group's value was proportional to the effort that had been demanded of them before being allowed into the group.


title: IKEA effect

text: Citing other researchers' work demonstrating "a fundamental human need for effectance – an ability to successfully produce desired outcomes in one's environment," Norton et al. argued that "one means by which people accomplish this goal is by affecting and controlling objects and possessions." They placed special emphasis on Bandura's "seminal" 1977 study showing that "successful completion of tasks" was a "crucial means by which people can meet their goal to feel competent and in control."


title: IKEA effect

text: Norton and his colleagues conducted research to find out if consumers would pay higher prices for products that required self-assembly. The research consisted of three different experiments in which the participants built Lego items, folded origami figures and assembled IKEA boxes.


title: IKEA effect

text: In the first part of the experiment, part of the subjects were given the task of assembling IKEA furniture, while others were allowed to examine a pre-built version of the same furniture. Researchers then asked the participants to price the items. The results showed that the subjects who built the furniture were willing to pay 63% more than the ones who were given pre-built furniture.


title: IKEA effect

text: In a second part of the experiment, researchers asked subjects to make either origami frogs or cranes, following a provided instruction sheet. They then asked the subjects how much they were willing to pay for their own work. Researchers then gathered another group of subjects who had not taken part in the origami creation. The new subjects were asked how much they were willing to pay for an origami built by the participants. Following this, the researchers displayed origami made by experts to another set of non-builders and asked them how much they were willing to pay for it. It was found that the builders were willing to pay about 5 times more for their own creation than the non-builders were, as expected from the first part of the experiment. When asked how much somebody else would pay for their origami, the builders also gave a high price to their work, showing that they actually think that the origami has a high value. The second set of non-builders were willing to pay for the well-crafted origami about as much as the builders were willing to pay for their origami.


title: IKEA effect

text: The third and final experiment involved two sets of subjects. The first set were told to completely assemble a piece of IKEA furniture. The second set were also instructed to assemble a piece of IKEA furniture, but only partially. Both groups then took part in bidding over these objects. Results showed that individuals who had built the box completely were willing to pay more than the individuals who had only partially built an item.


title: IKEA effect

text: The experiments by Norton and his colleagues demonstrated that self-assembly affects the evaluation of a product by its consumers. The results suggest that when people construct a particular product themselves, even if they do a poor job of it, they value the end result more than if they had not put any effort into its creation.


title: IKEA effect

text: Participants, wrote Norton and his colleagues, "saw their amateurish creations as similar in value to experts' creations, and expected others to share their opinions." To be sure, "labor leads to love only when labor results in successful completion of tasks; when participants built and then destroyed their creations, or failed to complete them, the IKEA effect dissipated." The researchers also concluded "that labor increases valuation for both 'do-it-yourselfers' and novices."


title: IKEA effect

text: The researchers noted that their use of "simple IKEA boxes and Lego sets that did not permit customization" did not prevent participants from manifesting the IKEA effect.


title: IKEA effect

text: Gibbs and Drolet (2003) showed that raising consumers' energy levels can persuade them to select experiences that involve greater effort. But companies have been warned not to challenge consumers too much, lest they be unable to complete a task and thus end up dissatisfied.


title: IKEA effect

text: Research by Dahl and Moreau (2007) suggests that customers are more satisfied when there is a limit to the amount of creativity they can express in assembling a product.


title: IKEA effect

text: One factor is that "self-assembly of products may allow people to both feel competent and display evidence of that competence." Also, the idea that they are "saving money by buying products that require some assembly" may make them feel like "smart shoppers."


title: IKEA effect

text: Other possible explanations for the IKEA effect have been suggested, such as "a focus on the product's positive attributes, and the relationship between effort and liking." The IKEA effect is one of several cognitive biases that seem to reflect a causative link between perceived effort and valuation.


title: IKEA effect

text: The work by Norton et al. demonstrated that participants' valuing of products was not caused by ownership of them or by "greater time spent touching them."


title: IKEA effect

text: The IKEA effect is thought to contribute to the sunk costs effect, which occurs when managers continue to devote resources to sometimes failing projects they have invested their labor in. The effect is also related to the "not invented here" syndrome, where managers disregard good ideas developed elsewhere, in favor of (possibly inferior) internally developed ideas.


title: IKEA effect

text: Writer Tyler Tervooren realized that he was witnessing an example of the IKEA effect when he toured a house that was for sale at a price that was "at least $30,000 too much" and discovered that the reason why the owner overvalued the house so dramatically was that she had "had the home built herself and customized every aspect of it to her taste." But while she regarded the house as "a masterpiece," Tervooren "saw a house like any other but with paint colors I'd never choose." Tervooren realized that he, too, had fallen victim to the IKEA effect on various occasions: "I had a special bond with my old car because I always worked on it myself. And when my iPhone broke down last year, I pulled it apart and learned to fix it so I could keep using it."


title: IKEA effect

text: The IKEA effect may be said to manifest itself in situations when programmers have been invited to help (without payment) in creating open-source programs and operating systems, such as Linux.


title: IKEA effect

text: The IKEA effect has also been observed in animals, such as rats and starlings, which prefer to obtain food from sources that required effort on their part (Kacelnik & Marsh, 2002; Lawrence & Festinger, 1962).


title: IKEA effect

text: Tervooren has advised business owners that they "can reap massive rewards by putting the IKEA effect to work for your customers. Whenever you can, let them customize the products and services you offer to fit their needs. Make them feel like their own creativity and effort went into getting what they need from you. They'll pay more for it."


title: IKEA effect

text: A "Forbes" 2012 article counseled marketers that "if your customers put your product together, they'll like it more" but added that "an assembly process that is clear and free of frustration is essential."


title: IKEA effect

text: Computer app designers have been advised to take advantage of the IKEA effect by providing "sample data, pre-filled defaults, and editable templates to help make your app feel animated with content and connections, and alive to users. Then use email triggers, prompts, and guidance to get people to interact with that content — even if it's just to move a card around on a board or reply to an email. This helps to lower the fear and frustration of dealing with a new product while increasing capabilities." The manufacturers of such computer products as Wistia, Basecamp, and iDoneThis have been guided by the IKEA effect in introducing them to the public.


title: IKEA effect

text: Norton and his colleagues warned that the IKEA effect could lead people to overvalue their own belongings when offering them for sale. For example, "people may see the improvements they have made to their homes—such as the brick walkways they laid by hand—as increasing the value of the house far more than buyers, who see only a shoddily-built walkway."


title: IKEA effect

text: On the other hand, a 2012 article in "Psychology Today" suggested that "if you're having a hard time deciding between buying something pre-built or putting it together yourself, the extra work that might not seem worth it now might very well put a smile on your face when it's all done. Saving yourself the labor could just cost you some happiness."


title: Somali Republic

text: The Somali Republic (; ; ) was a sovereign state composed of Somalia and Somaliland, following the unification of the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somalia) and the State of Somaliland (the former British Somaliland). A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate administrations, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly and Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic. On 22 July 1960, Daar appointed Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister. On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. The new constitution was rejected by Somaliland.


title: Somali Republic

text: The administration lasted until 1969, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in a bloodless coup and renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic.


title: Somali Republic

text: Popular demand compelled the leaders of Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland to proceed with plans for immediate unification. The British government acquiesced to the force of Somali nationalist public opinion and agreed to terminate its rule of British Somaliland in 1960 in time for the protectorate to merge with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) on the independence date already fixed by the UN commission. In April 1960, leaders of the two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories. Accordingly, British Somaliland united as scheduled with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to establish the Somali Republic. On June 26, 1960, British Somaliland gained independence from Britain as the State of Somaliland. On July 1, 1960, the State of Somaliland unified with the Trust Territory of Somaliland, forming the Somali Republic. The legislature appointed the speaker of SOMALIA ACT OF UNION Hagi Bashir Ismail Yousuf as First President of the Somali National Assembly. The same day Aden Abdullah Osman Daar become President of the Somali Republic; Daar in turn at 22 July 1960 appointed Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as the first Prime Minister. Shermarke formed a coalition government dominated by the Somali Youth League (SYL) but supported by the two clan-based northern parties, the Somali National League (SNL) and the United Somali Party (USP). Osman's appointment as president was ratified a year later in a national referendum.


title: Somali Republic

text: During the nine-year period of parliamentary democracy that followed Somali independence, freedom of expression was widely regarded as being derived from the traditional right of every man to be heard. The national ideal professed by Somalis was one of political and legal equality in which historical Somali values and acquired Western practices appeared to coincide. Politics was viewed as a realm not limited to one profession, clan, or class, but open to all male members of society. The role of women, however, was more limited. Women had voted in Italian Somaliland since the municipal elections in 1958. Suffrage later spread to the former British Somaliland in May 1963, when the territorial assembly voted it in at a margin of 52 to 42. Politics was a national past-time, with the populace keeping abreast of political developments through radio. Political engagement often exceeded that in many Western democracies.


title: Somali Republic

text: Although unified as a single nation at independence, the south and the north were, from an institutional perspective, two separate countries. Italy and the United Kingdom had left the two with separate administrative, legal, and education systems in which affairs were conducted according to different procedures and in different languages. Janina Dill, an associate professor of U.S. Foreign Policy, states:


title: Somali Republic

text: Police, taxes, and the exchange rates of their respective currencies also differed. Their educated elites had divergent interests, and economic contacts between the two regions were virtually nonexistent. In 1960 the United Nations created the Consultative Commission for Integration, an international board headed by UN official Paolo Contini, to guide the gradual merger of the new country's legal systems and institutions and to reconcile the differences between them. (In 1964 the Consultative Commission for Legislation succeeded this body. Composed of Somalis, it took up its predecessor's work under the chairmanship of Mariano.) But many southerners believed that, because of experience gained under the Italian trusteeship, theirs was the better prepared of the two regions for self-government. Northern political, administrative, and commercial elites were reluctant to recognize that they now had to deal with Mogadishu.


title: Somali Republic

text: At independence, the northern region had two functioning political parties: the SNL, representing the Isaaq clan-family that constituted a numerical majority there; and the USP, supported largely by the Dir and the Daarood. In a unified Somalia, however, the Isaaq were a small minority, whereas the northern Daarood joined members of their clan-family from the south in the SYL. The Dir, having few kinsmen in the south, were pulled on the one hand by traditional ties to the Hawiye and on the other hand by common regional sympathies to the Isaaq. The southern opposition party, the Greater Somalia League (GSL), pro-Arab and militantly pan-Somalist, attracted the support of the SNL and the USP against the SYL, which had adopted a moderate stand before independence.


title: Somali Republic

text: Northern misgivings about being too tightly harnessed to the south were demonstrated by the voting pattern in the June 1961 referendum on the constitution, which was in effect Somalia's first national election. Although the draft was overwhelmingly approved in the south, it was supported by less than 50 percent of the northern electorate.


title: Somali Republic

text: Dissatisfaction at the distribution of power among the clan families and between the two regions boiled over in December 1961, when a group of British-trained junior army officers in the north rebelled in reaction to the posting of higher ranking southern officers (who had been trained by the Italians for police duties) to command their units. The ringleaders urged a separation of north and south. Northern non-commissioned officers arrested the rebels, but discontent in the north persisted.


title: Somali Republic

text: In early 1962, GSL leader Haaji Mahammad Husseen, seeking in part to exploit northern dissatisfaction, attempted to form an amalgamated party, known as the Somali Democratic Union (SDU). It enrolled northern elements, some of which were displeased with the northern SNL representatives in the coalition government. Hussein's attempt failed. In May 1962, however, Egal and another northern SNL minister resigned from the cabinet and took many SNL followers with them into a new party, the Somali National Congress (SNC), which won widespread northern support. The new party also gained support in the south when it was joined by an SYL faction composed predominantly of Hawiye. This move gave the country three truly national political parties and further served to blur north–south differences.


title: Somali Republic

text: The most important political issue in post-independence Somali politics was the unification of all areas traditionally inhabited by ethnic Somalis into one country – a concept identified as Greater Somalia ("Soomaaliweyn") (see also Somali nationalism). Politicians assumed that this issue dominated popular opinion and that any government would fall if it did not demonstrate a militant attitude toward neighboring countries occupying Somali territory.


title: Somali Republic

text: Preoccupation with Greater Somalia shaped the character of the country's newly formed institutions and led to the build-up of the Somali military and, ultimately, to the war with Ethiopia and fighting in the Northern Frontier District in Kenya. By law, the exact size of the National Assembly was not established in order to facilitate the inclusion of representatives of the contested areas after unification. The national flag also featured a five-pointed star, whose points represented areas claimed as part of the Somali nation: the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland, the Ogaden, French Somaliland, and the Northern Frontier District. Moreover, the preamble to the constitution approved in 1961 included the statement, "The Somali Republic promotes by legal and peaceful means, the union of the territories." The constitution also provided that all ethnic Somalis, no matter where they resided, were citizens of the republic. The Somalis did not claim sovereignty over adjacent territories, but rather demanded that Somalis living in them be granted the right to self-determination. Somali leaders asserted that they would be satisfied only when their fellow Somalis outside the republic had the opportunity to decide for themselves what their status would be.


title: Somali Republic

text: In 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably 'protected' by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans. Britain included the proviso that the Somali inhabitants would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the area. The Somali government refused in particular to acknowledge the validity of the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1954 recognizing Ethiopia's claim to the Haud or, in general, the relevance of treaties defining Somali-Ethiopian borders. Somalia's position was based on three points: first, that the treaties disregarded agreements made with Somali actors that had put them under British protection; second, that the Somalis were not consulted on the terms of the treaties and in fact had not been informed of their existence; and third, that such treaties violated the self-determination principle. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands that it had turned over.


title: Somali Republic

text: Hostilities grew steadily, eventually involving small-scale actions between the Somali National Army and Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces along the border. In February 1964, armed conflict erupted on the Somali-Ethiopian frontier, and Ethiopian aircraft raided targets in Somalia. The confrontation ended in April through the mediation of Sudan, acting under the auspices of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Under the terms of the cease-fire, a joint commission was formed to examine the causes of frontier incidents, and a demilitarized zone ten to fifteen kilometers wide was established on either side of the border. At least temporarily, further military confrontations were prevented.


title: Somali Republic

text: A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who had voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later under mysterious circumstances.


title: Somali Republic

text: At the 1961 London talks on the future of the Kenya Colony, Somali representatives from the Northern Frontier District (NFD) demanded that Britain arrange for the region's separation before Kenya was granted independence. The British government appointed a commission to ascertain popular opinion in the NFD on the question. The informal plebiscite demonstrated the overwhelming desire of the region's population, which mainly consisted of Somalis and Oromos, to join the newly formed Somali Republic. A 1962 editorial in "The Observer", Britain's oldest Sunday newspaper, concurrently noted that "by every criterion, the Kenya Somalis have a right to choose their own future[...] they differ from other Kenyans not just tribally but in almost every way[...] they are Hamitic, have different customs, a different religion (Islam), and they inhabit a desert which contributes little or nothing to the Kenya economy[...] nobody can accuse them of trying to make off with the national wealth". Despite Somali diplomatic activity, the colonial government in Kenya did not act on the commission's findings. British officials believed that the federal format then proposed in the Kenyan constitution would provide a solution through the degree of autonomy it allowed the predominantly Somali region within the federal system. This solution did not diminish Somali demands for unification, however, and the modicum of federalism disappeared after Kenya's post-colonial government opted instead for a centralized constitution in 1964.


title: Somali Republic

text: Led by the Northern Province People's Progressive Party (NPPPP), Somalis in the NFD vigorously sought union with their kin in the Somali Republic to the north. In response, the new Kenyan government enacted a number of repressive measures designed to frustrate their efforts. Among these was the practice of mislabeling the Somali rebels' ethnically based claims as "shifta" ("bandit") activity, cordoning off of the NFD as a "scheduled" area, confiscating or slaughtering Somali livestock, sponsoring ethnic cleansing campaigns against the region's inhabitants, and setting up large "protected villages" or concentration camps. These policies culminated in the Shifta War between Somali rebels and the Kenyan police and army. Voice of Somalia radio reportedly influenced the level of guerrilla activity by means of its broadcasts beamed into the NFD. Kenya also accused the Somali government of training the rebels in Somalia, equipping them with Soviet arms, and directing them from Mogadishu. It subsequently signed a mutual defense pact with Ethiopia in 1964, though the treaty had little effect as cross-border flow of materiel from Somalia to the guerrillas continued. In October 1967, the Somali government and Kenyan authorities signed a Memorandum of Understanding (the Arusha Memorandum) that resulted in an official ceasefire, though regional security did not prevail until 1969.


title: Somali Republic

text: Countrywide municipal elections, in which the Somali Youth League won 74 percent of the seats, occurred in November 1963. These were followed in March 1964 by the country's first post-independence national elections. Again the SYL triumphed, winning 69 out of 123 parliamentary seats. The party's true margin of victory was even greater, as the fifty-four seats won by the opposition were divided among a number of small parties.


title: Somali Republic

text: After the 1964 National Assembly election in March, a crisis occurred that left Somalia without a government until the beginning of September. President Osman, who was empowered to propose the candidate for prime minister after an election or the fall of a government, chose Abdirizak Haji Hussein as his nominee instead of the incumbent, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, who had the endorsement of the SYL party leadership. Shermarke had been prime minister for the four previous years, and Osman decided that new leadership might be able to introduce fresh ideas for solving national problems.


title: Somali Republic

text: In drawing up a Council of Ministers for presentation to the National Assembly, the nominee for prime minister chose candidates on the basis of ability and without regard to place of origin. But Hussein's choices strained intraparty relations and broke the unwritten rules that there be clan and regional balance. For instance, only two members of Shermarke's cabinet were to be retained, and the number of posts in northern hands was to be increased from two to five.


title: Somali Republic

text: The SYL's governing Central Committee and its parliamentary groups became split. Hussein had been a party member since 1944 and had participated in the two previous Shermarke cabinets. His primary appeal was to younger and more educated party members. Several political leaders who had been left out of the cabinet joined the supporters of Shermarke to form an opposition group within the party. As a result, the Hussein faction sought support among non-SYL members of the National Assembly.


title: Somali Republic

text: Although the disagreements primarily involved personal or group political ambitions, the debate leading to the initial vote of confidence centered on the issue of Greater Somalia. Both Osman and prime minister-designate Hussein wanted to give priority to the country's internal economic and social problems. Although Hussein had supported militant pan-Somalism, he was portrayed as willing to accept the continued sovereignty of Ethiopia and Kenya over Somali areas.


title: Somali Republic

text: The proposed cabinet failed to be affirmed by a margin of two votes. Seven National Assembly members, including Shermarke, abstained, while forty-eight members of the SYL voted for Hussein and thirty-three opposed him. Despite the apparent split in the SYL, it continued to attract recruits from other parties. In the first three months after the election, seventeen members of the parliamentary opposition resigned from their parties to join the SYL.


title: Somali Republic

text: Osman ignored the results of the vote and again nominated Hussein as prime minister. After intraparty negotiation, which included the reinstatement of four party officials expelled for voting against him, Hussein presented a second cabinet list to the National Assembly that included all but one of his earlier nominees. However, the proposed new cabinet contained three additional ministerial positions filled by men chosen to mollify opposition factions. The new cabinet was approved with the support of all but a handful of SYL National Assembly members. Hussein remained in office until the presidential elections of June 1967.


title: Somali Republic

text: The 1967 presidential elections, conducted by a secret poll of National Assembly members, pitted former prime minister Shermarke against Osman. Again the central issue was moderation versus militancy on the pan-Somali question. Osman, through Hussein, had stressed priority for internal development. Shermarke, who had served as prime minister when pan-Somalism was at its height, was elected president of the republic.


title: Somali Republic

text: The new president nominated as prime minister Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal, who raised cabinet membership from thirteen to fifteen members and included representatives of every major clan family, as well as some members of the rival Somali National Congress. In August 1967, the National Assembly confirmed his appointment without serious opposition. Although the new prime minister had supported Shermarke in the presidential election, he was a northerner and had led a 1962 defection of the northern SNL assembly members from the government. He had also been closely involved in the founding of the SNC but, with many other northern members of that group, had rejoined the SYL after the 1964 elections.


title: Somali Republic

text: A more important difference between Shermarke and Egal, other than their past affiliations, was the new prime minister's moderate position on pan-Somali issues and his desire for improved relations with other African countries. In these areas, he was allied with the "modernists" in the government, parliament, and administration who favored redirecting the nation's energies from confrontation with its neighbors to combating social and economic ills. Although many of his domestic policies seemed more in line with those of the previous administration, Egal continued to hold the confidence of both Shermarke and the National Assembly during the eighteen months preceding the March 1969 national elections.


title: Somali Republic

text: The March 1969 elections were the first to combine voting for municipal and National Assembly posts. Sixty-four parties contested the elections. Only the SYL, however, presented candidates in every election district, in many cases without opposition. Eight other parties presented lists of candidates for national offices in most districts. Of the remaining fifty-five parties, only twenty-four gained representation in the assembly, but all of these were disbanded almost immediately when their fifty members joined the SYL.


title: Somali Republic

text: Both the plethora of parties and the defection to the majority party were typical of Somali parliamentary elections. To register for elective office, a candidate merely needed either the support of 500 voters or the sponsorship of his clan, expressed through a vote of its traditional assembly. After registering, the office seeker then attempted to become the official candidate of a political party. Failing this, he would remain on the ballot as an individual contestant. Voting was by party list, which could make a candidate a one-person party. (This practice explained not only the proliferation of small parties but also the transient nature of party support.) Many candidates affiliated with a major party only long enough to use its symbol in the election campaign and, if elected, abandoned it for the winning side as soon as the National Assembly met. Thus, by the end of May 1969 the SYL parliamentary cohort had swelled from 73 to 109.


title: Somali Republic

text: In addition, the eleven SNC members had formed a coalition with the SYL, which held 120 of the 123 seats in the National Assembly. A few of these 120 left the SYL after the composition of Egal's cabinet became clear and after the announcement of his program, both of which were bound to displease some who had joined only to be on the winning side. Offered a huge list of candidates, the almost 900,000 voters in 1969 took delight in defeating incumbents. Of the incumbent deputies, 77 out of 123 were not returned (including 8 out of 18 members of the previous cabinet), but these figures did not unequivocally demonstrate dissatisfaction with the government. Statistically, they were nearly identical with the results of the 1964 election, and, given the profusion of parties and the system of proportional representation, a clear sense of public opinion could not be obtained solely on the basis of the election results. The fact that a single party—the SYL—dominated the field implied neither stability nor solidarity. Anthropologist Ioan M. Lewis has noted that the SYL government was a very heterogeneous group with diverging personal and lineage interests.