title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: "Captain Blood" became an immediate hit, with an Oscar nomination for the score. As Korngold's first fully symphonic film score, it marked a milestone in his career, as he became the first composer of international stature to sign a contract with a film studio. It also launched Flynn's film career and gave a major boost to that of de Havilland, who would appear in another seven features with Flynn. Korngold would score six more starring Flynn. The film also opened the way for other costumed, romantic film adventures, which had not been seen since the silent era.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: The lead role was originally offered to Robert Donat, who had starred in the successful 1934 film "The Count of Monte Cristo". The asthmatic Donat turned down the role, concerned that the action sequences would be too strenuous for him. A series of screen tests with various actors led to Flynn, an unknown Australian actor. In January 1935, Warner Bros. signed Flynn and brought him to Hollywood after seeing him in the British B picture "Murder at Monte Carlo". For the female lead role, Jean Muir was originally chosen to play opposite Donat, but after Muir declined the role, the studio focused on the 19-year-old de Havilland, who had starred in three previous films that same year, including "A Midsummer Night's Dream" for director Max Reinhardt.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: Most of the film was shot on a sound stage in the summer of 1935. Some exterior scenes, such as the sword fight between Rathbone and Flynn on a Caribbean shore, were shot at Laguna Beach, California. The final battle sequence between Blood's pirate crew and the French ships employed one of the largest technical crews assembled for a film, requiring 2,500 extras.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: The film was a box-office success, earning Warner Bros. a profit of $1.462 million. According to Warner Bros., it earned $1,357,000 domestically and $1,733,000 overseas.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: "Captain Blood" premiered on December 26, 1935 at the Mark Strand Theatre in New York City and was released in the United States on December 28, 1935. The film received positive reviews and notices and wide public approval. However, "Variety's" review cited weaknesses in the storyline:


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: Despite also finding flaws in the "scripting" of "Captain Blood" and in the presentation of some battle sequences, "Variety" called Flynn's performance "impressive" and predicted that his work in the film would provide him with "future big marquee values."


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: Writing for "The Spectator" in 1936, Graham Greene offered a tepid review, describing the film as his favorite of those that he had reviewed that week but describing it as "a fine spirited mix-up" and noting the "magnificently wrong characterization" of King James. Greene also wrote that much of the film included anachronistic details related to clothing and setting.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: "Filmink" magazine later wrote: "Flynn was lucky – not just in being at the right place at the right time with the right lack of competition, but with his collaborators on Captain Blood."


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture and, despite not being nominated, Michael Curtiz received the second-highest number of votes for Best Director as a write-in candidate. Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Casey Robinson, also unnominated, received substantially more write-in votes than did most of the official nominees.


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: The film was also nominated in the categories Music (Scoring), Sound Recording (Nathan Levinson) and Writing (Screenplay).


title: Captain Blood (1935 film)

text: "Captain Blood" was adapted as a radio play on the February 22, 1937 broadcast of Lux Radio Theater with Flynn, de Havilland and Rathbone reprising their film parts. The radio version is included among the special features of the 2005 DVD version.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Limbo is a popular game, based on traditions that originated on the island of Trinidad. The aim is to pass forwards under a low bar without falling or dislodging the bar.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: The dance originated as an event that took place at wakes in Trinidad. It was popularized in the 1950s by dance pioneer Julia Edwards (known as the First Lady of Limbo) and her company which appeared in several films, in particular "Fire Down Below" (1957), and toured widely in the Caribbean, Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Africa in the 1960s and later.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: A horizontal bar, known as the limbo bar, is supported by two vertical bars. All contestants must attempt to go under the bar with their backs facing toward the floor. When passing under the bar, players must bend backwards. No part of their body is allowed to touch the bar, and no part other than their feet may touch the ground. They must not turn their head or neck to the side. Whoever knocks the bar off or falls is eliminated. After everyone has passed under the bar in this manner, the bar is lowered slightly and the contest continues. The contest ends when only one person can pass under the bar.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: The word 'limbo' dates back to the 1950s. It is conjectured that limbo is a West Indian English derivative of 'limber'. Merriam–Webster lists the etymology as "English of Trinidad & Barbados; akin to Jamaican English "limba" to bend, from English "limber"".


title: Limbo (dance)

text: This game is also used as a funeral game and may be related to the African legba or legua game.Consistent with certain African beliefs, the game reflects the whole cycle of life...The players move under a pole that is gradually lowered from chest level and they emerge on the other side as their heads clear the pole as in the triumph of life over death.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: The limbo dates back to the mid to late 1800s in Trinidad. It achieved mainstream popularity during the 1950s. An alternative explanation of the name is suggested; that the version of the limbo performed in nineteenth century Trinidad was meant to symbolize slaves entering the galleys of a slave ship, or a spirit crossing over into the afterworld, or "limbo", but no literary reference is known to substantiate this postulated linkage.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Dr Alan Rice elaborates on the supposed link the game has with the slave trade: "Africans were forced to game on deck for exercise. Many took advantage of this to bond and communicate with their shipmates by dancing steps remembered from their past in Africa. This was to continue in the Americas in games, religious ceremonies and other musical forms that used cultural traditions from Africa. One such game was the limbo in the Caribbean. The limbo spoke directly of the limited space in the slaving ships and the African ability to escape it."


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Traditionally, the limbo game began at the lowest possible bar height and the bar was gradually raised, signifying an emergence from death into life. In its adaptation to the world of entertainment, troupes began reversing the traditional order. According to a 1956 newspaper report, the game was revived in 1944 by Edric Connor. It became a popular entertainment in Trinidad and was adopted as a physical fitness exercise by American troops. In the 1950s, choreographer and player Julia Edwards added a number of features that are now considered standard, such as human 'bars' formed by the limbs of other players and the use of fire in the performance of limbo. A film, "Julia and Joyce", by Trinidadian-American Sonja Dumas, was released in 2010. It traces the evolution of limbo dancing and the contribution of Edwards to its popularity.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Limbo players generally move and respond to a number of specific Afro-Caribbean drum patterns. As Limbo gained popularity as a tourist activity and a form of entertainment, pop music began using Caribbean rhythms to respond to the emerging craze in the United States. One example is the song "Limbo Rock" (recorded by Chubby Checker), which became a number 2 charted hit on the "Billboard" Top 100, from which emerged the popular quote/chant that is associated with limbo which Checker also helped to popularize: "How low can you go?" Limbo was brought into the mainstream by Trinidadian Calypsonian Brigo (Samuel Abrahams) with his popular Soca song "Limbo Break".


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Limbo is considered the unofficial national game of Trinidad and Tobago, which refers to itself as the land of limbo, steelpan (steel drums), and calypso. After a preparatory game, the player prepares and approaches the bar, lowering and leaning back their body while balancing on feet akimbo with knees extended backwards. The player is declared "out" and loses the contest if any part of the body touches the stick or pole that they are passing beneath, or if the hands touch the floor. When several players compete, they go under the stick in single-file; the stick is gradually lowered until only one player, who has not touched either the pole or the floor, remains.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: As Limbo spread out of Trinidad and Tobago to the wider world and the big screen, limbo became a major part of the tourism package in several other Caribbean islands, such as Barbados and Jamaica. In Jamaica, the trendy limbo music of the 1950s was often based on a clave rhythm. It is also widely heard in Jamaican mento recorded in the 1950s, in songs such as "Limbo" by Lord Tickler and Calypsonians, or "Limbo" by Denzil Laing & the Wrigglers, as well as many other songs not directly related to the limbo game itself. Limbo's continued significance in Trinidadian and Tobagonian culture ia clearly demonstrated in festivals and social events across the two islands, including performances by popular game troupes at the Prime Minister's Best Village Competition, and during the Carnival season in Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: When performing for tourists, professional limbo players often invite spectators to participate after their own presentation of the game. The massive popularity of limbo has emerged directly from this audience participation. In recent years, limbo dancing has been conducted as a social "icebreaker" game for tourists at Caribbean and other tropical resorts. The winning player often receives a prize.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: The world record for lowest limbo game is held by Dennis Walston, who successfully attempted a bar in March 1991.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: The world record for lowest female limbo game is held by Shemika Charles, a 26-year-old woman from Trinidad who lives in Buffalo, NY. On 16 September 2010, she successfully played under a bar above the ground.


title: Limbo (dance)

text: Shemika Charles-Campbell also holds her second world record for the Farthest Distance Limbo Under 12 inches. The record setting limbo was completed under vehicles and measured a distance of 12.67ft (3.8 meters). The record was attained on 9 October 2020 in her home country Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: Saccharum officinarum is a large, strong-growing species of grass in the genus "Saccharum". Its stout stalks are rich in sucrose, a simple sugar which accumulates in the stalk internodes. It originated in New Guinea, and is now cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries worldwide for the production of sugar, ethanol and other products.


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: "Saccharum officinarum" is one of the most productive and most intensively cultivated kinds of sugarcane. It can interbreed with other sugarcane species, such as "Saccharum sinense" and "Saccharum barberi".


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: About 70% of the sugar produced worldwide comes from "S. officinarum" and hybrids using this species.


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: "Saccharum officinarum", a perennial plant, grows in clumps consisting of a number of strong unbranched stems. A network of rhizomes forms under the soil which sends up secondary shoots near the parent plant. The stems vary in colour, being green, pinkish, or purple and can reach in height. They are jointed, nodes being present at the bases of the alternate leaves. The internodes contain a fibrous white pith immersed in sugary sap. The elongated, linear, green leaves have thick midribs and saw-toothed edges and grow to a length of about and width of . The terminal inflorescence is a panicle up to long, a pinkish plume that is broadest at the base and tapering towards the top. The spikelets are borne on side branches and are about long and are concealed in tufts of long, silky hair. The fruits are dry and each one contains a single seed. Sugarcane harvest typically occurs before the plants flower, as the flowering process causes a reduction in sugar content.


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: "Saccharum officinarum" was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity. Beginning at around 6,000 BP it was selectively bred from the native "Saccharum robustum". From New Guinea it spread westwards to Island Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with "S. spontaneum".


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: Portions of the stem of this and several other species of sugarcane have been used from ancient times for chewing to extract the sweet juice. It was cultivated in New Guinea about 8,000 years ago for this purpose. Extraction of the juice and boiling to concentrate it was probably first done in India more than 2,000 years ago.


title: Saccharum officinarum

text: "Saccharum officinarum" and its hybrids are grown for the production of sugar, ethanol, and other industrial uses in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. The stems and the byproducts of the sugar industry are used for feeding to livestock. Pigs fed on sugarcane juice and a soy-based protein supplement produced stronger piglets that grew faster than those on a more conventional diet. As its specific name ("officinarum", "of dispensaries") implies, it is also used in traditional medicine both internally and externally.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: The Famous Grouse is a brand of blended Scotch whisky, first produced by Matthew Gloag & Son in 1896, and currently produced and owned by The Edrington Group. The single malt whiskies used in The Famous Grouse blend include the Edrington-owned Highland Park and The Macallan. Its emblem is the red grouse, Scotland's national game bird.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: It has been the highest-selling whisky brand in Scotland since 1980. As a standard price blended Scotch whisky, its main competitors in its home market are Bell's, Teacher's and Grant's. The majority of its sales in the United Kingdom are during the Christmas period.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: Matthew Gloag was a grocer and wine merchant at 22 Atholl Street, Perth, Scotland. Gloag originally specialised on imported wines and ports from France, Spain and Portugal. When Queen Victoria visited Perth in 1842, he was invited to supply the wines for the royal banquet.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: In 1860, his son, William Gloag, took over the company. Following the Great French Wine Blight the company began to look at creating its own blended whiskies around 1875. In 1896, William's nephew, Matthew Gloag (1850-1912), took over the family business. He created a new blended brand called The Grouse in 1896. at this time the company was still operating from the grandfather's premises but had expanded to occupy adjacent shops, jointly covering 20 to 26 Atholl Street. In 1905 the limited company of "Matthew Gloag & son" was formed and the Grouse was renamed The Famous Grouse in the same year. Matthew Gloag's daughter Phillippa first designed the label's grouse icon. Only at this point did the company move to new purpose-built premises on Kinnoull Street.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: In 1970, Matthew Gloag & Son, owned by the Gloag family, was sold to Highland Distillers, after the death of the chairman, Matthew Frederick Gloag. The marketing and distributive power of the company saw Famous Grouse become the highest selling Scotch in Scotland by 1980 and the second highest selling in the United Kingdom. From the 1980s the brand began to be exported overseas, where it now sells over 2 million cases annually. In 1984 The Famous Grouse was awarded the Royal Warrant.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: The blend goes through a marrying process for up to six months at 46% ABV. It is known that in order to call a whisky "Blended Scotch", the youngest malt in the blend needs to be matured for at least three years. However, they do not state how old the youngest malt in their blend is. Rather, they optimize the standard taste by blending casks of varying ages among batches. The aging is done in oak casks.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: In 2007 a peated special version of The Famous Grouse called "The Black Grouse" developed for the Swedish market was released. The packaging displays a black grouse in place of the usual red grouse. The following year a special version, meant for chilling, was released called "The Snow Grouse". The packaging features a ptarmigan.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: In 2011, "The Naked Grouse" was launched as its premium product. Initially as a high-end blended whisky, in 2017 it was turned into blended malt whisky.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: The Famous Grouse was the primary sponsor of the Perth-based football team St Johnstone between 1986 and 1989 and again between 1991 and 1998. It also sponsored the Scotland national rugby union team from 1990 until 2007, and was 'The Official Spirit of Scottish Rugby' from 2013 for three years.


title: The Famous Grouse

text: In May 2014, The Famous Grouse was named the official whisky of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Barry Goudreau (born November 29, 1951) is an American musician. He was one of two original guitarists for the rock band Boston alongside founder Tom Scholz; both Scholz and Goudreau shared lead and rhythm guitar parts.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Goudreau had developed a musical interest at an early age and got his first guitar, an acoustic which he borrowed from a friend, at age 11. He began taking lessons and by age 13, joined his first band, the "Tornadoes". At age 15, he joined another band with future Boston bandmate drummer Sib Hashian. They would often play at nightclubs, sometimes seven times a week. Later, he met up with Brad Delp and Fran Sheehan, both future members of Boston. He auditioned for Delp's band, but did not make the cut.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: When he went to college at Boston University, he sought to get a degree in Geology. He tried to put music aside to focus on school, but he soon met up with Tom Scholz who was right across the river at MIT.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Goudreau worked with Tom Scholz and Brad Delp as early as 1969 on an initial set of demo tapes, where he performed all of the rhythm and lead guitar work. These early attempts to attract record label interest did not succeed.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Later, Scholz re-worked and re-recorded some of these demo songs and wrote several new songs for a second set of demo tapes, this time with Scholz performing all of the guitar, bass and keyboard parts. This second demo set won a recording contract with Epic Records.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In late 1979, Scholz became involved in legal and contractual battles with the band's manager, and later with CBS. Thereafter, he informed the members of Boston that he would not be working on Boston material for at least a year and that they should feel free to do solo projects.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: By this time, Goudreau had written many songs in hopes that Scholz would incorporate them into the next Boston LP. Scholz did not express interest in using any of Goudreau's work. In 1980, Goudreau recorded his first solo LP titled "Barry Goudreau", using Brad Delp and Fran Cosmo (Fran would join Boston in 1991) on vocals, and Sib Hashian on drums. The record company sought to cash in with this "almost Boston" line-up. The LP successfully hit the airwaves with the songs "Dreams" and "Mean Woman Blues". Scholz was unhappy with the album being put out and contacted Epic Records to stop further promotion of the album. Ultimately, it was this album that triggered Scholz to ask Goudreau to leave Boston.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In 1984, Goudreau formed the band Orion The Hunter and released a debut LP. This time, Fran Cosmo appeared as lead vocalist, while Delp provided backing vocals and co-wrote five of the album's songs. The album included the single "So You Ran". The band then added keyboardist and backing vocalist Brian Maes and toured in support of Aerosmith in 1984 but ultimately broke up in 1985.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In 1990, Goudreau formed the band RTZ (Return to Zero). Delp left Boston to join the band. RTZ experienced some success with the hits "Face the Music" written by Goudreau and Maes and "Until Your Love Comes Back Around" written by Maes. Delp and Goudreau felt that the record company was not supporting the band to the best of their abilities, and asked to be released from their contract. They later signed with MTM Records; however, Delp departed shortly after to rejoin Boston.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In 1997, Goudreau appeared with the Lisa Guyer Band on the album "Gypsy Girl" and in 2000 on the album "Leap of Faith".


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In 2003, Goudreau and Delp teamed up for their independent recording of Delp and Goudreau. The single "It's What You Leave Behind" received limited radio airplay.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: In 2005, Goudreau and the members of RTZ released two CDs of songs that were earmarked for the never-realized third RTZ CD. The albums were released in the USA on Briola Records as "Lost in America" and "Found in America". Goudreau continues to perform with Sheehan in small, local venues in the greater Boston area. He also played occasionally with Delp and Hashian until their deaths in 2007 and 2017, respectively.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: On October 16, 2007, Goudreau released one final song with Delp on vocals titled "Rockin' Away". According to Goudreau, "'Rockin' Away' was written in the summer of 2006 for the 30th Anniversary of the release of the first "Boston" record. It was the last song that Brad and I wrote together. In it, Brad reflects on how he became involved in music, and thanks his many fans for their years of loyalty. It was my hope that the song might lead to a rekindling of my relationship with the band. Unfortunately it did not." The song was a minor hit in early 2008, charting up to #18 on the America's Music ranking of rock radio airplay.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Goudreau was a member of Ernie and the Automatics with Sib Hashian, Tim Archibald, Brian Maes, Michael Antunes and "car guy" Ernie Boch, Jr. Their debut album Low Expectations was released on February 17, 2009. Ernie and the Automatics disbanded in 2011.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: After Delp's death, the remaining RTZ members reunited to record "Set The Songbird Free", which was written by Brian Maes. "We wanted this to be a tribute to the love and respect that we all share for our bandmate and friend Brad," recalls Maes.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: On February 25, 2012, Goudreau played a three-hour set with Sheehan and others in the "All Star Jam" to benefit the Sydney and Berne Davis Art Center in Ft Myers Florida.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Goudreau formed Barry Goudreau's Engine Room with Brian Maes, Tim Archibald, Tony DePietro, Mary Beth Maes, Joanie Cicatelli and Terri O'Soro. They released their first CD "Full Steam Ahead" in September 2017. Since 2014, Goudreau has also toured with the American Vinyl All Star Band, which also includes Jeff "Skunk" Baxter. Goudreau also occasionally appears with Scrap Metal, a supergroup formed by Gunner and Matthew Nelson, twin sons of Musician Ricky Nelson.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: On September 3, 2022, Goudreau was inducted into the New England Music Hall of Fame while on stage at the Hampton Beach Casino Ballroom.


title: Barry Goudreau

text: Goudreau now lives with his wife Connie in Swampscott, Massachusetts. They have two children: Sean, a mortgage executive, and Michele, a health and wellness coordinator. They also have three grandchildren, Alyssa, Sammy and Matthew.


title: Nipper Read

text: Leonard Ernest "Nipper" Read, QPM (31 March 1925 – 7 April 2020) was a British police officer and boxing administrator.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read was born in Nottingham, the son of Leonard Read Snr., who worked for a leather company, and his wife Ida (née Morris). His mother died when he was four and he was sent to live with her brother. After their father remarried, Leonard and his two sisters and brother returned to live with their father and stepmother.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read did well in school, always being one of the top three pupils in junior and senior school. He played the lead role in a school production of David Copperfield. He also learned to box, winning his first medal in 1937. He later joined the Grundy boxing club, where he was nicknamed "Nipper". Read had hoped to attend Nottingham High School and passed the entrance exam, but his father could not afford the uniform and fees for books. He left school at 14 and later in life regretted not being able to stretch himself academically.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read began working in a Players cigarette warehouse in 1939, earning ten shillings a week, eight of which he gave to his stepmother.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read was called up in 1943 and served as a petty officer in the Royal Navy during the Second World War.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read could not join the Nottingham City Police which had a minimum height requirement of . Instead, he joined the Metropolitan Police in 1947, which had a minimum height requirement of , telling the medical examiner he was still growing. Because of his small stature he was taken out of the uniform branch and made an aide to CID. His acting ability came in useful and he worked in disguise in several roles, on the basis that nobody would believe he was a police officer.


title: Nipper Read

text: As a detective constable, Read was sent to Harlesden, where he worked under Bert "Suits" Hannam. He was then transferred to Paddington, where he worked with senior first-class sergeant Tommy Butler. Because of Butler's secretive nature, he had to learn from the other first-class sergeant, Frank Gloyne. While at Paddington he was involved on the periphery of the Jack Spot case, where the "King of the Underworld" sought protection from his rival Billy Hill.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read was promoted to detective sergeant in 1958 and transferred to Chelsea to replace Raymond Purdy, who had been shot by the burglar and blackmailer Guenther Podola. While there he was seconded to the Buckinghamshire Constabulary after the Great Train Robbery. It was his introduction to the investigation of a major crime, but also to the infighting between officers investigating such a case. After this case he was promoted to detective inspector at Leman Street. He was detective chief superintendent of the Met's Murder Squad in 1967, and the efforts of detectives led by him were responsible for the conviction of Ronnie and Reggie Kray.


title: Nipper Read

text: In a career spanning thirty years, only one murder case he investigated, the "Babes in the Wood", remained unsolved, initially. Read retired from the police force in 1977.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read held various positions as a boxing administrator, including chairman of the British Boxing Board of Control from 1976 to 2000, vice president of the World Boxing Council and vice-president of the World Boxing Association from 1989 to 2001. He also published an autobiography with the ghostwriter James Morton, "Nipper" (1991); the book was republished in 2001 under the name "Nipper Read: The Man Who Nicked the Krays".


title: Nipper Read

text: Read married Marion Millar in 1951; the couple divorced in 1979. In 1980, he married Pat Allen who had worked with him on the Kray enquiry.


title: Nipper Read

text: Read died of COVID-19 on 7 April 2020, one week after his 95th birthday. He was survived by his second wife and his daughter Maralyn from his first marriage.


title: Park ranger

text: A ranger, park ranger, park warden, or forest ranger is a law enforcement person entrusted with protecting and preserving parklands – national, state, provincial, or local parks.


title: Park ranger

text: "Parks" may be broadly defined by some systems in this context, and include protected culturally or historically important built environments, and is not limited to the natural environment. Different countries use different names for the position. "Warden" is the favored term in Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Within the United States, the National Park Service refers to the position as a park ranger. The U.S. Forest Service refers to the position as a forest ranger. Other countries use the term "park warden" or "game warden" to describe this occupation. The profession includes a number of disciplines and specializations, and park rangers are often required to be proficient in more than one. They take care of national parks.


title: Park ranger

text: In medieval England, rangers, originally called under-foresters, were the most junior officials employed to "range" through the countryside enforcing the forest law imposed by William the Conqueror to protect the "vert and venison". Their duties were originally confined to seeing that the Forest Law was enforced in the borders, or purlieus, of the royal forests. Above them were the Foresters-in-Fee (later called Woodwards), then the Verderers, then the Justices in Eyre. Their duties corresponded in some respects with that of a mounted forester.


title: Park ranger

text: The term "ranger" seems to correspond to the Medieval Latin word "regardatores" which appeared in 1217 in the Charter of the Forest. "Regardatores" was later rendered as "rangers" in the English translations of the Charter. However, others translate "regardatores" as "regarders". For example, the fifth clause of the Charter of the Forest is commonly translated thus: "Our regarders shall go through the forests making the regard as it used to be made at the time of the first coronation of the aforesaid King Henry [II] our grandfather, and not otherwise." A "regard" is considered to be an inspection of the forest.


title: Park ranger

text: The earliest letters patent found mentioning the term refer to a commission of a ranger in 1341. Documents from 1455 state that England had "all manner and singular Offices of Foresters and Rangers of our said Forests".


title: Park ranger

text: One of the first appearances of "ranger" in literature is in Edmund Spenser's poem "The Shepheardes Calendar" from 1579: "[Wolves] walk not widely, as they were wont, for fear of rangers and the great hunt."


title: Park ranger

text: In North America, rangers served in the 17th through 18th-century wars between colonists and Native American Indian tribes. Rangers were full-time soldiers employed by colonial governments to patrol between fixed frontier fortifications in reconnaissance providing early warning of raids. During offensive operations, they acted as scouts and guides, locating villages and other targets for task forces drawn from the militia or other colonial troops. During the Revolutionary War, General George Washington ordered Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Knowlton to select an elite group of men for reconnaissance missions. This unit was known as Knowlton's Rangers, and was the first official Ranger unit for the United States, considered the historical parent of the modern day Army Rangers.


title: Park ranger

text: The word was resurrected by Americans in the 19th and 20th centuries from the old idioms used for the Wardens – royally appointed – who patrolled the deer parks and hunting forests in England.


title: Park ranger

text: There is much debate among scholars about which area was the world's first national park (Yosemite or Yellowstone), so not surprisingly there is little agreement about who was the first national park ranger. Some argue that Galen Clark was first when, on May 21, 1866, he became the first person formally appointed and paid to protect and administer Yosemite, thus become California's and the nation's first park ranger. Clark served as the Guardian of Yosemite for 24 years. Others point to Harry Yount who worked as a gamekeeper in Yellowstone National Park in 1880–1881. Prophetically, Yount recommended "the appointment of a small, active, reliable police force...[to] assist the superintendent of the park in enforcing laws, rules, and regulations." The first permanent appointment of rangers in a national park occurred on September 23, 1898, when Charles A. Leidig and Archie O. Leonard became forest rangers at Yosemite National Park.


title: Park ranger

text: One of the earliest uses of the term "ranger" was on badges with the title "Forest Reserve Ranger" which were used from 1898 to 1906 by the U.S. Department of the Interior. These badges were presumably issued to rangers working in the national parks as well as those in the national forests, since both were known as Forest Rangers at that time.


title: Park ranger

text: The term "ranger" was also applied to a reorganization of the Fire Warden force in the Adirondack Park after 1899 when fires burned in the park. The name was taken from Rogers' Rangers, a small force famous for their woodcraft that fought in the area during the French and Indian War in 1755.


title: Park ranger

text: The duties of the modern park ranger are as varied and diverse as the parks where they serve and in recent years have become more highly specialized. Regardless of the regular duties of any one discipline, the goal of all rangers remains to protect the park resources for future generations and to protect park visitors. This goal is accomplished by the professionalism and sometimes overlapping of the different divisions. For example, an interpretive ranger may perform a law enforcement role by explaining special park regulations to visitors and encouraging them to be proper stewards of natural and cultural history. Law enforcement rangers and other park employees may contribute to the mission of the interpretive ranger by providing information to park visitors about park resources and facilities. The spirit of teamwork in accomplishing the mission of protecting the parks and people is underscored by the fact that in many cases, for the U.S. National Park Rangers in particular, all park rangers share a common uniform regardless of work assignment.


title: Park ranger

text: The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 150,000 rangers are needed for the protected areas in developing and transitions countries. There is no data on how many rangers are employed at the moment, but probably less than half the protected areas in developing and transition countries have any rangers at all and those that have them are at least 50% short. This means that there would be a worldwide ranger deficit of 105,000 rangers in the developing and transition countries.


title: Park ranger

text: One of the world's foremost conservationists, Dr. Kenton Miller, stated about the importance of rangers: "The future of our ecosystem services and our heritage depends upon park rangers. With the rapidity at which the challenges to protected areas are both changing and increasing, there has never been more of a need for well prepared human capacity to manage. Park rangers are the backbone of park management. They are on the ground. They work on the front line with scientists, visitors, and members of local communities."


title: Park ranger

text: Adopt A Ranger fears that the ranger deficit is the single greatest limiting factor in effectively protecting nature in 75% of the world. Currently, no conservation organization or Western country or international organization addresses this problem. Adopt A Ranger has been incorporated to draw worldwide public attention to the most urgent problem that conservation is facing in developing and transition countries: protected areas without field staff. Specifically, it will contribute to solving the problem by fund raising to finance rangers in the field. It will also help governments in developing and transition countries to assess realistic staffing needs and staffing strategies.


title: Park ranger

text: In popular culture, a stereotype of American park rangers has been created by children's media such as the "Yogi Bear" cartoon series (Ranger Smith), as well as Disney's Ranger Woodlore and the anthropomorphic character Ranger Rick from the magazine of the same name.


title: Chichimeca

text: Chichimeca () is the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who were established in present-day Bajio region of Mexico. Chichimeca carried the meaning as the Roman term "barbarian" that described Germanic tribes. The name, with its pejorative sense, was adopted by the Spanish Empire. For the Spanish, in the words of scholar Charlotte M. Gradie, "the Chichimecas were a wild, nomadic people who lived north of the Valley of Mexico. They had no fixed dwelling places, lived by hunting, wore little clothes and fiercely resisted foreign intrusion into their territory, which happened to contain silver mines the Spanish wished to exploit." In spite of not having temples or idols, they practiced animal sacrifice, and they were feared for their expertise and brutality in war.


title: Chichimeca

text: The Spanish invasion resulted in a "drastic population decline of all the peoples known collectively as Chichimecas, and to the eventual disappearance as peoples of all save the Pames of San Luis Potosí and the related Chichimeca-Jonaz of the Sierra Gorda in eastern Guanajuato." In modern times, only one ethnic group is customarily referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz, a few thousand of whom live in the state of Guanajuato.


title: Chichimeca

text: The Nahuatl name "Chīchīmēcah" (plural, pronounced ; singular "Chīchīmēcatl") means "inhabitants of Chichiman," "Chichiman" meaning "area of milk." It is sometimes said to be related to "chichi" "dog", but both "i"'s in "chichi" are short, and both in "Chīchīmēcah" are long. That changes the meaning, as vowel length is phonemic in Nahuatl.


title: Chichimeca

text: In the late sixteenth century, Gonzalo de las Casas wrote about the Chichimec. He had received an "encomienda" near Durango and fought in the wars against the Chichimec peoples: the Pame, the Guachichile, the Guamari and the Zacateco, who lived in the area known at the time as "La Gran Chichimeca." Las Casas' account was called "Report of the Chichimeca and the Justness of the War Against Them." He described the people, providing ethnographic information. He wrote that they only covered their genitalia with clothing; painted their bodies; and ate only game, roots and berries. He mentioned, in order to prove their supposed barbarity, that Chichimec women, having given birth, continued traveling on the same day without stopping to recover.


title: Chichimeca

text: In the late 16th century, according to the Spanish, the Chichimeca did not worship idols as did many of the surrounding indigenous peoples.


title: Chichimeca

text: Chichimeca military strikes against the Spanish included raidings, ambushing critical economic routes, and pillaging. In the long-running Chichimeca War (1550–1590), the Spanish initially attempted to defeat the combined Chichimeca peoples in a war of "fire and blood", but eventually sought peace as they were unable to defeat them. The Chichimeca's small-scale raids proved effective. To end the war, the Spanish adopted a "Purchase for Peace" program by providing foods, tools, livestock, and land to the Chichimecas, sending Spanish to teach them agriculture as a livelihood, and by passively converting them to Catholicism. Within a century, the Spanish and Chichimeca assimilated.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium is a chemical element with the symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. The most stable known isotope, darmstadtium-281, has a half-life of approximately 12.7 seconds. Darmstadtium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in the city of Darmstadt, Germany, after which it was named.


title: Darmstadtium

text: In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 10 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to platinum in group 10 as the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Darmstadtium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, nickel, palladium, and platinum.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium was first created on November 9, 1994, at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung, GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of Sigurd Hofmann. The team bombarded a lead-208 target with accelerated nuclei of nickel-62 in a heavy ion accelerator and detected a single atom of the isotope darmstadtium-269:


title: Darmstadtium

text: Two more atoms followed on November 12 and 17. (Yet another was originally reported to have been found on November 11, but it turned out to be based on data fabricated by Victor Ninov, and was then retracted.)


title: Darmstadtium

text: In the same series of experiments, the same team also carried out the reaction using heavier nickel-64 ions. During two runs, 9 atoms of were convincingly detected by correlation with known daughter decay properties:


title: Darmstadtium

text: Prior to this, there had been failed synthesis attempts in 1986–87 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (then in the Soviet Union) and in 1990 at the GSI. A 1995 attempt at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory resulted in signs suggesting but not pointing conclusively at the discovery of a new isotope formed in the bombardment of with , and a similarly inconclusive 1994 attempt at the JINR showed signs of being produced from and . Each team proposed its own name for element 110: the American team proposed "hahnium" after Otto Hahn in an attempt to resolve the controversy of naming element 105 (which they had long been suggesting this name for), the Russian team proposed "becquerelium" after Henri Becquerel, and the German team proposed "darmstadtium" after Darmstadt, the location of their institute. The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) recognised the GSI team as discoverers in their 2001 report, giving them the right to suggest a name for the element.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, darmstadtium should be known as "eka-platinum". In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called "ununnilium" (with the corresponding symbol of "Uun"), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who called it "element 110", with the symbol of "E110", "(110)" or even simply "110".


title: Darmstadtium

text: In 1996, the Russian team proposed the name "becquerelium" after Henri Becquerel. The American team in 1997 proposed the name "hahnium" after Otto Hahn (previously this name had been used for element 105).


title: Darmstadtium

text: The name "darmstadtium" (Ds) was suggested by the GSI team in honor of the city of Darmstadt, where the element was discovered. The GSI team originally also considered naming the element "wixhausium", after the suburb of Darmstadt known as Wixhausen where the element was discovered, but eventually decided on "darmstadtium". "Policium" had also been proposed as a joke due to the emergency telephone number in Germany being 1-1-0. The new name "darmstadtium" was officially recommended by IUPAC on August 16, 2003.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Ten different isotopes of darmstadtium have been reported with atomic masses 267, 269–271, 273, 276, 277, and 279–281, although darmstadtium-267 is unconfirmed. Three darmstadtium isotopes, darmstadtium-270, darmstadtium-271, and darmstadtium-281, have known metastable states, although that of darmstadtium-281 is unconfirmed. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some undergo spontaneous fission.


title: Darmstadtium

text: All darmstadtium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, the heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter. The most stable known darmstadtium isotope, Ds, is also the heaviest known darmstadtium isotope; it has a half-life of 12.7 seconds. The isotope Ds has a half-life of 0.18 seconds, while the unconfirmed Ds has a half-life of 0.9 seconds. The remaining seven isotopes and two metastable states have half-lives between 1 microsecond and 70 milliseconds. Some unknown darmstadtium isotopes may have longer half-lives, however.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model reproduces the experimental alpha decay half-life data for the known darmstadtium isotopes. It also predicts that the undiscovered isotope Ds, which has a magic number of neutrons (184), would have an alpha decay half-life on the order of 311 years; exactly the same approach predicts a ~350-year alpha half-life for the non-magic Ds isotope, however.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Other than nuclear properties, no properties of darmstadtium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that darmstadtium (and its parents) decays very quickly. Properties of darmstadtium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium is the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals, and should be much like the platinum group metals. Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue platinum, thus implying that darmstadtium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 10 elements, nickel, palladium, and platinum.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Prediction of the probable chemical properties of darmstadtium has not received much attention recently. Darmstadtium should be a very noble metal. The predicted standard reduction potential for the Ds/Ds couple is 1.7 V. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 10 elements, the most stable oxidation states of darmstadtium are predicted to be the +6, +4, and +2 states; however, the neutral state is predicted to be the most stable in aqueous solutions. In comparison, only palladium and platinum are known to show the maximum oxidation state in the group, +6, while the most stable states are +4 and +2 for both nickel and palladium. It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium (element 107) to darmstadtium (element 110) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution. Darmstadtium hexafluoride (DsF) is predicted to have very similar properties to its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride (PtF), having very similar electronic structures and ionization potentials. It is also expected to have the same octahedral molecular geometry as PtF. Other predicted darmstadtium compounds are darmstadtium carbide (DsC) and darmstadtium tetrachloride (DsCl), both of which are expected to behave like their lighter homologues. Unlike platinum, which preferentially forms a cyanide complex in its +2 oxidation state, Pt(CN), darmstadtium is expected to preferentially remain in its neutral state and form instead, forming a strong Ds–C bond with some multiple bond character.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and to crystallize in the body-centered cubic structure, unlike its lighter congeners which crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure, because it is expected to have different electron charge densities from them. It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 26–27 g/cm. In comparison, the densest known element that has had its density measured, osmium, has a density of only 22.61 g/cm.


title: Darmstadtium

text: The outer electron configuration of darmstadtium is calculated to be 6d 7s, which obeys the Aufbau principle and does not follow platinum's outer electron configuration of 5d 6s. This is due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s electron pair over the whole seventh period, so that none of the elements from 104 to 112 are expected to have electron configurations violating the Aufbau principle. The atomic radius of darmstadtium is expected to be around 132 pm.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of darmstadtium has yet to have been established due to the short half-lives of darmstadtium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale. One of the few darmstadtium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is darmstadtium hexafluoride (), as its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride () is volatile above 60 °C and therefore the analogous compound of darmstadtium might also be sufficiently volatile; a volatile octafluoride () might also be possible. For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide, at least four atoms must be produced, the half-life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second, and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week. Even though the half-life of Ds, the most stable confirmed darmstadtium isotope, is 12.7 seconds, long enough to perform chemical studies, another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of darmstadtium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained. Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the darmstadtium isotopes and have automated systems experiment on the gas-phase and solution chemistry of darmstadtium, as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused. However, the experimental chemistry of darmstadtium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium.


title: Darmstadtium

text: The more neutron-rich darmstadtium isotopes are the most stable and are thus more promising for chemical studies. However, they can only be produced indirectly from the alpha decay of heavier elements, and indirect synthesis methods are not as favourable for chemical studies as direct synthesis methods. The more neutron-rich isotopes Ds and Ds might be produced directly in the reaction between thorium-232 and calcium-48, but the yield was expected to be low. Following several unsuccessful attempts, a single atom of Ds was produced in this reaction in 2022, having a short half-life and low yield in agreement with predictions, though exact values have not yet been published. Furthermore, Ds was successfully synthesized using indirect methods (as a granddaughter of Fl) and found to have a short half-life of 3.5 ms, not long enough to perform chemical studies. The only known darmstadtium isotope with a half-life long enough for chemical research is Ds, which would have to be produced as the granddaughter of Fl.


title: Lotus Tower

text: Lotus Tower (; ), also referred to as Colombo Lotus Tower, is a tall tower, located in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It has been called a symbolic landmark of Sri Lanka. As of 2019, the tower is the tallest self-supported structure in South Asia; the second tallest structure in South Asia after the guy-wire-supported INS Kattabomman in India; the 11th tallest tower in Asia and the 19th tallest tower in the world. It was first proposed to be built in the suburb of Peliyagoda but later the Government of Sri Lanka decided to change the location. The lotus-shaped tower is used for communication, observation and other leisure facilities. Construction is estimated to have cost USD 113 million.


title: Lotus Tower

text: After an initial decision to construct the tower within the confines of a suburb of the country's economic capital city of Colombo, Sri Lanka's government announced their plans to shift the location to the heart of the city. The tower's new location is on the waterfront of the Beira Lake.


title: Lotus Tower

text: With the witness of the President of Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka (TRCSL), the Secretary of the Sri Lanka Foreign Ministry, the Presidents of China National Electronics Import & Export Corporation (CEIEC) and Aerospace Long March International Trade Co. Ltd (ALIT) signed the contract with the Director-General of TRCSL, Anusha Palpita, for the project on 3 January 2012.


title: Lotus Tower

text: The project commenced during the tenure of President Mahinda Rajapakse and the construction began on 20 January 2012 following a foundation stone-laying ceremony. The site is located on the waterfront of Beira Lake and alongside a part of the D. R. Wijewardene Mawatha.


title: Lotus Tower

text: In December 2014, the tower's construction crossed the milestone and as of July 2015, the tower had reached .


title: Lotus Tower

text: The design of this building is inspired by the Lotus flower. The lotus symbolizes purity within Sri Lankan culture and is also said to symbolize the country's flourishing development. The tower base is inspired by the lotus throne and will also be formed by two inverted trapezoidal. The tower's color is planned to alternate between pink and light yellow by smooth transition- an effect achieved by coating the glass.


title: Lotus Tower

text: Lotus Tower's main revenue sources will be tourism and antenna leasing. It will function as a radio and television broadcasting antenna ISDB-T and proposed DVB-T2 support structure for 50 television services, 35 FM Radio Stations and 20 telecommunication service providers, and will house a variety of tourist attractions .


title: Lotus Tower

text: The tower has four entrances, with two being used as VIP (distinguished guests and state leaders) entrances. A telecommunications museum and restaurant are located on the ground floor. The tower podium consists of 6 floors. The first floor of the podium will accommodate a museum and two exhibition halls. The second floor will be utilised for several conference halls with seating space in excess of 500 people. Restaurants, supermarkets, and food courts will be situated on the third floor. A 1000-seat auditorium will be located on the fourth floor, which will also be used as a ballroom. The fifth floor will include luxury hotel rooms, large ballrooms, and the seventh floor will host an observation gallery. The landscaping is planned in the form of a large water park.


title: Lotus Tower

text: The Colombo Monorail, which was a proposed monorail system in Colombo, and the BRT system were to converge at a common 'multi-modal hub' located in close proximity to the Lotus Tower, making the tower a major city center. The Monorail was canceled in 2016, and both, a light rail will be constructed in Malabe.


title: Lotus Tower

text: During the opening ceremony which was held on 16 September 2019, President Maithripala Sirisena at a ceremonial speech mentioned and claimed an allegation on a scam regarding an advance of 2 billion rupees which was given to an approved company ALIT in 2012 by the then government, was later revealed in 2016 that such a company did not exist. However, this was later proven to be false as ALIT was in fact the acronym of the Chinese state-owned Aerospace Long-March International Trade Co. ALIT denied receiving the payment claiming that the entire amount was paid to the China National Electronics Import & Export Corporation (CEIEC) as had ALIT left the project. It also noted that the TRC paid $15.6 million (2 billion rupees) into CEIEC's account in Exim Bank in October 2012, the same amount which Sirisena claims to have been "misappropriated" by ALIT.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The Battle of New Market was fought on May 15, 1864, in Virginia during the Valley Campaigns of 1864 in the American Civil War. A makeshift Confederate army of 4,100 men defeated the larger Army of the Shenandoah under Major General Franz Sigel, delaying the capture of Staunton by several weeks.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The battle is primarily remembered today for being the only time in American history a school's student body was used as an organized combat unit. During the battle Confederate general John C. Breckinridge ordered cadets from the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), some of them child soldiers no older than 15, to join an attack on the Union lines. The event has gone on to become central to many of the Institute's myths and traditions.


title: Battle of New Market

text: In the spring of 1864, Union commander-in-chief Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant set in motion a grand strategy designed to press the Confederacy into submission. Control of the strategically important and agriculturally rich Shenandoah Valley was a key element in Grant's plans. While he confronted General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia in the eastern part of the state, Grant ordered Major General Franz Sigel's army of 10,000 to secure the Valley and threaten Lee's flank, starting the Valley Campaigns of 1864.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Sigel was to advance on Staunton, Virginia in order to link up with another Union column commanded by George Crook, which would advance from West Virginia and destroy the Virginia & Tennessee Railroad and other Confederate industries in the area. Sigel's force totaled about 9,000 men and 28 cannons, divided into an infantry division commanded by Brig. Gen. Jeremiah C. Sullivan and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel (detachments made during the campaign reduced the Union force to about 6,300 by the time of the battle).


title: Battle of New Market

text: Receiving word that the Union Army had entered the Valley, Major General John C. Breckinridge pulled together all available forces to repulse the latest threat. His command consisted of two infantry brigades under John C. Echols and General Gabriel C. Wharton, a cavalry brigade commanded by General John D. Imboden, and other independent commands. This included the cadet corps of VMI, which had an infantry battalion of 247 cadets commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Scott Shipp and a two-gun artillery section. Breckinridge concentrated his infantry at Staunton, while Imboden slowed Sigel's movement southward along the Valley.


title: Battle of New Market

text: On the morning of May 13, Breckinridge decided to move north to attack Sigel instead of waiting for Sigel to reach Staunton. By the evening of May 14, Sigel's advance forces had reached a position north of the village of New Market, while Breckinridge was at Lacey Spring eight miles south of New Market. The Confederates started toward the Union positions at 1 a.m. on May 15, hoping to trap and crush the Union army.


title: Battle of New Market

text: On May 14 a delaying action was fought at Rude's Hill, just outside of Mt. Jackson, by elements of the Confederate 18th Virginia Cavalry, under the overall command of Col. John Imboden. The Confederate cavalry slowed the Union advance, enabling Gen. John Breckinridge to gather the main body of his Confederate forces at New Market, about 4 miles away.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The two forces made contact south of New Market about mid-morning, with the main Union line west of the town near the North Fork of the Shenandoah River; Colonel Augustus Moor initially commanded the Union forces present on the battlefield at this time, which consisted of his infantry brigade and part of John E. Wynkoop's cavalry brigade. Additional Union regiments arrived throughout the morning and deployed between the North Fork of the Shenandoah River and the Valley Turnpike, with the main line centered on Manor's Hill. Breckinridge deployed Wharton's brigade on the Confederate left west of the Valley Turnpike and Echols's brigade on the right along the Pike; Echols was ill that morning, so his brigade was commanded by Colonel George S. Patton, Sr. The VMI cadets battalion was kept in reserve, while Imboden's cavalry was east of the turnpike.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Breckinridge attempted to lure the Federals into attacking him using cavalry and artillery, but Moor refused to move from his position. About 11 a.m., Breckinridge decided to launch an attack on Moor using his infantry, while Imboden's brigade crossed Smith's Creek east of New Market, rode north, and recrossed the stream behind the Union lines. Union cavalry General Stahel arrived at New Market at this time with additional troops, followed shortly afterwards by Union General Sigel.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Breckinridge launched his infantry attack near noon, slowly pushing Moor's infantry brigade off Manor's Hill and northward toward the rest of Sigel's army, which was deploying on a hill north of Jacob Bushong's farm, known as Bushong's Hill. Once past the town of New Market, the Confederates halted to dress ranks, shift units along the line, and reposition their artillery units. Breckinridge resumed his attack about 2 p.m. As the Confederate line formed near the Bushong farm, massed Union rifle and artillery fire disorganized the Confederate units in the center, forcing the right wing of the 51st Virginia Infantry and the 30th Virginia Infantry Battalion to retreat in confusion, while the rest of the Confederate line stalled.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Breckinridge reluctantly ordered the VMI cadet battalion to fill the gap; while the battalion was moving forward to the Bushong orchard, Shipp was wounded and was replaced by Captain Henry A. Wise. At this time, Sigel launched two counterattacks. On the Union left, Stahel launched a mounted charge with the cavalry but was routed by heavy fire from Confederate artillery, while three infantry regiments attacked on the Union right and were repulsed as well. The main cause of the failure of the infantry attacks was confusion within the ranks of the Union commanders; Sigel was noted to be shouting orders in his native language of German.


title: Battle of New Market

text: After the repulses of the Union attacks, Breckinridge started his advance again shortly after 3 p.m. with his infantry force; while crossing a field near Bushong's orchard, several VMI cadets lost their shoes in the mud, which led to the field being called the "Field of Lost Shoes". As the Confederate line got closer to the Union artillery, Sigel's batteries were forced to retreat as the infantry started breaking towards the rear. Five cannons were abandoned to the Confederates, one of which was captured by the VMI cadet battalion. Battery B of the 5th U.S. Artillery, which had just arrived on the field, and two infantry regiments slowed the Confederate pursuit. At this time, Breckinridge halted his forces until the supply trains arrived to resupply the troops. While the infantry was being resupplied, Confederate cavalry General Imboden arrived with his brigade with the news that the creek was too swollen to be crossed. Union General Sullivan arrived during this time with the 28th and 116th Ohio Infantry; Sigel managed to organize a rearguard on Rude's Hill, with Sullivan's infantry east of the turnpike, some of Stahel's cavalry west of the road, and the artillery behind the line. Due to the exhaustion of the men and low ammunition, Sigel decided to retreat across the Shenandoah River to Mount Jackson. Breckinridge advanced his artillery to the crest of Rude's Hill where they shelled Sigel's retreating Federals. The Union army managed to cross Mill Creek at Mt. Jackson and burned the bridge before the Confederates could catch up.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Union casualties totaled 841 for the battle: 96 killed, 520 wounded, and 225 captured or missing, a casualty rate of 13.4%. The Confederates lost 43 killed, including 10 cadets; 474 wounded, and 3 missing, 13% of the army. The wounded from the battle were cared for in Bushong's barn and in the town at the Smith Creek Baptist church and a warehouse, while the dead were buried in the graveyard of St. Matthew's Lutheran Church.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Sigel staged a rapid retreat northward to Strasburg, leaving the field and the Valley to Breckinridge's army. After learning of the Union defeat, Grant became furious and replaced Sigel with General David Hunter; Sigel was assigned to command the department's reserve division based in Harpers Ferry.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Sergeant James Burns of the 1st West Virginia Infantry received the Medal of Honor in 1896 for saving the regimental flag in the battle.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The Confederate victory allowed the local crops to be harvested for Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and protected Lee's lines of communications to western Virginia. The Virginia newspapers and the Confederate soldiers in the battle compared Breckinridge to Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. Following Sigel's retreat, Lee suggested that Breckinridge follow the Union army and invade Maryland; however, the flooded rivers in the northern Shenandoah Valley and the length of his supply line prevented Breckinridge from making a pursuit. Breckinridge's forces were transferred to eastern Virginia, where they reinforced Lee's army at the Battle of Cold Harbor.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The victory failed to stop the Union offensive however. After assuming command of the Army of the Shenandoah, Hunter resumed the march southwest and defeated a Confederate force under Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones at the Battle of Piedmont on June 5, occupying Staunton the following day.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Forty-seven VMI cadets were wounded in the battle (around 23%). The following ten cadets were killed outright or mortally wounded:


title: Battle of New Market

text: The New Market Day ceremony is an annual observance held at VMI in front of the monument "Virginia Mourning Her Dead", a memorial to the New Market Corps. It was sculpted by Cavaliere Moses Ritter von Ezekiel, VMI Class of 1866, who was a veteran of the battle. The names of all of the cadets in the Corps of 1864 are inscribed on the monument, and six of the ten cadets who died in the battle are buried at this site.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The ceremony features the roll call of the names of the cadets who lost their lives at New Market, a custom that began in 1887. As the name of each cadet who died is called, a representative from the same company in the modern Corps answers, "Died on the Field of Honor, Sir." A 3-volley salute is conducted by a cadet honor guard, followed by "Taps" played over the parade ground. To culminate this ceremony, the entire Corps passes "Virginia Mourning Her Dead" in review.


title: Battle of New Market

text: The battlefield is primarily preserved in the 300-acre New Market Battlefield State Historical Park. In addition, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the battlefield.


title: Battle of New Market

text: In fall 1923, under the direction of Marine Corps Brigadier General Smedley Butler and employing the Quantico marines, the battle was reenacted on its historical grounds. The number of spectators was estimated at over 150,000.


title: Battle of New Market

text: Sean McNamara's 2014 film, "Field of Lost Shoes", is a fictionalized account of the actions performed by VMI cadets during the battle. The movie follows a group of seven VMI cadets, based on real characters.


title: Battle of New Market

text: A principal character in Elaine Marie Alphin's 1991 novel Ghost Cadet is the ghost of VMI cadet William Hugh McDowell, who was killed in the battle.


title: EAFF E-1 Football Championship

text: EAFF E-1 Football Championship, known as the East Asian Football Championship from 2003 to 2010, and the EAFF East Asian Cup for the 2013 and 2015 editions, is a men's international football competition in East Asia for member nations of the East Asian Football Federation (EAFF). Before the EAFF was founded in 2002, the Dynasty Cup was held between the East Asian top four teams, and was regarded as the East Asian Championship. There is a separate competition for men (first held in 2003) and women (first held in 2005).


title: EAFF E-1 Football Championship

text: The Dynasty Cup is a defunct international association football competition that is regarded as the predecessor to East Asian Football Championship. It was held four times from 1990 to 1998. The purpose of the competition was to improve the quality of football in the East Asia and the national teams in the area participated in the tournament. After the East Asian Football Federation was formed in 2002, the East Asian Football Championship replaced this tournament.


title: EAFF E-1 Football Championship

text: In the tournament China, South Korea and Japan have the right to automatically enter the competition, while other participants have to go through a qualifying round. Other participants that take part are Taiwan, North Korea, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Hong Kong, Mongolia, and Macau. Australia, being a non-member, was invited to take part in the 2013 tournament.


title: EAFF E-1 Football Championship

text: In 2005 there was also a combined points competition in 2005, where the results of the men's and women's teams were added together (not including qualifiers). In April 2012, the competition was renamed to the "EAFF East Asian Cup". In December 2015, the new competition name "EAFF East Asian Championship" was approved, but later changed to "EAFF E-1 Football Championship".


title: Survive the Night

text: Survive the Night (formerly titled The Long Night) is a 2020 American action thriller film directed by Matt Eskandari and starring Bruce Willis, Chad Michael Murray, and Shea Buckner. The film was released in the United States on May 22, 2020.


title: Survive the Night

text: Two criminals Jamie and Matthias are involved in the attempted robbery of a garage which goes wrong, Jamie on a spur of the moment attempted to rob the garage and the owner fought back. Jamie shoots a hostage and Matthias gets shot in the leg. They escape but Matthias needs medical attention. A disgraced physician (Chad Michael Murray) is taken hostage along with his family after the two criminals break in the house and demand he remove a bullet from one of the criminal's legs. However, the physician's father Frank (Bruce Willis) finds that his wife had been killed. Rich successfully removes the bullet, but Frank sees the opportunity and suddenly picks up the scalpel and cuts Jamie, Jamie then grabs a large kitchen knife and stabs Frank who escapes into the night. Rich threatens to cut Matthias artery with a scalpel, but Jamie shoots him in the shoulder. Matthias is completely incapacitated as Rich hasn't closed the wound, and has only stemmed the blood flow using surgical clamps. In the meantime, Frank has returned to the house to his dead wife, and looking through the window he sees his wounded son. They meet in the garage where Rich instructs Frank on dealing with his gunshot wound. Jamie and Matthias are considering their options. In the morning Jamie decides to go and find the family and kill them. Jan and Riley are together in an outbuilding. Frank and Rich decide to fight back, Rich stuns Jamie in the Garage, and Frank lures Jamie away from the house in the car. Jamie subsequently returns to the house to look for the others. Rich and Jan meet up, but Jamie attacks Rich from behind and knocks him out. When he wakes up he is back in the house, where Jamie forces Rich to complete the operation. Matthias dies during the operation. Meanwhile Frank returns to the house and sets Jan free. Jamie threatens to shoot Rich but Jan stops him, she shoots, misses and runs out of the house with Jamie chasing after her, Rich grabs a gun and follows him and fatally shoots him. The family all reunite on the front porch.


title: Survive the Night

text: As of August 27, 2022, "Survive the Night" grossed $220,371 in the United Arab Emirates, Portugal, and Vietnam.


title: Survive the Night

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 26 out of 100, based on four critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Ali Abbas (actor)

text: After graduating in law and working in a law office, Abbas changed careers to become a television producer before he moved into the family tradition of acting. His father, actor Waseem Abbas, strongly opposed his desire to become an actor, and he decided to work hard on it (losing a lot of weight for his characters), while trying to not capitalize on his name.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: Massive Entertainment AB is a Swedish video game developer and a studio of Ubisoft based in Malmö. The company has been fully owned by Ubisoft since 2008. The studio is known for "Tom Clancy's The Division", "The Division 2", "Ground Control", and "World in Conflict".


title: Massive Entertainment

text: Massive Entertainment was founded in 1997 by Martin Walfisz. In June 2000, Massive released the award-winning PC action-strategy title "Ground Control", published by Sierra Studios. The same year an expansion was released named "".


title: Massive Entertainment

text: In 2002, the studio was acquired by Vivendi Universal Games through their NDA Productions subsidiary. In October 2007, they released the game "World in Conflict", described as a further development of the real-time tactics gameplay formula from the "Ground Control" games, but set on Earth during an alternate history late Cold War. The game was released on 18 September 2007 and won critical acclaim, including nominations for one of the best games of 2007. It was followed by an expansion, "". In December 2007, the studio moved into new offices on Drottninggatan in Malmö, employing 130 people at the time.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: On 6 August 2008, Activision Blizzard put up Massive Entertainment for sale after the merger of Activision and Vivendi Games and the subsequent internal reorganization. On 10 November 2008, Ubisoft acquired Massive Entertainment. In March 2009, following the acquisition, the former CEO Martin Walfisz left the company.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: In December 2010, Ubisoft confirmed that Massive would be working on an "Assassin's Creed" project. On 5 May 2011, it was announced that Massive Entertainment was collaborating on development of "," developing the Desmond's journey sequences in the game, which was released in November 2011. Massive also collaborated on the development of "Far Cry 3", which was released in December 2012.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: At E3 2013 Massive announced their next game, "Tom Clancy's The Division". The game was released on 8 March 2016 and sold more copies in its first 24 hours than any game in Ubisoft's history, the biggest first week for a new game franchise, generating $330 million in its first five days.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: In March 2017, Massive announced that their next major title would be based on "James Cameron's Avatar". The game was revealed at E3 2021 to be titled "Avatar: Frontiers of Pandora" and is set for a release in 2022. In April 2020, Massive and its more than 650 staff moved from the offices on Drottninggatan to Kvarteret Eden, a former textile factory in Malmö's Möllevången district.


title: Massive Entertainment

text: In January 2021, the newly reformed Lucasfilm Games announced that Massive started work on a new "Star Wars" open world title. This would be the first "Star Wars" game outside of Electronic Arts since they acquired a May 2013 contract to produce all "Star Wars" related titles.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: Digital Audio Tape (DAT or R-DAT) is a digital signal recording and playback medium developed by Sony and introduced in 1987.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: The first consumer-oriented PCM format used consumer video tape formats (Beta and VHS) as the storage medium. These systems used the EIAJ digital format, which sampled at 44.056 kHz at 14 bits. The Sony PCM-F1 system debuted in 1981, and Sony from the start offered the option of 16-bit wordlength. Other systems were marketed by Akai, JVC, Nakamichi and others. Panasonic, via its Technics division, briefly sold a digital recorder that combined an EIAJ digital adapter with a VHS video transport, the SV-P100. These machines were marketed by consumer electronics companies to consumers, but they were very pricey compared to cassette or even reel-to-reel decks of the time. They did catch on with the more budget conscious professional recordists, and some boutique-label professional releases were recorded using these machines.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: Other examples include dbx, Inc.'s Model 700 system, which, similar to later Super Audio CDs, used a high sample-rate delta-sigma modulation rather than PCM; Decca's 1970s PCM system,


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: Sony released its last DAT product with the DAT Walkman TCD-D100 in 1995 and continued to produce it until November 2005 when Sony announced that its remaining DAT machine models would be discontinued the following month.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: In the late 1980s, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) unsuccessfully lobbied against the introduction of DAT devices into the U.S. Initially, the organization threatened legal action against any manufacturer attempting to sell DAT machines in the country. It later sought to impose restrictions on DAT recorders to prevent them from being used to copy LPs, CDs, and prerecorded cassettes. One of these efforts, the Digital Audio Recorder Copycode Act of 1987 (introduced by Sen. Al Gore and Rep. Waxman), initiated by CBS Records president Walter Yetnikoff, involved a technology called CopyCode and required DAT machines to include a chip to detect attempts to copy material recorded with a notch filter.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: This opposition by CBS softened after Sony, a DAT manufacturer, bought CBS Records in January 1988. By June 1989, an agreement was reached, and the only concession the RIAA would receive was a more practical recommendation from manufacturers to Congress that legislation be enacted to require that recorders have a Serial Copy Management System to prevent digital copying for more than a single generation. This requirement was enacted as part of the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992, which also imposed taxes on DAT recorders and blank media. However, the computer industry successfully lobbied to have personal computers exempted from that act, setting the stage for massive consumer copying of copyrighted material on materials like recordable CDs and by extension, filesharing systems such as Napster.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: In December 1987, "The Guitar And Other Machines" by the British post-punk band The Durutti Column, became the first commercial release on DAT. Later in May 1988, Wire released their album "The Ideal Copy" on the format. Several other albums from multiple record labels were also released as pre-recorded DATs in the first few years of the format's existence, in small quantities as well. Factory Records released a small number of albums on the format, including New Order's best-selling compilation "Substance 1987", but many planned releases were cancelled.


title: Digital Audio Tape

text: The format was designed for audio use, but through the ISO Digital Data Storage standard was adopted for general data storage, storing from 1.3 to 80 GB on a 60 to 180 meter tape depending on the standard and compression. It is a sequential-access medium and is commonly used for backups. Due to the higher requirements for capacity and integrity in data backups, a computer-grade DAT was introduced, called DDS (Digital Data Storage). Although functionally similar to audio DATs, only a few DDS and DAT drives (in particular, those manufactured by Archive for SGI workstations) are capable of reading the audio data from a DAT cassette. SGI DDS4 drives no longer have audio support; SGI removed the feature due to "lack of demand".


title: The Tomorrow People (American TV series)

text: The Tomorrow People is an American science fiction television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Phil Klemmer, and Julie Plec which aired on The CW during the 2013–14 American television season. It was a remake of the original British television series of the same name, created by Roger Price, which ran from 1973 to 1979. The series follows a group of young people who possess psionic powers as the result of human evolution.


text: "The Tomorrow People" premiered on October 9, 2013 and ended on May 5, 2014. It originally aired Wednesdays at 9:00 p.m. Eastern/8:00 p.m. Central, but on March 17, 2014, it was moved to Mondays at 9:00 p.m. Eastern/8:00 p.m. Central. On May 8, 2014, The CW cancelled the series after one season.


text: The Tomorrow People are humans who, as a result of evolutionary development, have become early instances of the next state of human evolution – "Homo superior." However, while they are early examples of their particular human subspecies, they are not the first such generation to have developed such abilities- currently, the oldest "Homo superior" appear to have started to emerge thirty to forty years ago and exist across the world. As a consequence of their "breaking out" of the limitations of their pre-telepath developmental phase in young adulthood, they develop psionic abilities (the "Three T's" – Telepathy, Teleportation and Telekinesis. A fourth T ability featured in the series is Temporal Manipulation). The series focuses on Stephen Jameson, a newly emergent member of the Tomorrow People, as was his father who, as the most powerful of the Tomorrow People, disappeared years before the current events in the series, trying to find a place where they could live safely. The Tomorrow People are hunted by Ultra, an anti-telepath genetic cleansing organization that uses Tomorrow People to hunt down others and neutralize, or kill, them; their headquarters are designed to neutralize the powers of Tomorrow People, although Stephen seems resistant to its effects. Outside Ultra, their parents, and their loved ones, the existence of the Tomorrow People is unknown to the general public, as they fear greater persecution. Consequently, they spend much of their time in the Lair, a subterranean base of operations beneath the streets of Manhattan.


text: "The Tomorrow People" received mixed reviews, scoring a 50 out of 100 on the review aggregator Metacritic.


text: "The Tomorrow People" was nominated for "Best Youth-Oriented Series on Television" at the 40th Saturn Awards.


title: Thirumalai

text: Thirumalai is a 2003 Indian Tamil-language masala film written and directed by Ramana. The film stars Vijay and Jyothika, with Manoj K. Jayan, Avinash (in his Tamil debut), Vivek, Raghuvaran, Kausalya and Karunas in supporting roles. Produced by Kavithalayaa Productions banner, Thirumalai shows Vijay playing a bike mechanic of the Pudupet area in Chennai. This film was a turning point in Vijay's career as he transitioned himself into a leading action hero from a romantic hero in his acting career.


title: Thirumalai

text: Filming began in May 2002 and was planned for a 2002 Christmas release, along with the Suriya starrer, "Mounam Pesiyadhe" but the delays in replacement of heroine and villain made it release only during October 2003, on the occasion of Diwali but was declared as a blockbuster at the box office, despite its delays.


title: Thirumalai

text: The film was remade in Telugu as "Gowri" with Sumanth and Charmme Kaur in 2004. It was also remade in Bengali Bangladesh in 2007 as "Kotha Dao Sathi Hobe" starring Shakib Khan and Apu Biswas.


title: Thirumalai

text: Thirumalai, a mechanic, falls in love with Swetha. However, Swetha's father, Ashok, the owner of a TV channel, is unhappy with their relationship. He asks Arasu, a gangster's to help create fights between the couple.


title: Thirumalai

text: The filming began in May 2002, when Vijay was simultaneously shooting for his previous action flick, "Bagavathi" (2002). Directing the film was debutant Ramana who had apprenticed with director R. K. Selvamani. The shooting finally ended in November 2002. On 15 January 2003, Vijay stated that he had started dubbing for his portions of the film. Vijay also sported a new look, which he maintained for his subsequent films until "Puli" (2015). It was actually director Ramana, who suggested Vijay that he maintain a new look in the film, with his mustache trimmed and growing a beard. Vijay was initially hesitant to do so, but upon seeing the screen test, he was impressed with his new getup and the rest is history.


title: Thirumalai

text: Namrata Shirodkar was chosen initially to play the female lead. But the director was not satisfied with her onscreen presence and she was replaced by Jyothika. This is her second film with Vijay after "Kushi" (2000).


title: Thirumalai

text: A set resembling a market place with a mechanic shop in it was erected at Mohan Studios at a cost of about 50 lakh. Designed by art director Kathir, shooting took place there for 30 days. The film's shooting occurred in Chennai, Nellore and Vishakhapatnam, while the songs were filmed overseas.


title: Thirumalai

text: Music was composed by Vidyasagar. The audio's album consisting of five songs, was released on 6 December 2002. The audio was also well received among the audience.


title: Thirumalai

text: The film was released on 24 October 2003 worldwide, on the occasion of Diwali, and was commercially successful.


title: Thirumalai

text: "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 59 out of 100. "Nowrunning" gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated "Yet another poor-boy rich-girl romance with parental opposition and mafia interference". Chennai Online wrote "There's nothing fresh here that we haven't seen in an earlier Vijay film. The Vijay-Jyotika pair, after their successful combination in Kushi, was expected to re-create the same magic on screen. But it doesn't happen". Thiraipadam wrote "Thirumalai sees director Ramana working within two big limitations. He has an age-old poor boy-rich girl love story in hand and has to contend with Vijay's mass image. Considering these restrictions, he has done a commendable job. By fashioning the hero's character a little differently and designing a fast screenplay that contains several stock situations but resolves them differently, he overcomes those negatives to deliver an entertaining feature". Behindwoods wrote " Things were never going easy for Vijay until Thirumalai happened and resurrected his image as a mass hero that he’s become today. The film was a well executed commercial potboiler which showcased Vijay excelling at all aspects of his role."


title: Surat Airport

text: Surat Airport is a customs airport serving Surat and Southern Gujarat. It is located in Magdalla, situated 12 km (6.4 mi) from the city centre. It has a total area of 770 acres (312 ha), and is the second busiest airport in Gujarat after Ahmedabad, in terms of both aircraft movements and passenger traffic. It was awarded the status of a customs airport on 9 June 2018. It is also home to a flying training school.


title: Surat Airport

text: Surat Airport was built by the state government of Gujarat in early 1970s. The first airline to operate was Safari Airways (owned by Vijaypat Singhania of Raymonds group) with flights to Bombay and Bhavnagar with small aircraft, most probably a Douglas DC-3 Dakota in the early 1970s, which was eventually discontinued in a year or two. During the 1990s, Vayudoot and Gujarat Airways flew to Surat Airport, but discontinued their flights in May 1994 and January 2000, respectively. The airport, with a airstrip and an adjoining apron was then transferred to the Airports Authority of India (AAI) in 2003, who began to modernise the airport. After a failed initial attempt in July 2004 to connect Surat with Mumbai and Bhavnagar due to poor airport infrastructure, the now defunct airline Air Deccan operated an ATR 42 aircraft daily from November 2004 to July 2005.


title: Surat Airport

text: In 2007, the airport's 1,400-metre long runway was extended to 2,250 metres, to enable landing of larger aircraft. Subsequently, commercial services resumed on 6 May 2007 with an Indian Airlines Airbus A319 flight to Delhi flagged off by Indian Civil Aviation Minister Praful Patel at 12:40 IST. However, in October 2007, the runway was reportedly damaged due to poor quality of work during its extension. As a result, a limitation was imposed on the runway to not allow more than two operations of aircraft having weight of over 75,000 kilograms up to its rated capacity of 80,000 kg until the runway was repaired.


title: Surat Airport

text: In 2009, the AAI announced that the airport required 864 hectares of land, and the Gujarat government had allocated such land for the development. Planned improvements at the airport included a capacity to handle up to seven jets at a time and extending the runway to 3,810 meters. The extension work of the runway was to have begun in 2009.


title: Surat Airport

text: The November 2014 collision of a buffalo with a SpiceJet Boeing 737 prompted the AAI to address the safety issues at the airport and extend the runway from 2,250 metres to 2,905 metres at a cost of 500 million. The runway extension and repair was taken up in three phases. In the first phase, the runway was extended by 655 metres.


title: Surat Airport

text: The adjoining concrete apron measures 235 by 90 metres, and is linked by two taxiways to its sole runway that is oriented 04/22, is 2,250 metres long and 45 metres wide, which has already been extended to 2,905 metres in 2017. The airfield is equipped with night landing facilities and an instrument landing system (ILS) as well as navigational facilities like DVOR/DME and an NDB.


title: Surat Airport

text: The new Surat Airport terminal building was inaugurated on 27 February 2009 by Union Minister of State for Petroleum Dinsha Patel. The terminal building, constructed at the cost of 400 million, has a total floor area of and can handle 240 passengers per hour. It is equipped with CCTV cameras, two baggage carousels in the arrivals hall, and one hand baggage X-ray machine, among other modern facilities like two air bridges with Visual Docking Guidance System, two elevators and two escalators, and a 120-seat lounge. Coffee Culture and other shops have been added.


title: Surat Airport

text: The construction work for the expansion of the terminal building at Surat Airport started in March 2020. The budget for the project is 3.53 billion, and the project is expected to completed by December 2022. The extended terminal building will have a total area of 25,520 sq. m. After the extension, the terminal building will be capable of handling 1,800 passengers (1,200 domestic and 600 international) during peak hours daily. The extended terminal building will be equipped with all essential amenities like 20 check-in counters, 26 immigration counters, 5 aerobridges, baggage conveyors, and parking spaces to accommodate more than 500 cars. The other planned infrastructure development at Surat Airport includes an extension of the apron for an additional 10 bays for code c aircraft and a full-length parallel taxiway. The expansion will turn Surat Airport into an international airport.


title: Surat Airport

text: The cargo terminal of Surat Airport was inaugurated on 29 January 2020. AAI approved a plan for the modular cargo terminal at Surat Airport. After the approval of the tender, work on constructing of new cargo terminal was awarded to a Surat-based company for the 14,000 sq.ft. cargo complex with a ground-level area of 10,800 sq.ft. and first-floor area of 3,200 sq.ft. respectively. Construction of the cargo terminal was completed within the project completion period of 13 months. AAI has future plans to build a cargo terminal at Surat Airport and has reserved land for the same.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: Tamil-Brahmi, also known as Tamizhi or Damili, was a variant of the Brahmi script in southern India. It was used to write inscriptions in the early form of Old Tamil. The Tamil-Brahmi script has been paleographically and stratigraphically dated between the third century BCE and the first century CE, and it constitutes the earliest known writing system evidenced in many parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka. Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found on cave entrances, stone beds, potsherds, jar burials, coins, seals, and rings.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: Tamil Brahmi resembles but differs in several minor ways from the Brahmi inscriptions found elsewhere on the Indian subcontinent such as the Edicts of Ashoka found in Andhra Pradesh. It adds diacritics to several letters for sounds not found in Prakrit, producing "ṉ ṟ ṛ ḷ". Secondly, in many of the inscriptions the inherent vowel has been discarded: A consonant written without diacritics represents the consonant alone, whereas the Ashokan diacritic for long "ā" is used for both "ā" and short "a" in Tamil-Brahmi. This is unique to Tamil-Brahmi and Bhattiprolu among the early Indian scripts. Tamil-Brahmi does not, however, share the odd forms of letters such as "gh" in Bhattiprolu. This appears to be an adaptation to Dravidian phonotactics, where words commonly end in consonants, as opposed to Prakrit, where this never occurs. According to Mahadevan, in the earliest stages of the script the inherent vowel was either abandoned, as above, or the bare consonant was ambiguous as to whether it implied a short "a" or not. Later stages of Tamil Brahmi returned to the inherent vowel that was the norm in ancient India.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: According to Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil-Brahmi script was the parent script that ultimately evolved into the later Vatteluttu and Tamil scripts.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: An early mention of a script for writing the Tamil language is found in the Jaina work "Samavayanga Sutta" and "Pannavana Sutta" where a script called "Damili" is mentioned as the seventeenth of eighteen "Lipi" (scripts) in use in India. Similarly, the tenth chapter of the "Lalitavistara", named "Lipisala samdarshana parivarta", lists Dravida-lipi and Dakshinya-lipi as two of sixty four scripts that Siddhartha (later the Gautam Buddha) learnt as a child from his gurus in Vedic schools, a list that is found in both Indian Buddhist texts and its ancient Chinese translations. These relationship of early Tamil scripts to these "lipi" mentioned in Jaina and Buddhist literature relationship is unclear. The pre-1974 work of Mahadevan had established 76 rock inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi from about 21 sites in Tamil Nadu, which states Kamil Zvelebil "establish obvious correlations" with what has been found in early Tamil bardic poems. Nagaswamy treats Tamil-Brahmi script to be synonymous with the Damili script in his publications.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: Artifacts such as inscribed potsherds, coins or others are found in Tamil Nadu archaeological sites have graffiti and inscriptions. The potsherds recovered from Kodumanal, for example, have markings that on the basis of stratigraphical analysis appear to be from the 4th century BCE. According to K. Rajan, the "large number of graffiti marks and subsequent Tamil Brahmi script" unearthed in Tamil Nadu and Kerala suggest that this region had a "linguistic cohesiveness well before 5th-4th century BCE". According to Falk these supposed inscriptions are not Brahmi letters, but misinterpreted non-linguistic Megalithic graffiti symbols, which were used in South India during the pre-literate era.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: The origins and chronology of Tamil Brahmi are unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed, with the views of epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan being generally more accepted. According to Mahadevan, the Brahmi script from North India arrived via the southern inscriptions of Ashoka, and evolved into the Tamil Brahmi. This theory presupposes that the Brahmi script itself was either originated within the imperial courts of Mauryan kingdom or evolved from a more ancient foreign script and it was dispersed to South India and Sri Lanka after the 3rd century BCE. The alternate theory proposed by Nagaswamy is that there was an indigenous common source (proto-Vatteluttu) script from which both northern and southern Brahmi script emerged, which he respectively terms as "Brahmi" and "Damili" scripts. Richard Salomon favors the Mahadevan theory.


title: Tamil-Brahmi

text: According to Kamil Zvelebil's chronology proposal of 1973, the earliest Tamil Brahmi inscriptions such as the Netunceliyan rock inscriptions at the Mangulam site were derived from Ashokan Brahmi that was introduced to the Tamil region around 250 BCE. It was adapted for the Tamil language by 220 BCE and led to the standardization of the Tamil language and literary norms of Maturai between 200 and 50 BCE. These developments transformed the oral bardic Tamil literary culture to the written Sangam literature in the centuries that followed. The use of Tamil Brahmi continued through the 6th century CE, states Zvelebil.