title: Radar in World War II

text: When the NII-9 was evacuated to Moscow in July 1941, this greatly affected the schedule. Also, the reflex klystron had not been put into production and its availability in the future was doubtful; therefore, the project was terminated. The need, however, for an airborne radio-location set was now even more important; the "Pe-3", a heavy fighter variant of the "Pe-2", was in production. Some of these aircraft were being configured as night-fighters, and the radar (as it was now called) was urgently needed. The NII-20 and Factory 339 took up the design, led by the Technical Director, Victor Tikhomirov.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The new set, designated Gneiss-2 (), operated at 1.5 m (200 MHz). The "Pe-3" fighter was a two-place aircraft, with the pilot and the rear gunner/radio operator seated back to back. The radar was designed as another piece of equipment for the radio operator.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The antennas were mounted above the top surface of the wings, a broad-pattern transmitting array on one wing and two Yagi receiving antennas on the other. One Yagi was directed forward and the other, a few feet away, aimed outward 45 degrees. The fuselage of the aircraft provided a shield between the transmitting and receiving antennas. The system had a range of about 4 km and could give the target's azimuth relative to the fighter's flight path.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The "Gneis-2", the first aircraft radar in the Soviet Union, was proven in combat at Stalingrad during December 1942. About 230 of these sets were built during the war. A few were installed on "Yak-9" and (out of number sequence) "Yak-3" aircraft, the advanced fighters that eventually gave the VVS parity with the "Luftwaffe". Other sets with "Gneis" designations were developed at Plant 339 for experimental purposes, particularly with Lavochkin "La-5" fighters and Ilyushin "Il-2" ground-assault aircraft, but none of these sets were placed into production.


title: Radar in World War II

text: During the 1930s, the RKKF (Red Fleet) had major programs in developing radio communications. Starting in 1932, this activity was headed by Aksel Ivanovich Berg Director of the NIIIS-KF, Red Fleet Signals Research) and later given the rank of Engineer-Admiral. He was also a professor at Leningrad's universities and closely followed the early radio-location progress at the LPTI and NII-9. He started a research program in this technology at the NIIIS-KF, but was interrupted by being arrested in 1937 during the Great Purge and spent three years in prison.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Berg was released in early 1940 and reinstated in his positions. After reviewing the tests of "Redut" conducted at Sevastopol, he obtained a "RUS-2" cabin and had it adapted for shipboard testing. Designated "Redut-K", it was placed on the light cruiser "Molotov" in April 1941, making this the first warship in the RKKF with a radio-location capability. After the start of the war, only a few of these sets were built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In mid-1943, radar ("radiolokatsiya") was finally recognized as a vital Soviet activity. A Council for Radar, attached to the State Defense Committee, was established; Berg was made Deputy Minister, responsible for all radar in the USSR. While involved with all future developments in this activity, he took special interest in Navy systems. Berg was later mainly responsible for introducing cybernetics in the Soviet Union.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Other indigenous Soviet Navy radars developed (but not put into production) during the war included "Gyuis-1", operating at 1.4 m with 80- kW pulse power. This was a successor to "Redut-K" for early warning; the prototype was installed on the destroyer "Gromkii" in 1944. Two fire-control radars were simultaneously developed: "Mars-1" for cruisers and "Mars-2" for destroyers. Both were tested just at the close of the war, and later placed into production as "Redan-1" and "Redan-2", respectively.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Germany has a long heritage of using electromagnetic waves for detecting objects. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz, who first demonstrated the existence of these waves, also noted that they, like light, were reflected by metal surfaces. In 1904, Christian Hülsmeyer obtained German and foreign patents for an apparatus, the "Telemobilskop", using a "spark gap transmitter" that could detect ships and prevent collisions; this is often cited as the first radar, but, without directly providing range, it does not qualify for this classification. With the advent of the radio tube and electronics, other detection-only systems were developed, but all used continuous waves and could not measure distance.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In 1933, physicist Rudolf Kühnhold, Scientific Director at the "Kriegsmarine" (German Navy) "Nachrichtenmittel-Versuchsanstalt" (NVA) (Signals Research Establishment) in Kiel, initiated experiments in the microwave region to measure the distance to a target. For the transmitter, he obtained assistance from two radio amateur operators, Paul-Günther Erbslöh and Hans-Karl Freiherr von Willisen. In January 1934, they formed at Berlin-Oberschöneweide the company "Gesellschaft für Elektroakustische und Mechanische Apparate" (GEMA) for this work.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Development of a "Funkmessgerät für Untersuchung" (radio measuring device for reconnaissance) soon began in earnest at GEMA. Hans Hollmann and Theodor Schultes, both affiliated with the prestigious Heinrich Hertz Institute in Berlin, were added as consultants. The first development was a continuous-wave apparatus using Doppler-beat interference for detection. Kühnhold then shifted the GEMA work to a pulse-modulated system.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Using a 50 cm (600 MHz) magnetron from Philips, their first transmitter was modulated with 2-μs pulses at a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 2000 Hz. The transmitting antenna was an array of 10 pairs of dipoles with a reflecting mesh, and the receiving antenna had three pairs of dipoles and incorporated lobe switching. The wide-band regenerative receiver used an RCA 955 acorn triode. A blocking device (a duplexer), shut the receiver input when the transmitter pulsed. A Braun tube was used for displaying the range. It was first tested during May 1935 at the NVA site (from 1939 on: "Nachrichten-Versuchskommando"(NVK) (signals research command)) Pelzerhaken at the Bay of Lübeck near Neustadt in Holstein, detecting returns from woods across the bay at a range of 15 km (9.3 mi). In Germany, Kühnhold is often called the "Father of radar".


title: Radar in World War II

text: This first "Funkmessgerät" from GEMA incorporated more advanced technologies than early sets in Great Britain and the United States, but it appears radar received a much lower priority until later in World War II; by the start of the war, few had been fielded. To a large part, this was due to the lack of appreciation of this technology by the military hierarchy, especially at the top where dictator Adolf Hitler looked on radar as a defensive weapon, and his interest was in offensive hardware. This problem was compounded by the lackadaisical approach to command staffing. It was some time before the "Luftwaffe" had a command and control system nearly as effective as the one set up by the Royal Air Force in Great Britain before the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Wolfgang Martini, a career "Luftwaffe" officer, was the primary promoter of radar to the German High Command. Although not university educated, his grasp of this technology was instinctive and his involvement was perhaps the greatest impetus to the ultimate development of wartime radar in Germany. In 1941, he was elevated to "General der Luftnachrichtentruppe" (General of the Air Signal Corps) and remained in this position until the end of the war in May 1945.


title: Radar in World War II

text: All three branches of the combined Wehrmacht armed forces of Nazi Germany: the "Luftwaffe" (Air Force), the "Kriegsmarine" (Navy), and the "Heer" (Army); used German radar technology and hardware. Although a number of development laboratories were operated by these users, the vast majority of radars were supplied by four commercial firms: GEMA, Telefunken, Lorenz, and Siemens & Halske. Near the end of the war in 1945, GEMA led the German radar work, growing to over 6,000 employees.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The official designation of radar systems was FuMG ("Funkmessgerät", literally "Radio measuring device"), with most also with a letter (e.g., G, T, L, or S) indicating the manufacturer, as well as a number showing the year of release and possibly a letter or number giving the model. There was, however, a lack of uniformity in designations.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In early 1938, the "Kriegsmarine" funded GEMA for the development of two systems, one a gun-laying set and the other an air-warning set. In production, the first type became the 80-cm (380-MHz) "Flakleit", capable of directing fire on surface or air targets within an 80-km range. It had an antenna configuration very similar to the U.S. SCR-268. The fixed-position version, the "Flakleit-G", included a height-finder.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The second type developed by GEMA was the 2.5 m (120 MHz) "Seetakt". Throughout the war, GEMA provided a wide variety of "Seetakt" sets, mainly for ships but also for several types for U-boats. Most had an excellent range-measuring module called "Messkette" (measuring chain) that provided range accuracy within a few meters regardless of the total range. The shipboard "Seetakt" used a "mattress" antenna similar to the "bedspring" on the American CXAM.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Although the "Kriegsmarine" attempted to keep the GEMA from working with the other services, the "Luftwaffe" became aware of the "Seetakt" and ordered their own version in late 1938. Called the "Freya", this was a ground-based radar operating around 2.4 m (125 MHz) with 15-kW peak power giving a range of some 130 km. The basic "Freya" radar was continuously improved, with over 1,000 systems eventually built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In 1940, Josef Kammhuber used "Freyas" in a new air-defense network extending through the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Called the Kammhuber Line by the Allies, it was composed of a series of cells code-named "Himmelbett" (four-poster bed), each covering an area some 45 km wide and 30 km deep, and containing a radar, several searchlights, and a primary and backup night-fighter aircraft. This was relatively effective except when the sky was overcast. A new gun-directing radar was needed to cover this deficiency and the "Luftwaffe" then contracted with Telefunken for such a system.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Under the leadership of Wilhelm Runge, the new radar was built by Telefunken around a new triode capable of delivering 10-kW pulse power at 60 cm (500 MHz). Code-named "Würzburg" (the leading engineer Runge prefers code-names of German cities like Würzburg), this had a 3-m (10-ft) parabolic reflector supplied by the Zeppelin Company and was effective at a range of about 40 km for aircraft. Two of these radars were normally added to each "Himmelbett", one to pick up the target from a "Freya" and a second to track the fighter aircraft. Requiring only one operator, the "Würzburg" came to be the primary mobile, gun-laying system used by the "Luftwaffe" and "Heer" during the war. About 4,000 of the various versions of the basic system were eventually produced.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Air Defense System was continually upgraded. To improve the range and accuracy, Telefunken developed the "Würzburg-Riese" and GEMA enlarged the "Freya" dipoles to make the "Mammut" and the "Wassermann". The "Würzburg-Riese" (Giant "Würzburg") had a 7.5-m (25-foot) dish (another product from Zeppelin) that was mounted on a railway carriage. The system also had an increased transmitter power; combined with the enlarged reflector, this resulted in a range of up to 70 km, as well as greatly increased accuracy. About 1,500 of this radar system were built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The "Mammut" (mammoth) used 16 "Freyas" linked into a giant 30- by 10-meter (100- by 33-foot) antenna with phased array beam-directing, a technique that would eventually become standard in radars. It had a range up to 300 km and covered some 100 degrees in width with an accuracy of near 0.5 degree. About 30 sets were built, some with back-to-back faces for bi-directional coverage. The "Wassermann" (waterman), had eight "Freyas" also with phased-array antennas, stacked on a steerable, 56-meter (190-foot) tower and giving a range up to 240 km. A variant, "Wassermann-S", had the radars mounted on a tall cylinder. About 150 of all types were built starting in 1942.


title: Radar in World War II

text: A system with great range was needed to track the British and American bomber formations as they crossed Germany. For this function, consultants Theodor Schultes and Hans Hollmann designed an experimental 2.4-m (125-MHz), 30-kW radar called "Panorama". Built by Siemens & Halske in 1941, it was placed atop a concrete tower at Tremmen, a few kilometers south of Berlin. The antenna had 18 dipoles on a long, horizontal support and produced a narrow vertical beam; this rotated at 6 rpm to sweep out 360-degrees of coverage to about 110 km.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Based on the operation of "Panorama", Siemens & Halske improved this system, and renamed it "Jagdschloss" (hunting lodge). They added a second switchable operation to 150 kW at 1.2 m (250 MHz), increasing the range to near 200 km. The information from the receivers was sent via co-axial cable or a 50-cm link from the tower to a central command center, where it was used to direct fighter aircraft. Hollmann's polar-coordinate (PPI) CRT was used in the display, the first German system with this device; it was also added to the Panorama. The "Jagdschloss" entered service in late 1943, and about 80 systems were eventually built. The "Jagdwagen" (hunting car) was a mobile, single-frequency version; operating at 54 cm (560 MHz), it had a correspondingly smaller antenna system.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Under an internally funded project, the firm Lorenz AG developed a pulse-modulated set. The "Heer" contracted for a few sets for "Flak" (anti-aircraft) support, but then this mission was transferred to the "Luftwaffe". Over several years, Lorenz was unsuccessful in selling new versions called "Kurfürst" and "Kurmark" (both Holy Roman Imperial terms). As the war continued, a need was seen by the "Luftwaffe" for additional radars. Lorenz again modified their sets to become the "Tiefentwiel", a transportable system built to complement the "Freya" against low-flying aircraft, and the "Jagdwagen", a mobile unit used for air surveillance. These 54-cm (560-MHz) units with plan-position indicators, had two antennas backed by parabolic, mesh reflectors on rotatable, forked frames that lifted above the equipment cabin. Starting in 1944, both of these systems were produced by Lorenz for the "Luftwaffe" in relatively small numbers.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Although German researchers had developed magnetrons in the early 1930s (Hans Hollmann received a U.S. patent on his device in July 1938), none had been suitable for military radars. In February 1943, a British bomber containing a "H2S" radar was shot down over the Netherlands, and the 10-cm magnetron was found intact. In short order, the secret of making successful magnetrons was discovered, and microwave radar development started.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Telefunken was commissioned to build a gun-laying set for "Flak" applications, and at the beginning of 1944, a 10-cm set code-named "Marbach" emerged. Using a 3-m "Mannheim" reflector, this set had a detection range of about 30 km. Its most important characteristic was a relative immunity to Window – the chaff used by the British as a countermeasure against the 50-cm "Würzburg". The "Marbach" was produced in limited quantities for "Flak" batteries around a number of large industrial cities.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Several other 10-cm sets were developed, but none made it into mass production. One was "Jagdschloss Z", a Panorama-type experimental set with 100-kW pulse-power built by Siemens & Halske. "Klumbach" was a similar set but with only 15-kW pulse-power and using a cylindrical parabolic reflector to produce a very narrow beam; when used with "Marbach", the combined fire-control system was called "Egerland".


title: Radar in World War II

text: Near the end of 1943, the Germans also salvaged radars containing 3-cm magnetrons, but sets operating at this wavelength were never produced. They did, however, play an important role in the German development of countermeasures, particularly radar warning receivers.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In June 1941 an RAF bomber equipped with an "ASV" (Air-to-Surface Vessel) Mk II radar made an emergency landing in France. Although the crew had attempted to destroy the set, the remains were sufficient for the German Laboratory for Aviation to discern the operation and its function. Tests indicated the merits of such a radar, and Wolfgang Martini also saw the value and tasked Lorenz to develop a similar system.


title: Radar in World War II

text: With backgrounds in aircraft navigation equipment and experience in developing their internally funded ground-radar systems, Lorenz had excellent capabilities for this project. Before the end of the year, they had built a set based on their "Kurfürst/Kurmark" design, but greatly reduced in size and weight, and with improved electronics. Designated FuG 200 "Hohentwiel", it produced 50-kW pulse-power at low-UHF band frequencies (545 MHz) and had a very low PRF of 50 Hz. The set used two separate antenna arrangements, providing searching either forward or side-looking.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The "Hohentwiel" demonstration detected a large ship at 80 km, a surfaced submarine at 40 km, a submarine periscope at 6 km, aircraft at 10 to 20 km, and land features at 120 to 150 km. A bearing accuracy of about 1 degree was obtained by rapidly switching between two receiver antennas aimed 30 degrees on each side of the transmitter antenna direction. Put into production in 1942, the "Hohentwiel" was highly successful. It was first used on large reconnaissance aircraft such as the Fw 200 Condor. In 1943, the "Hohentwiel-U", an adaptation for use on submarines, provided a range of 7 km for surface vessels and 20 km for aircraft. Altogether, some 150 sets per month were delivered.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The use of the accurate "Freya" and "Würzburg" radars in their air-defense systems allowed the Germans to have a somewhat less vigorous approach to the development of airborne radar. Unlike the British, whose inaccurate CH systems demanded some sort of system in the aircraft, the "Würzburg" was accurate enough to allow them to leave the radar on the ground. This came back to haunt them when the British discovered the mode of operation of the "Himmelbett" tactic, and the development of an airborne system became much more important.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In early 1941, Air Defense recognized the need for radar on their night-fighter aircraft. The requirements were given to Runge at Telefunken, and by the summer a prototype system was tested. Code-named "Lichtenstein", this was originally a low-UHF band, (485-MHz), 1.5-kW system in its earliest "B/C" model, generally based on the technology now well established by Telefunken for the Würzburg. The design problems were reduction in weight, provision of a good minimum range (very important for air-to-air combat), and an appropriate antenna design. An excellent minimum range of 200 m was achieved by carefully shaping the pulse. The "Matratze" (mattress) antenna array in its full form had sixteen dipoles with reflectors (a total of 32 elements), giving a wide searching field and a typical 4-km maximum range (limited by ground clutter and dependent on altitude), but producing a great deal of aerodynamic drag. A rotating phase-shifter was inserted in the transmission lines to produce a twirling beam. The elevation and azimuth of a target relative to the fighter were shown by corresponding positions on a triple-tube CRT display.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The first production sets ("Lichtenstein B/C") became available in February 1942, but were not accepted into combat until September. The "Nachtjäger" (night fighter) pilots found to their dismay, that the 32-element "Matratze" array was slowing their aircraft up by as much as 50 km/h. In May 1943, a "B/C"-equipped Ju 88R-1 night fighter aircraft landed in Scotland, which still survives as a restored museum piece; it had been flown into Scotland by a trio of defecting "Luftwaffe" pilots. The British immediately recognized that they already had an excellent countermeasure in Window (the chaff used against the "Würzburg"); in a short time the "B/C" was greatly reduced in usefulness.


title: Radar in World War II

text: When the chaff problem was realized by Germany, it was decided to make the wavelength variable, allowing the operator to tune away from chaff returns. In mid-1943, the greatly improved "Lichtenstein SN-2" was released, operating with a VHF band wavelength changeable between 3.7 and 4.1 m (81 to 73 MHz). The British took longer to find jamming for the "SN-2", but this was eventually accomplished after July 1944. The much longer set of eight dipole elements for the full "Hirschgeweih" (stag's antlers) antenna array replaced the set of thirty-two elements of the "Matratze" array from the UHF-band B/C and C-1 sets, but with the early SN-2 sets having a deficient minimum range of about half a kilometer, aircraft often needed to retain the earlier gear to make up for this until the deficiency was addressed. This sometimes resulted in full sets of both "Matratze" and "Hirschgeweih" antennas festooning the noses of German night fighters, causing a disastrous problem with drag until a "one-quarter" subset of the "Matratze" array was created for a centrally mounted installation on the nose, replacing the full four-set UHF array. Then, as the minimum range problem was worked out with the SN-2 sets later in 1943, the earlier UHF-band B/C and C-1 sets and their antennas could be removed entirely. As the planned replacement for the "Lichtenstein" series of sets, the government-developed Neptun radar, operating on yet a third set of different mid-VHF band frequencies (from 125 MHz to 187 MHz) to avoid "Window" interference, was placed in production by early 1944, and could use the same "Hirschgweih" antennas—with shorter dipoles fitted—as the SN-2 sets had used. By the 1943-44 timeframe, the SN-2 and Neptun radars could also use the experimental "Morgenstern" German AI VHF-band radar antenna, using twin 90°-angled three-dipole pairs of Yagi antennas mounted to a single forward-projecting mast, making it possible to fair the array for drag reduction purposes within a conical, rubber-covered plywood radome on an aircraft's nose, with the extreme tips of the Morgenstern's antenna elements protruding from the radome's surface. At least one Ju 88G-6 night fighter of the NJG 4 night fighter wing's staff flight used it late in the war for its Lichtenstein SN-2 AI radar installation.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Although Telefunken had not been previously involved with radars of any type for fighter aircraft, in 1944 they started the conversion of a "Marbach" 10-cm set for this application. Downed American and British planes were scavenged for radar components; of special interest were the swiveling mechanisms used to scan the beam over the search area. An airborne set with a half-elliptical radome enclosed dish antenna, code-named FuG 240 "Berlin" was completed in January 1945, and about 40 sets were built and placed on night-fighter aircraft. A few sets, code named "Berlin-S", were also built for shipboard surveillance.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In the years prior to World War II, Japan had knowledgeable researchers in the technologies necessary for radar; they were especially advanced in magnetron development. However, a lack of appreciation of radar's potential and rivalry between army, navy and civilian research groups meant Japan's development was slow. It was not until November 1941, just days before the attack on Pearl Harbor, that Japan placed into service its first full radar system. In August 1942, U.S. marines captured one of these first systems, and, although crude even by the standards of early U.S. radars, the fact the Japanese had any radar capability came as a surprise. Japanese radar technology was 3 to 5 years behind that of America, Great Britain, and Germany throughout the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: A major leader in early technology development was Hidetsugu Yagi, a professor and researcher of international status. His papers in the late 1920s on antennas and magnetron design were closely studied by scientists and engineers worldwide. He was allowed no part, however, in developing Japan's wartime radars. His earlier work was given so little attention by the Japanese military that, when they received a captured British radar set, at first they were unaware that the "Yagi" mentioned in accompanying notes referred to a Japanese invention.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Although Japan had joined Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in a Tripartite Pact in 1936, there had been essentially no exchange of technical information. This changed in December 1940 when a group of Japanese officers representing Army technology was allowed to visit Germany, followed in January by a similar group from the Navy. In the visit, the Japanese were shown some German radars and a British MRU (their earliest searchlight-control radar), left behind during the Dunkirk evacuation. In addition, German-educated Yoji Ito, leader of the Navy delegation, was able to obtain information from the host on the MRU's pulsed operation. Ito immediately sent this information home by diplomatic courier, and work was started by the Navy on Japan's first true radar.


title: Radar in World War II

text: After war was started with the United States in December 1941, the Germans shipped a "Würzburg" radar to Japan. The submarine carrying this equipment was sunk on the way, and a second set met the same fate; however, some key hardware and documentation, sent on a separate vessel, made it safely.


title: Radar in World War II

text: When Singapore was taken by Japan in February 1942, the remains of what turned out to be a British GL Mk-2 radar and a Searchlight Control (SLC) radar were found. Along with the hardware, there was a set of hand-written notes, giving details of the theory and operation of the SLC. At Corregidor the following May, the captors found two U.S. Army radars, an SCR-268 in operating condition and a heavily damaged SCR-270. In a rare cooperative effort, the Army and Navy jointly conducted reverse engineering on these sets.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Tama Technology Research Institute (TTRI) was formed by the Army to lead in what was called Radio Range-Finder (RRF) development. TTRI was staffed with competent personnel, but most of their developmental work was done by contractors at the research laboratories of Toshiba Shibaura Denki (Toshiba) and Nippon Electric Company (NEC).


title: Radar in World War II

text: The TTRI established a system for designating the Army radar equipment, based on its use. The prefixes were Ta-Chi (written herein as Tachi) for land-based systems, Ta-Se for shipborne systems, and Ta-Ki for airborne systems. The "Ta" denoted Tama, the "Chi" was from tsuchi (earth), the "Se" means mizu (water) rapids, and "Ki" was from kuki (air).


title: Radar in World War II

text: In June 1942, both NEC and Toshiba started projects based on the SCR-268. The American system operated at 1.5 m (200 MHz). It had a very complex set of three antennas on a horizontal, rotatable boom and used lobe switching. The NEC project was for a target-tracking system designated Tachi-1, essentially a copy of the SCR-268. The duplication of this system was found to be too difficult, and Tachi-1 was soon abandoned. At Toshiba, the project was also for a target-tracking system designated Tachi-2. This was to incorporate many simplifications to the SCR-268. Preliminary tests showed that it would be too fragile for field operation; this project was also abandoned.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The British GL Mk 2 was much less complicated than the SCR-268 and was easily reverse engineered; in addition, the notes on the SLC were available. From this came the Tachi-3, a ground-based tracking radar. This included many significant changes to the original British system; foremost were a change to a fixed-location configuration and a totally different antenna system.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Tachi-3 transmitter operated at 3.75 m (80 MHz), and produced about 50-kW peak power, with 1- to 2-ms pulse width and 1- or 2-kHz PRF. The transmitter was designed for enclosure in an underground shelter. It used a Yagi antenna that was rigidly mounted above the shelter and the entire unit could be rotated in azimuth. By phasing the antenna elements, some elevation change could be attained.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The receiver for Tachi-3 was located in another underground shelter about 30-m distance from the transmitter. Four dipole antennas were mounted on orthogonal arms, and the shelter and antennas rotated to scan in azimuth. The maximum range was about 40 km. NEC built some 150 of these sets, and they finally entered service in early 1944.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The follow-on project at Toshiba was designated Tachi-4. This was for a ground-based tracking radar, again using the SCR-268 as a pattern. Still with the original 1.5 m (200 MHz) operation, this set performed reasonably well, and about 70 sets were produced. These began service in mid-1944; however, by then the Tachi-3 was available and was superior in performance.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Engineers at Toshiba had already begun work on a pulse-modulated system. With the arrival of the damaged SCR-270, portions were incorporated into the ongoing development of a fixed-site, early-warning system designated Tachi-6. The transmitter operated in the 3- to 4-m (100- to 75-MHz) band with a peak power of 50 kW. It used a dipole-array antenna atop a tall pole. Multiple receiver stations were spaced about 100 m around the transmitter. Each of these had a hand-rotated pole with Yagi antennas at two levels, allowing azimuth and elevation measurements. One receiver station could track an aircraft while the others were searching. Ranges up to 300 km were attained and shown on a CRT display. This went into service in early 1943; about 350 Tachi-6 systems were eventually built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: A transportable version of this early-warning system was added. Designated Tachi-7, the primary difference was that the transmitter with a folding antenna was on a pallet. About 60 of these were built. This was followed in 1944 with the Tachi-18, a much lighter, further simplified version that could be carried with troops. Several hundred of these "portable" sets were built, and a number were found as the Japanese vacated distant occupied territory. All of these continued to operate in the 3- to 4-m band.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Other land-based radars developed by the Imperial Army included two height-finder sets, Tachi-20 and Tachi-35, but they were too late to be put into service. There was also Tachi-28, a radar-based aircraft guidance set. The TTRI also developed the Tachi-24, their slightly modified version of the German "Würzburg" radar, but this was never put into production.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Imperial Army had its own ships, ranging in size from attack motorboats to large landing crafts. For these, they developed Tase-1 and Tase-2, both anti-surface radars. The Imperial Army also had its own Air Divisions with fighters, bombers, transports, and reconnaissance aircraft. Only two systems were developed for these aircraft: Taki-1, an airborne surveillance radar in three models, and Taki-11, an airborne electronic countermeasures (ECM) set.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Naval Technical Research Institute (NTRI) began work on a pulse-modulated system in August 1941, even before Yoji Ito returned from Germany. With assistance from NEC (Nippon Electric Company) and the Research Laboratory of NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), a prototype set was developed on a crash basis. Kenjiro Takayanagi, Chief Engineer of NHK, developed the pulse-forming and timing circuits as well as the receiver display. The prototype was tested in early September.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The system, Japan's first full radar, was designated Mark 1 Model 1. (This type of designation is shortened herein to the numbers only; e.g., Type 11.) The system operated at 3.0 m (100 MHz) with a peak-power of 40 kW. Dipole arrays with mat-type reflectors were used in separate antennas for transmitting and receiving. In November 1941, the first manufactured Type 11 was placed into service as a land-based early-warning radar on the Pacific coast. A large system, it weighed close to . Some 30 sets were built and used throughout the war. The detection range was about for single aircraft and for groups.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Type 12, another land-based early-warning system, followed during 1942. It was similar to its predecessor but lighter in weight (about ) and on a movable platform. Three versions were made; they operated at either 2.0 m (150 MHz) or 1.5 m (200 MHz), each with a peak-power of only 5 kW. The lower power significantly reduced the range. About 50 sets of all versions of these systems were built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Another similar system was the Type 21. Fundamentally, it was the 200-MHz version of the Type 12 redesigned for shipboard use and weighing only about . The first sets were installed on the battleships and in April 1942. About 40 sets were eventually built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In this same time period, the more use-flexible Type 13 was also being designed. Operating at 2.0 m (150 MHz) and with a peak power of 10 kW, this set included a major advancement. A unit duplexer had been developed to allow the use of a common antenna. With a weight of (a small fraction of that of the Type 11), this system could be readily used on shipboard as well as at land stations. Its detection range was about the same as the Type 12. It was placed into service in late 1942, and by 1944 it had also been adapted for use on surfaced submarines. With some 1,000 sets eventually being built, the Type 13 was by far the most used air- and surface-search radar of the Imperial Navy.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Type 14 was a shipboard system designed for long-range, air-search applications. With a peak power of 100 kW and operating at 6 m (50 MHz), this weighed . Only two of these systems were placed in service in May 1945, just at the end of the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Imperial Navy built two radars based on the captured SCR-268. The Type 41 was electronically like the original, but with two large dipole array antennas and configured for shipboard, fire-control applications. About 50 of these were built, and it went into service in August 1943. The Type 42 had more revisions, including a change to using four Yagi antennas. Some 60 were built and put into service in October 1944. Both systems had a range of about 40 km.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The NTRI made minimal changes to the 60 cm (500-MHz) "Würzburg", mainly converting the oscillator from vacuum tubes to a magnetron. The result was the Type 23 anti-ship, fire-control radar intended for cruisers and larger ships. With the change to a magnetron, the output was approximately halved to a peak-power of about 5 kW; this gave a range of only for detecting most surface ships. Although the prototype was completed in March 1944, only a few sets were built, and it was never put into serial production.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Japan Radio Company (JRC) had long worked with the NTRI in developing magnetrons. In early 1941, JRC was given a contract by NTRI to design and build a microwave surface-detection system for warships. Designated Type 22, this used a pulse-modulated, 10 cm (3.0 GHz) magnetron with water-cooling and producing 2 kW peak-power. The receiver was a super-heterodyne type with a low-power magnetron serving as the local oscillator. Separate horn antennas were used for transmitting and receiving. These were mounted on a common platform that could be rotated in the horizontal plane. Since it was Japan's first full set using a magnetron, Yoji Ito was made responsible and gave it special attention.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The prototype for the Type 22 was completed in October 1941; tests showed that it detected single aircraft at , groups of aircraft at , and surface ships at over (depending on the height of the antenna above the sea). The first Japanese warships with microwave radar received these in March 1942, and by late 1944, microwave radar was widely in use on surface vessels and submarines; about 300 Type 22 sets were built.


title: Radar in World War II

text: With the poor range of the Type 23 (the "Würzburg" copy), development was started on three microwave systems for fire-control applications. The Type 31 operated at 10 cm (3 GHz) and, like the "Würzburg", used a common parabolic reflector. While the prototype could detect larger ships at up to 35 km, it was not completed until March 1945 and was never placed into production.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Type 32 was another 10 cm system, this one having separate square-horn antennas. Detection range for large ships was about 30 km. It became operational in September 1944, and some 60 sets were produced. Type 33 was still another 10 cm set; this one used separate round-horn antennas. The prototype was completed in August 1944, but like the Type 23, detection range was only 13 km and it was not put into production.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Imperial Navy had a large number of aircraft. It was almost a year after the start of the war, however, before the first airborne set was developed at the Oppama Naval Air Technical Depot (ONATD). Initially designated Type H-6, with a number of experimental sets built, this was eventually produced as the Type 64 and began service in August 1942. The greatest developmental problem was in bringing the weight down to that allowable for an aircraft; was eventually achieved.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Intended for both air and surface search, the Type 64 operated at 2 m (150 MHz) with a peak power of 3 to 5 kW and a pulse width of 10 ms. It used a single Yagi antenna in the nose of the aircraft and dipoles on each side of the fuselage, and could detect large surface vessels or flights of planes at up to . This set was initially used on H8K-class four-engine flying boats, then later on a variety of mid-sized attack planes and torpedo bombers. It was by far the most used airborne radar, with about 2,000 sets produced.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Development continued on lighter-weight systems at the ONATD. The Type N-6 weighing was available in October 1944, but only 20 sets were built. This was a 1.2 m (250-MHz), 2 kW experimental set intended for a single-engine, three-place (pilot, gunner, and radar operator) fighter aircraft. Another was the Type FM-3; operating at 2 m (150 MHz) with 2 kW peak-power, this weighed 60 kg and had a detection range up to . Specifically designed for the Kyūshū Q1W "Tokai", a new two-engine three-place anti-submarine aircraft, about 100 sets were built, going into service in January 1945.


title: Radar in World War II

text: With assistance from the NTRI and Yoji Ito, the ONATD also developed Japan's only airborne microwave radar. Designated FD-2 (sometimes FD-3), this was a magnetron-based, 25 cm (1.2-GHz), 2 kW set weighing about 70 kg. It could detect aircraft at a range between , satisfactory for close-range night-fighter aircraft such as the Nakajima J1N1-S "Gekko". It used four Yagi antennas mounted in the nose area; separate elements for transmit and receive were skewed for searching. Unlike in the air warfare in Europe, there were few night-fighter aircraft used by Japan; consequently, it was mid-1944 before the Type FD-2 was put into use. Some 100 sets were manufactured.


title: Radar in World War II

text: When magnetrons were being developed in Japan, the initial primary application was intended to be power transmission, not radar. As these devices increased in output energy, their application for a weapon became apparent. For research in special weapons, a large facility was built in Shimada. In 1943, a project in developing a "Ku-go" (Death Ray) using magnetrons began. By the end of the war, magnetrons developing 100 kW continuous power at 75 cm (400 MHz) had been built, and the intent was apparently to couple 10 of these to produce a beam of 1,000 kW. Essentially all of the equipment and documents at Shimada were destroyed before the Americans reached the facility.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The first radar prototypes in Italy were developed as early as 1935 by electronics researcher Ugo Tiberio who, after graduating in 1927 from the Royal School of Engineering in Naples, published some papers on electromagnetism and, during his military service, was posted to the Military Communications Institute in Rome where Colonel Luigi Sacco - after having observed some experiments made by Guglielmo Marconi on the reflection of radio waves - gave him the task to verify whether these properties of radio waves could be used to find the location of distant objects.


title: Radar in World War II

text: After his discharge from the Royal Army, Tiberio's work came to the attention of Nello Carrara, a professor at the Italian Naval Academy of Livorno, who obtained for him a commission as Lieutenant in order to allow him to further his research at the Academy. This led to the development in the period 1936–1937 of the first functioning prototype of a naval radar, the EC-1 nicknamed ""Gufo"" (owl).


title: Radar in World War II

text: Notwithstanding their achievement, conducted under the supervision of Navy Captain Alfeo Brandimarte, the project was stalled due to the lack of funding and resources, as both Tiberi and Carrara had to attend their teaching duties and could only do research in their spare time. Furthermore, notwithstanding the efforts of Capt. Brandimarte in bringing the importance of the device to the Italian Royal Navy's higher echelons, his perorations were met with arrogance and disbelief. One admiral went so far to tell him that: ""In the whole history of naval warfare, battles have taken place during daytime, therefore the fact that your device could locate enemy ships in nighttime is completely useless!"".


title: Radar in World War II

text: This attitude lasted until 1941, when interest in the radar was abruptly revived soon after the Italian navy suffered a series of heavy setbacks in night actions against the radar-equipped units of the Royal Navy, especially that of the Battle of Cape Matapan where over 3,000 sailors and officers were lost at sea without managing to fire a single shot.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The first tests were conducted on board the torpedo boat in April 1941. The radar sets were produced by the Italian company SAFAR. Only 12 devices had been installed on board Italian warships by 8 September 1943, the day Italy signed an armistice with the Allies. Beginning in the spring of 1943, the recommendation of the Italian High Command was to switch the radar on only in proximity of enemy forces, after an incorrect German advisory that the British had radar warning receivers similar to the Metox. The Allies, however, did not develop such technology until 1944. In spite of this, it has been reported that the crews made a wide use of the Gufo as a search radar, omitting to mention it on the ship's logbook to avoid sanctions.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The radar was used in combat by the light cruiser on the night of 17 July 1943, while on passage from La Spezia to Taranto, when she detected a flotilla of four British Elco motor torpedo boats five miles ahead in the strait of Messina. One of the motor boats, MTB 316, was destroyed by the cruiser's guns, and another one was seriously damaged. Twelve British seamen lost their lives.


title: Radar in World War II

text: After Italy's armistice in September 1943, all the documentation pertaining to the research and development of the "Gufo" and of its ground-based version, named ""Folaga"" (coot) and built by Radiomarelli, was destroyed by order of the Italian Royal Navy Command to prevent it from falling in the hands of the occupying Nazi troops. Brandimarte, who had been promoted to Lt. Commander due to his achievements in developing the radar, joined the Italian anti-fascist resistance movement and was taken prisoner and subsequently executed by the Germans in 1944.


title: Radar in World War II

text: When war with Germany was believed to be inevitable, Great Britain shared its secrets of RDF (radar) with the Commonwealth dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa – and asked that they develop their own capabilities for indigenous systems. After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, Great Britain and the Commonwealth Nations declared war with Germany. Within a short time, all four of the Commonwealth Nations had locally designed radar systems in operation, and most continued with developments throughout the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: After Australia declared war on Germany in September 1939, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research established the Radiophysics Laboratory (RPL) at the University of Sydney to conduct radar research. Led by John H. Piddington, their first project produced a shore-defense system, designated "ShD", for the Australian Army. This was followed by the "AW Mark 1", an air-warning system for the Australian Air Force. These both operated at 200 MHz (1.5 m).


title: Radar in World War II

text: War on Japan began in December 1941, and Japanese planes attacked Darwin, Northern Territory the following February. The New South Wales Railways Engineering Group was asked by the RPL to design a lightweight antenna for the air warning radar, also known as the Worledge Aerial. "LW/AW Mark I."


title: Radar in World War II

text: From this, the "LW/AW Mark II" resulted; about 130 of these air-transportable sets were built and used by the United States and Australian military forces in the early island landings in the South Pacific, as well as by the British in Burma.


title: Radar in World War II

text: American troops arriving in Australia in 1942–43, brought many SCR-268 radar systems with them. Most of these were turned over to the Australians, who rebuilt them to become "Modified Air Warning Devices" ("MAWDs"). These 200-MHz systems were deployed at 60 sites around Australia. During 1943–44, the RPL involved a staff of 300 persons working on 48 radar projects, many associated with improvements on the "LW/AW". Height-finding was added ("LW/AWH"), and complex displays converted it into a ground-control intercept system ("LW/GCI"). There was also a unit for low-flying aircraft ("LW/LFC"). Near the end of the war in 1945, the RPL was working on a microwave height-finding system ("LW/AWH Mark II").


title: Radar in World War II

text: Of the four Commonwealth Nations, Canada had by far the most extensive wartime involvement in radar. The major responsibility was with the National Research Council of Canada (NRCC), specifically its Radio Branch headed by John Tasker Henderson. Their first effort was in developing a surface-warning system for the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) to protect the Halifax Harbour entrance. Called "Night Watchman" ("NW"), this 200-MHz (1.5-m), 1-kW set was completed in July 1940.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In September 1940, on their trip to the United States for cooperative exchanges, the Tizard Mission visited Canada and recommended that Great Britain use Canadian personnel and facilities to supplement the British programs. Research Enterprises, Ltd. (REL), was then established to manufacture radar and optical equipment.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The next system was a ship-borne set designated "Surface Warning 1st Canadian" ("SW1C") for corvettes and merchant ships. The basic electronics were similar to the NW, but it initially used a Yagi antenna that was turned using an automobile steering wheel. It was first tested at sea in mid-May 1941. The project engineer from the NRCC was H. Ross Smith, who remained in charge of projects for the RCN throughout the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In early 1942, the frequency of the "SW1C" was changed to 215 MHz (1.4 m) and an electric drive was added to rotate the antenna. It was known as the "SW2C" and produced by the REL for corvettes and mine sweepers. A lighter version, designated "SW3C", followed for small vessels such as motor torpedo boats. A plan-position indicator (PPI) display was added in 1943. Several hundred SW sets were eventually produced by the REL.


title: Radar in World War II

text: For coastal defence by the Canadian Army, a 200-MHz set with a transmitter similar to the NW was developed. Designated "CD", it used a large, rotating antenna atop a 70-foot wooden tower. Since the firing battalion would be some distance away, a "displace corrector" automatically compensated for this separation. The "CD" was put into operation in January 1942


title: Radar in World War II

text: Following the Tizard Mission meetings in Washington, it was decided that Canada would build a microwave gun-laying system for the Canadian Army. This 10-cm (3-GHz) system was designated "GL IIIC", the "C" to distinguish it from similar systems being developed in America ("A") and Great Britain ("B"). (Eventually the U.S. system was the "SCR-584".) A local source of magnetrons was vital, and the National Electric Company (NEC) in Montreal began manufacturing these devices.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The "GL IIIC" was housed in two trailers, one with a rotating cabin and one fixed. The rotating one was called the Accurate Position Finder and held the primary equipment and separate antennas with parabolic reflectors for transmitting and receiving. The other trailer carried the Zone Position Indicator, a 150-MHz (2-m) radar that found the position of all aircraft within the system's coverage.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In mid-1941, the REL received orders for 660 "GL IIIC" systems. In July, a very satisfactory demonstration of the prototype system was held, and by December, the first six systems had been built. During 1942 and into the next year, there were many technical and administrative problems. In September 1943, a decision was made to use the British and American systems in liberating Europe; thus, the large REL order was never filled.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Success at the Radio Branch with the 10-cm experimental set for the Army led the RCN to request a ship-borne, early-warning microwave set. A separate Microwave Section was formed and development of a 10-cm (3-GHz) set designated "RX/C" was initiated in September 1941. Due to many changes in requirements from the RCN, the first sets were not available until July 1943. The "RX/C" incorporated many of the characteristics of the "SW" sets, but had a PPI display and a parabolic-reflector antenna. Further sets were produced by the REL and used throughout the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The Admiralty in Great Britain asked about Canada's interest and capability in manufacturing 3-cm magnetrons. This led to the development of a 3-cm device by the NEC and a full 3-cm (10-GHz) radar for small crafts. In May 1942, the British Admiralty gave a formal purchase order for these developments. The set was designated "Type 268" (not to be confused with the "SCR-268" from the U.S. Signal Corps), and was particularly designed to detect a submarine snorkel. With extensive testing and subsequent changes, full-scale production did not start until December 1944. About 1,600 "Type 268" sets were manufactured before the end of the war.


title: Radar in World War II

text: While the Canadian Army was basically satisfied with the 200-MHz "CD" systems, it did ask for an improvement to 10-cm operation. Since the Microwave Section was then well experienced in these systems, they easily provided a design. Before even a prototype was built, the Army gave an order to the REL for a number of sets designated "CDX". Production started in February 1943, but only 19 sets were actually delivered with 5 of these going to the USSR.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In the spring of 1943, German submarines started operating just outside the Saint Lawrence Seaway – the primary ship route from Canada to Great Britain. To counter this, the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) asked that 12 sets of a long-range microwave system be built. A magnetron producing 300 kW at 10.7 cm (2.8 GHz) was developed by the firm NEC. For radiating a narrow horizontal beam to sweep the sea surface, a slotted antenna 32 by 8 feet in size was designed by William H. Watson at McGill University. The system was designated "MEW/AS" ("Microwave Early Warning Anti Submarine").


title: Radar in World War II

text: The transmitting and receiving equipment was located behind the antenna, and the assembly could be rotated at up to 6 RPM. The controls and PPI display was in a nearby fixed building. This could detect targets at up to 120-miles (196-km) range. A second version, designed for detecting high-flying aircraft, was designated "MEW/HF" ("Height Finding"). In this, the power could be switched to a smaller, rotating antenna that gave a narrow vertical beam. The RCAF put both versions of the "MEW" into operation at several sites in Newfoundland, Quebec, and Ontario.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In addition to the radar sets previously described, many others were designed at the NRCC's Radio Branch during the war years – a total of 30 of all types. Of these, 12 types were turned over to the REL where they were built in quantities varying from a few to hundreds; altogether, some 3,000 were produced before the REL was closed in September 1946.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In late 1939, the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) established two facilities for RDF development – one, led by Charles Watson and George Munro (Watson-Munro) was at the Radio Section of the Central NZ Post Office in Wellington, and the other, under the responsibility of Frederick White, was at Canterbury University College in Christchurch.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The objective of the Wellington group was to develop land-based and airborne RDF sets for detecting incoming vessels and a set to assist in gun-directing at coastal batteries. Within a few months, they had converted a 180-MHz (1.6-m), 1-kW transmitter from the Post Office to be pulse-modulated and used it in a system called "CW" ("Coastal Watching"). The "CW" was followed by a similar, improved system called "CD" ("Coast Defense"); it used a CRT for display and had lobe switching on the receiving antenna. This was placed into service at the Devonport Naval Base at Auckland. In this same period, a partially completed ASV 200-MHz set from Great Britain was made into an airborne set for the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF). About 20 sets were built and put into service. All three of these radars were placed into service before the end of 1940.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The group at Christchurch was to develop a set for shipboard detection of aircraft and other vessels, and a companion set for directing naval gunfire. This was a smaller staff and the work went much slower, but by July 1940, they had developed an experimental VHF fire-control set and tested it on the Armed Merchant Cruiser "Monowai". This was then improved to become the 430 MHz (70 cm) "SWG" ("Ship Warning, Gunnery"), and in August 1941 went into service on the "Archilles" and "Leander", Cruisers transferred to the newly formed Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN).


title: Radar in World War II

text: The same basic equipment was used by the Christchurch group in developing a ship-based air- and surface-warning system. The primary difference was that the "SW" antennas could be directed in elevation for aircraft detection. Designated "SW" ("Ship Warning"), it was usually installed together with the "SWG". Eight of each type were eventually accepted by the RNZN. A number of SWGs were also built for the British fleet stationed in Singapore; some of these with their manuals were captured by the Japanese in early 1942.


title: Radar in World War II

text: After sending engineers to the Rad Lab in the United States to study their products, a project to develop mobile 10-cm (3-GHz) systems for coast-watching and surface-fire-control that might be used throughout the Pacific. With a great demand for such systems, an experimental unit was developed and tested before the end of 1942.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Designated "ME", the electronics was mounted in the cabin of a 10-wheel truck and a second truck carried the power generator and workshop. Equipment was built in both Christchurch and Wellington. The radar had a single parabolic antenna was on the roof, and a plan-position indicator CRT was used, the first such in New Zealand. The first of these went into service in early 1943 in support of a U.S. torpedo-boat base in the Solomon Islands. Some of the "MD" radars were used to replace 200-MHz "CW" sets, and several systems were built for operation on RNZN minesweepers.


title: Radar in World War II

text: As the Allies progressed upward in the Pacific, a need arose for a long-range warning set that could be quickly set up following an invasion. The RDL took this as a project in late 1942, and in few months six "Long-Range Air Warning" ("LWAW") systems were available. These operated at 100 MHz (3 m) and, like the microwave sets, were mounted in trucks. A single Yagi antenna was normally used, but there was also a broadside array that could be used when a more permanent operation was established. The range using the Yagi was near 150 km; this increased to over 200 km with the broadside.


title: Radar in World War II

text: From the start in late 1939, 117 radar sets of all types were built in New Zealand, all by small groups; no types were ever put into serial production. After 1943, little such equipment was produced in the country, and RNZN warships were then provided with British outfits to replace the earlier New Zealand sets.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Like in Great Britain, RDF (radar) development in South Africa emerged from a research organization centering on lightning instrumentation: the Bernard Price Institute (BPI) for Geophysical Research, a unit of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. When Prime Minister Jan Smuts was told of this new technology, he requested that the resources of BPI be devoted to this effort for the duration of the war. Basil Schonland, a world-recognized authority on lightning detection and analysis, was appointed to head the effort.


title: Radar in World War II

text: With nothing more than copies of some "vague documents" and notes provided by New Zealand's representative at the briefings in England, Schonland and a small team started the development in late September 1939. Before the end of November, the various elements of the system were completed, all by using locally available components. These were assembled in separate vehicles for the transmitter and receiver.


title: Radar in World War II

text: The transmitter operated at 90 MHz (3.3 m) and had a power of about 500 W. The pulse was 20-μs in width and the PRF was 50 Hz, synchronized with the power-line. The receiver was super-regenerative, using type 955 and 956 Acorn tubes in the front end and a 9-MHz IF amplifier. Separate, rotatable antennas with stacked pairs of full-wave dipoles were used for transmitting and receiving. The beams were about 30 degrees wide, but the azimuth of the reflected signal was determined more precisely by using a goniometer. Pulses were displayed on the CRT of a commercial oscilloscope.


title: Radar in World War II

text: Before the end of the year, a full system had been assembled and detected a water tank at a distance of about 8 km. Improvements were made on the receiver, and the transmitter pulse-power was increased to 5 kW. Designated "JB-1" (for Johannesburg), the prototype system was taken to near Durban on the coast for operational testing. There it detected ships on the Indian Ocean, as well as aircraft at ranges to 80 km.


title: Radar in World War II

text: In early March 1940, the first "JB-1" system was deployed to Mambrui on the coast of Kenya, assisting an anti-aircraft Brigade in intercepting attacking Italian bombers, tracking them up to . During early 1941, six systems were deployed to East Africa and Egypt; "JB" systems were also placed at the four main South African ports.


title: Radar in World War II

text: An improved system, designated "JB-3", was built at the BPI; the most important changes were the use of a transmit-receive device (a duplexer) allowing a common antenna, and an increase in frequency to 120 MHz (2.5 m). The range increased to 150 km for aircraft and 30 km for small ships, with a bearing accuracy of 1–2 degrees. Twelve sets of "JB-3" radars began deployment around the South African coast in June 1941.


title: Radar in World War II

text: By mid-1942, British radars were available to meet all new South African needs. Thus, no further developments were made at the BPI. Most of the staff joined the military. Basil Schonland, as a Lt. Colonel in the South African Army, went to Great Britain to serve as Superintendent of the Army Operational Research Group and later the scientific advisor to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery.


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Ian Brennan (born April 23, 1978) is an American screenwriter, director and actor. He is known for his work on the American television shows "Glee", "Scream Queens", "The Politician", and "".


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Brennan is the son of John and Charman Brennan. He is Irish Catholic and his father was a Paulist priest. Brennan spent four years at Prospect High School in Mount Prospect, Illinois during the mid-1990s, and was a member of the school show choir, which he did not find particularly enjoyable. He was friends with actress Jennifer Morrison. Brennan aspired to be an actor, and as his high school musical director was also the show choir director, he joined the choir to enhance his chance of being cast in musical productions. Brennan credits his high school theatre director John Marquette for inspiring him to act. The character Will Schuester in "Glee" is partially based on Marquette. Brennan went on to study theatre at Loyola University Chicago. He graduated in 2000, and acted for a time in Chicago, studying at The Second City Training Center and working with the Steppenwolf and Goodman Theatres, before moving to New York City to continue his acting career. He has performed in off-Broadway plays at the Vineyard, Playwrights Horizons and MCC Theatres. His early writing experience was limited to sketch pieces in high school and college plays he describes as "terrible".


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Brennan conceived the idea for "Glee" based on his own experience as a member of the Prospect High School show choir. He explained: "I find it interesting that there is something in everybody, a longing for something transcendent, particularly in a place like Mt. Prospect, a place that's very suburban and normal and plain. Even in places like that, there's this desire to shine. That's fascinating and very funny to me, especially when people try to accomplish this through show choir – which, to me, is inherently a little ridiculous." In 2005, a choir director at Prospect High was accused of inappropriate behavior with a student and was later convicted of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. Brennan was inspired by these events, and in August 2005, purchased a copy of "Screenwriting for Dummies" and wrote the first draft of "Glee", initially envisioned as a film rather than a television series. He completed the script in 2005, but could not generate interest in the project for several years.


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Mike Novick, a television producer and a friend of Brennan's from Los Angeles, was a member of the same gym as writer and producer Ryan Murphy, and gave him a copy of Brennan's script. Murphy had been in a show choir while at college, and as such felt he could relate to the script. Murphy and his "Nip/Tuck" colleague Brad Falchuk suggested that "Glee" be adapted to a television show format. The script was entirely re-written, and was picked up by Fox within 15 hours of being received. Murphy and Falchuk became the show's executive producers and showrunners, while Brennan is a co-executive producer and Novick is a producer. Brennan, Falchuk and Murphy wrote all of the show's episodes in the first two seasons, and were nominated for two 2010 Writers Guild of America Awards for "Glee", with nominations in the Best Comedy Series and Best New Series categories. "Glee" concluded after its sixth season, which aired in early 2015.


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Brennan, Falchuk and Murphy created "Scream Queens", a comedy-horror series set on a college campus and in a hospital, that aired from September 2015 to December 2016, and starred Emma Roberts, Ariana Grande, Lea Michele, Keke Palmer, Abigail Breslin, and Jamie Lee Curtis.


title: Ian Brennan (writer)

text: Brennan lives in both New York City and Los Angeles. He married actress Trilby Glover in September 2016 and the couple have two children, Blaise (born in April 2016) and Juno (born in August 2018).


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem the Syrian (, ; ; ; ; ), also known as Saint Ephrem, Saint Ephraim, Ephrem of Edessa or Aprem of Nisibis, was a prominent Christian theologian and writer, who is revered as one of the most notable hymnographers of Eastern Christianity. He was born in Nisibis, served as a deacon and later lived in Edessa.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem is venerated as a saint by all traditional Churches. He is especially revered in Syriac Christianity, both in East Syriac tradition and West Syriac tradition, and also counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted Monk) in the Eastern Orthodox Church. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church in 1920. Ephrem is also credited as the founder of the School of Nisibis, which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the Church of the East.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns, poems, and sermons in verse, as well as prose exegesis. These were works of practical theology for the edification of the Church in troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of pseudepigraphal works in his name. He has been called the most significant of all of the fathers of the Syriac-speaking church tradition. In Syriac Christian tradition, he is considered patron of the Syriac people.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem was born around the year 306 in the city of Nisibis (modern Nusaybin, Turkey), in the Roman province of Mesopotamia, that was recently acquired by the Roman Empire. Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later hagiographers wrote that his father was a pagan priest. In those days, religious culture in the region of Nisibis included local polytheism, Judaism and several varieties of the Early Christianity. Most of the population spoke the Aramaic language, while Greek and Latin were languages of administration. The city had a complex ethnic composition, consisting of ""Assyrian, Arabs, Greeks, Jews, Parthians, Romans, and Iranians"".


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Jacob, the second bishop of Nisibis, was appointed in 308, and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community. Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the First Council of Nicea in 325. Ephrem was baptized as a youth and almost certainly became a son of the covenant, an unusual form of Syriac proto-monasticism. Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac "malp̄ānâ", a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians). He was ordained as a deacon either at his baptism or later. He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office. In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a "herdsman" (, "‘allānâ"), to his bishop as the "shepherd" (, "rā‘yâ"), and to his community as a 'fold' (, "dayrâ"). Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the School of Nisibis, which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the Church of the East.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: In 337, Emperor Constantine I, who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died. Seizing on this opportunity, Shapur II of Persia began a series of attacks into Roman North Mesopotamia. Nisibis was besieged in 338, 346 and 350. During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers. In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis. The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground. Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn that portrayed Nisibis as being like Noah's Ark, floating to safety on the flood.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the baptistery of Nisibis. The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in 359. In that year, Shapur attacked again. The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported. Constantius II was unable to respond; the campaign of Julian in 363 ended with his death in battle. His army elected Jovian as the new emperor, and to rescue his army, he was forced to surrender Nisibis to Persia (also in 363) and to permit the expulsion of the entire Christian population.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem, with the others, went first to Amida (Diyarbakır), eventually settling in Edessa (Urhay, in Aramaic) in 363. Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the School of Edessa. Edessa had been an important center of the Aramaic-speaking world, and the birthplace of a specific Middle Aramaic dialect that came to be known as the Syriac language. The city was rich with rivaling philosophies and religions. Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called "Palutians" in Edessa, after a former bishop. Arians, Marcionites, Manichees, Bardaisanites and various gnostic sects proclaimed themselves as the true church. In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy. A later Syriac writer, Jacob of Serugh, wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa. After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims. The most reliable date for his death is 9 June 373.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem wrote exclusively in his native Aramaic language, using the local Edessan ("Urhaya") dialect, that later came to be known as the Classical Syriac. Ephrem's works contain several endonymic (native) references to his language ("Aramaic"), homeland ("Aram") and people ("Arameans"). He is therefore known as ""the authentic voice of Aramaic Christianity"".


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: In the early stages of modern scholarly studies, it was believed that some examples of the long-standing Greek practice of labeling Aramaic as "Syriac", that are found in the ""Cave of Treasures"," can be attributed to Ephrem, but later scholarly analyses have shown that the work in question was written much later ( 600) by an unknown author, thus also showing that Ephrem's original works still belonged to the tradition unaffected by exonymic (foreign) labeling.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: One of the early admirers of Ephrem's works, theologian Jacob of Serugh (d. 521), who already belonged to the generation that accepted the custom of a double naming of their language not only as Aramaic ("Ārāmāyā") but also as "Syriac" ("Suryāyā"), wrote a homily ("memrā") dedicated to Ephrem, praising him as the "crown" or "wreath" of the "Arameans" (), and the same praise was repeated in early liturgical texts. Only later, under the Greek influence, already prevalent in the works of Theodoret of Cyrus from the middle of the 5th century, it became customary to associate Ephrem with Syriac identity, and label him only as "the Syrian" (), thus blurring his Aramaic self-identification, attested by his own writings and works of other Aramaic-speaking writers, and also by examples from the earliest liturgical tradition.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Some of those problems persisted up to the recent times, even in scholarly literature, as a consequence of several methodological problems within the field of source editing. During the process of critical editing and translation of sources within Syriac studies, some scholars have practiced various forms of arbitrary (and often unexplained) interventions, including the occasional disregard for the importance of original terms, used as endonymic (native) designations for Arameans and their language (ārāmāyā). Such disregard was manifested primarily in translations and commentaries, by replacement of authentic terms with polysemic Syrian/Syriac labels. In previously mentioned "memrā", dedicated to Ephrem, one of the terms for "Aramean people" ( / Arameandom) was published correctly in original script of the source, but in the same time it was translated in English as ""Syriac nation"," and then enlisted among quotations related to "Syrian/Syriac" identity, without any mention of Aramean-related terms in the source. Even when noticed and corrected by some scholars, such replacements of terms continue to create problems for others.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Several translations of his writings exist in Classical Armenian, Coptic, Old Georgian, Koine Greek and other languages. Some of his works are extant only in translation (particularly in Armenian).


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Over four hundred hymns composed by Ephrem still exist. Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt. The church historian Sozomen credits Ephrem with having written over three million lines. Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early Rabbinic Judaism, he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (, "madrāšê"). These hymns are full of rich, poetic imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies. The madrāšê are written in stanzas of syllabic verse and employ over fifty different metrical schemes. Each madrāšâ had its "qālâ" (), a traditional tune identified by its opening line. All of these qālê are now lost. It seems that Bardaisan and Mani composed madrāšê, and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims. The madrāšê are gathered into various hymn cycles. Each group has a title — "Carmina Nisibena", "On Faith", "On Paradise", "On Virginity", "Against Heresies" — but some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the "Carmina Nisibena" is about Nisibis). Each madrāšâ usually had a refrain (, "‘ûnîṯâ"), which was repeated after each stanza. Later writers have suggested that the madrāšê were sung by all-women choirs with an accompanying lyre.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Particularly influential were his "Hymns Against Heresies". Ephrem used these to warn his flock of the heresies that threatened to divide the early church. He lamented that the faithful were "tossed to and fro and carried around with every wind of doctrine, by the cunning of men, by their craftiness and deceitful wiles" (Eph 4:14). He devised hymns laden with doctrinal details to inoculate right-thinking Christians against heresies such as docetism. The "Hymns Against Heresies" employ colourful metaphors to describe the Incarnation of Christ as fully human and divine. Ephrem asserts that Christ's unity of humanity and divinity represents peace, perfection and salvation; in contrast, docetism and other heresies sought to divide or reduce Christ's nature and, in doing so, rend and devalue Christ's followers with their false teachings.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem also wrote verse homilies (, "mêmrê"). These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê. The mêmrê were written in a heptosyllabic couplets (pairs of lines of seven syllables each).


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work. He wrote a biblical commentary on the Diatessaron (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), the Syriac original of which was found in 1957. His "Commentary on Genesis and Exodus" is an exegesis of Genesis and Exodus. Some fragments exist in Armenian of his commentaries on the Acts of the Apostles and Pauline Epistles.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship. However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: The most complete, critical text of authentic Ephrem was compiled between 1955 and 1979 by Dom Edmund Beck, OSB, as part of the "Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium".


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem is attributed with writing hagiographies such as "The Life of Saint Mary the Harlot", though this credit is called into question.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: One of works attributed to Ephrem was the "Cave of Treasures", written by a much later but unknown author, who lived at the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem's writings contain a rich variety of symbols and metaphors. Christopher Buck gives a summary of analysis of a selection of six key scenarios (the way, robe of glory, sons and daughters of the Covenant, wedding feast, harrowing of hell, Noah’s Ark/Mariner) and six root metaphors (physician, medicine of life, mirror, pearl, Tree of life, paradise).


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem's meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church. There is a huge corpus of Ephrem pseudepigraphy and legendary hagiography in many languages. Some of these compositions are in verse, often mimicking Ephrem's heptasyllabic couplets.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: There is a very large number of works by "Ephrem" extant in Greek. In the literature this material is often referred to as "Greek Ephrem", or "Ephraem Graecus" (as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian), as if it was by a single author. This is not the case, but the term is used for convenience. Some texts are in fact Greek translations of genuine works by Ephrem. Most are not. The best known of these writings is the "Prayer of Saint Ephrem", which is recited at every service during Great Lent and other fasting periods in Eastern Christianity.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: There are also works by "Ephrem" in Latin, Slavonic and Arabic. "Ephrem Latinus" is the term given to Latin translations of "Ephrem Graecus". None is by Ephrem the Syrian. "Pseudo Ephrem Latinus" is the name given to Latin works under the name of Ephrem which are imitations of the style of Ephrem Latinus.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: There has been very little critical examination of any of these works. They were edited uncritically by Assemani, and there is also a modern Greek edition by Phrantzolas.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate. One of the earlier "modifications" is the statement that Ephrem's father was a pagan priest of Abnil or Abizal. However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in Eastern Christianity. In the Eastern Orthodox scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted monk). His feast day is celebrated on 28 January and on the Saturday of the Venerable Fathers (Cheesefare Saturday), which is the Saturday before the beginning of Great Lent.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: On 5 October 1920, Pope Benedict XV proclaimed Ephrem a Doctor of the Church ("Doctor of the Syrians").


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: The most popular title for Ephrem is "Harp of the Spirit" (Syriac: , "Kenārâ d-Rûḥâ"). He is also referred to as the Deacon of Edessa, the Sun of the Syrians and a Pillar of the Church.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: His Roman Catholic feast day of 9 June conforms to his date of death. For 48 years (1920–1969), it was on 18 June, and this date is still observed in the Extraordinary Form.


title: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Ephrem is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on June 10.


title: Adam Schefter

text: Adam Schefter (born December 21, 1966) is an American sports writer and television analyst. After graduating from University of Michigan and Northwestern University with degrees in journalism, Schefter wrote for several newspapers, including "The Denver Post", before working at NFL Network. He has worked as an NFL insider for ESPN since 2009.


title: Adam Schefter

text: Schefter was born to a Jewish family in Valley Stream, New York, and grew up in Bellmore, New York, where he attended John F. Kennedy High School. He graduated in June 1985. He is a 1989 graduate of the University of Michigan and a graduate of Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism. Schefter was an editor at "The Michigan Daily", where he began his newspaper career. While at Northwestern, Schefter worked as a freelance reporter for the "Chicago Tribune". After graduating from Northwestern in June 1990, Schefter was an intern for the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" before moving to Denver in 1990, when he started writing for the "Rocky Mountain News" in September 1990 and then "The Denver Post" in July 1996. While at the "Denver Post", Schefter served as President of the Pro Football Writers of America from 2001 to 2002.


title: Adam Schefter

text: Schefter joined the NFL Network in 2004 and appeared on "NFL Total Access" and also wrote for NFL.com. Before joining the NFL Network, Schefter appeared five times on ESPN's "Around the Horn" as a substitute for Woody Paige. Paige was based in Denver at the time. Before "Around the Horn", Schefter appeared on ESPN's "The Sports Reporters". Schefter appeared on NBC twice in the summer of 2008, working as the sideline reporter for Al Michaels and John Madden during the Redskins–Colts Pro Football Hall of Fame Game and then the Redskins–Jaguars preseason finale.


title: Adam Schefter

text: According to a "USA Today" survey of fans published January 19, 2009, "NFL Network's Adam Schefter edged ESPN's Chris Mortensen (34%–32%) for best (NFL) insider despite the NFL Network being in less than half as many U.S. households." Schefter was again selected as the best (NFL) insider in a November 2010 USA Today fan poll. Schefter was voted "USA Today"s best "insider" for a third straight year in November 2011.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In 2009, Schefter became a football analyst with ESPN. He began appearing on-air on August 17, 2009. In October 2010, "Sports Illustrated" writers included Schefter in its "Top 40," a listing of the NFL's top officials, executives, coaches, players and media members.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In 2014, Schefter was named the "Most Influential Tweeter in New York" by "New York" magazine in February, "Best Newsbreaker" by the sports media website Awful Announcing in its second annual People's Sports TV Award Winners in May, and SI.com's “Media Person of the Year.”


title: Adam Schefter

text: On July 9, 2015, Schefter tweeted a medical chart photo indicating that Jason Pierre-Paul had his right index finger amputated. On February 5, 2016, it was reported that two individuals were fired from Jackson Memorial Hospital after a lengthy investigation for violating HIPAA laws. Pierre-Paul sued Schefter and ESPN for breach of privacy in February of 2016. In February of 2017, Pierre-Paul and ESPN settled the lawsuit.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In November 2015, Schefter was named The Cynopsis Sports Media Personality of the Year, which is presented annually to an individual whose work in the sports industry has transcended how sports connect with fans. In the same year, he was named honorable mention for Sports Illustrated Now's 2015 Media Person of the Year, and 2015 Sports Media Personality of the Year by the "Tampa Bay Times".


title: Adam Schefter

text: In January 2017, Schefter accepted an unpaid position on the advisory board of the Pacific Pro Football League. Soon afterward, he stepped down to avoid any perception of a conflict of interest.


title: Adam Schefter

text: Schefter joined the "NBA on ESPN" team for multiple games as a sideline reporter in 2017. His first assignment was February 15 between the New York Knicks and the Oklahoma City Thunder. ESPN presented Schefter with the opportunity to work select NBA games as part of his new contract.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In February 2017, ESPN Audio launched Schefter's "Know Them From Adam" podcast, featuring long-form conversations with newsmakers who have a connection to football. He is also an annual "NFL Combine Football Career Conference" speaker for the online sports-career training school Sports Management Worldwide, founded and run by Dr. Lynn Lashbrook.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In September 2021, Timothy L. O'Brien of Bloomberg reported that Schefter had invested in the sports gambling company Boom Entertainment, and questioned whether that interest could affect his reporting.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In June 2021, an email Schefter sent to Bruce Allen (then the general manager of the Washington Redskins) was filed as an exhibit in federal court as part of a defamation suit by Washington Football Team owner Daniel Snyder against an Indian media company. The message included a draft of an unpublished article about the 2011 NFL lockout which Schefter asked Allen to review and suggest changes to, and referred to Allen as "Mr. Editor". In response, Schefter stated that checking information with sources is a widespread practice. However, according to Joe Rivera of "Sporting News", allowing a source to review an entire piece is a significant breach of journalistic ethics. Schefter's actions were also criticized by writer and former ESPN host Jemele Hill. Later, Schefter issued a statement through ESPN which stated that while he did not give editorial control over the story to Allen, sending it to him had been a mistake.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In 2022, Schefter was criticized for his initial report on Twitter about Dwayne Haskins's death, which many found to be insensitive as it mentioned his struggles in the NFL. Schefter later deleted the tweet and replaced it with a video tribute, as well as issuing an apology.


title: Adam Schefter

text: Schefter is a regular guest on numerous radio programs, including 104.3 KKFN in Denver, Colorado, ESPN 980 in Washington D.C., ESPN 1000 in Chicago, Illinois, and 97.5 The Fanatic in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.


title: Adam Schefter

text: In 2007, Schefter married Sharri Maio, eleven months after meeting her on a blind date. Schefter had been married once before, but it ended in divorce; Sharri's prior husband, Joe Maio, had been killed in the World Trade Center in the 9/11 attacks. Sharri brought Devon, her son with Joe who was born in the year 2000, into the marriage with Schefter. Schefter and Sharri have a daughter together named Dylan. Schefter's book about his wife's first husband and his own experience joining the family after Joe's death, titled "The Man I Never Met", was released in 2018.


title: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan

text: The , more commonly known as the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty in English and as the or just in Japanese, is a treaty that permits the presence of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil, and commits the two nations to defend each other if one or the other is attacked "in the territories under the administration of Japan". Over time, it has had the effect of establishing a military alliance between the United States and Japan.


text: The current treaty, which took effect on June 23, 1960, revised and replaced an earlier version of the treaty, which had been signed in 1951 in conjunction with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty that terminated World War II in Asia as well as the U.S.-led Occupation of Japan (19451952). The revision of the treaty in 1960 was a highly contentious process in Japan, and widespread opposition to its passage led to the massive Anpo protests, which were the largest popular protests in Japan's history.


text: The 1960 treaty significantly revised the U.S.-Japan security agreement in the direction of greater mutuality between the two nations. The original 1951 treaty had contained a provision permitting the United States to use forces based in Japan throughout East Asia without prior consultation with Japan, made no explicit promise to defend Japan if Japan were attacked, and even contained a clause allowing U.S. troops to intervene in Japanese domestic disputes. These defects were remedied in the revised version of the treaty in 1960. The amended treaty included articles delineating mutual defense obligations and requiring the US, before mobilizing its forces, to inform Japan in advance. It also removed the article permitting U.S. interference in Japanese domestic affairs.


text: The treaty also included general provisions for the further development of international understanding and improved economic collaboration between the two nations. These provisions became the basis for the establishment of the United States–Japan Conference on Cultural and Educational Interchange (CULCON), the United States–Japan Committee on Scientific Cooperation, and the Joint United States–Japan Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs, all three of which are still in operation in some form.


text: The U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has never been amended and thus has lasted longer in its original form than any other treaty between two great powers since the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The treaty had a minimum term of 10 years but provided that it would remain in force indefinitely unless one party gives one year's notice of wishing to terminate it.


text: The original U.S.-Japan Security Treaty had been forced on Japan by the United States as a condition of ending the U.S.-led military occupation of Japan following the end of World War II. It was signed on September 8, 1951, in tandem with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty ending World War II in Asia, and went into effect on April 28, 1952, in tandem with the end of the occupation of Japan. The original Security Treaty had no specified end date or means of abrogation, allowed US forces stationed in Japan to be used for any purpose anywhere in the "Far East" without prior consultation with the Japanese government, and had a clause specifically authorizing US troops to put down domestic protests in Japan. Perhaps most gallingly of all, the pact did not contain an article committing the United States to defend Japan if Japan were attacked by a third party.


text: The Japanese government began pushing for a revision to the treaty as early as 1952. However, the administration of U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower resisted calls for revision until a growing anti-U.S. military base movement in Japan culminated in the Sunagawa Struggle of 1955-1957 and popular outrage in Japan in the aftermath of the Girard Incident in 1957, which made deep dissatisfaction with the status quo more apparent. The United States agreed to a revision, negotiations began in 1958, and the new treaty was signed by Eisenhower and Kishi at a ceremony in Washington D.C. on January 19, 1960.


text: From a Japanese perspective, the new treaty was a significant improvement over the original treaty, committing the United States to defend Japan in an attack, requiring prior consultation with the Japanese government before dispatching US forces based in Japan overseas, removing the clause preauthorizing suppression of domestic disturbances, and specifying an initial 10-year term, after which the treaty could be abrogated by either party with one year's notice.


text: Because the new treaty was superior to the old one, Kishi expected it to be ratified in relatively short order. Accordingly, he invited Eisenhower to visit Japan beginning on June 19, 1960, in part to celebrate the newly ratified treaty. If Eisenhower's visit had proceeded as planned, he would have become the first sitting US president to visit Japan.


text: In Article 1, the treaty began by establishing that each country would seek to resolve any international disputes peacefully. The treaty also gave prominence to the United Nations in dealing with aggression.


text: Article 2 generally called for greater collaboration between the two nations in terms of international relations and economics. At a summit meeting between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Japanese Prime Minister Hayato Ikeda in June 1961, this clause was put into action with the formation of three cabinet level consultative committees - the United States–Japan Conference on Cultural and Educational Interchange (CULCON), the United States–Japan Committee on Scientific Cooperation, and the Joint United States–Japan Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs, all three of which are still in operation in some form.


text: Article 4 suggests that the United States will consult with Japan in some manner on how it uses the U.S. troops based in Japan.


text: Article 6 explicitly grants the United States the right to base troops on Japanese soil, subject to a detailed "Administrative Agreement" negotiated separately.


text: Article 10 allows for the abrogation of the treaty, after an initial 10-year term, if either party gives one year's advance notice to the other of its wish to terminate the treaty.


text: The agreed minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government would be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than to defend Japan itself. Also covered were the limits of both countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by US military personnel.


text: Although the 1960 treaty was manifestly superior to the original 1951 treaty, many Japanese from across the political spectrum resented the presence of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil and hoped to get rid of the treaty entirely. An umbrella organization, the , was formed in 1959 to coordinate the actions of various citizen movements involved in opposing ratification of the revised treaty. The People's Council initially consisted of 134 member organizations in March 1959 and grew to have 1,633 affiliated organizations by March 1960. Member groups included labor unions, farmers' and teachers' unions, poetry circles, theater troupes, student and women's organizations, mothers' groups, groups affiliated with the Japan Socialist Party and the Japan Communist Party, and even some conservative business groups. In total the People's Council carried out 27 separate events of nationwide mass protest from March 1959 to July 1960.


text: Faced with popular opposition in the streets and Socialist Party stonewalling in the National Diet, Prime Minister Kishi grew increasingly desperate to pass the treaty in time for Eisenhower's scheduled arrival in Japan on June 19th. Finally on May 19, 1960, in the so-called "May 19 Incident," Kishi suddenly called for a snap vote on the treaty. When Socialist Diet members attempted a sit-in to block the vote, Kishi introduced 500 policemen into the Diet and had them physically removed from the halls of the Diet by police, and rammed the treaty through with only members of his own party present.


text: Kishi's actions were widely perceived as anti-democratic, and provoked nationwide outrage from across the political spectrum. Thereafter, the anti-treaty protests swelled to massive size, with the Sōhyō labor federation carrying out a series of nationwide strikes involving millions of labor unionists, large crowds marching in cities and towns throughout the nation, and tens of thousands of protesters gathering around the National Diet on nearly a daily basis. On June 10, in the so-called Hagerty Incident, thousands of protesters mobbed a car carrying Eisenhower's press secretary James Hagerty, slashing its tires, smashing its tail lights, and rocking it back and forth for more than an hour before the occupants were rescued by a U.S. Marines helicopter. Finally on 15 June 1960, the radical student activists from the Zengakuren nationwide student federation attempted to storm the Diet compound itself, precipitating a fierce battle with police in which a female Tokyo University student named Michiko Kanba was killed.