title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: De la Rosa finished seven of the thirteen races he started in the season, and picked up six points from a single points-scoring finish, a seventh-place finish at the . These points would be the last of his Formula One career. De la Rosa qualified in the top ten on two occasions, at Silverstone and in Hungary as both he and teammate Kobayashi struggled with reliability problems for the majority of the season.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: He was dropped from his race seat by Sauber in favour of Nick Heidfeld after the Italian Grand Prix. De la Rosa replaced Heidfeld as test driver for Pirelli, in anticipation for their return to Formula One for the season.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: After Sergio Pérez's accident in Monaco, De la Rosa replaced him for Sauber at the , after Pérez decided after the first free practice session on Friday, to sit out the rest of the weekend. De la Rosa managed to stay out of trouble throughout the first part of the race, affected by heavy rain, running as high as ninth before a red flag suspended the race. He eventually finished 12th after having some contact soon after the restart which required a new wing.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: On 9 March 2011, McLaren announced that De la Rosa had returned to the team as their test and reserve driver.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: On 21 November 2011, it was announced that De la Rosa had signed for HRT F1 on a two-year contract. His teammate was Indian driver Narain Karthikeyan. Both drivers failed to qualify for the first race of the season in Australia, as De la Rosa was only able to complete seven timed laps during the race weekend. At the next race weekend in Malaysia, he was able to qualify and finish 22nd in the race after receiving a drive through penalty after the race was restarted, and he was later promoted to 21st place due to Karthikeyan's 20-second penalty for an incident with Sebastian Vettel.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: De la Rosa qualified ahead of Karthikeyan once again in China, and finished 21st, one lap down from the race winner. In Bahrain, he finished 20th after qualifying 22nd, although after the race he admitted that the team still needed "to gain some speed per lap" to fight their rivals on a consistent basis. Following on from this, De la Rosa finished his home race for the first time since 1999 in 19th place, the last of all classified drivers. However, he was unable to complete the Monaco Grand Prix due to a collision with Pastor Maldonado at the beginning of the race.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: De la Rosa had a contract to compete in the 2013 season with HRT and was due to become team principal for 2014. The team folded at the end of the 2012 season, meaning de la Rosa was unable to take either position.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: On 16 January, Ferrari announced that De la Rosa had been signed in a developmental role for the team, aiding with its simulator resources.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: On 24 January Ferrari announced that De la Rosa would share testing duties of their 2013 challenger, the F138, with Felipe Massa at the first test of the season, beginning on 5 February in Jerez.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: De la Rosa is now the technical and sporting advisor to the Techeetah Formula E team. De la Rosa also runs a driving school and racing team called Drivex.


title: Pedro de la Rosa

text: He has also worked as color analyst for Formula One broadcasts on La Sexta, Telecinco, Movistar and currently DAZN.


title: Atargatis

text: Atargatis (; or ; ) was the chief goddess of northern Syria in Classical antiquity. Ctesias also used the name Derketo () for her, and the Romans called her Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura. Primarily she was a fertility goddess, but, as the "baalat" ("mistress") of her city and people she was also responsible for their protection and well-being. Her chief sanctuary was at Hierapolis, modern Manbij, northeast of Aleppo, Syria.


title: Atargatis

text: Michael Rostovtzeff called her "the great mistress of the North Syrian lands". Her consort is usually Hadad. As Ataratheh, doves and fish were considered sacred to her: doves as an emblem of the Love-Goddess, and fish as symbolic of the fertility and life of the waters.


title: Atargatis

text: According to a third-century Syriac source, "In Syria and in Urhâi [Edessa] the men used to castrate themselves in honor of Taratha. But when King Abgar became a believer, he commanded that anyone who emasculated himself should have a hand cut off. And from that day to the present no one in Urhâi emasculates himself anymore".


title: Atargatis

text: She is sometimes described as a mermaid-goddess, due to identification of her with a fish-bodied goddess at Ashkelon.


title: Atargatis

text: Atargatis is seen as a continuation of Bronze Age goddesses. At Ugarit, cuneiform tablets attest multiple Canaanite goddesses, among them three are considered as relevant to theories about the origin of Atargatis:


title: Atargatis

text: John Day asserts that all three shared many traits with each other and may have been worshipped in conjunction or separately during 1500 years of cultural history. While the worship of Ashtart and Anat as a pair is well attested, Steve A. Wiggins found no evidence Ashtart was ever conflated with Athirat. He also pointed out that the concept of Athirat, Anat and Ashtart as a trinity of sorts (popularized by authors like Tikva Frymer-Kensky), is modern and ignores the role of other deities in Ugarit - for example Shapash; as well as the importance of the connection between Athirat and El.


title: Atargatis

text: The name "Atargatis" derives from the Aramaic form ', which comes in several variants. At Hierapolis Bambyce (modern day Manbij) on coins of about the 4th century BCE, the legend "ʿtrʿth" appears, for ʿAtarʿatah, and ʿtrʿth mnbgyb""' in a Nabataean inscription; at Kafr Yassif near Akko an altar is inscribed "to Adado and Atargatis, the gods who listen to prayer"; and the full name "ʿtrʿth" appears on a bilingual inscription found in Palmyra.


title: Atargatis

text: Robert A. Oden assumes that the name of Atargatis was a compound of Astarte's and Anat's. The name "ʿAtarʿatah" is widely held to derive from a compound of the Aramaic form "ʿAttar", which is a cognate of "ʿAțtart" minus its feminine suffix "-t", plus "ʿAttah" or "ʿAtā", a cognate of "ʿAnat". Alternatively, the second half may be a Palmyrene divine name "ʿAthe" (i.e. "tempus opportunum"), which occurs as part of many compounds. It has also been proposed that the element "-gatis" may relate to the Greek "gados" "fish". (For example, the Greek name for "sea monster" or "whale" is the cognate term "ketos"). So "Atar-Gatis" may simply mean "the fish-goddess Atar".


title: Atargatis

text: Atargatis generally appears as the wife of Hadad. They are the protecting deities of the community. Atargatis, wearing a mural crown, is the ancestor the royal house, the founder of social and religious life, the goddess of generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of phallic emblems), and the inventor of useful appliances.


title: Atargatis

text: Derceto was venerated in mermaid form, i.e., with "a face of a woman, and otherwise the entire body of a fish" in a shrine by Ashkelon, Syria, according to Diodorus (1st century BCE), drawing on Ctesias (5th century BCE); the attached myth explaining that Derceto transformed into a fish, after drowning herself in a nearby lake. The goddess was presumably revered in that fish-form at Ashkelon. It has been conjectured that the veneration of the goddess did indeed occur at Ashkelon and may have originated there.


title: Atargatis

text: The image of Derceto as half-woman half-fish was also witnessed by Lucian (2nd century) somewhere in Phoenicia (i.e., Phoenice Syria), but at the Holy City of Phoenicia (Hierapolis Bambyce), she was depicted entirely as a woman. This temple was nominally dedicated to "Hera", but some thought it actually consecrated Derceto.


title: Atargatis

text: The worship of Atargatis going back to the Hellenistic Phoenicia (Seleucid Syria) is evidenced by inscriptions at Akko.


title: Atargatis

text: The liteary attestations as already given are that Derceto was depicted as fish-tailed goddess at Ashkelon (by Ctesias after Diodorus), and later at Hieropolis (by Lucian).


title: Atargatis

text: But all of the extant iconography of the Syriac goddess catalogued in the "LIMC" shows her as anthropomorphic. But the "fish-goddess form of Atargatis" were among the finds unearthed in the Transjordan, or so Glueck (cf. "infra") has insisted, though only her forms as goddess of "foliage and fruits" or cereal goddess were published in his paper.


title: Atargatis

text: The tetradrachm issued under Demetrius III Eucaerus (96–87 BCE, coin image above) shows a fish-bodied figure on the reverse side, which scholarship identifies as Stargateis. The cult statues of Stargateis and her consort Hadad were commonly employed on as the motif on the reverse of tetradrachm coinage by this monarch and by Antiochus XII Dionysus (87– 84 BCE) who succeeded him.


title: Atargatis

text: Hieropolis Bambyce was one of the cities which minted its own coins. And some of the Hieropolitan coinage portray "Atargatis as indeed seated between lions and holds a scepter in her right hand and probably a spindle in her left", just as Lucian had described. Palmyra coinage also depicts a Tyche on the obverse and strolling lion on the reverse; one coin also depicts a goddess mounted on a lion, and the lion symbolism suggest that Atargatis is being represented.


title: Atargatis

text: Coinage of Palmyra, some of which were found in the Palmyrene colony at Dura-Europos, may depict the goddess. The coin with Tyche on the obverse and a strolling lion on the reverse, and one with a goddess riding a lion points to Atargatis, based on the lion motif. There has also been found one Palmyrene tessera (token) inscribed with Atargatis's name (Aramaic: ).


title: Atargatis

text: A relief fragment found at Dura-Europos is thought to represent Atargatis/Tyche (Yale-French excavations, 1935–46), as it shows a pair of doves that are sacred to Atargatis besides her head; the doves are assumed to be perched on the post of her throne, which is missing. The figure's mural crown is emblematic of a Tyche (protector-goddess) of a city, but this matches the historic account that the cult relief Atargatis Hierapolis was seen wearing a mural crown.


title: Atargatis

text: In the temples of Atargatis at Palmyra and at Dura-Europos she appeared repeatedly with her consort, Hadad, and in the richly syncretic religious culture at Dura-Europos, was worshipped as "Artemis Azzanathkona".


title: Atargatis

text: In the 1930s, numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of Atargatis were identified by Nelson Glueck at Khirbet et-Tannûr, Jordan, in temple ruins of the early first century CE; there the lightly veiled goddess's lips and eyes had once been painted red, and a pair of fish confronted one another above her head. Her wavy hair, suggesting water to Glueck, was parted in the middle. At Petra the goddess from the north was syncretised with a North Arabian goddess from the south al-Uzzah, worshipped in the one temple. At Dura-Europus among the attributes of Atargatis are the spindle and the sceptre or fish-spear.


title: Atargatis

text: The legends are numerous and of an astrological character. A rationale for the Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish is seen in the story in Athenaeus 8.37, where "Atargatis" is naively explained to mean "without Gatis", the name of a queen who is said to have forbidden the eating of fish.


title: Atargatis

text: Diodorus Siculus (2.4.2), quoting Ctesius of Cnidus, tells how Derceto fell in love with a beautiful youth named Simios (also Ichthys, meaning 'fish') and bore a daughter but becoming ashamed of the illicit love, Derceto flung herself into a lake near Ashkelon and her body was changed into the form of a fish though her head remained human. In Diodorus's version of the legend, Derceto also depsite the child from this union and had exposed the daughter to the desert, where she was raised by doves. This child grew up to be Semiramis, the legendary Assyrian queen. Lucian also notes that the erection of the temple at Hieropolis was ascribed by some to Semiramis who dedicated it to her mother Derceto.


title: Atargatis

text: The Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich recounts in her Life of Christ, in the section between the Tower of Babel and Abraham, she writes about mystical visions granted to her of Derketo.


title: Atargatis

text: "From Derketo to Semiramis, I saw three generations of daughters. Derketo was a tall, powerful woman. I saw her clothed in skins with numerous straps and animals tails hanging about her. Her head was covered by a cap made of the feathers of birds. I saw her with a great train of followers, male and female, sallying forth from the neighborhood of Babylon. She was constantly envision, or enraged in prophesying, offering sacrifice, founding cities, or roving about. She and her followers drove before them scattered tribes with their herds, prophesied on the subject of good dwelling places, piled up stones some of which were immense, offered sacrifice, and practiced all kinds of wickedness. She drew all to herself. She was sometimes here, sometimes there. She was everywhere honored. She had in her old age a daughter, who played a part similar to her own. I saw this vision in a plain, by which was signified the origin of the abomination. Lastly, I saw Derketo as a fearful old woman in a city by the sea. She was again carrying on her sorcery by the seashore. She was in a state of diabolical ecstasy, and she was proclaiming to her people that she must die for them, give her life for them. She told them that she could remain with them no longer, but that she would be transformed into a fish and as such be always near to them. She gave directions for the worship to be paid her and, in presence of the assembled multitude, plunged into the sea. Soon after a fish arose above the waves, and the people saluted it with sacrifices and abominations of all kinds. Their divinations were full of mysteries, signs, etc, connected with water. Through Derketo's instrumentality, an entire system of idolatry arose."


title: Atargatis

text: Ctesias's account, according to one analysis, is composed of two myths, the Derceto transformation myth, and the Semiramis birth myth, and a telling of each myth are told by a number of classical writers.


title: Atargatis

text: The first myth (the Derceto metamorphosis into fish) is told, e.g., by Ovid as a Dione-Cupid myth. The irony is that even though Ovid explicitly mentions Derceto () of Babylonia transforming into a fish, Ovid's version of this first myth (detailed below) is recorded in "Fasti", and fails to mention the goddess in Syria (Dione) metamorphosing into fish-shape. The metamorphosis thereafter needs be reconstructed by consulting other sources which preserves that original ending.


title: Atargatis

text: The second myth (the Semiramis birth myth) is told by various writers as an alternate version of the birth of Venus (from an egg carried ashore by fish, then hatched by doves), however, Ctesias felt compelled to "drop" the egg element according to the analysis. This seemed a gratuitous ("incredible") excision to the analyst, given that Venus's birth from an ocean-found egg was not a far cry from the familiar version of the Aphrodite/Venus's genesis out of water (sea-foam).


title: Atargatis

text: Ovid in "Fasti" recounts the legend that the goddess Dione accompanied by Cupid/Eros plunged into the river in Palestine (Euphrates), whereby a pair of fish came to convey then through water to aid her escape from Typhon. The fish pair was commemorated as the constellation Pisces of the zodiac, and local Syrians abstain from eating fish on account of it. Menander and others also relate this legend, and some of the versions, say that the goddess and Cupid subsequently transformed into fish, possibly preserving the original telling.


title: Atargatis

text: The name Dione could refer to Aphrodite's mother, but it was also an epithet of Aphrodite/Venus herself. So the legend has also been told as one of Venus with Cupid casting herself into the Euphrates, then transforming into fish.


title: Atargatis

text: The second myth describes the birth of Syrian Venus as originating in an egg that fell into the Euphrates, rolled onto land by fish, was hatched in the clutches of doves ("scholia" to Germanicus's Aratus; Hyginus, "Fabulae").


title: Atargatis

text: The author of "Catasterismi" explained the constellation of Piscis Austrinus as the parent of the two fish making up the constellation of Pisces; according to that account, it was placed in the heavens in memory of Derceto's fall into the lake at Hierapolis Bambyce near the Euphrates in Syria, from which she was saved by a large fish — which again is intended to explain the Syrian abstinence from fish.


title: Atargatis

text: In many cases Atargatis, ‘Ashtart, and other goddesses who once had independent cults and mythologies became fused to such an extent as to be indistinguishable. This fusion is exemplified by the temple at Carnion (Carnaim), which is probably identical with the famous temple of ‘Ashtart at Ashtaroth-Karnaim.


title: Atargatis

text: Not unnaturally she is identified with the Greek Aphrodite. By the conjunction of her many functions (as fertility goddess and of appliances), she becomes ultimately a great nature-goddess analogous to Cybele and Rhea, despite originating as a sea deity analogous to Amphitrite. In one aspect she typifies the protection of water in producing life; in another, the universal of other-earth; in a third (influenced, no doubt, by Chaldean astrology), the power of Destiny. She was also identified with Hera by Lucian in his "De Dea Syria".


title: Atargatis

text: As a consequence of the first half of the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly, been identified as Ashtart. The two deities were probably of common origin and have many features in common, but their cults are historically distinct. There is reference in 2 Maccabees 12.26 and 1 Maccabees 5:43 to an Atargateion or Atergateion, a temple of Atargatis, at Carnion in Gilead, but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not Israel or Canaan, but Syria itself; at Hierapolis Bambyce she had a temple in her name.


title: Atargatis

text: A recent analysis of the cult of Atargatis is an essay by Per Bilde, in which Atargatis appears in the context of other Hellenized Great Goddesses of the East.


title: Atargatis

text: At her temples at Ashkelon, Hierapolis Bambyce, and Edessa, there were fish ponds containing fish only her priests might touch. Glueck noted in his 1937 paper that "to this day there is a sacred fish-pond swarming with untouchable fish at Qubbet el-Baeddwī, a dervish monastery three kilometres east of Tripolis, Lebanon."


title: Atargatis

text: The relief sculpture of the Syrian Goddess at Hierapolis was supported by a pair of tritonesses according


title: Atargatis

text: Cult sites in the Near East include Dura-Europos, Palmyra, Akko (Ptolemais), Carnaim and Nabataea. Two well preserved temples in Niha, Lebanon are dedicated to her and to her consort Hadad.


title: Atargatis

text: From Syria, the worship of Atargatis and Hadad extended to Greece and to the furthest West into the Mediterranean. Lucian Apuleius gave descriptions of the beggar-priests who went round the great cities with an image of the goddess on an ass and collected money. The wide extension of the cult is attributable largely to Syrian merchants; thus we find traces of it in the great seaport towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have been found bearing witness to her importance. Again we find the cult in Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slaves and mercenary troops, who carried it even to the farthest northern limits of the Roman Empire. The leader of the rebel slaves in the First Servile War, a Syrian named Eunus, claimed to receive visions of Atargatis, whom he identified with the Demeter of Enna.


title: Atargatis

text: During the Roman era, eunuch priests worshipped Atargatis, similar to the Galli priests of Cybele. At the shrine in Hieropolis founded by Semiramis, eunuch priests served the image of a fish-tailed woman. Rituals to the goddess were accompanied by flute playing and rattle shaking. In one rite, young males castrated themselves to become cross-dressing priests at the temple and thereafter performed tasks usually done by women. The obligatory lake or pond lay nearby, full of sacred fish which no one was allowed to eat; nor could anyone eat Atargatis's sacred doves. The priests were described by Apuleius as mendicants that traveled around with an image of the goddess dressed in a silken robe on the back of a donkey. When they arrived at village squares or a receptive estate they would perform an ecstatic rite, designed to attract a crowd and elicit their contributions. The priests were described as effeminate, wearing heavy makeup, turbans on their heads, and dressed in saffron colored robes of silk and linen; some in white tunics painted with purple stripes. They shouted and danced wildly to the music of flutes, whirling around with necks bent so that their long hair flew out; and in an ecstatic frenzy they would bite their own flesh and cut their arms with knives until they bled.


title: Atargatis

text: According to a story retold by Lucian, the Assyrian queen Stratonice saw in a vision that she must build a temple at Hieropolis to the goddess and so the king sent her there with a young man named Combabus to execute the task. Knowing the queen's reputation Combabus castrated himself and left his genitals, sealed in a box. When the queen fell in love with Combabus and tried to seduce him, he revealed his mutilation, but this didn't dissuade her from desiring his constant companionship. When Stratonice and Combabus returned home, she accused him of trying to seduce her, and Combabus was arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. Combabus called for the sealed box to prove his innocence, where upon the king relented and rewarded Combabus for his loyalty. The temple was completed and a statue of Combabus was placed in it. This is said to be the origin of the practice of castration by the priests in the temple.


title: Atargatis

text: Another story ascribed to Combabus mentions that a certain foreign woman who had joined a sacred assembly, beholding a human form of extreme beauty and dressed in man's attire, became violently enamoured of him: after discovering that he was a eunuch, she committed suicide. Combabus accordingly in despair at his incapacity for love, donned woman's attire, so that no woman in future might be deceived in the same way.


title: Ego depletion

text: Ego depletion is the idea that self-control or willpower draws upon a limited pool of mental resources that can be used up (with the word "ego" used in the psychoanalytic sense rather than the colloquial sense). When the energy for mental activity is low, self-control is typically impaired, which would be considered a state of ego depletion. In particular, experiencing a state of ego depletion impairs the ability to control oneself later on. A depleting task requiring self-control can have a hindering effect on a subsequent self-control task, even if the tasks are seemingly unrelated. Self-control plays a valuable role in the functioning of the self on both individualistic and interpersonal levels. Ego depletion is therefore a critical topic in experimental psychology, specifically social psychology, because it is a mechanism that contributes to the understanding of the processes of human self-control. There have both been studies to support and to question the validity of ego-depletion as a theory.


title: Ego depletion

text: Some meta analyses and studies have questioned the size and existence of the ego depletion effect. The ultimate validity of those later studies is not universally agreed. Martin Hagger and Nikos Chatzisrantis, whose 2010 meta-analysis seemed to support the existence of the ego depletion effect, subsequently performed a pre-registered 23 lab replication study which found no ego-depletion effect. In 2021, another 36 lab, pre-registered replication study found no ego-depletion effect.


title: Ego depletion

text: American social psychologist Roy Baumeister and his colleagues proposed a model that described self-control like a muscle, which can become both strengthened and fatigued. The researches proposed that initial use of the “muscle” of self-control could cause a decrease in strength, or ego depletion, for subsequent tasks. Later experimental findings showed support for this muscle model of self-control and ego depletion.


title: Ego depletion

text: A key experiment by Baumeister, Ellen Bratslavsky, Mark Muraven, and Dianne Tice in 1998, demonstrated some of the first evidence that ego depletion had effects in diverse contexts or situations. They showed that people who initially resisted the temptation of chocolates were subsequently less able to persist on a difficult and frustrating puzzle task. They attributed this effect to ego depletion, which resulted from the prior resisting of a tempting treat. Additionally, it was demonstrated that when people voluntarily gave a speech that included beliefs contrary to their own, they were also less able to persist on the difficult puzzle, indicating a state of ego depletion. This effect was not nearly as strong when individuals were not given a choice and were "forced" to write a counter-attitudinal speech. Thus, they proposed that both the act of choice and counter-attitudinal behaviors draw upon the same pool of limited resources. While giving a counter-attitudinal speech is expected to produce ego depletion, introducing the element of choice further increases the level of experienced depletion. These findings demonstrated the effects of ego depletion in differential situations and emphasized that ego depletion may not be context-specific. This experiment was critical in that the researchers synthesized ideas proposed by prior studies that had suggested evidence for a strength model of willpower. With this study, Baumeister and his colleagues therefore provided the first direct experimental evidence of ego depletion, and initiated research interest on the subject.


title: Ego depletion

text: The role of glucose as a specific form of energy needed for self-control has been explored by researchers. Glucose, a sugar found in many foods, is the primary fuel for the body and the brain. Multiple experiments have connected self-control depletion to reduced blood glucose, and suggested that self-control performance could be replenished by consuming glucose. However, some of the findings were later questioned. However, several recent experiments have found that resource depletion effects can be reversed by simply tasting (but not swallowing or consuming) sweet beverages, which can have rewarding properties. Others have suggested that the taste of sugar (but not artificial sweetener) has psycho-physiological signaling effects.


title: Ego depletion

text: A 2007 experiment by Segertrom and Nes found HRV (heart rate variability) to be a marker for ego depletion as well as an index for self-control power before the task.


title: Ego depletion

text: Neural activity associated with self-control failure has recently been examined using neurophysiological techniques. According to cognitive and neuroscientific models of mental control, a "conflict-monitoring/error-detection system" identifies discrepancies between intended goals and actual behaviors. Error-related negativity (ERN) signals are a waveform of event-related potentials, which appear to be generated in the anterior cingulate cortex when individuals commit errors in various psychological tasks. Using electroencephalography (EEG) recordings, Inzlicht and Gutsell found that individuals who had undergone an emotion-suppression task displayed weaker ERN signals compared to individuals who had not undergone emotion-suppression tasks. These findings demonstrate preliminary evidence that depletion experienced after exerting self-control can weaken neural mechanisms responsible for conflict monitoring.


title: Ego depletion

text: The majority of ego depletion studies have been carried out on university students, which raises concerns about how generalizable the results really are. The effects of age are unknown, but maybe younger people are more susceptible to the effects of ego depletion, given that the areas of the brain involved in self-control continue to develop until the mid 20s. For example, a recent study found that people over the age of 40 did not become ego depleted following a typical depletion manipulation, whereas younger university students did.


title: Ego depletion

text: Ego depletion has also been implicated in guilt and prosocial behavior. The feeling of guilt, while unpleasant, is necessary to facilitate adaptive human interactions. The experience of guilt is dependent on one's ability to reflect on past actions and behaviors. Ego depletion has been shown to hinder the ability to engage in such reflection, thereby making it difficult to experience guilt. Since guilt typically leads to prosocial behavior, ego depletion will therefore reduce the good deeds that often result from a guilty conscience. In the study by Xu and colleagues, some participants were required to suppress their emotions while watching a movie about butchering animals, which resulted in a depleted state. Participants were then induced to feel guilty by playing a game in which an opponent player was blasted with loud, unpleasant noises when they made errors. At the end of the experiment, participants were given a chance to leave money for a subsequent participant and were also given the choice of making a charitable donation. These were the measures of pro-social behavior. The results of this study indicated that people who experienced ego depletion felt less guilty and donated less money than non-depleted people. This demonstrates that ego depletion has an indirect effect on prosocial behavior by decreasing one's ability to experience guilt.


title: Ego depletion

text: An individual's perceived level of fatigue has been shown to influence their subsequent performance on a task requiring self-regulation, independent of their actual state of depletion. This effect is known as illusory fatigue. This was shown in an experiment in which participants engaged in a task that was either depleting or non-depleting, which determined each individual's true state of depletion. Ultimately, when participants were led to believe their level of depletion was lower than their true state of depletion, they performed much worse on a difficult working memory task. This indicates that an increased perceived level of fatigue can hinder self-regulatory performance independent of the actual state of depletion.


title: Ego depletion

text: Ego depletion has been shown to have some rather debilitating consequences, most notably self-regulation impairments. These effects can, however, be temporarily buffered by external motivations and beliefs in unlimited willpower. An example of such an external motivator was demonstrated by Boucher and Kofos in 2012, where depleted participants who were reminded of money performed better on a subsequent self-control task.


title: Ego depletion

text: An experiment by Carol Dweck and subsequent work by Roy Baumeister and Kathleen Vohs has shown that beliefs in unlimited self-control helps mitigate ego depletion for a short while, but not for long. Participants that were led to believe that they will not get fatigued performed well on a second task but were fully depleted on a third task.


title: Ego depletion

text: In a state of ego depletion, an individual's impaired ability to self-regulate can be implicated in a wide range of undesirable and maladaptive behaviors, such as acts of aggression. Knowledge and strategies to counteract ego depletion would therefore, be highly beneficial in various real-life situations.


title: Ego depletion

text: An experiment performed by Kathleen Vohs and Todd Heatherton demonstrated how ego depletion is particularly relevant when considering chronic dieters compared to non-dieters. Chronic dieters constantly work at resisting their cravings and limiting their food intake. Vohs and Heatherton showed that the task of regulating food intake could be undermined in the face of tempting snacks, especially when the individual was experiencing a state of ego depletion. Both dieters and non-dieters attempted to suppress their emotional responses while watching a movie. Afterwards, participants were required to consume ice cream in order to engage in a taste-test. The major finding was that dieters who suppressed their emotional responses to the movie experienced more ego depletion than those who were not required to suppress their emotions. Additionally, those individuals subsequently ate much more ice cream in the taste-testing task. Non-dieters did not show the same self-regulatory failures as dieters in these tasks. Therefore, it seems that the act of dieting itself is a form of resource expenditure. Dieters spend so much energy trying to limit their food intake, but these efforts are likely to be undermined when faced with overwhelming temptation.


title: Ego depletion

text: Research has found that competitive athletes’ mental determination can be hindered after completing a difficult cognitive task more than after completing an easy cognitive task. This indicates that the hindering effects of ego depletion can be applied not only to subsequent performance on cognitive tasks, but on physical tasks, as well.


title: Ego depletion

text: In the world of consumerism, individuals are faced with decisions and choices that require the use of valuable energy resources in order to make informed purchases while resisting temptation of impulsive or unnecessary purchases. Consumers are constantly bombarded with a broad range of options. In order to make the best choice, one must compare the many different aspects of various products. The complexity of consumer decisions in itself can result in ego depletion. This, in turn, could impact any subsequent decisions consumers must make. When consumers are depleted, they are more likely to become passive, and make more impulsive decisions that may not fall in line with their true values.


title: Ego depletion

text: Consumers are faced with choices of different price ranges and product qualities in the market. Having many options can make consumers feel overwhelmed, causing ego depletion. Advertisements telling consumers how they deserve and must have a product can cause mental fatigue and frustration, leading people to give in to buying a product. Fatigue and frustration can also stem from deals with specific requirements on ways to purchase a product, along with spending effort on deciding which store has the best deals or trying to get to the store. People will then be led to buy the high priced or cheapest product.


title: Ego depletion

text: Consumers who have low self-control are susceptible to be more invested in obtaining product of a high status. These same consumers are more likely to be more motivated, persistent, and pay more for a product. This will lead consumers to have a sense of empowerment; they will feel in control again and feel as though they are overcoming their ego depleted states. It can also lead them to purchasing a brand that has a high status. The consumer might feel that the brand be more beneficial and secure with the product.


title: Ego depletion

text: In a recent experiment, it was shown that inducing a positive mood can buffer the impairing effects of ego depletion on subsequent performance. Positive mood was induced by getting individuals to watch comedy videos or by giving them a surprise gift. Positive mood seemed to allow people to recover faster from ego depletion and furthermore, improved their ability to self-regulate. There is no claim that positive mood can provide a general benefit to people who had not previously engaged in self-regulatory tasks; rather, positive mood can restore depleted individuals’ capacity to self-regulate. Furthermore, this experimental work does not consider in depth the mechanisms by which performance is restored. It is not known whether positive mood counteracts ego depletion or whether positive mood merely motivates an individual to persist in a task, despite their depleted state.


title: Ego depletion

text: The ego depletion effect itself (without mood intervention), has however been shown to be unrelated to mood changes, as shown in multiple ego depletion experiments that either controlled for mood, or saw no mood changes. Thus, positive affect is just a way to counteract ego depletion after a person is depleted.


title: Ego depletion

text: The conservation hypothesis is a partial explanation of ego depletion. It suggests that there are two sorts of depletion:


title: Ego depletion

text: According to this view, when people feel depleted, there might still exist a reserve store of energy to be used in extreme, high priority situations that could be encountered in the future. This can be adaptive to the extent that expending any more resources at a given time might render an individual fully depleted of their resources in an unexpected situation requiring self-regulation or other self-monitoring behaviours. The existence of a spare reservoir of mental energy ultimately explains why various motivators can buffer the effects of mild or moderate ego depletion. In a state of low resources, an individual lacks motivation to exert any more energy, but if motivation is presented, there are still extra resources that can be used up. Thus, ego depletion could be conceptualized as a psychological constraint necessary to safeguard precious resources that might be needed in emergency situations in the future. Under mild depletion, people still have a small amount of energy left in their "tank", which they do not have access to under normal circumstances.


title: Ego depletion

text: Although self-control has traditionally been thought of as a limited resource that can be depleted, some researchers disagree with this model. While multiple studies provided support for the ego depletion effect, there is currently no direct measure of ego depletion, and studies mainly observe it by measuring how long people persist at a second task after performing a self-control task (the depleting task). Furthermore, researchers usually examine the average task performance rather than the longitudinal performance trajectory. Only a few studies are available, where performance trajectories were modelled. In two studies there was no evidence that the ego depletion group performed worse in the first trials of the second task.


title: Ego depletion

text: Many ego depletion studies, however, have shown that mood is not relevant to the results. In fact, many of the earlier experiments have tested for the effects of mood and saw no effect of mood whatsoever. Furthermore, the study and measurement of ego depletion may be affected by the confounding effect of cognitive dissonance. Researchers have questioned whether subjects are truly experiencing ego depletion, or whether the individuals are merely experiencing cognitive dissonance in the psychological tasks.


title: Ego depletion

text: In contrast to the original most known model of self-control, Michael Inzlicht and Brandon J. Schmeichel propose an alternative model of depletion, which they refer to as the process model. This process model holds that initial exertions of willpower lead an individual's motivation to shift away from control, and towards gratification. As a part of this process, one's attention shifts away from cues that signal the need for control, and towards cues that signal indulgence. Inzlicht and Schmeichel argue that the process model provides a starting point for understanding self-control and that more research examining these cognitive, motivational, and affective influences on self-control is needed. A 2020 pre-registered study (686 participants) by Inzlicht and colleagues provided some evidence for this model. They fitted computational models of decision making to show that when depleted, the decision boundary parameter was reduced, suggesting that people disengage and become less interested in exerting further effort. Furthermore, they showed that depletion did not impair inhibitory control.


title: Ego depletion

text: Although up until the mid-2010s there was widespread confidence in the robustness of the ego depletion effect, a substantial body of research has since cast doubt on the replicability of the effect.


title: Ego depletion

text: A 2010 meta analysis of 198 independent tests found the effect significant with a moderate effect size (d = .6). Even after accounting for possible unpublished failed studies, the analysis concluded that it is extremely unlikely that the effect doesn't exist. In 2015, a meta analysis of over 100 studies by Carter and McCullough argued that the 2010 meta-analysis failed to take publication bias into account. They showed statistical evidence for publication bias. When they statistically controlled for publication bias, the effect size estimate was small (d = .2) and not significantly different from zero. Michael Inzlicht and colleagues praised Carter's meta analysis, but argued that bias-correction techniques are not precise enough to give a precise control size estimate. In response, Cunningham and Baumeister argued that Carter and McCullough analysis contained errors in its data collection and in the various analyses used.


title: Ego depletion

text: Ulrich Schimmack (2016) conducted a meta-analysis of published studies and found that most studies could produce significant results only with the help of random sampling error. Based on the low power of studies, one would expect a large number of non-significant results, but these results are missing from published articles. This finding supports Carter and McCullough's meta-analysis that showed publication bias with a different statistical method. Schimmack's replicability report also identified a small set of studies with adequate power that provided evidence for ego-depletion. These studies are the most promising studies for a replication project to examine whether ego-depletion effects can be replicated consistently across several independent laboratories.


title: Ego depletion

text: In 2016, a major multi-lab replication study (2141 participants) carried out at two dozen labs across the world using a single protocol failed to find any evidence for ego depletion. In response, Baumeister and Vohs argued that Baumeister's original protocol was rejected by the project coordinators, and after discussion was stalled, he only reluctantly agreed to a task that differed to some degree from the original 1998 studies. However, a subsequent, separate multi-lab replication project, led by Kathleen Vohs and involving 36 labs testing 3531 participants, also failed to find an ego-depletion effect (d = 0.06; an order of magnitude smaller than the effect size estimate in the original Hagger meta-analysis). Replication difficulties have also emerged for 5 additional protocols (operationalizations) of the basic ego depletion effect.


title: Tetrapod (structure)

text: A Tetrapod is a form of wave-dissipating concrete block used to prevent erosion caused by weather and longshore drift, primarily to enforce coastal structures such as seawalls and breakwaters. Tetrapods are made of concrete, and use a tetrahedral shape to dissipate the force of incoming waves by allowing water to flow around rather than against them, and to reduce displacement by interlocking.


title: Tetrapod (structure)

text: Tetrapods were originally developed in 1950 by Pierre Danel and Paul Anglès d'Auriac of Laboratoire Dauphinois d'Hydraulique (now Artelia) in Grenoble, France, who received a patent for the design. The name was derived from Greek, with "tetra"- meaning four and -"pode" meaning foot, a reference to the tetrahedral shape. Tetrapods were first used at the thermal power station in Roches Noires in Casablanca, Morocco, to protect the sea water intake.


title: Tetrapod (structure)

text: Tetrapods have become popular across the world, particularly in Japan; it is estimated that nearly 50 percent of Japan's coastline has been covered or somehow altered by tetrapods and other forms of concrete. Their proliferation on the island of Okinawa, a popular vacation destination in Japan, has made it difficult for tourists to find unaltered beaches and shoreline, especially in the southern half of the island.


title: Tetrapod (structure)

text: The tetrapod inspired many similar concrete structures for use in breakwaters, including the Modified Cube (United States, 1959), the Stabit (United Kingdom, 1961), the Akmon (The Netherlands, 1962), the Dolos (South Africa, 1963), the Stabilopod (Romania, 1969), the Seabee (Australia, 1978), the Accropode (France, 1981), the Hollow Cube (Germany, 1991), the A-jack (United States, 1998), and the Xbloc (The Netherlands, 2001), among others. In Japan, the word "tetrapod" is often used as a generic name for wave-dissipating blocks including other types and shapes.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜVs (; short for , ) are internationally active, independent service companies from Germany and Austria that test, inspect and certify technical systems, facilities and objects of all kinds in order to minimize hazards and prevent damages. The TÜV companies are organized into three large holding companies, TÜV Nord, TÜV Rheinland and TÜV SÜD (with TÜV Hessen), along with the smaller independent companies TÜV Thüringen, TÜV Saarland and TÜV Austria.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: With the increasing number and efficiency of steam engines during the Industrial Revolution, there had been more and more accidents caused by exploding (or more precisely, bursting) boilers. After the explosion of the boiler at the Mannheim Aktienbrauerei in January 1865, the idea was pursued there to subject boilers to regular inspections on a voluntary basis, as was already the case in Great Britain. Twenty boiler owners in Baden joined in the plans and finally founded the "Gesellschaft zur Ueberwachung und Versicherung von Dampfkesseln" (Society for the Supervision and Insurance of Steam Boilers) on January 6, 1866, in the rooms of the Mannheim Stock Exchange. It was the first inspection society on the European mainland. Other German states and regions followed suit.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: These independent regional monitoring organizations in the form of associations were so successful in accident prevention that, from 1871, membership in such an association exempted them from inspection by a state inspector. The regional "Dampfkessel-Überwachungs- und Revisions-Vereine" (DÜV), as self-help organizations of steam boiler operators, were thus an early example of a very successful privatization of previously state inspections. Because they were so successful in preventing accidents in the rapidly developing field of steam boiler technology, they were later also entrusted with safety inspections in other technical fields, including the periodic testing of motor vehicles as well as driver's license testing.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: All TÜV groups that emerged from these common roots use the "TÜV" brand and a regional suffix (for example, TÜV SÜD, TÜV Rheinland, TÜV Nord, TÜV Saarland, TÜV Thüringen, TÜV Austria) in their names. They compete with each other and with other market players in some areas (see above).


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: The individual TÜVs became multinational corporations with time, and came to provide services to industry, governments, individuals, and non-profit groups. During the 1980s and 1990s, deregulation led to competition in the German inspection and certification industry, and further deregulation occurred at the end of 2007.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: In 2007, TÜV Nord and TÜV SÜD agreed to merge, which would have created a company with 18,000 employees and sales of around 1.8 billion euros; however the companies called off the merger that same year, citing potential difficulties with integration as well as restrictions that would have been required under antitrust law. In 2008, TÜV SÜD and TÜV Rheinland agreed to merge which would have created the second largest testing services company in the world, behind SGS S.A.; the combined company would have had around 25,000 employees and 2.2 billion euros in income. These plans were abandoned by August again due to antitrust concerns. TÜV Nord had more than 11,000 employees stationed globally as of 2020.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: All TÜVs perform sovereign tasks in the fields of vehicle monitoring, driver licensing and equipment and product safety. In addition, TÜVs function as notified bodies in Europe for medical device regulation.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: Every company that uses the word "TÜV" in its name is at least 25.1% owned by a "Technischer Überwachungs-Verein e. V." (Technical Inspection Association), which is a non-governmental organization of the German business community and has been entrusted by the state with the specified sovereign tasks ("TÜV Convention").


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: As a result of deregulation and liberalization, the former regional responsibility in Germany has been abolished in most areas of work. In these areas, as well as in the unregulated sector, the companies operate independently on the market and compete with each other. In many areas such as product certification and certification of management systems, they are represented worldwide by subsidiaries.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: Organizations that imitate TÜV have also established themselves outside the German-speaking world. TÜV India, which is a subsidiary of TÜV Nord, has been operating in India since 1989. TÜV offices have also been operating in Turkey since 2007. The operator is TÜVtürk, a subsidiary of TÜV SÜD.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV Hessen (TÜV Technische Überwachung Hessen GmbH) is based in Darmstadt. According to its origins, the company is a purely technical testing organization, but with its focus on testing and certification now operates in a broad field within the service industry. It currently employs around 1350 people and generated annual sales of around €157 million in fiscal 2019. TÜV Hessen has been 55% owned by TÜV Süd AG and 45% by the state of Hesse since 1999.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV SÜD AG is a management holding company with 74.9 percent of the shares owned by TÜV SÜD e.V. (registered association) and 25.1 percent owned by the TÜV SÜD Foundation. In 2021, it generated annual sales of €2.7 billion with 25,000+ employees. As of June 2022, TÜV SÜD listed more than 1,000 locations throughout Germany, Europe, America, and Asia. Around 40 percent of sales are generated abroad.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV NORD AG is an based in Hanover. Its main tasks are testing and certification in the business areas of industry, automotive, and human resources and education. As a stock corporation, the company was founded in 2004. The shares of the company are held by TÜV NORD e. V. (36.1%), RWTÜV e. V. (36.1%) and TÜV Hannover/Sachsen-Anhalt e. V. (27.8%).


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV Saarland emerged from the Pfälzischer Dampfkessel-Revisions-Verein (Palatinate Steam Boiler Auditing Association) founded in 1871 and is headquartered in Sulzbach. The Chairman of the Board of TÜV Saarland is Thomas Klein. TÜV Saarland Holding GmbH is 74.9 percent owned by TÜV Saarland e.V. and 25.1 percent by the TÜV Saarland Foundation. The managing directors of TÜV Saarland Holding GmbH are Carsten Schubert (spokesman) and Thorsten Greiner.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV Thüringen is headquartered in Erfurt. TÜV Thüringen is set up as a group of companies and competes with the other testing organizations. The TÜV Thüringen group of companies has its main focus in central Germany and operates throughout Germany and worldwide. It has more than 1,000 employees at ten locations in Germany as well as numerous automotive testing facilities in twelve countries.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV Rheinland AG is based in Cologne. TÜV Rheinland operates as a technical testing organization in the areas of safety, efficiency and quality. Chairman of the Executive Board of TÜV Rheinland AG is Michael Fübi, Chairman of the Supervisory Board is Michael Hüther. The sole shareholder of TÜV Rheinland AG is TÜV Rheinland Berlin Brandenburg Pfalz e. V.. With 19,924 employees, TÜV Rheinland generated sales of 1.97 billion euros and earnings before interest and taxes of 130.6 million euros in 2017. In terms of sales, 45 percent was attributable to business outside Germany. 11,420 employees work outside Germany, 8,504 in Germany.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: In Austria, TÜV Austria, which dates back to its foundation as a monitoring association in 1872, has evolved into the internationally active TÜV Austria Group.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: The "TÜV" brand is a highly recognizable trademark protected for the benefit of these testing organizations and the VdTÜV. It is a valuable asset of the TÜV testing companies.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: "TÜV" became known to the general public primarily through the general inspection. In Germany, the term "TÜV" is informally used to denote the compulsory biennial or triennial vehicle inspection procedure (similar to the term "MOT" in the United Kingdom, e.g., you take your car "to the TÜV", even though vehicle inspections are now also often inspected by another organization such as Dekra, KÜS or GTÜ, since the former monopoly for this inspection has long been dissolved).


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: In addition, "TÜV-geprüft" colloquially means a seal of quality for technical testing by a TÜV company (see above). The designation "TÜV-tested" may only be used by a technical inspection association or a subsidiary. Anything else would be misleading consumers or unfair competition. This seal of quality is also increasingly being abused by falsification.[3]


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: Because "the TÜV" enjoys a high reputation for neutrality and expertise in Germany and Austria, but now also worldwide, and has a high degree of recognition, the designation is applied in colloquial language to many social problem areas and grievances when there are calls for control and transparency (e.g. "Bureaucracy TÜV", "School TÜV", "Event TÜV").


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: The TÜV Association or TÜV-Verband e. V. in German (formerly VdTÜV or Verband der TÜV e. V.) represents the interests of the Technical Inspection Associations (TÜV) in Germany and Europe vis a vis politics, authorities, economy and the public. The association has its headquarters in Berlin and also maintains an EU representation in Brussels.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: The aim of the TÜV Association is to improve the technical and digital safety of vehicles, products, systems and services through independent assessments. Together with its members, the TÜV Association pursues the goal of maintaining the high level of technical safety in our society and creating trust for the digital world. To achieve this, the experts of the TÜV Association are involved in the further development of standards and regulations. Currently, the main focus is on strengthening digital security and meeting the growing demands for sustainability in our society.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: Since June 2020, Dirk Stenkamp, Chairman of the Board of Management of TÜV NORD AG, has been Chairman of the TÜV Association. The chairmanship rotates every two years. Since 2017, Joachim Bühler has been Managing Director of the TÜV Association.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: The TÜV Association has six main members. In addition, there are two industry members and five associate members.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: Over the years, there have been various scandals regarding the services provided by the different TUVs.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: TÜV SÜD was auditing and certifying Vale, a company that was involved in the 2015 Mariana dam disaster. In 2019, the Brumadinho dam disaster occurred. In October 2019, five Brazilians who lost close family members there and two NGOs filed a law infringement complaint against TÜV SÜD, alleging that TÜV SÜD is jointly responsible for the deaths and environmental damage. The company denies the allegations.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: On January 25, 2019, a recently inspected tailing dam collapsed, killing 270 people, of whom 259 were officially confirmed dead and 11 others reported as missing, whose bodies had not been found. The Brumadinho dam disaster released a mudflow that advanced over houses in a rural area near the city. Brazilian authorities issued arrest warrants for two engineers of TÜV SÜD, contracted to inspect the dam. Brazilian prosecutors announced, on January 21, 2020, that Vale, TÜV SÜD, and 16 individuals would be charged in relation to the dam disaster.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: In 2020, Brazilian prosecutors announced their plans to file charges against Vale SA and its auditor TÜV SÜD and many individuals.


title: Technischer Überwachungsverein

text: In 2013, TÜV Rheinland was held liable by a French court to 1600 women whose breast implants had ruptured; the implants were made by Poly Implant Prothèse with TÜV Rheinland having certified the manufacturing process.


title: Russell Watson

text: Russell Watson is an English tenor who has released singles and albums of both operatic-style and pop songs. He began singing as a child, and became known after performing at a working men's club. He came to attention in 1999 when he sang "God Save the Queen" at the Rugby League Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium, "Barcelona" at the last match of the Premiership season between Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur at Old Trafford, and a full set of songs at the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final in Barcelona between Manchester United and Bayern Munich.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson's debut album "The Voice" was released in May 2001; four others followed. An album planned for November 2006 was delayed due to the removal of a benign pituitary tumour. This album, titled "That's Life", was eventually released in March 2007. Later that year, it was discovered that there had been a regrowth of the pituitary tumour and bleeding into Watson's brain. He underwent emergency surgery and was discharged from hospital on 31 October. He underwent an extensive rehabilitation programme, including radiotherapy. His sixth studio album, "Outside In", was released on 26 November 2007. Watson released "La Voce", his first album since overcoming the brain tumour, in 2010.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson has released thirteen studio albums. His latest is a collaborative album with singer Aled Jones, "Christmas with Aled and Russell", which was released in November 2022.


title: Russell Watson

text: Russell Watson was born on 24 November 1966 in Manchester. He attended Irlam Endowed Primary School. He then began work on a Youth Opportunities Programme as a bolt-cutter.


title: Russell Watson

text: Although Watson had been singing since he was a child, he never sought a career as a professional singer. Then married and with a baby, he began to earn extra money singing cover versions of Elvis Presley and other artists in North West clubs to help support his young family.


title: Russell Watson

text: In 1998 Ian Boasman, manager of the Bistro French restaurant in Preston, arranged for him to sing at Old Trafford during the interval at a memorial football match for the Munich air disaster, a huge privilege for a lifelong Manchester United fan. However, his appearance was cancelled at the last minute when player Eric Cantona requested that Mick Hucknall sing instead. Russell signed a management deal with Boasman; this also involved comic Bobby Ball and businessman Keith Chadwick.


title: Russell Watson

text: In 1999 he sang "God Save the Queen" at the Rugby League Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium, then finally sang at Old Trafford before the last match of the Premiership season between Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur. After the game, when his team had won the league championship, he returned to the pitch to sing the Freddie Mercury and Montserrat Caballé song "Barcelona", during which he tore off his dinner jacket to reveal a Manchester United shirt; a week later he was invited to sing a full set at the final of the UEFA Champions League in Barcelona between United and Bayern Munich, duetting with Montserrat Caballé.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson was now managed by Perry Hughes, who was pivotal in the success of Watson's career during these years. Watson's début album, "The Voice", followed in May 2001. A mixture of operatic arias and covers of pop songs, it topped the UK classical chart and eventually reached number five in the UK Albums Chart. When it was released in the United States, it took the number one spot, the first time a British artist had held both the US and UK classical number one. The album contained perhaps Watson's most unusual collaboration to date, with former Happy Mondays singer Shaun Ryder who lent his vocals to the Freddie Mercury and Montserrat Caballé song "Barcelona". It also featured a duet with Faye Tozer of pop group Steps, "Someone Like You", which when released as a single, charted at number 10 on the UK Singles chart.


title: Russell Watson

text: Prior to the formation of Velvet Revolver, Watson was asked by Slash (former guitarist of Guns N' Roses and currently in Velvet Revolver) whether he would be their singer. Watson turned down this opportunity to focus on his solo career.


title: Russell Watson

text: In 2001, Watson sang the opening theme of the television series "", "Where My Heart Will Take Me", written by Diane Warren. He also sang it live at the opening ceremony of the Commonwealth Games in Manchester in 2002. In 2003, the song was remixed to a more upbeat version. In August 2007, it was played as a wake-up call for American Mission Specialist Richard Mastracchio on Space Shuttle Endeavour mission STS-118.


title: Russell Watson

text: In late 2004, Watson released the single "Nothing Sacred – A Song for Kirsty" to raise £5 million for the Francis House children's hospice in Didsbury, Manchester. The campaign was fronted by Kirsty Howard, a seven-year-old girl with a serious heart defect. The song reached number 17 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Russell Watson

text: The self-styled "People's Tenor", who is also known as "The Voice" after his first album, won the Album of the Year at the Classical BRIT Awards in both 2001 and 2002, also collecting awards for Best-Selling Debut Album (2001) and Best-Selling Album (2002).


title: Russell Watson

text: In 2005, he collaborated with Secret Garden for his song "Always There" from the album Earthsongs. In November 2005, Watson recorded "True To Your Dreams", his ending theme for the video game .


title: Russell Watson

text: In addition to his recording work, Watson played Parson Nathaniel in the stage adaptation of "Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds" which toured the UK in early 2006. In the same year, he also took part in the BBC reality TV show "Just the Two of Us". The programme involved eight couples, including Siân Reeves and Watson, competing in a duet-singing showdown, complete with a live band, a panel of judges and viewer voting, to see who would be crowned champions. A wide array of music was performed, from country and western to rock. The scores each week were tallied from both a judging vote (the judges were Lulu, Trevor Nelson, Stewart Copeland and Cece Sammy) and a public phone-in vote. Watson, a late arrival to the competition replacing Reeves's original partner Rick Astley, who had pulled out, took the crown despite the low scores awarded by the judges to their performances. Following the competition Reeves and Watson released a victory single, "Can't Help Falling in Love". Russell Watson was scheduled to defend his title in the 2007 series with a new celebrity partner, Loui Batley, but had to withdraw at the last minute because of serious health problems.


title: Russell Watson

text: Upon recovering, Watson returned to the recording studio to finish his album "That's Life". Originally due out in November 2006, it was subsequently released on 5 March 2007. On the advice of his doctors, his latest UK tour, which had been due to start in late October 2006, was also postponed until March 2007 to coincide with the album release. The rescheduled tour met with huge approval throughout the country, with night after night of standing ovations to a visibly moved Watson. On 19 May 2007, Watson sang the "God Save the Queen" at the 2007 FA Cup Final.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson appeared as a judge on the talent show "Last Choir Standing", which was broadcast on BBC One beginning 5 July 2008. His album "People Get Ready", containing easy listening, rock and soul music standards, was released on 17 November 2008. He performed at the "Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Special 2008" on 25 December 2008, and at the BBC's "New Year Live 2008" programme from on the Thames on New Year's Eve. In April and May 2009, Watson undertook a 20-date tour of the UK backed by Liverpool's Sense of Sound, who came to his attention after they performed in the BBC's "Last Choir Standing". In July 2009, he performed at the opening ceremony of the World Games 2009 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson was one of the principal singers (in the role of Karl-Oskar) in the English world premiere of the Swedish musical "Kristina från Duvemåla" ("Kristina from Duvemåla") by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus at Carnegie Hall in New York on 23 and 24 September 2009. He and his female lead Helen Sjöholm were praised by music critic Stephen Holden as having "first-rate poperetta voices, with Mr. Watson's Puccini-ready tenor the more operatic. Each brings down the house at least once." He reprised the role in the UK premiere of the musical in concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 14 April 2010.


title: Russell Watson

text: In March/April 2014, Watson went on tour around the UK with his 'Only One Man' tour with the Arts Symphonic Orchestra, Arts Voices and Robert D.C. Emery conducting.


title: Russell Watson

text: In November 2020, Watson appeared on the twentieth series of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!". He was eliminated fifth, coming in eighth place overall.


title: Russell Watson

text: In November 2021, Watson appeared on ITV1 gameshow "The Chase". That same month, it was announced that Watson had joined the cast of a nationwide UK tour of "Chicago" as Billy Flynn. The tour began in February 2022 in Liverpool.


title: Russell Watson

text: On 15 June 2022, Watson performed at Bridgewater Hall, in Manchester, for a charity concert in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust.


title: Russell Watson

text: On 30 August 2022, it was announced that ITV had commissioned a one-off "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" special of "", would air on 6 November 2022, ahead of the launch show for the 2022 series. Watson sang "Go the Distance" and was disguised as "Cockroach".


title: Russell Watson

text: On 11 November 2022, Watson and Aled Jones released the album "Christmas with Aled and Russell". The album debuted at number 1 on the Classical Artists Albums Chart and number 14 on the main albums chart. The album was preceded by two singles; the first, "A Spaceman Came Travelling", was released on 21 October 2022. The second single, "O Holy Night", was released on 4 November 2022. The duo toured the UK in November and December 2022. On speaking about releasing "Christmas with Aled and Russell", Watson said "[Aled]'s synonymous with Christmas [...] whereas all this is new to me – I've never actually released a Christmas album. I've released albums at Christmas but the subject has never been 'Christmas', so I'm really excited about this. And I think it will give people a nice, warm feeling; the melancholy and the memories that Christmas brings back."


title: Russell Watson

text: Some critics have said that Watson's untrained tenor voice is not up to operatic standards; Rupert Christiansen, music critic of "The Daily Telegraph" has, for instance, called him a "karaoke crooner". Watson has responded that it "[d]oesn't bother me. Seven years ago classical crossover didn't exist – putting Italian lyrics to pop songs in a big ballsy way. Now every bugger's doing it. I've transcended all that bickering and bitching." Watson's career ambition is "[l]ongevity, that's the most important thing. I want to be a musical force for a good long while."


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson has two daughters from his first marriage to Helen Watson. The couple divorced in 2002. In his autobiography, "Finding My Voice", Watson wrote "This belief that fame stepped in, swelled my head and made me leave Helen in the lurch isn't true [...] We were a warring couple, arguing about the same things that every other couple does [...] We fought before the split, we fought during the divorce and, just for good measure, we fought afterwards too."


title: Russell Watson

text: In 2005, Watson began having headaches, which he described as "like a knife being pressed into the bridge of my nose". He consulted a specialist, who told him there was nothing to worry about as he was suffering from stress and should find ways of relaxing. When his peripheral vision began to be affected in late 2006, he visited another specialist, who also said he was suffering from stress. Watson told him, "The only thing that's stressing me is this pain in my head."


title: Russell Watson

text: In September 2006, Watson flew to Los Angeles to record his album "That's Life". On the flight, he told his producer that he was experiencing terrible pressure inside his skull. When they landed, his producer suggested a game of tennis to clear his head. Watson could not see the ball at all. After a visit to the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and an MRI scan, he was advised that he had a developing pituitary adenoma, which was the size of two golf balls. According to Watson, "Since an early age I've had an in-built premonition, a vision that I wouldn't make 40. For the previous seven years I'd have a recurring nightmare in which my head exploded. And here I was with a brain tumour on the eve of my 40th birthday; I thought, 'This is it, I was right, I knew it'." Watson recalled that the tumours were "like a figure of eight, one filling the frontal cavity of my skull, the other forced through into the top of my nose." He stayed in Los Angeles for two days and continued recording his album while tests confirmed whether the tumour was malignant or not – it turned out to be benign.


title: Russell Watson

text: Watson then returned to the UK, and had a five-hour emergency operation to remove the eight-centimetre lump at St George's Hospital in Tooting, South London, in September 2006. As the tumour was pressing against his optic nerve, the surgeon removed the tumour through his nose.


title: Russell Watson

text: After the operation, Watson could barely walk, and the tumour had affected his pituitary gland which controls hormone levels: "My mood swings went from ecstatic to suicidal. I remember one night standing on the balcony, full of dark thoughts and self-pity, thinking 'God, this is f**king terrible, why me?' I went back to bed, couldn't sleep, got up again. I thought I'd had enough. If it hadn't been for the girls [his daughters]..." His energy levels were very low and he did not leave his house for two months: "I couldn't deal with more than one person at a time or with multitasking and I cried easily." Watson was readmitted to hospital in Manchester for tests on 6 October 2006 after complaining of dizziness, headaches and blurred vision. He has been reported as saying, "It [his first pituitary tumour] changed my priorities. Made me appreciate the importance of relationships, of friends and family and, most of all, my two daughters. My fear for them if I died—that was the worst part. I adore them".


title: Russell Watson

text: While in the middle of the studio recording of his album "Outside In" on 24 October 2007 Watson suddenly became incapacitated, with multiple symptoms including a dramatic deterioration of vision. An MRI scan showed he had a regrowth of his tumour with bleeding into his brain. He underwent emergency surgery to remove the tumour at the Alexandra Hospital in Cheadle, Greater Manchester, and was for a while in a critical condition in the hospital's Intensive Therapy Unit. Watson was discharged from hospital on 31 October. Watson later underwent an extensive rehabilitation programme including radiotherapy at the Christie Hospital in Manchester.


title: Russell Watson

text: Once Watson finished radiotherapy in 2008 he decided to embark on a return to music. He soon found that his treatment had given him not just a fresh outlook on the world, but a new, deeper, richer voice. "The tumour could have been growing for 10–15 years in my nasal cavity, so when I had cut it out I went from a V8 to a V12!"


title: Rikki Don't Lose That Number

text: "Rikki Don't Lose That Number" is a single released in 1974 by rock/jazz rock group Steely Dan and the opening track of their third album "Pretzel Logic". It was the most successful single of the group's career, peaking at number 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the summer of 1974.


title: Rikki Don't Lose That Number

text: The song features Jim Gordon on drums, as does the bulk of the "Pretzel Logic" album. The guitar solo is by Jeff "Skunk" Baxter who would soon go on to join The Doobie Brothers.


title: Rikki Don't Lose That Number

text: Victor Feldman's flapamba introduction to the song, which opens the album, is cut from the original ABC single version. The MCA single reissue (backed with "Pretzel Logic") includes the flapamba intro but fades out just before the actual end of the track. The introductory riff is an almost direct copy of the intro of Horace Silver's jazz classic "Song for My Father".


title: Rikki Don't Lose That Number

text: Just to clear up a generation's worth of rumors about the lyrics of "Rikki Don't Lose That Number," Walter Becker stated for the record in a 1985 interview in the pages of "Musician" that the "number" in question was not slang for a marijuana cigarette ("send it off in a letter to yourself," supposedly a way to safely transport one's dope back before the post office abolished general delivery mail, was held up as the key line), and an uncharacteristically forthcoming Donald Fagen has similarly revealed that the "Rikki" in question was simply a woman he'd had a crush on in college [writer Rikki Ducornet]. It says something about Steely Dan's reputation as obscurantists that even a straightforward lost-love song like "Rikki Don't Lose That Number" could be so widely over-interpreted. ... It's unsurprising that "Rikki Don't Lose That Number" ended up becoming Steely Dan's biggest commercial hit ... as it's one of the group's most gentle and accessible songs.


title: Rikki Don't Lose That Number

text: "Billboard" described it as a "catchy, almost tango-like tune." "Cash Box" said that the "strong accent on harmonies with keyboard and percussion dominating the musical end make for a very entertaining track."


title: Nicola Pagett

text: Nicola Mary Pagett Scott (15 June 1945 – 3 March 2021), known professionally as Nicola Pagett, was a British actress, known for her role as Elizabeth Bellamy in the 1970s TV drama series "Upstairs, Downstairs" (1971–1973), as well as being one of the leads in the sitcom "Ain't Misbehavin'" (1994–1995). Her film appearances included "Anne of the Thousand Days" (1969), "" (1973), "Operation Daybreak" (1975), "Privates on Parade" (1982) and "An Awfully Big Adventure" (1995).


title: Nicola Pagett

text: Born in Cairo, Egypt, Nicola Pagett spent most of her childhood out of Britain—in Hong Kong, Cyprus and Japan, the family moving with her father who worked for a major oil company. She was educated at Saint Maur International School, in Yokohama, Japan. In 1962 Pagett entered Britain's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art where she studied for two years.


title: Nicola Pagett

text: In 1964, Pagett appeared in several productions with Worthing Repertory Company and the Glasgow Citizen's Theatre.. Then her performance in the television play "The Girl in the Picture" caught the attention of Sir Robert Helpmann who cast her to tour with Vivien Leigh in the stage play "La Contessa".


title: Nicola Pagett

text: In 1965, she appeared in the Incorporated Television Company (ITC) production of "Gideon's Way", episode 10, "How to Retire without Really Working" in an uncredited role as girl at railway station. Also in 1965, under the name Nicola Paget, she appeared in "Gideon's Way" series 1 episode 15 called "The Alibi Man".


title: Nicola Pagett

text: She also appeared in the British TV series, "Danger Man", in an episode called 'The Mirror's New'. She appeared in episode 13 of "The Persuaders!" and episode 7 of "Special Branch."


title: Nicola Pagett

text: After starring as Florence Maybrick in an episode of "Wicked Women", she appeared as Elizabeth Bellamy in the British series "Upstairs, Downstairs".


title: Nicola Pagett

text: This was followed in 1975 by an appearance in the British television police drama, "The Sweeney". Pagett appeared in the episode "Stoppo Driver" in which she played the character of Sara Prince, part of a family of criminals involved in the kidnap of the wife of Detective Constable Brian Cooney, a Flying Squad driver. In May 1976, she appeared as Bella Manningham in "Gas Light" at the Criterion Theatre, London, with Peter Vaughan and Anton Rodgers.


title: Nicola Pagett

text: She played the title role in the 1977 BBC adaptation of "Anna Karenina" and gave a memorable performance in David Nobbs's TV series "A Bit of a Do". She appeared in films such as "The Viking Queen" (1967), "Some Like It Sexy" (1969), "Anne of the Thousand Days" (1969), "There's a Girl in My Soup" (1970), "" (1973), "Operation Daybreak" (1975), "Oliver's Story" (1978), "Privates on Parade" (1982) and "An Awfully Big Adventure" (1995). She appeared in leading roles (as the young Irish bride Conor) in the 1980 Australian mini-series "The Timeless Land" and in the 1994 to 1995 sitcom "Ain't Misbehavin'".


title: Nicola Pagett

text: Pagett married actor/writer Graham Swannell in 1975. They had one daughter, Eve. The couple divorced in 1997.


title: Nicola Pagett

text: Pagett was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1997 after becoming obsessed with the then prime minister's chief press secretary Alastair Campbell. She related in her book "Diamonds Behind My Eyes" that she later recovered.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast, sold under the brand name Otezla among others, is a medication for the treatment of certain types of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. It may also be useful for other immune system-related inflammatory diseases. The drug acts as a selective inhibitor of the enzyme phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) and inhibits spontaneous production of TNF-alpha from human rheumatoid synovial cells. It is taken by mouth.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast is indicated in the United States for the treatment of adults with active psoriatic arthritis, adult patients with plaque psoriasis who are candidates for phototherapy or systemic therapy, and adults with oral ulcers associated with Behçet's disease.


title: Apremilast

text: In the European Union, apremilast alone or in combination with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), is indicated for the treatment of active psoriatic arthritis (PsA) in adults who have had an inadequate response or who have been intolerant to a prior DMARD therapy. It is also indicated for the treatment of moderate to severe chronic plaque psoriasis in adults who failed to respond to, have a contraindication to, or are intolerant of other systemic therapies, including cyclosporine, methotrexate, or psoralen and ultraviolet-A light.


title: Apremilast

text: In the European Union, the drug is contraindicated during pregnancy because mice and monkeys receiving very high doses of apremilast have been observed to suffer miscarriages and other pregnancy problems. In the U.S., it may be used for pregnant women "if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus".


title: Apremilast

text: Diarrhoea occurs in about 25% of people taking apremilast. Severe gastrointestinal symptoms, when they occur, typically start within the first few weeks of treatment.


title: Apremilast

text: Weight loss has been associated with apremilast. Reports from clinical studies indicated a 5 to 10% decrease in body weight in 10% of patients taking apremilast (compared to 3.3% of patients taking placebo).


title: Apremilast

text: Common, usually mild to moderate adverse effects associated with apremilast include headache, back pain, nausea, diarrhoea, fatigue, nasopharyngitis, and upper respiratory tract infections.


title: Apremilast

text: Concurrent use of strong cytochrome P450 enzyme inducers has been shown to decrease exposure of apremilast and can result in reduced or loss of efficacy of apremilast. Using it simultaneously with strong P450 enzyme inducers, including rifampicin, phenobarbital, carbamazepine, phenytoin, and St. John's wort is not recommended.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast is a small-molecule inhibitor of PDE4, an enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). In inflammatory cells, PDE4 is the dominant enzyme responsible for this reaction. The resulting increase in cAMP levels down-regulates expression of a number of pro-inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin 17, interleukin 23, and many others, and up-regulates the anti-inflammatory interleukin 10. In "ex vivo" models of arthritis, IL-12/IL-23p40 was specifically identified as a downstream target of apremilast. The importance of these individual factors for the clinical effect of apremilast is not clear.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast is absorbed well from the gut (73%), independently of food intake, and reaches peak blood plasma concentrations after 2.5 hours. Plasma protein binding is 68%. It is metabolised in the liver, mainly via the enzyme CYP3A4, but to a minor extent via CYP1A2 and CYP2A6. The main metabolite is "O"-desmethylapremilast glucuronide.


title: Apremilast

text: Its half-life is 6–9 hours. The substance is eliminated through the kidney (58%) and feces (39%), mainly in form of its metabolites. Only 3% of the original substance is found in the urine, and 7% in the feces.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast is a phthalimide derivative. It is a white to pale yellow, nonhygroscopic powder that is practically insoluble in water and buffer solutions in a wide pH range, but is soluble in lipophilic solvents such as acetone, acetonitrile, butanone, dichloromethane, and tetrahydrofuran.


title: Apremilast

text: "In vitro", apremilast reduces PDE4 activity, leading to an increase in cyclic-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) concentrations in immune and nonimmune cell types, partially inhibiting the production of many pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IFN-γ IL-2, IL-12, and IL-23 and elevating the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. The inhibition potency of apremilast in TNF-α production is similar to lenalidomide.


title: Apremilast

text: Celgene reported seven kinds of crystal forms – A, B, C, D, E, F, and G -nand thought the crystal form B was the most thermodynamically stable anhydrous form. However, Utopharm reported another more thermodynamically stable anhydrous crystal form II than the crystal form B.


title: Apremilast

text: Otezla is available in the U.S., but is dispensed only through a network of specialty pharmacies. The estimated wholesale price is $22,500 for a year of treatment. In Austria, the drug is available in all pharmacies, and a year of treatment costs health insurances about €11,000 as of 2018. In India, the drug is available in all pharmacies, and a year of treatment costs about ₹22,000.


title: Apremilast

text: Apremilast was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2014, for treatment of adults with active psoriatic arthritis and moderate to severe plaque psoriasis, and approved in 2019, for oral ulcers associated with Behçet's disease. Apremilast is taken by mouth.


title: Burushaski

text: Burushaski (; ) is a language isolate spoken by Burusho people, who reside almost entirely in northern Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, with a few hundred speakers in northern Jammu and Kashmir, India. In Pakistan, Burushaski is spoken by people in Hunza District, Nagar District, northern Gilgit District, the Yasin valley in the Gupis-Yasin District and the Ishkoman valley of the northern Ghizer District. Their native region is located in northern Gilgit–Baltistan and borders with the Pamir corridor to the north. In India, Burushaski is spoken in Botraj Mohalla of the Hari Parbat region in Srinagar. Other names for the language are "Biltum", "Khajuna", "Kunjut", "Brushaski", "Burucaki", "Burucaski", "Burushaki", "Burushki", "Brugaski", "Brushas", "Werchikwar" and "Miśa:ski".


title: Burushaski

text: Attempts have been made to establish links between Burushaski and several different language families, although none has been accepted by a majority of linguists.


title: Burushaski

text: Following Berger (1956), the "American Heritage" dictionaries suggested that the word "*abel" 'apple', the only name for a fruit (tree) reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European, may have been borrowed from a language ancestral to Burushaski. ("Apple" and "apple tree" are "báalt" in modern Burushaski.)


title: Burushaski

text: Other hypotheses posit a genealogical relationship between Burushaski and the North Caucasian languages, Kartvelian languages, Yeniseian languages and/or Indo-European languages, usually in proposed macrofamilies.


title: Burushaski

text: The linguist Sadaf Munshi stated that Burushaski may have developed alongside the Dravidian languages before the Indo-Aryan migration to South Asia, mentioning the fact that both possess retroflex sounds.


title: Burushaski

text: Burushaski is spoken by about 120,000 speakers in Pakistan, and also by a few hundred in India. In Pakistan, it is spoken in three main valleys: Yasin, Hunza, and Nagar. The varieties of Hunza and Nagar diverge slightly, but are clearly dialects of a single language. The Yasin variety, also known by the Khowar exonym "Werchikwar", is much more divergent. Intelligibility between Yasin and Hunza-Nagar is difficult, and Yasin is sometimes considered a distinct language and the pure Burushaski is spoken in Yasin valley. Yasin is the least affected by contact with neighboring languages, though speakers are bilingual in Khowar. Yasin is spoken by a quarter of Burushaski speakers.


title: Burushaski

text: In India, Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski (JKB) "has developed divergent linguistic features which make it systematically different from the varieties spoken in Pakistan." The dialect of Burushashki spoken in India has been influenced by Kashmiri, as well as Hindi and Urdu. Unique to JKB is the features of vowel syncopation. Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski shares more similarities with the dialect spoken in Nagar than with that spoken in Hunza. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has been known as low toned and is spoken a Kashmiri way of speaking the language. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has only 300 speakers.


title: Burushaski

text: Burushaski is a predominantly spoken rather than written language. Occasionally the Urdu alphabet is used, and there are some specific characters in Unicode, but no fixed orthography exists. Adu Wazir Shafi wrote a book "Burushaski Razon" using a Latin script.


title: Burushaski

text: Tibetan sources record a "Bru zha" language of the Gilgit valley, which appears to have been Burushaski, whose script was one of five scripts used to write the extinct Zhang Zhung language. Although Burushaski may once have been a significant literary language, no "Bru zha" manuscripts are known to have survived. There is a very voluminous Buddhist tantra of the 'Ancient' ("rNying ma") school of Tibetan Buddhism, preserved in Tibetan as the "mDo dgongs 'dus", which has been the subject of numerous Tibetological publications, including a recent monograph by Jacob P. Dalton, "The Gathering of Intentions", which is supposed to be translated from the Burushaski ("bru zha'i skad"). It contains words that are not Sanskrit but which, at this stage, it has not been ascertained whether they could actually be related to the Burushaski, or belong to another language (or, else, be purely "elfic"). If at least part of this text had actually been translated from Burushaski, it would make it one of the major monuments of an apparently lost literature.


title: Burushaski

text: Linguists working on Burushaski use various makeshift transcriptions based on the Latin alphabet, most commonly that by Berger (see below), in their publications.


title: Burushaski

text: Burushaski primarily has five vowels, /i e a o u/. Various contractions result in long vowels; stressed vowels (marked with acute accents in Berger's transcription) tend to be longer and less "open" than unstressed ones ( as opposed to ). Long vowels also occur in loans and in a few onomatopoeic words (Grune 1998). All vowels have nasal counterparts in Hunza (in some expressive words) and in Nager (also in proper names and a few other words).


title: Burushaski

text: Berger (1998) finds the following consonants to be phonemic, shown below in his transcription and in the :


title: Burushaski

text: Nouns in Burushaski are divided into four genders: human masculine, human feminine, countable objects, and uncountable ones (similar to mass nouns). The assignment of a noun to a particular gender is largely predictable. Some words can belong both to the countable and to the uncountable class, producing differences in meaning. For example, when countable, "báalt" means 'apple' but when uncountable, it means 'apple tree' (Grune 1998).


title: Burushaski

text: Noun morphology consists of the noun stem, a possessive prefix (mandatory for some nouns, and thus an example of inherent possession), and number and case suffixes. Distinctions in number are singular, plural, indefinite, and grouped. Cases include absolutive, ergative/oblique, genitive, and several locatives; the latter indicate both location and direction and may be compounded.


title: Burushaski

text: Burushaski verbs have three basic stems: past tense, present tense, and consecutive. The past stem is the citation form and is also used for imperatives and nominalization; the consecutive stem is similar to a past participle and is used for coordination. Agreement on the verb has both nominative and ergative features: transitive verbs and unaccusatives mark both the subject and the object of a clause, while unergatives verbs mark only subject agreement on the verb. Altogether, a verb can take up to four prefixes and six suffixes.


title: Burushaski

text: In Burushaski, there are four noun classes, similar to declensional classes in Indo-European languages, but unlike Indo-European, the nominal classes in Burushaski are associated with four grammatical "genders":


title: Burushaski

text: Below, the abbreviation "h" will stand for the combination of the m- and f-classes, while "hx" will stand for the combination of the m-, f- and x-classes. Nouns in the x-class typically refer to countable, non-human beings or things, for example animals, fruit, stones, eggs, or coins; conversely, nouns in the y-class are as a rule uncountable abstractions or mass nouns, such as rice, fire, water, snow, wool, etc.


title: Burushaski

text: However, these rules are not universal – countable objects in the y-class are sometimes encountered, e.g. "ha", 'house'. Related words can subtly change their meanings when used in different classes – for example, "bayú", when a member of the x-class, means salt in clumps, but when in the y-class, it means powdered salt. Fruit trees are understood collectively and placed in the y-class, but their individual fruits belong to the x-class. Objects made of particular materials can belong to either the x- or the y- class: stone and wood are in the x-class, but metal and leather in the y-class. The article, adjectives, numerals and other attributes must be in agreement with the noun class of their subject.


title: Burushaski

text: There are two numbers in Burushaski: singular and plural. The singular is unmarked, while the plural is expressed by means of suffix, which vary depending on the class of the noun:


title: Burushaski

text: Some nouns admit two or three different prefixes, while others have no distinctive suffix, and occur only in the plural, e.g. "bras" 'rice', "gur" 'wheat', "bishké", 'fur', (cf. plurale tantum). On the other hand, there are also nouns which have identical forms in the singular and plural, e.g. "hagúr" 'horses'. Adjectives have a unique plural suffix, whose form depends on the class of the noun they modify, e.g. "burúm" 'white' gives the x-class plural "burum-išo" and the y-class plural "burúm-ing".


title: Burushaski

text: The case suffixes are appended to the plural suffix, e.g. "Huséiniukutse", 'the people of Hussein' (ergative plural). The genitive ending is irregular, /mo/, for singular f-class nouns, but /-e/ in all others (identical to the ergative ending). The dative ending, /-ar/, /-r/ is attached to the genitive ending for singular f-class nouns, but to the stem for all others. Examples:


title: Burushaski

text: The endings of the secondary cases are formed from a secondary case suffix (or infix) and one of the primary endings /-e/, /-ar/ or /-um/. These endings are directional, /-e/ being locative (answering 'where?'), /-ar/ being terminative (answering 'where to?'), and /-um/ being ablative (answering 'where from?'). The infixes, and their basic meanings, are as follows:


title: Burushaski

text: The regular endings /-ul-e/ and /-ul-ar/ are archaic and are now replaced by /-ul-o/ and /-ar-ulo/ respectively.


title: Burushaski

text: Nouns indicating parts of the body and kinship terms are accompanied by an obligatory pronominal prefix. Thus, one cannot simply say 'mother' or 'arm' in Burushaski, but only 'my arm', 'your mother', 'his father', etc. For example, the root "mi" 'mother', is never found in isolation, instead one finds:


title: Burushaski

text: The pronominal, or personal, prefixes agree with the person, number and – in the third person, the class of their noun. A summary of the basic forms is given in the following table:


title: Burushaski

text: Personal pronouns in Burushaski distinguish proximal and distal forms, e.g. "khin" 'he, this one here', but "in", 'he, that one there'. In the oblique, there are additional abbreviated forms.


title: Burushaski

text: The Burushaski number system is vigesimal, i.e. based on the number 20. For example, 20 "altar", 40 "alto-altar" (2 times 20), 60 "iski-altar" (3 times 20) etc. The base numerals are:


title: Burushaski

text: The verbal morphology of Burushaski is extremely complicated and rich in forms. Many sound changes can take place, including assimilation, deletion and accent shift, which are unique for almost every verb. Here, we can specify only certain basic principles.


title: Burushaski

text: For many transitive verbs, in addition to the subject, the (direct) object is also indicated, also by pronominal prefixes which vary according to person, number and class. All verbs have negative forms, and many intransitive verbs also have derived transitive forms. The infinitive forms – which in Burushaski are the absolutives of the past and present, the perfect participle, and two infinitives – admit all the finite variations except tense and mood. Infinitive forms are made together with auxiliary verbs and periphrastic forms.


title: Burushaski

text: All verb forms can be constructed according to a complex but regular position system. Berger describes a total of 11 possible positions, or slots, although not all of these will be filled in any given verb form. Many positions also have several alternative contents (indicated by A/B/C below). The verb stem is in position 5, preceded by four possible prefixes and followed by seven possible suffixes. The following table gives an overview of the positions and their functions


title: Burushaski

text: The formation of the tenses and moods involves the use of several positions, or slots, in complicated ways. The preterite, perfect, pluperfect and conative are formed from the 'simple stem,' whereas the present, imperfect, future and conditional are formed from the 'present stem,' which is itself formed from the simple stem by placing -č- in position 7. The optative and imperative are derived directly from the stem. Altogether, the schema is as follows:


title: Burushaski

text: The subject and object of the verb are indicated by the use of personal prefixes and suffixes in positions 3, 8 and 10 as follows:


title: Burushaski

text: The personal prefixes are identical to the pronominal prefixes of nouns (mandatory with body parts and kinship terms, as above). A simplified overview of the forms of the affixes is given in the following table:


title: Burushaski

text: For example, the construction of the preterite of the transitive verb "phus" 'to tie', with prefixes and suffixes separated by hyphens, is as follows :


title: Burushaski

text: The personal affixes are also used when the noun occupies the role of the subject or the object, e.g. "hir i-ír-i-mi" 'the man died'. With intransitive verbs, the subject function is indicated by both a prefix and a suffix, as in: