title: Case citation

text: This format also allows different cases with the same parties to be easily differentiated. For example, looking for the U.S. Supreme Court case of "Miller v. California" would yield four cases, some involving different people named Miller, and each involving different issues.


title: Case citation

text: Cases from the Supreme Court of the United States are officially printed in the "United States Reports". A citation to the "United States Reports" looks like this:


title: Case citation

text: Many court decisions are published in more than one reporter. A citation to two or more reporters for a given court decision is called a "parallel citation". For U.S. Supreme Court decisions, there are several unofficial reporters, including the "Supreme Court Reporter" (abbreviated S. Ct.) and "United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition" (commonly known simply as "Lawyers' Edition") (abbreviated L. Ed.), which are printed by private companies and provide further annotations to the opinions of the Court. Although a citation to the latter two is not required, some attorneys and legal writers prefer to cite all three case reporters at once:


title: Case citation

text: The "2d" after the L. Ed. signifies the second series of the "Lawyers' Edition". United States case reporters are sequentially numbered, but the volume number is never higher than 999. When the 1,000th volume is reached (the threshold in earlier years was lower), the volume number is reset to 1 and a "2d" is appended after the reporter's abbreviation. Some case reporters are in their third series, and a few are approaching their fourth.


title: Case citation

text: Some very old Supreme Court cases have odd-looking citations, such as "Marbury v. Madison", 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). The "(1 Cranch)" refers to the fact that, before there was a reporter series known as the "United States Reports" compiled by the Supreme Court's Reporter of Decisions, cases were gathered, bound together, and sold privately by the Court's Reporter of Decisions. In this example, "Marbury" was first reported in an edition by William Cranch, who was responsible for publishing Supreme Court reports from 1801 to 1815. Such reports, named for the individual who gathered them and hence called "nominative reports", existed from 1790 to 1874. Beginning in 1874, the U.S. government created the "United States Reports", and at the same time simultaneously numbered the volumes previously published privately as part of a single series and began numbering sequentially from that point. In this way, "5 U.S. (1 Cranch)" means that it is the 5th overall volume of the "United States Reports" series, but the first that was originally published by William Cranch; four volumes of opinions prior to that were (for example) published by Alexander Dallas (for example, "4 U.S. (4 Dall.)"), and after Cranch's 9 volumes, 12 more were published by Henry Wheaton (e.g., "15 U.S. (2 Wheat.)"). See the Supreme Court of the United States Reporter of Decisions for other edition names. The name of the reporter of decisions has not been used in citations since the U.S. government began printing the "United States Reports".


title: Case citation

text: When a case has been decided, but not yet published in the case reporter, the citation may note the volume but leave blank the page of the case reporter until it is determined. For example, "Golan v. Holder," 565 U.S. 302 (2012) was properly cited as "Golan v. Holder", before publication.


title: Case citation

text: In the caption of a Supreme Court case, the first name listed is the name of the petitioning (appealing) party, followed by the party responding (respondent) to the appeal. In most cases, the appealing party was the losing party in the prior court. This is no longer the practice used in cases in the federal courts of appeal, in which the original alignment of parties from the lower court is preserved.


title: Case citation

text: United States court of appeals cases are published in the "Federal Reporter" (F., F.2d, or F.3d). United States district court cases and cases from some specialized courts are published in the "Federal Supplement" (F. Supp., F. Supp. 2d, or F. Supp. 3d). Both series are published by Thomson West; they are technically unofficial reporters, but have become widely accepted as the "de facto" "official" reporters of the lower federal courts because of the absence of a true official reporter. (Of the federal appeals and district courts, only one, the D.C. Circuit, has an official reporter, "United States Court of Appeals Reports", and even that one is rarely used today.)


title: Case citation

text: When lower federal court opinions are cited, the citation includes the name of the court. This is placed in the parentheses immediately before the year. Some examples:


title: Case citation

text: U.S. circuit and district court cases from 1789 to 1880 were reported in Federal Cases, abbreviated F. Cas. An example of the citation form is: "Wheaton v. Peters", 29 F. Cas. 862 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1832) (No. 17,486).


title: Case citation

text: State court decisions are published in several places. Many states have their own official state reporters, which publish decisions of one or more of that state's courts. Reporters that publish decisions of a state's highest court are abbreviated the same as the state's name (note: this is the traditional abbreviation, not the postal abbreviation), regardless of what the actual title of the reporter is. Thus, the official reporter of decisions of the California Supreme Court (titled "California Reports") is abbreviated "Cal." (or, for subsequent series, "Cal. 2d," "Cal. 3d", or "Cal. 4th").


title: Case citation

text: In addition to the official reporters, Thomson West publishes several series of "regional reporters" that cover several states each. These are the "North Eastern Reporter", "Atlantic Reporter", "South Eastern Reporter", "Southern Reporter", "South Western Reporter", "North Western Reporter", and "Pacific Reporter". California, Illinois, and New York also each have their own line of Thomson West reporters, because of the large volume of cases generated in those states (titled, respectively, "West's California Reporter", "Illinois Decisions", and "West's New York Supplement"). Some smaller states (like South Dakota) have stopped publishing their own official reporters, and instead have certified the appropriate West regional reporter as their "official" reporter.


title: Case citation

text: Abbreviations for lower courts vary by state, as each state has its own system of trial courts and intermediate appellate courts. When a case appears in both an official reporter and a regional reporter, either citation can be used. Generally, citing to the regional reporter is preferred, since out-of-state attorneys are more likely to have access to these. Many lawyers prefer to include both citations. Some state courts require that parallel citations (in this case, citing to both the official reporter and an unofficial regional reporter) be used when citing cases from any court in that state's system.


title: Case citation

text: Like the United States Supreme Court, some very old state case citations include an abbreviation of the name of either the private publisher or the reporter of decisions, a state-appointed officer who originally collected and published the cases. For example, in "Hall v. Bell", 47 Mass. (6 Met.) 431 (1843), the citation is to volume 47 of "Massachusetts Reports", which, like "United States Reports", was started in the latter half of the 19th century and incorporated into the series a number of prior editions originally published privately, and began numbering from that point; "6 Met." refers to the 6th volume that had originally been published privately by Theron Metcalf. An example of a case cited to a reporter that has not been subsequently incorporated into an officially published series is "Pierson v. Post", 3 Cai. 175 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1804), reported in volume 3 of "Caines' Reports", page 175, named for George Caines, who had been appointed to report New York cases; the case was before the New York Supreme Court of Judicature (now defunct). Most states gave up this practice in the mid-to-late 19th century, but Delaware persisted until 1920.


title: Case citation

text: Some states, notably California and New York, have their own citation systems that differ significantly from the various federal and national standards. In California, the year is placed "between" the names of the parties and the reference to the case reporter; in New York, the year is wrapped in brackets instead of parentheses, while California uses brackets for parenthetical explanations of a case's holding or relevance. Both New York and California styles wrap an entire citation in parentheses when used as a stand-alone sentence to support the preceding sentence, although New York places the terminating period outside the parentheses, whereas California places it inside. New York wraps just the reporter and page references in parentheses when the citation is used as a clause.


title: Case citation

text: Either way, both state styles differ from the national/Bluebook style of simply dropping in the citation as a separate sentence without further adornment. Both systems use less punctuation and spacing in their reporter abbreviations.


title: Case citation

text: For example, assuming that it is being placed as a stand-alone sentence, the "Brown" case above would be cited (using the official reporter) to a New York court as:


title: Case citation

text: And, again, as a stand-alone sentence, the famous "Greenman" product liability case would be cited to a California court as:


title: Case citation

text: A growing number of court decisions are not published in case reporters. For example, only 7% of the opinions of the California intermediate courts (the Courts of Appeal) are published each year. This is mainly because judges certify only significant decisions for publication, due to the massive number of frivolous appeals flowing through the courts and the importance of avoiding information overload.


title: Case citation

text: It is also argued that this is in part because in many states, especially California, the legislature has failed to expand the judiciary to keep up with population growth (for various political and fiscal reasons). To deal with their crushing caseloads, many judges prefer to write shorter-than-normal opinions that dispose of minor issues in the case in a sentence or two. They avoid publishing such abbreviated opinions, however, so as not to risk creating bad precedents.


title: Case citation

text: Some court systems—such as the California state court system—forbid attorneys to cite unpublished cases as precedent. Other systems allow citation of unpublished cases only under specific circumstances. For example, in Kentucky, unpublished cases from that state's courts can only be cited if the case was decided after January 1, 2003, and "there is no published opinion that would adequately address the issue before the court". From 2004 to 2006, federal judges debated whether the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure (FRAP) should be amended so that unpublished cases in all circuits could be cited as precedent. In 2006, the Supreme Court, over the objection of several hundred judges and lawyers, adopted a new Rule 32.1 of FRAP requiring that federal courts allow citation of unpublished cases. The rule took effect on January 1, 2007.


title: Case citation

text: With the rise of the web, many courts placed new cases on websites. Some were published while others never lost their "unpublished" status. The major legal citation systems required cites to the officially published page numbers, in which publishers such as West Publishing claimed a copyright interest.


title: Case citation

text: A vendor-neutral citation movement led to provisions being made for citations to web-based cases and other legal materials. A few courts modified their rules to specifically take into account cases "published" on the web.


title: Case citation

text: In practice, most lawyers go one step farther, once they have developed the correct citation for a case using the rules discussed above. Most court opinions contain holdings on multiple issues, so lawyers need to cite to the page that contains the specific holding they wish to invoke in their own case. Such citations are known as pinpoint citations, "pin cites", or "jump cites".


title: Case citation

text: For example, in "Roe v. Wade", the U.S. Supreme Court held that the word "person" as used in the Fourteenth Amendment does not include the unborn. That particular holding appears on page 158 of the volume in which the "Roe" decision was published. A full pin cite to "Roe" for that holding would be as follows:


title: Case citation

text: And a parallel cite to all three U.S. Supreme Court reporters, combined with pin cites for all three, would produce:


title: Case citation

text: But in its opinions, the Court usually provides a direct pin cite only to the official reporter. The two unofficial reporters, when they reprint the Court's opinions, add on parallel cites to each other, but do not add pin cites. Therefore, a citation to "Roe v. Wade" in a later Supreme Court decision as viewed on Lexis or Westlaw would appear as follows:


title: Case citation

text: Even then, such citations are still quite lengthy, and may look quite mysterious and intimidating to laypersons when they read court opinions. Since the 1980s, there has been an ongoing debate among American judges as to whether they should relegate such lengthy citations to footnotes to improve the readability of their opinions, as strongly urged by Bryan A. Garner, one of the leading authors on legal writing and style. Most judges do relegate "some" citations to footnotes, but jurists such as Justice Stephen Breyer and Judge Richard Posner refuse to use footnotes in their opinions.


title: Case citation

text: There are two types of citations: proprietary and public domain citations. There are many citation guides; the most commonly acknowledged is called "", compiled by the "Columbia Law Review", "Harvard Law Review", "University of Pennsylvania Law Review", and "Yale Law Journal". "Public domain citations" refer to the official reporters, rather than a publication service such as Westlaw, LexisNexis, particular legal journals, or specialization-specific reporters. States with their own unique style for court documents and case opinions also publish their own style guides, which include information on their citation rules.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Citizen is a 2001 Indian Tamil-language political action thriller film written and directed by Saravana Subbiah and produced by S. S. Chakravarthy. The film stars Ajith Kumar in dual roles with Meena, Vasundhara Das and Nagma playing the supporting roles. The film's score and soundtrack were composed by Deva, and cinematography was handled by Ravi K. Chandran. The film was released theatrically on 9 June 2001 and became a super hit at the box-office.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Abdullah runs a motorcycle workshop with a few workers. He also gives casual legal advice to the locals. A computer science student named Indhu develops a crush on him and tries to woo him, although Abdullah has nothing of it.


title: Citizen (film)

text: In a massive street protest by lawyers across the city, Abdullah, in altered appearance, kidnaps Judge Vedhachalam, after introducing himself as ‘Citizen’. Later on, Abdullah proceeds to kidnap Collector Santhanam by posing as freedom fighter Sundaramoorthy. In both kidnaps, Abdullah mentions ‘Attipatti’, which seemed to render his victims speechless.


title: Citizen (film)

text: With these two high-profile kidnappings, the case is handed over to CBI, led by Senior Officer Sarojini Harichandran. Sarojini finds out that both kidnap victims worked together in the Mayavaram division some years ago, and was involved in a riot that happened in Attipatti. However, a check with the Mayiladuthurai sub-collector's office and Nagapattinam collector's office found that there is no town or village in the area named Attipatti. She then visits the main collector's office in Tanjavur and is shocked to find out that the village Attipatti existed in records before 1973, but not in the years after that. She becomes certain that the kidnapper, too, has a link to Attipatti.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Meanwhile, Abdullah becomes irritated with Indhu, who keeps longing for his affection. He scolds her and says that she doesn't know who he really is and the pain he endures in his heart.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Through a piece of information given by the Tanjavur office, the CBI team track down a former employee of the local government, which Attipatti was under. He tells them to visit Lutheran Chapel's Father Louis, who knew every single person of Attipatti. In a visit to the Lutheran Chapel, Sarojini and her team meet Father Kuriakose who inform them that Father Louis had passed away 10 years ago, but left a box to be handed over to whichever government body that comes to the church and asks about Attipatti. After reading the letter in the box, Sarojini instructs digging near the coastal area where Attipatti once located. She and her team are horrified to find hundreds of dead bodies buried deep under. They are presumably the former inhabitants of Attipatti. Buried with them is also a tombstone bearing the names of all who perished. After a quick verification with the last census, they found out one name is missing in the tombstone, a five-year-old named Arivanandam. Father Kuriakose informs Sarojini, based on church records, a boy named Anthony was baptised on the same year the atrocity happened, and that he eventually went on to obtain Law degree. Sarojini concludes that Arivanandam and Anthony are the same person, and he is Citizen, and her further investigation leads her to Abdullah. With the CBI officers prepare to ambush Abdullah in a mosque, he manages to escape via a secret route. Sarojini discovers Citizen's secret operation room within the mosque. There she finds out Citizen's next target is DGP Devasagayam. However, at the same moment, Citizen had already kidnapped the DGP. The CBI officers receive information that Citizen is hiding in Tada forest and go after him. In the forest, Indhu comes to meet Abdullah and reveals she already knew he was Citizen some time ago and that she still likes him in spite of that. CBI officers arrive at the forest and, after some chase, finally manage to arrest the Citizen.


title: Citizen (film)

text: In the trial, a flashback scene appears where Citizen tells the court what happened in his village, Attipatti. It was a hamlet of some 700 inhabitants surrounded by the sea. Therefore, it is often flooded by the rise in water levels, causing deaths. The area's MLA had promised to build a wall in exchange for votes. However, it was never built. When the villagers, led by Citizen's father, Subramani, go to the collector's office to ask about its status, the collector turned them away, saying a wall cannot be built in that area as the number of people is too small. The villagers later found out that the Collector, together with the MLA, the DGP and the Judge, had taken for themselves some 150 million rupees allocated by the government to build the wall. After that, when the four of them visited Attipatti, the outraged villagers embarrassed them by forcing them to eat moldy rice and pouring water on them. In response, the four officials vowed to make Attipatti disappear from the map. One night, they arrived at Attipatti with some men, caught all the villagers, tied them on a boat, tortured them and pushed them to the sea, killing all except Arivanandam.


title: Citizen (film)

text: As the scene switches back to the trial, Citizen explains he didn't kidnap the MLA because he had already been punished after losing in the election. With the judge, DGP and collector in the witness stand, Citizen tells the court death penalty or life in prison is too soft a punishment for them. He says corruption exists because government officers want to provide a luxurious life for their family members. He suggests stripping the wealth and citizenship of the three and all their immediate and extended family members. The film ends with the court releasing Citizen on the grounds that he fought for the good of the country.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Early indications suggested that the film directed by Saravana Subbiah was a remake of the 1973 English film "The Day of the Jackal", but it proved to be untrue. Ajith Kumar put on weight for the film, which would feature him in nine roles, and he claimed that he was inspired by Kamal Haasan's award-winning performances. Jyothika was originally a part of the cast but opted out due to conflicting commitments. Subsequently, singer Vasundhara Das, who had earlier appeared in "Hey Ram," was chosen to play the leading lady, while Nagma was selected to essay the role of a police officer. A special feature on the making of the film was broadcast by Sun TV in May 2001. Gemini Ganesan was also initially meant to play a role in the film, but his character was later altered in the script and replaced by Pandiyan.


title: Citizen (film)

text: After 2 months of pre-production, shooting started on 28 December 2000 with Ajith and Vasundhara Das, after the former completed the shooting for his previous action thriller film Dheena, which was also released in 2001 during the Thai Pongal festival, with Ravi K. Chandran as cinematographer who had replaced P. C. Sriram in the project. The location for the Athipatty scenes was an island situated on the outskirts of Chennai, and it took three hours for the team to travel from the city and then by boat to get there. A scene filmed at Rajaji Hall featured five thousand of Ajith's fans as extras. A song in the film was shot in Australia in March 2001, delaying the proposed release date of 1 May.


title: Citizen (film)

text: Upon release "Citizen" received positive reviews from critics and was successful and completed 100-day run at the box office, justifying a relatively large budget of 8 crore. The review from The Hindu labelled it as a "definite milestone in Ajit's acting career". The film was commercial success.


title: Citizen (film)

text: The film was later dubbed and released as "Citizen" in Telugu, to positive reviews. The actor and director began to work on another project titled "Itihasam", written by Sujatha and focusing on caste issues, but the production was shelved.


title: Citizen (film)

text: The music was composed by Deva. All lyrics were penned by Vairamuthu. The song "I Like You" is copied from "I Feel Lonely" by German singer Sasha, and parts of "Pookara Pookara" were copied from "Take a Chance on Me" by ABBA.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: The Dix–Hallpike test — or Nylén–Bárány test — is a diagnostic maneuver from the group of rotation tests used to identify benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV).


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: When performing the Dix–Hallpike test, patients are lowered quickly to a supine position (lying horizontally with the face and torso facing up) with the neck extended 30 degrees below horizontal by the clinician performing the maneuver.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: The Dix–Hallpike and the side-lying testing position have yielded similar results. As such, the side-lying position can be used if the Dix–Hallpike cannot be performed easily.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: The examiner looks for nystagmus (usually accompanied by vertigo). In BPPV, the nystagmus typically occurs in A or B only, and is torsional—the fast phase beating toward the lower ear. Its onset is usually delayed a few seconds, and it lasts 10–20 seconds. As the patient is returned to the upright position, transient nystagmus may occur in the opposite direction. Both nystagmus and vertigo typically decrease on repeat testing.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: A positive test is indicated by patient report of a reproduction of vertigo and clinician observation of nystagmus (involuntary eye movement).


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: For some patients, this maneuver may be contraindicated, and a modification may be needed that also targets the posterior semicircular canal. Such patients include those who are too anxious about eliciting the uncomfortable symptoms of vertigo, and those who may not have the range of motion necessary to comfortably be in a supine position. The modification involves the patient moving from a seated position to side-lying "without" their head extending off the examination table, such as with Dix–Hallpike. The head is rotated 45 degrees away from the side being tested, and the eyes are examined for nystagmus.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: If the test is negative, it makes benign positional vertigo a less likely diagnosis and central nervous system involvement should be considered.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: Although there are alternative methods to administering the test, Cohen proposes advantages to the classic maneuver. The test can be easily administered by a single examiner, which prevents the need for external aid. Due to the position of the subject and the examiner, nystagmus, if present, can be observed directly by the examiner.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: The negative predictive value of this test is not 100%. Some patients with a history of BPPV will not have a positive test result. The estimated sensitivity is 79%, along with an estimated specificity of 75%.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: The test may need to be performed more than once, as it is not always easy to demonstrate observable nystagmus that is typical of BPPV. Also, the test results can be affected by the speed with which the maneuver is conducted and the plane of the occiput.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: There are several disadvantages proposed by Cohen for the classic maneuver. Patients may be too tense, for fear of producing vertigo symptoms, which can prevent the necessary brisk passive movements for the test. A subject must have adequate cervical spine range of motion to allow neck extension, as well as trunk and hip range of motion to lie supine. From the previous point, the use of this maneuver can be limited by musculoskeletal and obesity issues in a subject.


title: Dix–Hallpike test

text: In rare cases a patient may be unable or unwilling to participate in the Dix–Hallpike test due to physical limitations. In these circumstances the side-lying test or other alternative tests may be used.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: Christianity is the largest religion in Northern Ireland. At the 2021 census, the prevalence rates for the main religions were: Catholic (42 per cent); Presbyterian (16 per cent); Church of Ireland (11.5 per cent); Methodist (2.4 per cent); Other Christian or Christian-related denominations (6.9 per cent); other Religions and Philosophies (1.3 per cent); those declaring no religion (17.4 per cent) and religion not stated (1.5 per cent). The Catholic Church has seen a small growth in adherents, while the other Christian groups have seen a small decrease.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: There are also small Hindu, Sikh, Muslim, Buddhist and Jewish communities. Belfast has a synagogue, a gurdwara, a mosque and two Hindu temples. There is another gurdwara in Derry.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The 2001 and 2011 Census figures for "Religion" (not "Religion or Religion Brought Up In") are set out below.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The religious affiliations in the local authority districts (themselves not merged since 2011" of Northern Ireland were as follows:


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: Christianity is the main religion in Northern Ireland. The 2011 UK census showed 40.8% Catholic, 19.1% Presbyterian Church, with the Church of Ireland having 13.7% and the Methodist Church 5.0%. Members of other Christian churches comprised 5.8%, 17% stated they have no religion or did not state a religion, and members of non-Christian religions were 0.8%.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The Catholic Church is the largest single church. The Church is organised into four provinces though these are not coterminous with the modern political division of Ireland. The seat of the Archbishop of Armagh, the Primacy of Ireland, is St. Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The Presbyterian Church in Ireland, closely -but not formally - linked to the Church of Scotland in terms of theology and history, is the second-largest church and largest Protestant denomination. It is followed by the Anglican Church of Ireland, which was the state church of Ireland until it was disestablished by the "Irish Church Act 1869". In 2002, the much smaller Methodist Church in Ireland signed a covenant for greater co-operation and potential ultimate unity with the Church of Ireland. The Church of Ireland is part of the Anglican Communion.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: Smaller Protestant denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland amongst Presbyterians and the Open Brethren exist in many rural communities. The Association of Baptist Churches in Ireland and the Assemblies of God Ireland are also organised on an all-Ireland basis, though in the case of the Assemblies of God this was the result of a recent reorganisation.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: In the 2011 census Northern Ireland had substantially more people stating that they were Christian (82.2%) than did England (59.4%), Scotland (53.8%) or Wales (57.6%). The proportion who stated that they had any religion was also higher in Northern Ireland (83%) than in England (68.1%), Scotland (56.3%) or Wales (60.3%). In Northern Ireland those who did not state any religion in the 2011 census amounted to 13.9% of the population, lower than in England (31.9%), Scotland (43.7%) or Wales (39.7%). This represented an increase from the 2001 census in those not stating a religion of 117% in Northern Ireland, lower than the increases in England (54.5%), Scotland (38.1%) or Wales (57.6%).


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: Secularisation in Northern Ireland has followed different paths within each of the two main communities, being at a more advanced stage within the mainly Protestant community in which it is reflected more often with a formal move away from the churches and by expressing no formal religious attachment, mirroring the pattern in Great Britain, whereas in the mainly Catholic community it is reflected by declining mass attendance but often with retaining a formal Catholic identification, mirroring the pattern in the Republic of Ireland. Those stating that they had no religion in the 2011 census were concentrated in largely Protestant areas, suggesting that they were mostly from a Protestant background.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: In their respective 2011 censuses Northern Ireland had a lower proportion of people stating that they were Christian (82.3%) than the Republic of Ireland (90.4%) and had a higher proportion of people stating that they had no religion or not indicating a religious belief (16.9%) than the Republic of Ireland (7.6%). While in the 2011 census 84.2% of people in the Republic of Ireland identified themselves as Catholic in the 2011 census in Northern Ireland only 40.8% identified themselves as Catholic.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: While there were a small number of Muslims already living in what became Northern Ireland in 1921, the bulk of Muslims in Northern Ireland today come from families who immigrated during the late 20th century. At the time of the 2011 Census there were 3,832 living in Northern Ireland, though the Belfast Islamic Centre states this number may be as high as 10,000 due to other social demographics such as students. The Muslims in Northern Ireland come from over 40 countries of origin, from Western Europe all the way through to the Far East. This situation is reflected in comparably complex institutional arrangements.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The earliest recorded Jew living in Northern Ireland was a tailor by the name of Manuel Lightfoot in 1652. The first Jewish congregation in Northern Ireland, Belfast Hebrew Congregation, was founded in 1870. In 2006, there were an estimated 300 Jewish people living in Northern Ireland.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The Baháʼí Faith in Northern Ireland begins after a century of contact between Irishmen and Baháʼís beyond the island and on the island. The members of the religion elected its first Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assembly in 1949 in Belfast. The Baháʼís held an international conference in Dublin in 1982 which was described as “…one of the very few occasions when a world event for a faith community has been held in Ireland". By 1993 there were a dozen assemblies in Northern Ireland. By 2005 Baháʼí sources claim some 300 Baháʼís across Northern Ireland.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: Hinduism is a relatively minor religion in Northern Ireland with only around 200 Hindu families in the region. There are, however, three Mandirs in Belfast.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The Troubles were a period of ethno-political conflict in Northern Ireland which spilled over at various times into Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland. The duration of the Troubles is conventionally dated from approximately 1968 to the signing of the Belfast Agreement in 1998. Violence nonetheless continued beyond this period and still manifests on a small-scale basis.


title: Religion in Northern Ireland

text: The principal issues at stake in the Troubles were the constitutional status of Northern Ireland and the relationship between the mainly-Protestant Unionist and mainly-Catholic Nationalist communities in Northern Ireland. The Troubles had both political and military (or paramilitary) dimensions. Its participants included politicians and political activists on both sides, republican and loyalist paramilitary organisations, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, the British Army and the security forces of the Republic of Ireland.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Auburn is a city in Cayuga County, New York, United States. Located at the north end of Owasco Lake, one of the Finger Lakes in Central New York, the city had a population of 26,866 at the 2020 census. It is the largest city of Cayuga County, the county seat, and the site of the maximum-security Auburn Correctional Facility, as well as the William H. Seward House Museum and the house of abolitionist Harriet Tubman.


title: Auburn, New York

text: The region around Auburn had been Haudenosaunee territory for centuries before European contact and historical records.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Auburn was founded in 1793, during the post-Revolutionary period of settlement of western New York. The founder, John L. Hardenbergh, was a veteran of the Sullivan-Clinton campaign against the Iroquois during the American Revolution. Hardenbergh settled in the vicinity of the Owasco River with his infant daughter and two African-American indentured servants, Harry and Kate Freeman. After his death in 1806, Hardenbergh was buried in Auburn's North Street Cemetery, and was re-interred in 1852 in Fort Hill Cemetery – the first burial in the city's newly opened burial ground. The community grew up around Hardenbergh's gristmill and sawmill.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Originally known as Hardenbergh's Corners in the town of Aurelius, the settlement was renamed Auburn in 1805 when it became the county seat. It became an incorporated village in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1848. It was only a few miles from the Erie Canal, which opened in 1825 and allowed local factories to inexpensively ship goods north or south. In 1871, the Southern Central Railroad, financed by the Lehigh Valley Railroad, completed a line primarily to carry anthracite coal from Athens, Pennsylvania through Auburn to wharves on Lake Ontario at Fair Haven.


title: Auburn, New York

text: From 1818 to 1939, Auburn was home to Auburn Theological Seminary, one of the preeminent theological seminaries in the United States. In 1939, facing financial difficulties as a result of the Great Depression, the seminary moved to the campus of Union Theological Seminary in New York City. The only building from the Auburn Theological Seminary that stands today is Willard Memorial Chapel and the adjacent Welch Memorial Hall on Nelson Street, designed by Andrew Jackson Warner of Rochester, with stained-glass windows and interior decoration by Louis Comfort Tiffany. It is the only complete and unaltered Tiffany chapel interior known to exist.


title: Auburn, New York

text: In 1816, Auburn Prison (now the Auburn Correctional Facility) was founded as a model for the contemporary ideas about treating prisoners, known now as the Auburn system. Visitors were charged a fee for viewing the facility and its inmates. On August 6, 1890, the first execution by the electric chair was carried out at Auburn Prison. In 1901 Leon Czolgosz, assassin of President William McKinley, was executed there. Although the ideas of the Auburn System have been abandoned, the prison continues to serve as a maximum security facility, and is one of the most secure prisons in the continental United States.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Auburn is located at 42.9317° N, 76.5661° W at the north end of Owasco Lake, one of the Finger Lakes, which is drained by the Owasco Outlet – also known as the Owasco River – which runs north through the city on its way to the Seneca River. A dam, owned and operated by the city, controls the outflow of the lake, which is used for drinking water and recreation. The city is required to keep a sufficient amount of water in the river to deal with the effluent from its waste disposal treatment facility.


title: Auburn, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.89%, is water.


title: Auburn, New York

text: US 20 is an important east-west highway passing through the city, and New York State Route 34 and New York State Route 38 are north-south highways that intersect US-20 in Auburn. Seneca Falls is west on US 20, and Syracuse is to the northeast via New York State Route 5.


title: Auburn, New York

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Auburn has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.


title: Auburn, New York

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 28,574 people, 11,411 households, and 6,538 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,405.3 people per square mile (1,315.0/km). There were 12,637 housing units at an average density of 1,506.0 per square mile (581.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 88.57% White, 7.59% African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.41% from other races, and 1.55% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.82% of the population.


title: Auburn, New York

text: There were 11,411 households, out of which 28.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.3% were married couples living together, 14.7% had a female householder with no partner present, and 42.7% were non-families. 36.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.98.


title: Auburn, New York

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 30.3% from 25 to 44, 19.8% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.8 males.


title: Auburn, New York

text: The median income for a household in the city was $30,281, and the median income for a family was $41,169. Males had a median income of $32,349 versus $23,330 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,083. About 12.5% of families and 16.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.9% of those under age 18 and 10.2% of those age 65 or over.


title: Auburn, New York

text: The Auburn Enlarged City School District is the public school system serving Auburn. It currently operates seven schools covering grades K–12. West Middle School was closed over the summer of 2011 to save funds, with the student population merged into East Middle School.


title: Auburn, New York

text: The only college in Auburn is Cayuga Community College, a two-year school. C.C.C., as it is known locally, is located on Franklin Street. The city had been the home of Auburn Theological Seminary, a Presbyterian institution established in 1818, which relocated to New York City in 1939.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Auburn has had a long association with professional baseball. The Auburn Cayugas and other early Auburn teams played as members of the League Alliance (1877), Central New York League (1888), New York State League (1889, 1897–1899), Empire State League (1906–1907), Canadian–American League (1938, 1940) and Border League (1946–1951). Auburn was an affiliate of the Boston Red Sox (1948).


title: Auburn, New York

text: Today, Auburn is home to the Auburn Doubledays, members on the collegiate wooden bat Perfect Game Collegiate Baseball League.


title: Auburn, New York

text: In late 1901, Auburn became the headquarters of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues (NAPBL), which is now known simply as Minor League Baseball and based in St. Petersburg, Florida. John H. Farrell, who served as secretary-treasurer of the league for many years, was a local resident, and the league's offices remained in the city while he remained in that role.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Auburn Community Baseball, which is owned by the City of Auburn, is the parent organization of the Auburn Doubledays and its predecessor Auburn entries in the Class A short-season New York–Penn League dating back to 1958. The team plays its home games at Leo Pinckney Field at Falcon Park. Until 2020 they were members of the New York-Penn League.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Since 1978, on the second Sunday of every August, Auburn hosts "The Great Race", a three- or four-person relay race involving running, cycling, and canoeing (or kayaking). The race begins and ends in the area of Owasco Lake on the southern outskirts of Auburn. With between 2,000 and 2,500 people participating in an average year, it is one of the largest relay races in the United States.


title: Auburn, New York

text: The daily newspaper published in Auburn is "The Citizen", which dates back to 1816, and had previously been published as "The Daily Advertiser" and "The Citizen-Advertiser". It serves Auburn and Cayuga County, as well as other parts of Central New York. A morning paper, published seven days a week, it has a circulation of 10,000 for the daily and Saturday editions, and 12,000 on Sunday. It is owned by Lee Enterprises.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Possibly the two best-known historical figures associated with Auburn are Harriet Tubman and William H. Seward.


title: Auburn, New York

text: Seward, who served as a New York state senator, the governor of New York, a U.S. senator, a presidential candidate, and then Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, in which role he negotiated the 1867 purchase from Russia of Alaska, which became known as "Seward's Folly" – lived in Auburn from 1823 until his death in 1872, and was opposed to slavery. Seward's wife, Frances Adeline Seward, was deeply committed to the abolitionist movement, which was strongly supported in Auburn. In the 1850s, the Seward family opened their Auburn home as a safehouse to fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad. In 1859 Seward sold a plot of land to abolitionist Tubman, who used it to create a safe haven for her family and friends and other black Americans seeking a better life in the north. Seward's house is now a historical museum, and both it and Tubman's house are on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Auburn, New York

text: A number of properties in Auburn are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Auburn Button Works and Logan Silk Mills, the Belt-Gaskin House, Case Memorial-Seymour Library, the Cayuga County Courthouse and Clerk's Office, the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged, William and Mary Hosmer House, St. Peter's Episcopal Church Complex, Sand Beach Church, Schines Auburn Theatre, Thompson AME Zion Church, Harriet Tubman Grave, Harriet Tubman House, the Old Post Office and Courthouse, Fort Hill Cemetery, Wall Street Methodist Episcopal Church, and Dr. Sylvester Willard Mansion. The William H. Seward House and Willard Memorial Chapel-Welch Memorial Hall are National Historic Landmarks, and the South Street Area Historic District is a national historic district.


title: Auburn, New York

text: In 2018, the NYS Equal Rights Heritage Center opened to the public, serving as a visitors' center and permanent exhibition promoting the region's history and culture. The center guides visitors to the variety of historical sites in the region connected to the struggle for equal rights.


The Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration was a 2001 concert show and television special by Michael Jackson. It was staged in Madison Square Garden in New York City on September 7 and 10, 2001. In late November 2001, the CBS television network aired the concerts as a two-hour special in honor of Jackson's thirtieth year as a solo entertainer (his first solo single, "Got to Be There", was recorded in 1971). The show was edited from footage of the two performances. The show was watched by 30 million viewers on CBS when it aired later the same year.


title: Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration

text: The shows sold out in 2 hours. Ticket prices were among the most expensive ever for an event; the best seats cost $10,000 and included a dinner with Jackson and a signed poster. The show was choreographed by Glenn Douglas Packard and Brian Thomas, who were nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography. It was presented by David Gest, World Events LLC, and Clear Channel Entertainment. Jackson reportedly earned $7.5 million for each of the two concerts. The concert's official box-office taking was $10,072,105 for both concerts.


text: To some fans, Jackson appeared more disoriented in the first concert, as he only did one short moonwalk and improvised the ending of the "Billie Jean" performance. In 2011, presenter David Gest claimed that Jackson was on drugs during the concerts in the documentary ""; however, Jackson himself explained that he merely had not rehearsed for the first concert. Contradictorily, in his book "You Are Not Alone: Michael Through a Brother's Eyes", brother Jermaine Jackson said that during this time Michael was taking Demerol, a pain-relieving medicine with psychotropic effects. The show attracted numerous celebrities, including basketball players, actors, and other musicians. The two concerts were the only times Jackson performed any song from his album "Invincible" live.


text: On September 11, 2001, Jackson along with his personal assistant Frank Cascio were scheduled for a meeting at the World Trade Center, to return a "two million" dollar watch Jackson used for the concert, and a diamond necklace for Elizabeth Taylor, but overslept and did not make it. In the aftermath of the attacks, Jackson sponsored a charity concert titled . The concerts were held in Washington, D.C. Other featured artists that also performed in the benefit concert were the Backstreet Boys, Slash, Krystal Harris, Huey Lewis and the News, James Brown, Jennifer Lopez, Billy Gilman, O-Town, Usher, Christina Milian, Carole King, Al Green, Christina Aguilera, Pink, Bette Midler, CeCe Peniston, Aerosmith, America, P. Diddy, NSYNC, Destiny's Child, Rod Stewart, Goo Goo Dolls, Train, Britney Spears, Mariah Carey, and Mary J. Blige. In addition, his sister Janet Jackson performed with him.


text: This event also marked Randy Jackson's final concert with his brothers. He would contribute backup vocals for Michael's posthumous 2009 song, "This is It", along with his brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine, before announcing his retirement from entertainment. From 2012 to 2013, the remaining brothers (without Randy) reunited for the Unity Tour, which was held in North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceania.


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Jeramie Rain (born Susan Davis; August 23, 1948) is an American screenwriter, producer, philanthropist and former actress. Rain began her career with starring roles in several local stage productions in Charleston before moving to New York City in the early 1970s. After appearing in a string of commercials, she made her film debut in the crime film "The Abductors" (1972), then became known for roles as Sadie in Wes Craven's controversial horror film "The Last House on the Left" (1972) and Willie Mae in Albert T. Viola's comedy film "Preacherman Meets Widderwoman" (1973).


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Outside of film, Rain had a supporting role as Nurse Samantha Tolliver in the soap opera "The Doctors" (1972–77), followed by guest appearances on several soap operas, including "General Hospital", and starring roles in off-Broadway productions, including "22 Years" and "The Fan Club". Rain quit acting in the mid 1970s and subsequently worked as a writer and producer for NBC and CBS. At the age of 28, Rain was diagnosed with systemic lupus and has launched several philanthropic efforts to bring awareness to the disease.


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Rain was born as Susan Davis in Charleston, West Virginia, on August 23, 1948, the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Davis. During her adolescent years, she worked with the Children's Theatre, Kanawha Players, and The Light Opera Guild. She graduated from George Washington High School in 1966, then moved to New York City in the early 1970s.


title: Jeramie Rain

text: After appearing in a string of commercials, Rain had a short stage, film and television acting career from 1972 to 1973.


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Rain made her film debut as Jane in Don Schain's 1972 crime film "The Abductors". In January 1972, under the stage name Kristin Marle, Rain portrayed Sadie Mae Glutz (who was born only weeks before Rain) in the two-week run of "22 Years", an off-Broadway musical production that revolved around the story of the Charles Manson murders. She next appeared as Sadie in Wes Craven's controversial rape and revenge film "The Last House on the Left" (1972).


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Rain played Nurse Samantha Tolliver in the soap opera "The Doctors" from 1972 to 1977 and had guest appearances on "General Hospital". In 1973, Rain was cast in the comedy film "Preacherman Meets Widderwoman". After this role, Rain retired from acting and worked as a writer and producer at CBS. She worked in Rockefeller Center and the Los Angeles location.


title: Jeramie Rain

text: In the early 1990s, she founded Mother's Touch, a Los Angeles-based charity that benefits children diagnosed with serious illnesses. In 2000, David A. Szulkin interviewed Rain for his book "Wes Craven's Last House on the Left", which tells the inside story of making the film. In 2003, Rain appeared as herself in the documentary "Celluloid Crime of the Century".


title: Jeramie Rain

text: Rain was a friend of John Belushi and tried to discourage him from using drugs. She was diagnosed with systemic lupus at the age of 28, though she suffered from it all through her 20s. Her first pregnancy (1983) exacerbated her condition so severely that she could not hold her new daughter for two years due to the loss of use of both of her arms. Rain married actor Richard Dreyfuss in 1983, and they had three children together before their 1995 divorce: Emily (born in 1983), Benjamin (born in 1986) and Harry (born in 1990).


title: Jeramie Rain

text: In an interview in 2009, Rain—who once played Manson Family member Susan Atkins on stage—said that she was once picked up hitch-hiking by Tex Watson and Charles Manson, stayed in their van after her friends were dropped off, and that they later showed up at her aunt's house.


title: Robin Antin

text: Robin Antin is an American actress, entrepreneur, dancer, choreographer and clothing designer. In 1995, she founded the modern burlesque troupe the Pussycat Dolls. By 2005, she diversified into various media including a pop recording group with international hits, a Las Vegas nightclub venue and floor show, various merchandise, and a reality television series. Since then, she has gone on to create other girl groups, including G.R.L., Girlicious and Paradiso Girls.


title: Robin Antin

text: As a choreographer, Antin worked with Paris Hilton, Anastacia, Pink, the Offspring and No Doubt. Additionally, she was responsible for the dance ensembles in various films.


title: Robin Antin

text: She is the sister of celebrity hair stylist Jonathan Antin, director Steve Antin and actor Neil Antin. She appeared in an episode of her brother Jonathan's show "Blow Out".


title: Robin Antin

text: On January 2, 2010, Antin, Tony Selznick, and Paula Abdul presented choreography agent Julie McDonald with an award for being a pioneer of dance representation and a friend, helper, and agent to many choreographers for over 25 years. The award was presented at 11th Anniversary Show.


title: Robin Antin

text: She was a judge on the Lifetime reality television show "Abby's Ultimate Dance Competition" in Season 1.


title: Robin Antin

text: Antin was born in Los Angeles, California. Her parents are British Jewish immigrants. Her brothers are actor Steve Antin, and celebrity hairstylist Jonathan Antin.


title: Robin Antin

text: Based in Las Vegas, it features a rotating cast of dancers around vocalist Jamie Preston. Current members include Hayley Zelniker, Amanda Nowak, Colby Lemmo and Alicia Blair. Former "Dolls" include lead vocalist and pop star Nicole Scherzinger, Rachel Sterling, who was also an original member of the burlesque troupe, Kelly Levesque, Christina Applegate, Carmen Electra, Laura Goulet, Michelle "Jersey" Maniscalco, Desiree Davis, Alicia Vela-Bailey, Mallory, Jen, Loreli, Victoria, Rosa, Marcea, Rita, Claude Racine, Natasha Vernase, Adriane Harper, Jessica Lea, Beverly Sizemore, Laura Diane, Ashley Gates, Bridget Nicole, Jennifer Affronti, Sheila Joy, Cindy Leos, Laurel Anderson, Angela Case, Meredith "Sevin" Kerr, Gina Katon and Jamie Lee Ruiz from "".


title: Robin Antin

text: The Pussycat Dolls Burlesque Revue was founded in 2008 with Jamie Lee Ruiz, alongside Michelle "Jersey" Maniscalco, Jessi Peralta, Stephanie Moseley, Courtney Parker, Fransesca Ramirez, Alexis (Allie Steel), Molly D'Amour, and Jenny Robinson. Dani Levine, Katarzyna "Kasia Moss" Moś, Vanessa Curry, guest dancer Chantal Hunt and Allarie Long . Alongside lead singer, Jaime Preston and dancers Tarin Pratt and Erica Kiehl Jenkins, and guest vocalist, former Paradiso Girls member, Lauren Bennett were later introduced.


title: Robin Antin

text: The Pussycat Dolls Burlesque Saloon at Planet Hollywood, Las Vegas features Sophia Monica as lead vocalist. Current members include Sheila Joy, Megan Bostwick, Daymara Sabat, Colby Lemmo, Lauren Venandos, Emily Istre, Noelle Naone Brechler, Jenny Driebe, and Kaelee Jones. In 2012, Antin launched The Pussycat Doll Dollhouse in the historic Keating Hotel in San Diego. In 2015, Robin launched the Australian Pussycat Doll Burlesque Revue in Melbourne, Australia at Crown Casino in The Therapy Nightclub.


title: Robin Antin

text: After becoming Goss's agent, Antin cast the Dirty Virgins, a Vegas-based girl former dance group consisting of Tala Marie, Emily Istre, Amber William, and Monteece Mask and new dancer include Veronica Collazo Marrero, Kaelee Jones, Teresa Antonette, Ashley Belle, Angela Acosta, Anna Sambeck to accompany Goss for his show. Along with them, she cast singers Mecca Madison and Angela Jude. From a style point of view they are very much like the original concept of the Pussycat Dolls.


title: Robin Antin

text: Girlicious was an American girl group consisting of Nichole Cordova, Natalie Mejia, Chrystina Sayers and Tiffanie Anderson. In 2009, Anderson left the group and in 2011, Mejia and Sayers also confirmed their departure. Later, in October 2011, Cordova announced the band's hiatus. Then Cordova confirmed her departure in April 2013 when she became a member of and was featured on The X Factor USA Season 3 with the new group Girls United, which she ultimately was kicked out of in 2014. The second album of Girlicious, named "Rebuilt", was released on November 22, 2010, in Canada. The group was formed on the reality television show "". Although Antin originally intended to include only three members in the group, as stated in the first episode, she announced in the season finale that all four girls would be a part of Girlicious.


title: Robin Antin

text: The Paradiso Girls were a girl group consisting of five members from different countries; Chelsea Korka (who appeared in the reality show "") from the United States, Aria Cascaval from France, Lauren Bennett and Kelly Beckett from the United Kingdom and Shar Mae Amor from the Philippines. They were signed to will.i.am Music Group/Interscope Records. Their debut single "Patron Tequila" featuring Lil' Jon and Eve was released on May 12, 2009, and a music video was shortly released afterwards. Their debut album "Crazy Horse" was expected to be released in July 2010; however, it was delayed until October, when Aria revealed the band had disbanded due to dissatisfaction with their label. Bennett went on to join Antin's next girl group formation in G.R.L.


title: Robin Antin

text: G.R.L. is a girl group consisting of Lauren Bennett, Natasha Slayton, and Jazzy Mejia, Girlicious' Natalie Mejia's younger sister. It originally consisted of five members; Lauren Bennett, Paula van Oppen, Natasha Slayton, Simone Battle and Emmalyn Estrada, and was the most successful of Antin's girl group ventures since the original Pussycat Dolls pop group. The group was originally planned to be the new line up of the Pussycat Dolls following their disbandment in 2010. Robin later rebranded them as a new group to serve as the "next generation" of the Dolls. Their managers were Larry Rudolph and Adam Leber. On June 16, 2013, they released their first single, "Vacation", as a B-side track on Britney Spears' single "Ooh La La", a song from the film "The Smurfs 2". Despite commercial success in the UK and Australia, the group officially disbanded on June 2, 2015, nine months after Simone Battle's death in September, 2014. However, on June 18, 2016, Robin Antin and their new rep, Matt Wynter, from Loco Talent's website confirmed that G.R.L. were officially reforming, without Paula Van Oppen and Emmalyn Estrada. On August 5, 2016, it was officially announced that Jazzy Mejia was added to the group, along with original members Lauren Bennett and Natasha Slayton, making G.R.L. officially a trio. Their music is set to be released in the summer, with works on a debut album. On August 16, 2016, the newly reformed group released their promotional single, "Kiss Myself" produced by Guy Furious. On December 9, 2016, the trio released their second single, "Are We Good?" produced by HooknSling. According to Lauren Bennett, during the interview on The New Music Buzz, this is the lead single to the group's debut upcoming album. These two singles that the trio were credited as songwriters.


title: Robin Antin

text: During 2008, It was reported that Antin and the La Senza Corporation of Canada were producing a line of Burlesque/Pussycat Dolls-styled lingerie called "Shhh...by Robin". The line ranges from "girly and flirtatious" to "sexy and glamorous" intimate apparel. Antin says, "the words for me on this collection are flirtatious, fashion and fun!" Paradiso Girls, Lauren Bennett and Kelly Beckett as well as Pussycat Doll Revue dancer Jersey Maniscalco modeled for it.


title: Robin Antin

text: In 2015, Antin partnered up with Australian fashion designer, Kylie Gulliver launching a lifestyle clothing line brand, Elliot Label.


title: Robin Antin

text: On her Twitter account, Antin announced the release of a workout DVD featuring Jamie Ruiz from "" and other Burlesque Dolls Jenny Ronbinson and Michelle "Jersey" Maniscalco (whose pictures she posted on her Twitter account), as well as Chrystina Sayers and Nicole Scherzinger. It was released worldwide on December 15, 2009.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: A bust is a sculpted or cast representation of the upper part of the human figure, depicting a person's head and neck, and a variable portion of the chest and shoulders. The piece is normally supported by a plinth. The bust is generally a portrait intended to record the appearance of an individual, but may sometimes represent a type. They may be of any medium used for sculpture, such as marble, bronze, terracotta, plaster, wax or wood.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: As a format that allows the most distinctive characteristics of an individual to be depicted with much less work, and therefore expense, and occupying far less space than a full-length statue, the bust has been since ancient times a popular style of life-size portrait sculpture. It can also be executed in weaker materials, such as terracotta.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: A sculpture that only includes the head, perhaps with the neck, is more strictly called a "head", but this distinction is not always observed. Display often involves an integral or separate display stand. The Adiyogi Shiva statue located in India representative of Hindu God Shiva is the world's largest bust sculpture and is 112 ft tall.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: Sculptural portrait heads from classical antiquity, stopping at the neck, are sometimes displayed as busts. However, these are often fragments from full-body statues, or were created to be inserted into an existing body, a common Roman practice; these portrait heads are not included in this article. Equally, sculpted heads stopping at the neck are sometimes mistakenly called busts.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: The portrait bust was a Hellenistic Greek invention (although the Egyptian bust presented below precedes Hellenic productions by five centuries), though very few original Greek examples survive, as opposed to many Roman copies of them. There are four Roman copies as busts of "Pericles with the Corinthian helmet", but the Greek original was a full-length bronze statue. They were very popular in Roman portraiture.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: The Roman tradition may have originated in the tradition of Roman patrician families keeping wax masks, perhaps death masks, of dead members, in the atrium of the family house. When another family member died, these were worn by people chosen for the appropriate build in procession at the funeral, in front of the propped-up body of the deceased, as an "astonished" Polybius reported, from his long stay in Rome beginning in 167 BC. Later these seem to have been replaced or supplemented by sculptures. Possession of such "imagines maiorum" ("portraits of the ancestors") was a requirement for belonging to the Equestrian order.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: Some reliquaries were formed as busts, notably the famous Bust of Charlemagne in gold, still in the Aachen Cathedral treasury, from c. 1350. Otherwise it was a rare format.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: Busts began to be revived in a variety of materials, including painted terracotta or wood, and marble. Initially most were flat-bottomed, stopping slightly below the shoulders. Francesco Laurana, born in Dalmatia, but who worked in Italy and France, specialized in marble busts, mostly of women.


title: Bust (sculpture)

text: The round-bottomed Roman style, including, or designed to be placed on, a socle (a short plinth or pedestal), became most common. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, based in Rome, did portrait busts of popes, cardinals, and foreign monarchs such as Louis XIV. His Bust of King Charles I of England (1638) is now lost; artist and subject never met, and Bernini worked from the triple portrait painted by Van Dyck, which was sent to Rome. Nearly 30 years later, his Bust of the young Louis XIV was hugely influential on French sculptors. Bernini's rival Alessandro Algardi was another leading sculptor in Rome.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Lawrence Neil Bonnett (July 30, 1946 – February 11, 1994) was an American NASCAR driver who compiled 18 victories and 20 poles over his 18-year career. Bonnett was a member of the Alabama Gang, and started his career with the help of Bobby and Donnie Allison. He rose to prominence in the late 1970s with his performances in cars owned by Jim Stacy and Wood Brothers Racing, becoming one of the top competitors in the 1980s. The Alabama native currently ranks 47th in all-time NASCAR Cup victories. He appeared in the 1983 film "Stroker Ace" and the 1990 film "Days of Thunder". Bonnett hosted the TV show "Winners" for TNN from 1991 to 1994. He was a color commentator for CBS, TBS, and TNN in the years until his death. Bonnett's driving career was interrupted by a severe brain injury from a crash in 1990. He was killed while practicing for the 1994 Daytona 500 for a much-anticipated comeback.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Bonnett was born in the Birmingham suburb of Hueytown, Alabama on July 30, 1946. Bonnett began his NASCAR career as a protégé of 1983 Winston Cup champion Bobby Allison, working on the team's cars. He later became part of the famous "Alabama Gang" that included himself, Red Farmer and the Allison family: father Bobby, brother Donnie and, later, son Davey. He began driving in NASCAR in 1974 and earned his first victory in 1977 at the Capital City 400 in Richmond, Virginia driving for Harry Hyde-Jim Stacy Racing, which had bought out the K&K Insurance team that he had previously driven for. He had another victory in 1977 at the Los Angeles Times 500, which would be the last Dodge win in NASCAR until 2001. Many in racing circles thought 1978 would be his year to dominate, but troubles with his cars (the new for '78 Dodge Magnum) and financial problems between Hyde and Stacy caused his cars to fail and to drop out of many races. In addition, Bonnett had grown tired of Stacy's dictatorial management style and tendency to miss payments, which led to Hyde suing Stacy for unpaid bills. In 1979 he signed with Wood Brothers Racing to replaced David Pearson and revived his career with three victories. He later won back-to-back World 600s (NASCAR's longest race, now the Coca-Cola 600) in 1982 and 1983 and back-to-back Busch Clash victories in 1983 and '84, including his first in which he did not win a single pole from the previous season, but was selected as a wild card entry.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: In 1984, Bonnett joined Junior Johnson's team, becoming a teammate to Darrell Waltrip. In 1985, he had one of his best seasons, finishing fourth in the points standings while Waltrip went on to win his third championship.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Bonnett participated in International Race of Champions (IROC) during three seasons (1979, 1980, and 1984), and finished second twice.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Bonnett holds the distinction of being the winner of the first ever NASCAR race held outside of North America when he won the 1988 Goodyear NASCAR 500 at the Calder Park Thunderdome in Melbourne, Australia (at the time the newly opened Thunderdome was also the first NASCAR style speedway to be built outside of North America). The race, run two weeks after the Daytona 500, was not a Winston Cup race but featured some drivers from the series including fellow Alabama Gang member Bobby Allison, Michael Waltrip, Dave Marcis and Kyle Petty who were up against Australian drivers somewhat new to NASCAR racing. Bonnett, who had won the Pontiac Excitement 400 at Richmond International Raceway the previous weekend, started from the pole driving his Valvoline sponsored Pontiac Grand Prix. He and Allison (who had won the Daytona 500 two weeks previous), driving a Buick LeSabre, dominated the crash marred, 280 lap 500 km (310 mile) race finishing first and second ahead of Dave Marcis on a day when cabin temperatures were reported to reach over 57° Celsius (135° Fahrenheit) as the race was held during Australia's notoriously hot summer.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: On April 1, 1990, Bonnett suffered a life-threatening crash during the TranSouth 500 at Darlington, South Carolina, when his car slammed into Sterling Marlin's car during a 14-car crash on lap 212. He was left with amnesia and dizziness and retired from racing and turned to television, becoming a race color commentator for TNN, CBS Sports, and TBS Sports, and hosting the TV show "Winners" for TNN.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: However, Bonnett still desired to continue racing. In 1992, he began testing cars for good friends Dale Earnhardt and car owner Richard Childress. Cleared to race again in 1993 and upon Earnhardt's suggestion, Childress gave Bonnett a ride for the 1993 DieHard 500 at Talladega Superspeedway which was numbered 31 and sponsored by GM Goodwrench. But his comeback race was marred by a crash in which his car spun, became airborne, and crashed into the spectator fence. He was uninjured and called the rest of the race from the CBS broadcast booth after being cleared at the infield care center. He would also start the final race of the 1993 season in Atlanta, but he dropped out after just three laps. The reason the team gave for removing the car from the race was a blown engine; however, he was teamed with points leader Earnhardt, and the car was retired to assist Earnhardt in winning the season's championship. Earnhardt needed to maximize his finishing position, and by Bonnett quitting the race he was assured of those three championship points. This would become Bonnett's final NASCAR Winston Cup Series start.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Despite the setbacks, Bonnett was encouraged because he had secured a ride and sponsorship for at least five races in the 1994 season with car owner James Finch, including the season-opening race, the Daytona 500, for Phoenix Racing. But on February 11, 1994, during the first practice session for the 1994 Daytona 500, a shock mount broke, causing him to lose control of his Chevrolet on the track's high-banked fourth turn. The car swerved onto the track apron, and then up the steep bank, before crashing into the wall nearly head on. Bonnett did not survive the accident; he was 47 years old.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: That weekend, another racing death occurred, as 1993 Goody's Dash (four-cylinder) champion Rodney Orr was also killed in a racing crash during the practices surrounding the first weekend. In the middle of the second Goodyear-Hoosier tire war, Hoosier withdrew from the race immediately.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Bonnett is buried in Pleasant Grove's cemetery, Forest Grove Memorial Gardens. A road called "Allison-Bonnett Memorial Drive" in his hometown honors him, along with fellow native Davey Allison, who died seven months earlier.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: When Earnhardt, Bonnett's colleague, won the 1998 Daytona 500, he dedicated the victory to Bonnett among others.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: Earnhardt himself died in a racing accident during the final lap of the 2001 Daytona 500. About three weeks after the accident, magazine photographers released photographs of Bonnett's autopsy, as well as those of another driver who died a few days later, Rodney Orr, to the public, which led to a lawsuit.


title: Neil Bonnett

text: When Brad Keselowski scored Phoenix Racing's first Sprint Cup win 15 years later in the 2009 Aaron's 499 at Talladega Superspeedway, Finch dedicated the win to Bonnett. During the 2013 season, Finch designed the No. 51 car's paint scheme in the Cup and Nationwide Series like Bonnett's 1994 Country Time Chevrolet that he drove shortly before his death.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh (; from , meaning 'the virgin plain') is the county town of County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. It is situated where the rivers Drumragh and Camowen meet to form the Strule. Northern Ireland's capital city Belfast is 68 miles (109.5 km) to the east of Omagh, and Derry is 34 miles (55 km) to the north.


title: Omagh

text: The town had a population of 19,659 at the 2011 Census, and the former district council, which was the largest in County Tyrone, had a population of 51,356. Omagh contains the headquarters of the Western Education and Library Board, and also houses offices for the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development at Sperrin House, the Department for Regional Development and the Northern Ireland Roads Service at the Tyrone County Hall and the Northern Ireland Land & Property Services at Boaz House.


title: Omagh

text: The name Omagh is an anglicisation of the Irish name "an Óghmaigh" (modern Irish "an Ómaigh"), meaning "the virgin plain". A monastery was apparently established on the site of the town about 792, and a Franciscan friary was founded in 1464. Omagh was founded as a town in 1610. It served as a refuge for fugitives from the east of County Tyrone during the 1641 Rebellion. In 1689, James II arrived at Omagh, en route to Derry. Supporters of William III, Prince of Orange, later burned the town.


title: Omagh

text: In 1768 Omagh replaced Dungannon as the county town of County Tyrone. Omagh acquired railway links to Londonderry with the Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway in 1852, Enniskillen in 1853 and Belfast in 1861. St Lucia Barracks were completed in 1881. In 1899 Tyrone County Hospital was opened. The Government of Northern Ireland made the Great Northern Railway Board close the Omagh – Enniskillen railway line in 1957. In accordance with the Benson Report submitted to the Northern Ireland Government in 1963, the Ulster Transport Authority closed the – Omagh – Londonderry main line in 1965, leaving Tyrone with no rail service. St Lucia Barracks closed on 1 August 2007.


title: Omagh

text: On 30 December 1942 a Consolidated Catalina Ib of No. 240 Squadron RAF which was operating from RAF Killadeas crashed into the town. The crash killed all eleven occupants, however no one on the ground was killed or injured. The cause of the crash was never ascertained.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh Town Hall, which opened on 29 September 1915, hosted many prominent performers including the actors, Anew McMaster, Micheál Mac Liammóir and Jimmy O'Dea, before it was demolished to make way for the Strule Arts Centre in 1997.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh came into the international focus of the media on 15 August 1998, when the Real Irish Republican Army exploded a car bomb in the town centre. 29 people were killed in the blast – 14 women (including one pregnant with twins), 9 children and 6 men. Hundreds more were injured as a result of the blast.


title: Omagh

text: In April 2011, a car bomb killed police constable Ronan Kerr. A group of former Provisional IRA members calling itself the Irish Republican Army made its first public statement later that month claiming responsibility for the killing.


title: Omagh

text: The central urban area south of River Strule forms the townland of Omagh in the civil parish of Drumragh, the adjacent area north of the river forms the townland of Lisnamllard in the civil parish of Cappagh (Upper Strabane portion).


title: Omagh

text: The town sprang up within the townland of Omagh, in the parish of Drumragh. Over time, the urban area has spread into the surrounding townlands. They include:


title: Omagh

text: Omagh has a history of flooding and suffered major floods in 1909, 1929, 1954, 1969, 1987, 1999 and, most recently, 12 June 2007. As a result of this, flood-walls were built to keep the water in the channel (River Strule) and to prevent it from overflowing into the flood plain. Large areas of land, mainly around the meanders, are unsuitable for development and were developed into large, green open areas, walking routes and parks. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).


title: Omagh

text: On Census day (27 March 2011) there were 19,659 people living in Omagh, accounting for 1.09% of the NI total. Of these:


title: Omagh

text: The Ulster American Folk Park near Omagh includes the cottage where Thomas Mellon was born in 1813, before emigrating to Pennsylvania, in the United States when he was five. His son Andrew W. Mellon became secretary of the US Treasury. The park is an open-air museum that explores the journey made by the Irish (specifically those from Ulster) to America during the 1800s. The park is used to host events during Easter, Christmas, Fourth of July and Halloween. It also hosts a major Bluegrass festival every year. Over 127,000 people visited the park in 2003.


title: Omagh

text: The Gortin Glens Forest Park, north of Omagh is a large forest with a deer enclosure and several waterfalls and lakes.


title: Omagh

text: Strule Arts Centre opened in 2007 is an example of urban renewal in Omagh town centre. Creating a modern civic building, in a newly created public space reclaimed from the formerly disused area, between the River Strule and High Street.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh has over 20 playgrounds for children, and a large amount of green open area for all the public. The largest of these is the Grange Park, located near the town centre. Many areas around the meanders of the River Strule have also been developed into open areas. Omagh Leisure Complex is a large public amenity, near the Grange Park and is set in of landscaped grounds and features a leisure centre, boating pond, astroturf pitch and cycle paths.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh is the main retail centre for Tyrone, as well as the West of Ulster (behind Derry and Letterkenny), due to its central location. In the period 2000–2003, over £80 million was invested in Omagh, and of new retail space was created. Shopping areas in Omagh include the Main Street, Great Northern Road Retail Park and the Showgrounds Retail Park on Sedan Avenue in the town centre. Market Street/High Street is also a prominent shopping street, which includes high street stores such as DV8 and Primark.


title: Omagh

text: The 'Omagh Accessible Shared Inclusive Space' (OASIS), a £4.5 million facelift for Omagh's riverbank, was funded by the European Union and planning approved in 2013.


title: Omagh

text: Construction for the project began in March 2014, and the OASIS plaza was officially opened in June 2015.


title: Omagh

text: The Irish gauge Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway (L&ER) opened as far as Omagh on 3 September 1852 and was extended to Enniskillen in 1854. The Portadown, Dungannon and Omagh Junction Railway (PD&O) reached Omagh in 1861, completing the Portadown – Derry route that came to be informally called "The Derry Road". The Great Northern Railway (Ireland) absorbed the PD&O in 1876 and the L&ER in 1883.


title: Omagh

text: The Government of Northern Ireland made the GNR Board close the Omagh – Enniskillen line in 1957. The Ulster Transport Authority took over the GNR's remaining lines in Northern Ireland in 1958. In accordance with The Benson Report submitted to the Northern Ireland Government in 1963, the UTA closed the "Derry Road" through Omagh on 15 February 1965. Later the Omagh Throughpass road was built on the disused trackbed through Omagh railway station.


title: Omagh

text: There are plans to reopen railway lines in Northern Ireland including the line from Portadown via Dungannon to Omagh.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh has a number of educational institutions at different levels. Omagh was also the headquarters of the Western Education and Library Board (WELB), located at Campsie House on the Hospital Road, before all local education boards in Northern Ireland were combined into the Education Authority in 2015.


title: Omagh

text: The Department for Education proposed to co-locate Omagh's six existing secondary schools on the former 190-acre St Lucia Army Barracks, as one large shared educational campus. In April 2009, at the inaugural Lisanelly Shared Educational Campus Steering Group meeting held in Arvalee School and Resource Centre, the Education Minister, Caitríona Ruane announced that funding had been allocated for exemplar designs and associated technical work for a shared educational campus. The construction was expected to cost in excess of £120 million. As of March 2022, the shared education campus was scheduled to open in 2026.


title: Omagh

text: In 2014, Omagh became one of only seven Northern Irish towns to receive superfast 4G mobile data coverage from the EE network.


title: Omagh

text: The town has two Gaelic football clubs, Omagh St. Enda's, which plays its home games in Healy Park, and Drumragh Sarsfields, which plays its home games at Clanabogan.


title: Omagh

text: Healy Park is the home of Tyrone GAA and the county's largest and main sports stadium located on the Gortin Road, has a capacity nearing 25,000, and had the distinction of being the first Gaelic-games stadium in Ulster to have floodlights.


title: Omagh

text: The stadium now hosts the latter matches of the Tyrone Senior Football Championship, as well as Tyrone's home games, and other inter-county matches that require a neutral venue.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh no longer has a top-flight local football team, since the demise of Omagh Town F.C. in 2005. Strathroy Harps FC are the only Omagh and Tyrone team to win the Irish junior cup twice in 2012 and 2013.


title: Omagh

text: Omagh's rugby team, Omagh Academicals (nicknamed the "Accies"), is an amateur team, made up of primarily of local players.


title: Omagh

text: A greyhound racing track operated from 1932 until 1940. The track was opened by the Duke of Abercorn on 25 May 1932 and racing took place at 'The Park' in the Showgrounds. It was organised by the Tyrone Greyhound Racing Association until 1940.


title: Tan (color)

text: Tan is a pale tone of brown. The name is derived from tannum (oak bark) used in the tanning of leather.


title: Tan (color)

text: Displayed at right is the orangish tone of tan called "tan" since 1958 in Crayola crayons and 1990 in Crayola markers.


title: Tan (color)

text: The for Tuscan tan are identical to café au lait and French beige, which were first recorded as color names in English in 1839 and 1927, respectively.


title: English landscape garden

text: The English landscape garden, also called English landscape park or simply the English garden (, , , , ), is a style of "landscape" garden which emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical French formal garden which had emerged in the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. Created and pioneered by William Kent and others, the “informal” garden style originated as a revolt against the architectural garden and drew inspiration from paintings of landscapes by Salvator Rosa, Claude Lorrain, and Nicolas Poussin.


title: English landscape garden

text: The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. The work of Lancelot "Capability" Brown was particularly influential. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. The English landscape garden was usually centred on the English country house, and many examples in the United Kingdom are popular visitor attractions today.


title: English landscape garden

text: The predecessors of the landscape garden in England were the great parks created by Sir John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle Howard (1699–1712), Blenheim Palace (1705–1722), and the Claremont Landscape Garden at Claremont House (1715–1727). These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture, such as the classical mausoleum designed by Hawksmoor at Castle Howard. At the centre of the composition was the house, behind which were formal and symmetrical gardens in the style of the garden "à la française", with ornate carpets of floral designs and walls of hedges, decorated with statues and fountains. These gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur.


title: English landscape garden

text: The new style that became known as the English garden was invented by landscape designers William Kent and Charles Bridgeman, working for wealthy patrons, including Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham; Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington; and banker Henry Hoare. These men had large country estates, were members of the anti-royalist Whig Party, had classical educations, were patrons of the arts, and had taken the Grand Tour to Italy, where they had seen the Roman ruins and Italian landscapes they reproduced in their gardens.


title: English landscape garden

text: William Kent (1685–1748) was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian-style architecture to England. Kent's inspiration came from Palladio's buildings in the Veneto and the landscapes and ruins around Rome – he lived in Italy from 1709 to 1719, and brought back many drawings of antique architecture and landscapes. His gardens were designed to complement the Palladian architecture of the houses he built.


title: English landscape garden

text: Charles Bridgeman (1690–1738) was the son of a gardener and an experienced horticulturist, who became the Royal Gardener for Queen Anne and Prince George of Denmark, responsible for tending and redesigning the royal gardens at Windsor, Kensington Palace, Hampton Court, St. James's Park and Hyde Park. He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions.


title: English landscape garden

text: Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. The first gardens that he laid out between 1724 and 1733 had many formal elements of a garden "à la française", including alleys forming a "patte d'oie" and canals, but they also featured a folly, a picturesque recreation of an Ionic temple set in a theatre of trees. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river and a small cascade. For the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature.


title: English landscape garden

text: Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished and significant of William Kent's work. The patron was General Dormer, who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of garden features including a grotto of Venus on the slope along the river Cherwell, connected by straight alleys. Kent turned the alleys into winding paths, built a gently turning stream, used the natural landscape features and slopes, and created a series of views and "tableaux" decorated with allegorical statues of Apollo, a wounded gladiator, a lion attacking a horse, and other subjects. He placed eyecatchers, pieces of classical architecture, to decorate the landscape, and made use of the ha-ha, a concealed ditch that kept grazing animals out of the garden while giving an uninterrupted vista from within. Finally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama.


title: English landscape garden

text: Stowe Gardens, in Buckinghamshire, (1730–1738), was an even more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, with architectural decorations by John Vanbrugh. Bridgeman's design included an octagonal lake and a rotunda (1720–21) designed by Vanbrugh.


title: English landscape garden

text: In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, who died in 1738. Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. It eventually included a Palladian bridge (1738); a Temple of Venus (1731) in the form of a Palladian villa; a Temple of Ancient Virtues (1737), with statues of famous Greeks and Romans; a Temple of British Worthies (1734–1735), with statues of British heroes; and a Temple of Modern Virtues, which was deliberately left in ruins, which contained a headless statue of Robert Walpole, Cobham's political rival.


title: English landscape garden

text: The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent.


title: English landscape garden

text: Stourhead, in Wiltshire (1741–80), created by banker Henry Hoare, was one of the first 'picturesque' gardens, inspired to resemble the paintings of Claude Lorrain. Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. Hoare dammed a stream on his estate, created a lake, and surrounded the lake with landscapes and architectural constructions representing the different steps of the journey of Aeneas in the "Aeneid" by Virgil.


title: English landscape garden

text: The most influential figure in the later development of the English landscape garden was Lancelot "Capability" Brown (1716–1783), who began his career in 1740 as a gardener at Stowe Gardens under Charles Bridgeman, then succeeded William Kent in 1748.


title: English landscape garden

text: Brown's contribution was to simplify the garden by eliminating geometric structures, alleys, and parterres near the house and replacing them with rolling lawns and extensive views out to isolated groups of trees, making the landscape seem even larger. "He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside." He created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden.


title: English landscape garden

text: He compared his own role as a garden designer to that of a poet or composer. "Here I put a comma, there, when it's necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis; there I end it with a period and start on another theme."


title: English landscape garden

text: Humphry Repton (21 April 1752 – 24 March 1818) was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, often regarded as the successor to Capability Brown. Repton hit upon the idea of becoming a "landscape gardener" (a term he himself coined) after failing at various ventures and, sensing an opportunity after Brown's death, was ambitious to fill the gap and sent circulars round his contacts in the upper classes advertising his services. To help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced 'Red Books' (so called for their binding) with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show 'before' and 'after' views.


title: English landscape garden

text: In 1794 Richard Payne Knight and Uvedale Price simultaneously published vicious attacks on the 'meagre genius of the bare and bald', criticizing Brown's smooth, serpentine curves as bland and unnatural and championing rugged and intricate designs, composed according to 'picturesque theory' that designed landscapes should be composed like landscape paintings, with a foreground, a middle ground and a background. Early in his career, Repton defended Brown's reputation during the 'picturesque controversy'. However, as his career progressed Repton came to apply picturesque theory to the practice of landscape design. He believed that the foreground should be the realm of art (with formal geometry and ornamental planting), that the middle ground should have a parkland character of the type created by Brown and that the background should have a wild and 'natural' character. Repton re-introduced formal terraces, balustrades, trellis work and flower gardens around the house in a way that became common practice in the nineteenth century.


title: English landscape garden

text: Repton published four major books on garden design: "Sketches and Hints on Landscape Gardening" (1795), "Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening" (1803), "An Inquiry into the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening" (1806) and "Fragments on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening" (1816). These drew on material and techniques used in the Red Books. These works greatly influenced other landscape-designers including John Claudius Loudon, John Nash, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, Hermann Ludwig Heinrich Pückler-Muskau and Frederick Law Olmsted.


title: English landscape garden

text: One aspect of the new style was making woodland more interesting and ornamental, leading to the establishment of the woodland garden as a distinct type. This took several forms, one of which was helped by the developing Gothic revival. Horace Walpole, a great promoter of the English landscape garden style, praised Painshill in Surrey, whose varied features included a shrubbery with American plants, and a sloping "Alpine Valley" of conifers, as one of the best of the new style of "forest or savage gardens". This was a style of woodland aiming at the sublime, a newly-fashionable concept in literature and the arts, or at the least to be picturesque, another new term. It really required steep slopes, even if not very high, along which paths could be made revealing dramatic views, by which contemporary viewers who had read Gothic novels like Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto" (1764) were very ready to be impressed.


title: English landscape garden

text: The appropriate style of garden buildings was Gothic rather than Neoclassical, and exotic planting was more likely to be evergreen conifers rather than flowering plants, replacing "the charm of bright, pleasant scenery in favour of the dark and rugged, gloomy and dramatic". A leading example of the style was Studley Royal in North Yorkshire, which had the great advantage, at what was known as "The Surprise View", of suddenly revealing a distant view from above of the impressive ruins of Fountains Abbey.


title: English landscape garden

text: At Stowe, Capability Brown followed the new fashion between 1740 and 1753 by adding a new section to the park, called Hawkwelle Hill or the Gothic promenade, with a Gothic revival building. Walpole had decided in 1751 "to go Gothic", as he put it in a letter, and thereafter was a leading propagandist for the style, with his own house, Strawberry Hill in Twickenham, still the most extreme example of 18th-century "Gothick" style.


title: English landscape garden

text: According to some writers, especially French ones, the Far East inspired the origins of the English Landscape Garden, via Holland. In 1685, the English writer, formerly a diplomat at The Hague, Sir William Temple wrote an essay "Upon the garden of Epicurus" (published in 1690), including a passage which contrasted European symmetrical and formal gardens with asymmetrical compositions from China, for which he introduced (as Chinese) the term "sharawadgi", in fact probably a mangled Japanese word for "irregularity". Temple had never visited the Far East, but he was in contact with the Dutch and their discourse on irregularity in design, had spoken to a merchant who had been in the Far East for a long time, and read the works of European travellers there. He noted that Chinese gardens avoided formal rows of trees and flower beds, and instead placed trees, plants, and other garden features in irregular ways to strike the eye and create beautiful compositions, with an understatement criticizing the formal compositions of the gardens at the Palace of Versailles of Louis XIV of France. His observations on the Chinese garden were cited by the essayist Joseph Addison in an essay in 1712, who used them to attack the English gardeners who, instead of imitating nature, tried to make their gardens in the French style, as far from nature as possible.


title: English landscape garden

text: The novelty and exoticism of Chinese art and architecture in Europe led in 1738 to the construction of the first Chinese-style building in an English garden, in the garden of Stowe House, at a time when chinoiserie was popular in most forms of the decorative arts across Europe. The style became even more popular thanks to William Chambers (1723–1796), who lived in China from 1745 to 1747, and wrote a book, "Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, Machines, and Utensils. To which is annexed, a Description of their Temples, Houses, Gardens, &c." published in 1757. In 1761 he built the Great Pagoda, a Chinese house and garden in Kew, London, as part of Kew Gardens, a park with gardens and architecture symbolizing all parts of the world and all architectural styles. Thereafter Chinese pagodas began to appear in other English gardens, then in France and elsewhere on the continent. French observers coined the term "Jardin Anglo-Chinois" (Anglo-Chinese garden) for this style of garden.


title: English landscape garden

text: Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to France by the Abbé Le Blanc, who published accounts of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise, and tour guide, on the English garden, "Observations on Modern Gardening", written by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770, was translated into French and German in 1771. After the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves, and the style began to be adapted in French gardens. The new style also had the advantage of requiring fewer gardeners, and was easier to maintain, than the French garden.