title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Also, while the bardic traditions of the Western Ganga dynasty claim descent from the Sun through the Ikshavaku dynasty, the Eastern Ganga genealogies ascribe descent from the Moon; the Chandravamsa lineage. Unlike the Western Ganga Dynasty who traced their lineage to the Solar Dynasty, the Later Eastern Gangas claimed a lunar descent from Vishnu through Brahma, Atri and Chandra (moon).


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Dineshwar Singh concludes that in spite of the views and arguments against a relationship between the two Ganga dynasties - the Western and the Eastern Gangas, the similarities listed out between them strongly indicate that the founder of the Eastern Ganga dynasty travelled from the Gangawadi province of Karnataka and arrived in Trikalinga. Historians R. S. Sharma and K. M. Shrimali state that several ruling families of Kannada origin flourished and ruled Odisha like the Eastern Gangas, the Eastern Kadambas, the Rashtrakuta branch of Odisha which ruled from Vagharakotta fort probably in the Sambalpur region and the Tailapa-Vamsis (ruled around Ganjam and Parlakimidi) who migrated during or after 973 CE on the establishment of the Kalyani Chalukya empire and were their feudatories. Some suspect them to have come along with Vikramaditya VI's campaigns across north, central, east and north east India, sometime before 1063-68 CE.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Five prominent dominions of the Kalingan Prachya Ganga family are identified from five different administrative centers namely - Kalinganagara (Srikakulam), Svetaka Mandala (Ganjam), Giri Kalinga (Simhapur), Ambabadi Mandala (Gunupur, Rayagada) and Vartanni Mandala (Hinjilikatu, Ganjam). The heartland of the Prachya Gangas had three parts of Kalinga namely, Daksina Kalinga (Pithapura), Madhya Kalinga (Yellamanchili Kalinga or Visakhapatnam) and Uttara Kalinga (districts of Srikakulam, Ganjam, Gajapati and Rayagada). The earliest known prominent king was Indravarman who is known from his Jirjingi copper plate grant. The Godavari grant of Raja Prthivimalla and the Ramatirtham grant of Vishnukundina king Indrbhattaraka refer to a war of four tusked elephants or Chaturdanta Samara in which Indravarman I the son of Mitavarman, a Ganga general of Vakataka king and a local ruler of Dantapura commanded an alliance of small South Kalingan kingdoms against the powerful Vishnukundina king Indrabhattaraka, defeated and killed him. The Vishnukundins returned with a vengeance, defeated the Vakataka King and members of the alliance while Indravarman declared himself as Tri-Kalingadhipati (the lord of the three Kalingas) rising from obscurity and moving his capital northwards away from the attacking Vishnukundins. His son Hastivarman found himself stuck between two Gupta feudal dynasties of Odisha, the Vigrahas of South Toshali and Mudgalas. Joining the onslaught like his father, he commanded major battles against the Vigrahas and won territories in the northern parts of ancient Kalinga and declared himself as Sakala-Kalingadhipati (the ruler of whole Kalinga). The dynasty though remaining to be a strong ruling family in ancient Odisha and North Andhra Pradesh continued to remain as vassal rulers under the central authority of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty which is proven by the fact that a smaller Eastern Ganga king belonging to the clan and named as Jayavarmadeva mentioned himself as the vassal of Sivakara Deva I in his Ganjam grant and by whose permission he gave away the grants.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: It was during the rule of Anantavarman Vajrahasta V in the mid eleventh century that the clan started emerging as a major military power challenging the authority of the Somavanshi Dynasty at their northern frontiers and allying with their arch rivals the Kalchuris. After a series of victories in battle and making land grants to three hundred Brahmin families in his kingdom, Vajrahasta V assumed the titles as Trikalingadhipati (lord of the three Kalingas) and Sakalakalingadhipati (lord of complete Kalinga) challenging the centralized authority of the Somavanshis and laying the foundation to an imperial era for the Eastern Gangas. In the later years of the century, Devendravarman Rajaraja I defeated the Somavanshi king Mahasivagupta Janmenjaya II completely while challenging the Cholas in battle, along with establishing authority in the Vengi region. The Cholas were defeated by Rajaraja I and Chola princess, Rajasundari, was married off to the Eastern Ganga king as a goodwill gesture for settlement of affairs between the Cholas and the Gangas.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The identification of the father of Rajasundari is a matter of great controversy and some scholars like K. A. Nilakanta Sastri identify the king as Virarajendra Chola. After the sudden death of Rajaraja I, his underage sons Chodaganga Deva ascended the throne, losing the many parts of his ancestral kingdom to the Cholas who were now in an advantageous position. However, Ananatavarman Chodaganga Deva not only lived a young life of prolonged struggles and setbacks but finally managed to completely remove the Chola presence from the region and finally securing Utkala, Kalinga, Gauda, Radha and Vengi as one kingdom. While many of his inscriptions are found inside the limits of former Vengi kingdom, this large extent of his empire from Bengal to Vengi is clearly stated in his Korni grant inscriptions. In the Sri Kurmam temple grant of Chodaganga, it is clearly stated that he has extended his territory from Bhagirathi Ganga to Gautami Ganga rivers which is literally the region between river Ganga and Godavari. The only front where he faced setbacks is against his western rivals the Kalachuris where he was unsuccessful. His descendant Anangabhima Deva III gradually completed the task of defeating the Kalachuris completely. In his Korni copper plate grant he mentions himself to be the lord of 99,000 war elephants which while counting military strength according to the ancient Gulma system of military divisions, puts his strength to a million men and half a million animals employed to his command. Due to his maternal relation with the Cholas, a Chola uncle of Chodaganga by the name Virachoda had sided by him as a protective guardian against the invading Cholas since his childhood. Chodaganga was married to the daughter of this uncle and also had Tamil officers serving him during his lifelong affairs of war and administration. Chodaganga Deva not only reunited most of ancient Kalinga stretching from the rivers Ganga to Godavari but led the foundation to the imperial hegemony of the Eastern Gangas in the Eastern coast of India. Chodaganga Deva was a strong king and was the son of Rajaraja Devendravarman and grandson of Vajrahasta Anantavarman of the Imperial Gangas of Kalinganagara. His mother was princess Rajasundari of the Chola dynasty.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: After the fall of Mahameghavahana dynasty, Kalinga was divided into different kingdoms under feudatory chiefs. Each of these chiefs bore the title Kalingadhipathi (Lord of Kalinga). The beginnings of what became the Eastern Ganga dynasty came about when Indravarma I defeated the Vishnukundin king, Indrabhattaraka and established his rule over the region with Kalinganagara (or Mukhalingam) as his capital, and Dantapuram as a secondary capital. The Ganga kings assumed various titles viz. "Trikalingadhipathi" or "Sakala Kalingadhipathi" (Lord of three Kalinga or all three Kalingas namely Kalinga proper (South), Utkala (North), and Dakshina Kosala (West)).


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Mukhalingam near Srikakulam of Andhra Pradesh bordering Odisha has been identified as Kalinganagara, the capital of the early Eastern Gangas.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: After the decline of the early Eastern Gangas reign, the Chalukyas of Vengi took control of the region. The first monarch of the dynasty Vajrahastha Aniyakabhima I (980-1015 A.D), took advantage of the internal strife and revived the power of the Ganga dynasty. It was during their rule that Shaivism took precedence over Buddhism and Jainism. The magnificent Srimukhalingam Temple at Mukhalingam was built during this period.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: In the 11th century, the Cholas brought the Ganga Kingdom under their rule with the sudden death of Devendravarman Rajraja I. His son Chodaganga Deva who ascended the throne at the age of five under the protection provide by one of his maternal uncles from the Chola family had to overcome multiple obstacles before securing Kalinga, Vengi, Utkala, Odra and parts of Bengal as one kingdom.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Eastern Gangas were known to have intermarried with the Cholas, Chalukyas. The early state of the dynasty may have started from the early 5th century.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The dynasty, towards the end of eleventh century came to be known as Chodaganga dynasty after its founder Anantavarman Chodaganga. He was the son of Rajaraja Deva, the ruler of Kalinga kingdom centered around the region of Southern Odisha and northern Andhra coast, while his mother was the Chola princess, Rajasundari, daughter of the Chola emperor Virarajendra Chola.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: He is believed to have ruled from the Ganges River in the north to the Godavari River in the south, thus laying the foundation of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. Also during his rule, the great Jagannath Temple at Puri was built. He assumed the title of Trikalingadhipathi (ruler of the three Kalingas which comprise Kalinga proper, Utkala north and Koshala west) in 1076 CE, resulting in him being the first to rule all three divisions of Kalinga.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Anantavarman was a religious person as well as a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous Jagannath Temple of Puri in Odisha. King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such as Narasingha Deva I (1238–1264).


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Rajaraja III ascended the throne in 1198 and did nothing to resist the Ghurid Empire Muslims of the Khalji dynasty of Bengal, who invaded Orissa in 1206. Rajaraja's son Anangabhima III, however, repulsed the Muslims and built the temple of Megheswara at Bhuvaneshvara.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Narasimhadeva I, the son of Anangabhima, invaded southern Bengal in 1243, defeated its Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, captured the capital (Gauda), and built the Sun Temple at Konark to commemorate his victory. Narasimhadeva I was also the first king to use the title of "Gajapati" or "Lord of war elephants" or "King with an army of elephants" among the Odishan kings in the 1246 CE inscription at the Kapilash Temple.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: With the death of Narasimha in 1264, the Eastern Gangas began to decline; the sultan of Delhi, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, invaded Odisha between 1353 and 1358, and levied tribute on the Ganga king. The Musunuri Nayaks defeated the Odishan powers in 1356. Narasimha IV, the last known king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, ruled until 1425. The "mad king," Bhanudeva IV, who succeeded him, left no inscriptions; his minister Kapilendra usurped the throne and founded the Suryavamsha dynasty in 1434–35.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: Indravarman I is earliest known Independent king of the dynasty. He is known from the "Jirjingi Copper Plate Grant".


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Anka year ( "Aṅka") system is a unique regnal year system instituted by the kings of the Eastern Ganga dynasty for dating their reigns. It has a number of unique features that calculates the regnal year different from that actual duration of the year elapsed during the reign. The system still survives today and is used in the Odia calendar (panjis) and the regnal year is marked by the titular reign of the current Gajapati Maharaja of the House of Gajapati at Puri.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Eastern Ganga coinage consisted of gold fanams. The obverse typically depicts a couchant bull along with other symbols. The reverse features a symbol which represents the letter "sa" (for samvat, which means year) flanked by elephant goads or an elephant goad with a battle axe, along with a number below, which depicts the regnal year(anka year) of the reigning monarch. Some coins also carry the legend śrī rāma on the reverse above the letter "sa".


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: An interesting aspect of the Eastern Ganga coin dates is that these coins may be the earliest Hindu coins using decimal numbers for dating. Earlier dated coins, such as those of the Western Satraps, the Guptas etc., used the old Brahmic numbering system with separate symbols representing each of the single digits, separate symbols representing two-digit multiples of ten, such as 20, 30, 40, and so on, and further separate symbols representing three-digit numbers such as 100, 200, etc. Thus a number like 123 was written as 100-20-3. But the Eastern Ganga coins were written using the symbols for the single digits, with the position of the number indicating the value such as tens or hundreds, thus effectively using the Zero-place holder system.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: By successfully defeating the invasion attempts of Muslim invaders, the Eastern Ganga Empire is attributed to have served as the conservatory of the Hindu religion, art and culture at a time when India's indigenous civilization was endangered through the large scale massacre of Hindus, plundering of cities, desecration and destruction of temples and forcible conversions of the Hindu populace. The Ganga Empire also harbored the fleeing culture and art from other parts of India.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Eastern Gangas were great patrons of religion and the arts, and the temples of the Ganga period rank among the masterpieces of Kalinga and Hindu architecture.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: A branch of the Eastern Ganga dynasty survived as the kings of the Paralakhemundi state, currently part of the Gajapati district,Odisha. It was established in 14th century when Narashingha Deba, a son of the Eastern Ganga monarch Bhanudeva II established the Khemudi kingdom. Scions of this line include,


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: This line descends from the Paralakhemundi Ganga branch. In 16th century, the Raja of Parlakhemundi, Subarnalinga Bhanu Deba granted parts of the Khimedi areas to his son Ananga Kesari Ramachandra Deba, whose descendants in turn divided the zamindari into two branches- Badakhemundi and Sanakhemundi.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Hindol princely state was established in 1554 by two brothers, Chandradeva Jenamani and Udhavadeva Jenamani belonging to the family of the Badakhemundi Raja of Ganjam. The kingdom acceded to India and merged into the state of Odisha following independence in 1947.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: The Bamra kingdom was established by Saraju Gangadeb who was the son of the local Eastern Ganga administrator of Patna region Hattahamir Deb, who was the son of Eastern Ganga ruler Bhanudeva II. Hattahamir Deb was overthrown in 1360 CE by Ramai Deva of the Chauhan dynasty who led the foundation of Patna state, while the tribal chieftains installed Saraju Gangadeb as the ruler of Bamanda region. This laid the foundation of the Bamanda branch of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. The kingdom acceded to India and merged into the state of Odisha following independence in 1947.


title: Eastern Ganga dynasty

text: This branch were the descendants of the ancient branch of Svetaka mandala of the Early Gangas which became the Chikiti zamindari. Historians conclude that the rulers of Chikiti were from the line of Ganga ruler Hastivarman.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: John Gibbs is an American far-right political commentator and politician. A member of the Republican Party, Gibbs was a software engineer and missionary before entering politics. During the Donald Trump administration, he held roles in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, and was acting Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Development for Community Planning and Development. Gibbs has a history of making false, inflammatory, and conspiratorial remarks on his Twitter feed.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In July 2020, Trump nominated Gibbs to be director of the United States Office of Personnel Management, but he was never confirmed by the Senate. Gibbs promoted Trump's false claims that the 2020 presidential election was stolen. He was the Republican nominee for Michigan's 3rd congressional district in the 2022 elections, having defeated incumbent Peter Meijer in the primary, but lost the general election to Democratic nominee Hillary Scholten.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: Gibbs is a native of Lansing, Michigan. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in computer science from Stanford University and a Master of Public Administration from the Harvard Kennedy School. Gibbs was raised in the Pentecostal faith and served as a missionary in Japan after studying abroad there. Gibbs later converted to Catholicism and attends the Traditional Latin Mass.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: Gibbs was employed by Symantec, Palm, and Apple as a software engineer. He worked in Japan for the evangelical Christian ministry WorldVenture for nearly seven years and is fluent in Japanese.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: Gibbs is a far-right conspiracy theorist; he has a history of making false, inflammatory, and conspiratorial remarks on his Twitter feed, including numerous tweets promoting fringe concepts and figures. On four occasions, he spread the false conspiracy theory that John Podesta, the chairman of Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign, took part in a "Satanic ritual," a claim propagated by far-right bloggers. In October 2016, Gibbs defended an alt-right figure who had frequently posted anti-Semitic comments and had been banned from Twitter. In early-2016, Gibbs used the term "cucks" (a derogatory word applied by the far-right to attack moderate Republicans); he has also attacked Democrats as the party of "Islam, gender-bending, anti-police." In a July 2020 interview with the "Washington Examiner", in response to criticism of his past remarks, he said, "I don't really see anything to apologize for." In later Senate testimony, he said, "I regret that it's unfortunately become an issue."


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: After working as a political commentator, Gibbs joined the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) as a political appointee and advisor to Secretary Ben Carson. He was a frequent contributor to "The Federalist", a right-wing website, and wrote in support of Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign. He endorsed the notion that incoming federal employees should be "loyal" to Trump.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: Gibbs did not have housing experience before his appointment to HUD. Gibbs' first position at HUD was director of the Strong Cities, Strong Communities initiative. By the time Gibbs was appointed, the Trump administration had already shuttered the Obama-era initiative, and so Gibbs never directed the program. In August 2017, Gibbs became a senior adviser in HUD's Office of the assistant secretary for community planning and development, and then became acting assistant secretary in March 2020, replacing then-Principal Assistant Deputy Secretary David Woll as head of the agency.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In 2020, Trump nominated Gibbs to be director of the Office of Personnel Management, which oversees the federal workforce of about 2.1 million employees and acts as the executive branch's human resources function. During a September 2020 confirmation hearing before the Senate Homeland Security and Government Affairs Committee, Gibbs deflected questions over past conspiracy tweets. Senators in both parties expressed concerns about Gibbs' fitness to hold office. His nomination was opposed by federal employees' associations, including the National Treasury Employees Union and Senior Executives Association, which cited Gibbs' history of inflammatory comments and expressed concerns about his commitment to the merit system.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: Gibbs' nomination was "held over" by the committee in September 2020, meaning that he did not receive a vote. He was never confirmed by the Senate, and his nomination lapsed in January 2021 at the end of the 116th Congress. In the final months of the Trump administration, Trump appointed Gibbs as a member of the administration's 1776 Commission.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: After Trump was defeated in his bid for reelection in 2020, Gibbs promoted Trump's false claims that the election was "stolen" from him. Gibbs later continued to push election falsehoods while running for a seat in Congress in 2022.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In November 2021, Gibbs announced his campaign for the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan's 3rd congressional district. He ran in the Republican primary election against incumbent congressman Peter Meijer, who was one of ten House Republicans to vote to impeach President Trump over the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Gibbs ran as a far-right candidate. Trump endorsed Gibbs a few days after he announced his candidacy. The district is based in Grand Rapids.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: During the Republican primary campaign, Gibbs made his Trump endorsement and support for false election claims the centerpieces of his candidacy. He continued to deny that Joe Biden had been legitimately elected president in 2020, and falsely claimed that the 2020 election results were "mathematically impossible". He criticized Meijer for voting to impeach Trump, as well as for voting for supporting U.S. humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine and for voting in favor of bipartisan gun safety legislation following a gun massacre at an elementary school in Uvalde, Texas.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In the final days of the primary, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee bought TV ads designed to raise Gibbs' profile, believing that Meijer would be the more difficult opponent in the general election. On August 2, 2022, Gibbs defeated Meijer in the primary election. Meijer said he would not support Gibbs in the November election.


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In September 2022, CNN reported that as a student at Stanford, Gibbs founded a self-described think tank called the Society for the Critique of Feminism. The group's webpage said that women do not " the characteristics necessary to govern" and that women should not have the right to vote. A spokesperson for the Gibbs campaign responded "Of course, John does not believe that women shouldn't vote or shouldn't work." Gibbs said the site "was made as a satire, of trolling against the liberals on campus."


title: John Gibbs (government official)

text: In the general election, Democratic nominee Hillary Scholten flipped the district and defeated Gibbs, winning by a margin of 13 points.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous is an American mockumentary sitcom created by Bo Burnham and Dan Lagana that aired for one season on MTV from May 2 to June 29, 2013. The series stars Burnham as Zach Stone, a recent high school graduate who opts to pursue a life of fame instead of attending college, subsequently hiring a camera crew to film his daily life as a "pre-celebrity" in his quest to become famous overnight despite being essentially talentless.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: Three days before the first season finished, it was announced that the show had been cancelled. In 2021, the series suddenly received renewed interest following a massive surge in Burnham's popularity in the months after the release of his critically acclaimed one-man Netflix special "", and was soon made available to stream on Netflix.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: 18-year-old Boston native Zach Stone graduates from high school and decides to chase a life of fame instead of attending college. Having saved money from his grocery store job over the last couple of years, he hires a camera crew from MTV to film him throughout his daily life as a part of his quest to become an overnight celebrity, even though he possesses no real talent. He tries anything possible to get noticed—such as trying to become a celebrity chef, creating novelty ringtones, and intentionally going missing—and will stop at nothing until he reaches stardom. He uses the entire summer break to get noticed and to hang out with his friends and love interest before they leave for college.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: The series was commissioned by MTV in September 2010. "Variety" magazine reported that MTV had ordered a half-hour-long put pilot from Burnham about "a kid fresh out of high school who's pursuing the new American dream of being a celebrity without having any talent". The show was inspired by a study that asked graduating high schoolers about the careers they wanted, with 40% choosing simply "famous" compared to shockingly low numbers choosing careers such as "doctor". The pilot was filmed in 2011, while the rest of the season was filmed over the course of 2012.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: Burnham initially planned the show to be a dark satire that would punish Zach for having shallow priorities, but he soon saw Zach as a sympathetic character due to being an inevitable result of the culture surrounding him. The show spoofs youth culture, celebrity, and the pursuit of fame. Zach projects the public image that he believes will most likely make him famous and casts a thin layer over his true feelings, but the mask often slips to reveal that he is an insecure young man who sees fame as the solution to all of his problems. The show was primarily inspired by comedy series such as "The Larry Sanders Show", "The Comeback", and the original British version of "The Office", the latter of which Burnham considers one of his favorite shows of all time, stating that he watches it from start to finish at least once a year.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: "Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous" struggled in the ratings during its run. The series premiered to 650,000 viewers and saw its numbers decrease to half of that midway through its season. The show originally aired at 10:30 p.m. on Thursdays during May, but was moved to 11 p.m. in June to expand its dwindling audience. MTV scheduled its eighth and ninth episodes to air back to back, and burned off the following three the next week. MTV officially cancelled the series on June 26.


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: "Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous" received generally positive reviews from television critics. Brian Lowry of "Variety" wrote that "the concept is hardly original" but the series "still feels fresh and timely [...] this single-camera satire zeroes in on a burning, warped desire to be famous that MTV, as much as anyone, has stoked and exemplified". He added that "even MTV appears oddly oblivious to the ironies of this dichotomy". "Entertainment Weekly" called the pilot a "promising debut", positively reviewing Burnham's portrayal of the titular character: "Because there's an inherent empathy to the character, it's a delight watching him strive and fail to make the mundane ordinariness of his suburban reality sexy." While noting the premise of parodying reality shows covered no new ground, "The New York Times" did commend the show's attempt to aim "straight for the dark underbelly of all these fantasies" and wrote, "It's one thing to put on a show; it's another to do so to mask huge holes within."


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: Pilot Viruet of "The A.V. Club" noted that the character's "off-camera moments", such as his appeasement of girl-next-door Amy in the pilot, were more satisfying than watching "a completely abhorrent character do awful thing after awful thing". Viruet added, "It's clear that the writers (and Zach) are so knowledgeable of this particular world that the end result is smarter than you'd expect the average reality show send-up to be." "Newsday" called the show "almost too clever, funny and ironic for MTV", also praising the show's softer moments: ""Zach" is both commentary and send-up of the ephemera that MTV and the Internet at large celebrate – then instantly forget. [...] But there's a core gentleness here, too, and while Zach's frenetic attention span is extremely splintered, he still manages to be relatable."


title: Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous

text: In contrast, David Wiegand of the "San Francisco Chronicle" felt that the show "is more noisy than funny" and compared it to Burnham's beginnings posting videos to YouTube from his bedroom: "His bedroom videos were weird, too, but funny-weird, not I-need-an-Excedrin weird." Hank Stuever of "The Washington Post" gave the series a scathing review, claiming that "this show is so bad, it's beneath even MTV". Describing the series as "irritating", he said, "One thing about MTV's so-called original programming is that it is often a safe refuge for the criminally unoriginal. I would like to point out that we can extradite Burnham back to reality and prosecute him as an adult."


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: The Rig is an upcoming supernatural thriller television series created by David Macpherson for Amazon Prime Video. The series is directed by John Strickland, and is the first Amazon Original to be filmed entirely in Scotland. The series is scheduled to be released in 6 January 2023, and will consist of six episodes.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: When the crew of the North Sea stationed Kinloch Bravo oil rig is due to return to the mainland, a mysterious fog rolls in and cuts off communication with the outside world. The crew will be driven to the limits of their endurance and loyalties and will be forced into a confrontation with forces that are beyond their imagination.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: David Macpherson first came up with the idea for the series in 2018, based in part on the stories his father told him about working in the oil and gas industry. He sent a one-page pitch to producer Derek Wax, and began writing it in December 2018. In November 2020, it was announced that Amazon had greenlit "The Rig". The series is written and created by David Macpherson, and directed and executive produced by John Strickland. Derek Wax also executive produces, while Suzanne Reid produces. Wax's company Wild Mercury Productions produces the series.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: Work started on the series' scripts in December 2018. Meg Salter and Matthew Jacobs Morgan serve as writers.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: In mid-March 2021, Emily Hampshire, Martin Compston, and Mark Bonnar were cast in key roles. The next day, Iain Glen, Rochenda Sandall, Owen Teale, Richard Pepple, Calvin Demba, Emun Elliott, Abraham Popoola, Stuart McQuarrie, and Molly Vevers were cast. Kelly Valentine-Hendry serves as the casting director for the series.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: Filming started on 29 March 2021, at an oil rig in Scotland, and at FirstStage Studios in Edinburgh. The series is the first Amazon Original to be filmed entirely in Scotland. Filming wrapped in August 2021. The first three episodes were directed by John Strickland, and the final three were directed by Alex Holmes.


title: The Rig (TV series)

text: The official trailer was released on November 29, 2022. The pilot episode premiered at Everyman cinema in Leith, Scotland, on December 6, 2022. The six-episode series is scheduled to be released on January 6, 2023.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: Half Girlfriend is an Indian English coming of age, young adult romance novel by Indian author Chetan Bhagat. The novel, set in rural Bihar, New Delhi, Patna, and New York, is the story of a Bihari boy in quest of winning over the girl he loves. This is Bhagat's sixth novel which was released on 1 October 2014 by Rupa Publications. The novel has also been published in Hindi and Gujarati.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: Dedicated to "non English-types", as Chetan Bhagat wrote, the book divulges the sentiments and linguistic struggles of a backward rural Bhojpuri-laced Hindi-speaking boy from Bihar as he enrolls himself at the prestigious English-medium St. Stephen’s College, New Delhi, and falls in love with a "high class English-speaking rich Delhi girl" schooled at Modern School, New Delhi. The girl does not admit the relationship but agrees to be his "half girlfriend". Chetan Bhagat commented, ""Half-Girlfriend", to me, is a unique Indian phenomenon, where boys and girls are not clear about their relationship status with each other. A boy may think he is more than friends with the girl, but the girl is still not his girlfriend. Hence, I thought we needed a term like 'Half girlfriend'. Because, in India, that is what most men get."


title: Half Girlfriend

text: Madhav Jha, a rural boy from Dumraon, a village in Bihar, comes to meet the author, who is actually Chetan Bhagat, and leaves behind a few journals from his half-girlfriend, who he believes has died. Chetan Bhagat calls him up the next morning to hear his story. He starts by describing his trouble entering St. Stephens, as his English wasn't good enough. Being a good basketball player, Madhav gets finally through sports quota.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: The rich and beautiful Riya Somani is a girl from Delhi, who is also selected through the sports quota. Madhav and Riya become close 'friends' due to their association with basketball. Madhav wants to make her his girlfriend, but she refuses. He demands that they get physical. Offended by his obscene ultimatum, Riya parts company with him and tells him not to talk to her anymore.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: A year later, Riya marries her childhood friend Rohan and settles in London, where Rohan has a big business. Finding Delhi unbearable on grounds of losing Riya, Madhav decides to settle in his hometown Dumraon and helps his mother, Rani Sahiba, who runs her school. Seeing the condition of the school – no proper classes or toilets – Madhav decides to meet local MLA Ojha for financial help, but the MLA refuses to help. An opportunity comes when Ojha informs Madhav about Bill Gates' visit to some schools in Bihar. Madhav tries his best to convince Gates to fund his school, but to do so he has to prepare a speech, preferably in English.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: In the course of his struggle, he comes across Riya, who is now a divorcee. Riya helps him prepare the speech. They two are successful in their fundraising, but, after the speech, Riya leaves a letter for him which states that she is in the last stage of lung cancer and has only 3 months left to survive. Riya's letter confesses her love for Madhav but states she has three months to live. When Madhav attempts to track her down, he finds that she has cut all ties in India and has disappeared.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: After three years, it is revealed from Riya's journals that she is alive and that she had faked her cancer. Madhav goes in search of her in New York. After three months of extensively searching, he finds her at Cafe Wha and the two reconcile and finally consummate their relationship.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: The book ends with the author visiting the rural school in Dumraon, three and a half years later, and seeing that both Madhav and Riya are successfully running the school, and have a son, Shyam.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: Rituparna Chatterjee of CNN-IBN called it a "massively disappointing book written exclusively for another Bollywood sobfest". Pranav Joshi of "Daily News and Analysis" called it "old wine in new glass" with a rehashed storyline that promotes negative stereotypes.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: The film rights to the novel were sold before it was published. A Bollywood film adaptation directed by Mohit Suri and produced by Ekta Kapoor and Bhagat. It stars Arjun Kapoor and Shraddha Kapoor. It is the first film produced by Bhagat.


title: Half Girlfriend

text: Initially the film based on the novel starred Kriti Sanon who inaugurated the book, but was replaced by Shraddha Kapoor. The film released on 19 May 2017.


title: Ricky Harris

text: Richard George Harris II (October 5, 1965 – December 26, 2016) was an American producer, actor, and comedian. He was known for his role as Malvo in the UPN/The CW sitcom "Everybody Hates Chris".


title: Ricky Harris

text: Harris played his first movie roles in "Poetic Justice" in 1993 and "Murder Was the Case" in 1994. He also had minor roles in Michael Mann's 1995 crime film "Heat" and Mikael Salomon's 1998 action movie "Hard Rain".


title: Ricky Harris

text: Harris was the voice of DJ EZ Dicc, TaaDow, and Saul-T-Nutz from various skits featured on albums from Snoop Dogg to Tha Dogg Pound.


title: Ricky Harris

text: In 1993, Harris starred with Todd Hunter in the single episode of "357 Marina del Rey" produced for the television series "Danger Theatre", playing private detective Clay Gentry. From 1996 to 1998 he played the role of Javon "J. W." Willis in six episodes of the UPN situation comedy "Moesha".


title: Ricky Harris

text: In 2004, Harris lent his voice to various characters in the video game "". In 2007, he played the role of Cousin Fred in the film "This Christmas". From 2006 to 2008, Harris played Malvo, a recurring character in the sitcom "Everybody Hates Chris".


title: Ricky Harris

text: In December 2016, Harris died from a heart attack. He had suffered a previous heart attack two years prior.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Barnard Castle (, ) is a market town on the north bank of the River Tees, in County Durham, Northern England. The town is named after and built around a medieval castle ruin. The town's Bowes Museum's has an 18th-century Silver Swan automaton exhibit and paintings by Goya and El Greco.


title: Barnard Castle

text: It sits on the opposite bank to Startforth and is south-west of the county town of Durham. Nearby towns include Bishop Auckland to the north-east, Darlington to the east and Richmond in North Yorkshire to the south-east. The largest employer is GlaxoSmithKline, with a manufacturing facility on the town's outskirts.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Before the Norman conquest the upper half of Teesdale had been combined into an Anglo-Norse estate which was centred upon the ancient village of Gainford and mortgaged to the Earls of Northumberland. The first Norman Bishop of Durham, Bishop Walcher, was murdered in 1080. This led to the surrounding country being attacked and laid waste by the Norman overlords. Further rebellion in 1095 caused the king William II to break up the Earldom of Northumberland into smaller baronies. The Lordship of Gainford was given to Guy de Balliol.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The earthwork fortifications of the castle were rebuilt in stone by his successor, Bernard de Balliol I during the latter half of the 12th century, giving rise to the town's name. The castle passed down through the Balliol family (of which the Scottish king, John Balliol, was the most important member) and then into the possession of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. King Richard III inherited it through his wife, Anne Neville, but it fell into ruins in the century after his death.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The remains of the castle are Grade I listed, whilst the chapel in the outer ward is Grade II listed. Both sets of remains are now in the care of English Heritage and open to the public.


title: Barnard Castle

text: John Bowes lived at nearby Streatlam Castle (now demolished). His Streatlam stud never had more than ten breeding mares at one time, but produced no fewer than four Derby winners in twenty years. The last of these, "West Australian", was the first racehorse to win the Triple Crown, in 1853.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Bowes and his wife Joséphine Benoîte Coffin-Chevallier founded the Bowes Museum, which is of national status. Housed in its own ornate building, the museum contains an El Greco, paintings by Goya, Canaletto, Boucher, Fragonard and a collection of decorative art. A great attraction is the 18th century silver swan automaton, which periodically preens itself, looks round and appears to catch and swallow a fish.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Although never a major manufacturing centre, in the 18th century industry centred on hand loom wool weaving, and in the early 19th century the principal industry was spinning and the manufacture of shoe thread.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Walter Scott frequently visited his friend John Sawrey Morritt at Rokeby Hall and was fond of exploring Teesdale. He begins his epic poem "Rokeby" (1813) with a man standing on guard on the round tower of the Barnard Castle fortress.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Charles Dickens (Boz) and his illustrator Hablot Browne (Phiz) stayed at the King's Head in Barnard Castle while researching his novel "Nicholas Nickleby" in the winter of 1837–38. He is said to have entered William Humphrey's clock-maker's shop, then opposite the hotel, and enquired who had made a certain remarkable clock. William replied that his boy Humphrey had done it. This seems to have prompted Dickens to choose the title "Master Humphrey's Clock" for his new weekly, in which "The Old Curiosity Shop" and "Barnaby Rudge" appeared.


title: Barnard Castle

text: William Wordsworth, Daniel Defoe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Hilaire Belloc, Bill Bryson and the artist J. M. W. Turner have also visited the town.


title: Barnard Castle

text: In May 2020, Barnard Castle came to national attention when the chief advisor of the British Prime Minister, Dominic Cummings, was discovered to have driven to the town with his family during the COVID-19 pandemic, while at a significant risk of having the disease himself due to contact with the infected Prime Minister (Cummings developed symptoms the next day). Following media allegations that he had broken lockdown regulations by driving to the town, he told how he drove there to test his eyesight to reassure his wife that he was able to drive them back to London the next day.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Barnard Castle is for all purposes (historic, ceremonial and unitary authority) located in County Durham. Barnard Castle has a Town Council governing a civil parish. The Town Council elects a ceremonial Town Mayor annually.


title: Barnard Castle

text: It is part of the Bishop Auckland parliamentary constituency, which as of 2019 is represented in parliament by Dehenna Davison of The Conservative Party. All four Durham County Councillors whose wards (Barnard Castle East and Barnard Castle West) include part of Barnard Castle are Conservative.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The local police force is Durham Constabulary. The town is the base for the Barnard Castle division, which covers . This division is within the force's south area.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Between 1894 and 1974 the town was administratively part of Barnard Castle Urban District. The administrative and ceremonial county boundary was adjusted in 1974. Barnard Castle became administrative centre of the Teesdale district of County Durham non-metropolitan county until its abolition on 1 April 2009 and the county council became the unitary authority of County Durham.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The most important employer in Barnard Castle is Glaxo Smithkline, which has a large pharmaceutical manufacturing plant on the outskirts of the town which employs around 1,000 people. GSK has invested £80 million into the plant since 2007.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Barnard Castle has road connections to Bishop Auckland, Spennymoor and central County Durham via the A688 and Darlington, Stockton-on-Tees, and Middlesbrough by the A67. Barnard Castle is also from the A66, with access to the M6 to the west and the A1(M) to the east. The B6278 also connects Barnard Castle with Middleton-in-Teesdale. The old road bridge over the River Tees was built in 1569 and is Grade I listed.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Barnard Castle railway station was closed for passenger trains in 1964. A Bill was approved in 1854 for a line from a junction with the Stockton & Darlington Railway at Darlington to Barnard Castle and opened on 9 July 1856, with intermediate stations at Broomielaw, Winston, Gainford and Piercebridge. The terminus at Darlington only lasted five years. In 1856 the South Durham & Lancashire Railway proposed a line from Bishop Auckland to Tebay via Barnard Castle and Kirkby Stephen but only the western section was built with the Company receiving its Bill in 1857.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The line opened on 8 August 1861 from a second terminus at Barnard Castle to a junction with the Lancaster & Carlisle Railway at Tebay with intermediate stations at Lartington, Bowes, Barras, Kirkby Stephen, Ravenstondale & Gaisgill. The two stations at Barnard Castle were some distance apart; the earliest station became a through station and closed to passengers on 1 May 1862, but remained in use as a goods depot. The second station was closed for passenger trains under the Beeching cuts in 1964 and completely on 5 April 1965 and the site was eventually built on by GlaxoSmithKline. Today rail access is via , or . There are two bus routes provided by Arriva North East which connect Barnard Castle to Darlington, the X75 (Via Staindrop) and X76 (Via Winston), there is also the 79, provided by Hodgsons Coaches, which travels from Barnard Castle to Richmond.


title: Barnard Castle

text: Barnard Castle School, an independent co-educational boarding school located on the eastern edge of the town.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The Bowes Museum was purpose-built to house the collection of John and Josephine Bowes. The museum is built in the style of a French chateau, in extensive grounds, and is by far the largest building in the town. It contains paintings by El Greco, Francisco Goya, Canaletto, Jean-Honoré Fragonard and François Boucher, together with a sizable collection of decorative art, ceramics, textiles, tapestries, clocks and costumes, as well as older items from local history. It is famous for the Silver Swan automaton, which plays every day at 2pm.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The Witham Arts Centre on the Horse Market, presents a variety of events, including drama, cinema, music, spoken word and children's events as well as being the town's visitor information centre.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The Barnard Castle Meet is an annual carnival festival held on the second bank holiday weekend in May, the schools' summer half-term week. The Meet, as it is known locally, has grown from the North East Cyclists' Meet dating back to 1885, and since the early 1900s the town has staged a carnival and grand procession through the town centre on the bank holiday Monday. The weekend is now probably the largest event in the Barnard Castle and Teesdale calendar. There are around twenty separate events that the Meet Committee asserts 'reach every corner of the community'. In recent years the committee has staged its own music event showcasing local and national talent on the Sunday and Monday, with all technical and musical support from Teesdale Community Resources (TCR).


title: Barnard Castle

text: The TCR Hub is a community centre on the edge of the town with a wide range of indoor and outdoor activities.


title: Barnard Castle

text: The Barnard Castle Band, founded in 1860, is a brass band based in the town, well known outside the area as a result of the march "Barnard Castle" by Goff Richards.


title: Venetian glass

text: Venetian glass () is glassware made in Venice, typically on the island of Murano near the city. Traditionally it is made with a soda–lime "metal" and is typically elaborately decorated, with various "hot" glass-forming techniques, as well as gilding, enamel, or engraving. Production has been concentrated on the Venetian island of Murano since the 13th century. Today Murano is known for its art glass, but it has a long history of innovations in glassmaking in addition to its artistic fame—and was Europe's major center for luxury glass from the High Middle Ages to the Italian Renaissance. During the 15th century, Murano glassmakers created "cristallo"—which was almost transparent and considered the finest glass in the world. Murano glassmakers also developed a white-colored glass (milk glass called "lattimo") that looked like porcelain. They later became Europe's finest makers of mirrors.


title: Venetian glass

text: During the High Middle Ages, Venice was originally controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire before eventually becoming an independent city state. It flourished as a trading center and seaport in the High Middle Ages. Its connections with the Middle East helped its glassmakers gain additional skills, as glassmaking was more advanced in areas such as Syria and Egypt. Although Venetian glassmaking in factories existed as far back as the eighth century, it became concentrated in Murano by law beginning in 1291: since glass factories often caught fire, this removed much of the possibility of a major fire disaster for the city. Venetian glassmakers developed secret recipes and methods for making glass, and the concentration of Venice's glassmaking on the island of Murano enabled better control of those secrets.


title: Venetian glass

text: Murano became Europe's luxury glassmaking center, peaking in popularity in the 15th and 16th centuries. Venice's dominance in trade along the Mediterranean created a wealthy merchant class that was a strong connoisseur of the arts. This helped establish demand for art glass and more innovations. The spread of glassmaking talent in Europe eventually diminished the importance of Venice and its Murano glassmakers. The occupation and dissolution of the Venetian state by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797 caused more hardship for Murano's glassmaking industry. Murano glassmaking began a revival in the 1920s. Today, Murano and Venice are tourist attractions, and Murano is home to numerous glass factories and a few individual artists' studios. Its "Museo del Vetro" (Glass Museum) in the Palazzo Giustinian contains displays on the history of glassmaking as well as glass samples ranging from Egyptian times through the present day.


title: Venetian glass

text: The Venetian city state grew during the decline of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, as people fled the barbarian invasions to the safety of islands in the Venetian Lagoon. Small communities grew in the lagoon, among which Venice eventually became the most prominent. The city of Venice became a highly successful trading port, and by the inception of the 11th century dominated trade between Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. It also had a strong navy. Many European Crusaders passed through Venice on their way to and from the Holy Land. Treasures of many kinds were bought and sold in Venice: spices, precious metals, gemstones, ivory, silks—and glass. Successful trade bred a wealthy merchant class in addition to the nobles, and the wealthy became patrons of Venice's famous art and architecture.


title: Venetian glass

text: It is thought that glass production in Venice began as early as around 450, as glassmakers from Aquileia fled to the islands to escape barbarian invaders. The earliest archaeological evidence of a glass factory in the area comes from the Venetian lagoon island of Torcello and dates from the seventh or eighth century. The original Venetian glassmakers were joined by glassmakers from Byzantium and from the Middle East—which enriched their glassmaking knowledge. Glass was made in the Middle East long before it was made in Europe, though Ancient Roman glass made in Italy, Germany and elsewhere could be extremely sophisticated. Early products included beads, glass for mosaics, jewelry, small mirrors, and window glass.


title: Venetian glass

text: Venetian glassmaking grew in importance to the city's economy. Around 1271 the local glassmakers' guild made rules to help preserve glassmaking secrets. It was forbidden to divulge trade secrets outside of Venice. If a glassworker left the city without permission, he would be ordered to return. If he failed to return, his family would be imprisoned. If he still did not return, an assassin would be sent to kill him. Additional rules specified ingredients used for making glass and the type of wood used as fuel for the furnaces.


title: Venetian glass

text: A law dated November 8, 1291 confined most of Venice's glassmaking industry to the "island of Murano". Murano is actually a cluster of islands linked by short bridges, located less than north of the Venetian mainland in the Venetian lagoon. The furnaces used to make molten glass were a fire hazard, especially in cities with wooden structures nearby. Moving the glassmaking industry to Murano removed the threat of a disastrous fire in Venice. The move also kept the technology of glassmaking, and the glassmakers, confined to Murano. This prevented the spread of Venetian glassmaking expertise to potential competitors. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the island without permission from the government. Leaving without permission, or revealing trade secrets, was punishable by death. Locating the industry on a single island also made it easier for the government to monitor imports and exports.


title: Venetian glass

text: Murano in the 1200s was a summer resort where the aristocrats of Venice built villas with orchards and gardens. It took about an hour to row a boat from Venice to Murano. Although the glassmakers could not leave the island, the nobles had no such constraints. Despite their travel restrictions, the glassmakers lived on a beautiful island, were under the direct rule of Venice's Council of Ten (the Venetian state-security committee), and had extra privileges. They did not work during the hot summer, during which furnace repair and maintenance was performed. During the 1300s, the annual summer vacation lasted five months. In the 1400s, the Venetian government shortened the summer vacation to three and a half months. Murano glassmakers sometimes complained they were not working enough. Glassmakers also enjoyed heightened social status. On December 22, 1376, it was announced that if a glassmaker's daughter married a nobleman, there was no forfeiture of social class, so their children were nobles.


title: Venetian glass

text: The Venetian glassmakers of Murano are known for many innovations and refinements to glassmaking. Among them are Murano beads, "cristallo", "lattimo", chandeliers, and mirrors. Additional refinements or creations are goldstone, multicolored glass (millefiori), and imitation gemstones made of glass. In addition to guarding their secret processes and glass recipes, Venetian/Murano glassmakers strived for beauty with their glass.


title: Venetian glass

text: Aventurine glass, also known as goldstone glass, is translucent brownish with metallic (copper) specks. It was developed by Venetian glassmakers in the early 15th century. It is first cited in historical documents in 1626. The name aventurine is used because it was discovered accidentally.


title: Venetian glass

text: Glass beads (a.k.a. Murano beads) were made by the Venetians beginning in the 1200s. The beads were used as rosary beads and jewelry. They were also popular in Africa. Christopher Columbus noted that the people of the New World (Native Americans) were "delighted" with the beads as gifts, and beads became popular with American Indians.


title: Venetian glass

text: "Calcedonio" is a marbled glass that looked like the semiprecious stone chalcedony. This type of glass was created during the 1400s by Angelo Barovier, who is considered Murano's greatest glassmaker. Barovier was an expert glassblower, revived enameling, and also worked with colored glass. His family had been involved with glassmaking since at least 1331, and the family continued in the business after his death. He died in 1460.


title: Venetian glass

text: During the 1700s, Giuseppe Briati was famous for his work with ornamented mirrors and chandeliers. Briati's chandelier style was called "ciocche"—literally bouquet of flowers. Briati's typical chandelier was large with multiple arms decorated with garlands, flowers and leaves. One of the common uses of the huge Murano chandeliers was interior lighting for theatres and important rooms in palaces. Briati was born in Murano in 1686, and his family's business was glassmaking. He was allowed to work in a Bohemian glass factory, where he learned the secrets of working with Bohemian crystal—which was becoming more popular than Murano "cristallo". In 1739, the Council of Ten allowed him to move his furnace from Murano to Venice because his work had caused such jealousy that he and his workers feared for their lives. (His father had been stabbed to death in 1701.) Briati retired in 1762, and his nephew became manager of the glass works. Briati died in Venice in 1772, and is buried in Murano.


title: Venetian glass

text: "Cristallo" is a soda glass, created during the 15th century by Murano's Angelo Barovier. The oldest reference to "cristallo" is dated May 24, 1453. At the time, "cristallo" was considered Europe's clearest glass, and is one of the main reasons Murano became "the most important glass center".


title: Venetian glass

text: The name arose because it looked like rock crystal or clear quartz, which had long been carved into various types of vessels and small hardstone carvings. Rock crystal was said to have magical qualities and in the Middle Ages was often used in Christian religious objects. "Cristallo" became very popular. This type of glass was fragile and difficult to cut, but it could be enameled and engraved. Manganese dioxide, a de-coloring agent, was a key ingredient in the secret formula used to make "cristallo". An easy modification to "cristallo" made in Murano was to produce a frosted or crackle version. The use of "crystal" as a marketing term for glass has continued into modern times, though for at least the last century it has normally meant lead crystal glass of the type developed by Ravenscroft. "Cristallo" could be made extremely thin, thus reducing the remaining hint of color, and the Venetians usually made clear pieces this way.


title: Venetian glass

text: The "filigrana" (a.k.a. filigree) style was developed in Murano in the 1500s. By embedding glass canes (usually white but not always) in colorless glass, the glassware has a striped appearance. "Vetro a fili" has straight white stripes, "vetro a retortoli" has twisted or spiral patterns, and "vetro a reticello" has two sets of lines twisted in opposite directions. Francesco Zeno has been mentioned as the inventor of "vetro a retortoli".


title: Venetian glass

text: "Lattimo", or milk glass, began being made in Murano during the 15th century, and Angelo Barovier is credited with its re-discovery and development. This glass is opaque white, and was meant to resemble enameled porcelain. It was often decorated with enamel showing sacred scenes or views of Venice.


title: Venetian glass

text: "Millefiori" glass is a variation of the murrine technique made from colored canes in clear glass, and is often arranged in flower-like patterns. The Italian word "millefiori" means thousand flowers. This technique was perfected in Alexandria, Egypt, and began being used in Murano in the 15th century.


title: Venetian glass

text: Small mirrors were made in Murano beginning in the 1500s, and mirror makers had their own guild beginning in 1569. Murano mirrors were known for the artwork on the frame that held the mirror in addition to their quality. By the 1600s, Murano mirrors were in great demand. However, by the end of the century, English-made mirrors had the best quality. Only one glass house in Murano was still making mirrors by 1772.


title: Venetian glass

text: Murrine technique begins with the layering of colored liquid glass, heated to , which is then stretched into long rods called canes. When cooled, these canes are then sliced in cross-sections, which reveals the layered pattern. Ercole Barovier, a descendant of Murano's greatest glassmaker Angelo Barovier, won numerous awards during the 1940s and 1950s for his innovations using the murrine technique.


title: Venetian glass

text: "Sommerso" ("submerged" in Italian), is a form of artistic Murano glass that has layers of different colors (typically two), which are formed by dipping colored glass into another molten glass and then blowing the combination into a desired shape. The outermost layer, or casing, is often clear. "Sommerso" was developed in Murano during the late 1930s. Flavio Poli was known for using this technique, and it was made popular by Seguso Vetri d'Arte and the Mandruzzato family in the 1950s. This process is a popular technique for vases, and is sometimes used for sculptures.


title: Venetian glass

text: The 16th century was the golden age for Venetian glassmaking in Murano. Major trading partners included the Spanish Indies, Italy, Spain, Ottoman Turkey, and the German-speaking states. At least 28 glassmaking furnaces were in Murano in 1581. Numerous leaders and dignitaries visited Murano during this century, including the queen of France, dukes, princes, generals, cardinals, archbishops, and ambassadors. Collectors of Murano glass included Henry VIII of England, Pope Clement VII, King Ferdinand of Hungary, Francis I of France, and Philip II of Spain.


title: Venetian glass

text: During the 16th century Murano glassmakers liberated themselves from the imitation of metalwork shapes, which had previously been their habit. Shapes became elongated and elegant, "then more elaborate and inclining to fantasy", for example in the hot-work pieces added to the sides of the stems of glasses. The glass was extremely thin, and therefore fragile, adding to the effect of luxury.


title: Venetian glass

text: In 1612 the Florentine priest Antonio Neri published "L’Arte Vetraria" ("The Art of Glass"), which revealed all the secrets of Venetian glass production to the outside world, and by the later 16th century the efforts of the Venetian Republic to hold on to its virtual monopoly in the production of luxury glass, mainly by keeping skilled workers in the republic, were beginning to fail. Other countries, often led by their monarchs, were keen to have their own fine glass industries, and tempted skilled workers away. This led to a diffusion of the Venetian style to many centres around Europe. The glass made in this movement is called façon de Venise (French for "Venetian style"); the quality is typically rather lower than the Venetian originals, partly from difficulties sourcing the right materials, and the place of manufacture is often hard to discern. Engraved glass was a part of this diffusion, and initially was especially developed in Germany.


title: Venetian glass

text: Eventually, the dominance of "cristallo" came to an end. In 1673, English glass merchant George Ravenscroft created a clear glass he called "crystalline"—but it was not stable. Three years later, he improved this glass by adding lead oxide, and lead glass (a.k.a. crystal) was created. Ravenscroft, who had lived for many years in Venice, made lead crystal that was less breakable than "cristallo". In 1674, Bohemian glassmaker Louis le Vasseur d'Ossimont (1629-1689) made crystal that was similar to Ravenscroft's. In 1678, Johan Friedrich Kunkel von Lowenstein produced a "cristallo"-like glass in Potsdam. The Bohemian and Prussian-style glass was later modified by the addition of lime and chalk. This new glass is attributed to Bohemian glassmaker Michael Müller in 1683. It had a tendency to crizzle at first, but the problem had been solved by 1714. The Bohemian glass was not suitable to the Murano-style artwork on the glass. However, this harder glass was produced as a thicker glass suitable for glass engraving and grinding. The Bohemian and English glass eventually became more popular than "cristallo" made in Murano. By the 1700s, Murano glass was traded mostly with Italian states and the Turkish empire. Small quantities were traded with England, Flanders, the Netherlands and Spain.


title: Venetian glass

text: Napoleon conquered Venice during May 1797, and the Venetian Republic came to an end. The fall of the Venetian Republic caused hard times for glassmaking in Murano, and some of the Murano methods became lost. Controlled by France and Austria, Venetian glassmaking became unprofitable because of tariffs and taxes—and glassmakers that survived were reduced to making mostly beads. Napoleon closed the Venetian glass factories in 1807, although simple glassware and beadmaking continued. In the 1830s, outsiders tried to revive the industry. However, it was not until Venice became part of Italy in 1866 that Murano glassmaking could experience a revival. Around that time, local leaders such as Abbot Vincenzo Zanetti (founder of the Murano Glass Museum), along with the Murano factory owners, began reinventing the earlier Murano techniques for making glass. Antonio Salviati, a Venetian lawyer who gave up his profession in 1859 in order to devote his time to glassmaking, also had an important role in the revival of glassmaking in Murano.


title: Venetian glass

text: From its beginning until the fall of the Venetian Republic, Murano glass was mostly a very high quality soda–lime glass (using today's terminology) that had extra attention focused on its appearance. Glass from that time typically contained 65 to 70 percent silica. A flux, usually soda (sodium oxide as 10 to 20 percent of the glass composition) was added to enable the silica to melt at a lower temperature. A stabilizer, usually lime (calcium oxide as about 10 percent of the glass) was also added for durability and to prevent solubility in water. Small quantities of other ingredients were added to the glass, mostly to affect appearance. Sand is a common source for silica. For certain types of glass, the Murano glassmakers used quartz as their source for silica. Quartz pebbles were crushed into a fine powder. Two sources for sand were Creta and Sicily. Quartz pebbles were selected from the Ticino and Adige rivers in Northern Italy. Their source for soda was what they called "allume catina"—plant ash found in the eastern Mediterranean countries of the Middle East. Beginning in the 16th century, "allume catina" was also imported from Mediterranean coastal regions of Spain and France.


title: Venetian glass

text: The mixing and melting of the batch of ingredients was a two-stage process. First, nearly equal amounts of silica and flux were continuously stirred in a special furnace. The furnace was called a "calchera" furnace, and the mix was called "fritta". In the second stage, the "fritta" was mixed with selected recycled waste glass (cullet) and melted in another furnace. Depending on the type and color of glass, other additives were used. Lead and tin were added for white opaque glass ("latimo"). Cobalt was used for blue glass. Copper and iron were used for green and for various shades of green, blue, and yellow. Manganese was used to remove colors. Although natural gas is the furnace fuel of choice for glassmaking today, the fuel mandated in Murano during the 13th century was alder and willow wood. During this second stage, the surface of the molten glass was skimmed to remove undesirable chemicals that affected the appearance of the glass. Additional techniques were used as glassmaking evolved. To improve clarity, molten glass was put in water and then re-melted. Another technique was to purify the flux by boiling and filtering.


title: Venetian glass

text: The Venetian glassmakers had a set of tools that changed little for hundreds of years. A "ferro sbuso", also called a "canna da soffio", is the blowpipe essential for extracting molten glass and beginning the shaping process. A "borselle" is a tong-like tool of various sizes used to shape glass that has not hardened. A "borselle puntata" is a similar tool, only it has a pattern that can be imprinted on the glass. A "pontello" is an iron rod that holds the glass while work is done on the edge of the glass. A "tagianti" is a large scissors used to cut glass before it has hardened. A "scagno" is the workbench used by the glassmaker. "Good tools are nice, but good hands are better", is an old Murano saying that reinforces the idea that the glassmakers of Murano rely on their skills instead of any advantage caused by special tools.


title: Venetian glass

text: Some of Venice's historical glass factories in Murano remain well known brands today, including De Biasi, Gabbiani, Venini, Salviati, Barovier & Toso, Pauly, Berengo Studio, Seguso, Formia International, Simone Cenedese, Alessandro Mandruzzato, Vetreria Ducale, Estevan Rossetto 1950 and others. The oldest glass factory is Antica Vetreria Fratelli Toso, founded in 1854.


title: Venetian glass

text: Overall, the industry has been shrinking as demand has waned. Imitation works (recognizable by experts but not by the typical tourist) from Asia and Eastern Europe take an estimated 40 to 45 percent of the market for Murano glass, and public tastes have changed while the designs in Murano have largely stayed the same. To fight the imitation problem, a group of companies and concerned individuals created a trademark in 1994 that certifies that the product was made on Murano. By 2012, about 50 companies were using the Artistic Glass Murano® trademark of origin.


title: Venetian glass

text: Glassmaking is a difficult and uncomfortable profession, as glassmakers must work with a product heated to extremely high temperatures. Unlike 500 years ago, children of glassmakers do not enjoy any special privileges, extra wealth, or marriage into nobility. Today, it is difficult to recruit young glassmakers. Foreign imitations, and difficulty attracting young workers, caused the number of professional glassmakers in Murano to decrease from about 6,000 in 1990 to fewer than 1,000 by 2012.


title: Venetian glass

text: In February 2021, Venetian glass trade beads were announced to have been found at three prehistoric Eskimo sites in Alaska, including Punyik Point. Uninhabited today, and located a mile from the Continental Divide in the Brooks Range, the area was on ancient trade routes from the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean. The researchers believed the likely route these artifacts traveled from their creation in Venice was across Europe, then Eurasia and finally over the Bering Strait, making this discovery "the first documented instance of the presence of indubitable European materials in prehistoric sites in the western hemisphere as the result of overland transport across the Eurasian continent." From radiocarbon dating materials found near the beads, archaeologists estimated their arrival on the continent to sometime between 1440 and 1480, predating Christopher Columbus. The dating and provenance has however been challenged by other researchers who point out that such beads were first made in Venice in the mid-16th century, and that an early 17th-century French origin is also possible.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: Krishna Cottage is a 2004 Indian Hindi horror film directed by Santram Varma. It was produced by the mother-daughter team of Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor, better known for producing Indian television soap operas. It starred Sohail Khan, Isha Koppikar and Anita Hassanandani in the leading roles. Upon release, it received mixed reviews and was a box office failure. However, it has become a cult classic over the years for its story and screenplay.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: The film opens at a function celebrating the launch of a book by Professor Siddharth Das (Rajendranath Zutshi). The professor donates a copy of the book to JC College. The college principal removes the book from the library and places it in an abandoned storeroom.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: A group of close college friends all attend JC College: Manav (Sohail Khan), Shanti (Anita Hassanandani), Kabir (Ali Hassan), Akshay (Hiten Tejwani), Nupur (Divya Palat) and Talli (Vrajesh Hirjee). Manav is engaged to the Shanti, who is a sweet but somewhat possessive girlfriend. Disha (Isha Koppikar), a charming girl, arrives and joins the college, and although Manav loves Shanti, he finds himself strangely drawn towards Disha. Disha gradually gets close to Manav, which perturbs Shanti. Manav explains that he feels strangely "protective" of Disha but that his real love is Shanti.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: Strange telekinetic events transpire at Manav and Shanti's engagement, one of which nearly kills Disha. When the group drives Disha home, their car breaks down and they are forced to spend the night at an old halfway house: "Krishna Cottage". The peculiar events intensify at Krishna Cottage, and two of the friends are nearly killed. Disha explains that the spirit of her dead boyfriend, Amar Khanna, is the one causing these supernatural occurrences. One day, Nupur reads Professor Siddharth Das's book and discovers that the book exposes something about Amar Khanna. Before she can reveal it, she is murdered by a mysterious force.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: Talli overhears a conversation between Professor Siddharth Das and the college principal. The professor explains that the book is jinxed and cautions that it must be destroyed. Kabir reads the book and is murdered. Shanti meets Disha's mother, who reveals Disha has been dead for 22 years. Stunned, Shanti flees and is pursued by Disha's spirit. She faints and awakens at the home of a noted medium, Sunita Menon (Rati Agnihotri). Sunita performs a seance that invokes Disha's spirit. The spirit angrily exclaims its quest for the death.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: Talli reads the book and learns that it is all about Krishna Cottage, but is murdered by Disha. Professor Das, who was in love with Disha burns the last few pages of the book and reminisces about Disha but he dies of heart attack before Manav and others could reach him . Manav discovers a body preserved in ice. The body bears an uncanny similarity to him; this brings back a flood of visions: Manav was in fact, Amar Khanna in his previous birth. He and Disha were students of JC College many years ago. Disha was madly in love with him, but he turned her down because he thought of her as a friend. Angry, Disha committed murders and tells Amar to escape (with her) as Police will frame Amar for the murder. However, later Amar found the murder weapon in Disha's car. Disha crashed the car into the side of a mountain, instantly killing them both. The professor and the principal were witnesses to Amar and Disha's death. Disha has now returned as a spirit to reclaim her lost love.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: Sunita suggests the only way to stop Disha: Manav and Shanti must be married, as this bond is too strong for a spirit to break. The wedding ceremony commences that night, and Disha's spirit attacks, throwing Sunita up, in the air and she falls down on a tree branch which impales her belly, killing her. Manav then agrees to go with Disha's spirit, but says that while the spirit may claim his body, his heart belongs to his wife Shanti. This finally appeases the spirit and liberates it. The film ends with Manav and Shanti happily married.


title: Krishna Cottage

text: The film's soundtrack contains 7 songs composed by Anu Malik and Vishal–Shekhar (for "Hameesha Tere Saath"). Lyrics were penned by Sanjay Chhel, Neelesh Mishra, Sameer and Shekhar Ravjiani. The album was released on 2 April 2004.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The Buffalo Bisons (known colloquially as the Herd) are a Minor League Baseball team of the International League and the Triple-A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays. Located in Buffalo, New York, the team plays their home games at Sahlen Field, the highest-capacity Triple-A ballpark in the United States.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The current Bisons organization was founded in 1979 and assumed the history of previous franchises that also used the Buffalo Bisons name, most notably the 1886–1970 Buffalo Bisons minor league franchise, and the 1879–1885 Buffalo Bisons major league franchise. The team established the Buffalo Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985 to honor former players, managers and contributors to baseball in Buffalo.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The team holds the all-time record for single-season attendance in Minor League Baseball, selling 1,240,951 tickets in 1991 while being considered for 1993 Major League Baseball expansion. "Forbes" valued the Buffalo Bisons at $34 million in 2016, making it the 15th-most valuable Minor League Baseball franchise.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Mayor James D. Griffin and an investment group purchased the Jersey City A's of the Double-A class Eastern League for $55,000 in 1978, and the team began play as the Buffalo Bisons at War Memorial Stadium in 1979. This new franchise assumed the history of prior Buffalo Bisons teams that had played in the city from 1877 to 1970. Robert E. Rich Jr. purchased the Bisons for $100,000 in 1983, and upgraded the team to the Triple-A class American Association in 1985 after buying out the Wichita Aeros for $1 million. Rich Jr. grew the team's popularity and was known for his innovative promotional tie-ins, most notably an annual series of post-game concerts by The Beach Boys.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The Buffalo Bisons moved to the $42.4 million Pilot Field (now Sahlen Field) in downtown Buffalo in the 1988 season. In their first year at the venue after moving from War Memorial Stadium, the Bisons broke the all-time record for Minor League Baseball attendance by drawing 1,186,651 fans during the 1988 season. The team won two division titles and set subsequent attendance records on the heels of their unsuccessful 1993 Major League Baseball expansion bid. The team's 1991 single-season attendance of 1,240,951 remains a Minor League Baseball record.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The Cleveland Indians replaced the Pittsburgh Pirates as Major League Baseball affiliate of the Buffalo Bisons prior to the 1995 season. The team won division titles in 1996 and 1997, and won the final American Association championship in 1997. Bartolo Colón threw the first no-hitter in franchise history on June 20, 1997 against the New Orleans Zephyrs.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: In wake of the American Association disbanding following the 1997 season, the Bisons joined the International League in 1998. The team won the division and league championship in their first season, but lost the Triple-A World Series. The addition of regional rivalries allowed for the creation of the Thruway Cup, an annual competition between the Buffalo Bisons, Rochester Red Wings and Syracuse SkyChiefs. The Bisons went on to win division titles in 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, and the league championship at home in 2004.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The New York Mets replaced the Cleveland Indians as Major League Baseball affiliate of the Buffalo Bisons prior to the 2009 season. This era was plagued with poor on-field performance and low attendance.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: The Toronto Blue Jays replaced the New York Mets as Major League Baseball affiliate of the Buffalo Bisons prior to the 2013 season. To kick off this era, the Bisons scored 27 runs on 29 hits against the Syracuse Chiefs on April 18, 2013, setting records for the most runs and hits in an International League game since 1973. The Blue Jays used Sahlen Field as their home field in 2020 after the Bisons season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, investing $5 million in upgrading the venue.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball and the closure of the International League, the Bisons joined the newly formed Triple-A East in 2021. Due to renovations at Sahlen Field as well as use of the stadium by the Blue Jays, the Bisons began their 2021 season at Trenton Thunder Ballpark in Trenton, New Jersey. At their home games, they wore the uniforms of the Trenton Thunder and were referred to as such while the Thunder MLB Draft League team was referred to as Draft League Thunder by the Thunder organzation; on the road, they were still known as the Buffalo Bisons while the Thunder MLB Draft League team was referred to as Trenton Thunder on the road.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Bisons Baseball Network produces all radio broadcasts of Buffalo Bisons games. Their flagship station since 2009 has been WWKB, a clear-channel station in Buffalo. Select games are simulcast on WGR in Buffalo and CJCL in Toronto. Games were previously carried by WUFO/WXRL (1983), WEBR (1984), WBEN (1985–1988) and WGR (1989–2008).


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: MiLB.TV has aired live video streams of all Buffalo Bisons games since 2013. Select games have been televised on WNLO since 2019. Games were previously televised on WNYB (1988–1989, 1996), Empire Sports Network (1991–1995, 1997–2004), Time Warner Cable SportsNet (2007–2016) and Spectrum Sports (2017).


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Pat Malacaro has served as the team's play-by-play announcer since 2018. Pete Weber served as play-by-play announcer from 1983 to 1995, and is the current play-by-play announcer for the Nashville Predators. Jim Rosenhaus served as play-by-play announcer from 1996 to 2006, and is the current play-by-play announcer for the Cleveland Guardians. Ben Wagner served as play-by-play announcer from 2007 to 2017, and is the current play-by-play announcer for the Toronto Blue Jays.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Duke McGuire has served as the team's color commentator since 1996, and previously worked as the team's in-stadium public address announcer from 1979 to 1995. John Murphy served as color commentator from 1985 to 1988, and is the current play-by-play announcer for the Buffalo Bills. Greg Brown served as color commentator from 1989 to 1993, and is the current play-by-play announcer for the Pittsburgh Pirates.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Weber, McGuire and Rosenhaus were inducted into the Buffalo Baseball Hall of Fame for their broadcast work.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Donald Palmer was an acrobatic batboy who performed for the Buffalo Bisons as "The Butcher" from 1979 to 1988.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Earl Howze, Jr. was a beer vendor who performed for the Buffalo Bisons as "The Earl of Bud" from 1979 to 1997. He was known for dancing to the song "Tequila" atop the venue's dugouts, with a routine similar to the one made famous by Paul Reubens in the 1985 film "Pee-wee's Big Adventure". The Buffalo Bisons honored him at an August 2012 game, with every fan in attendance receiving a bobblehead of his likeness. Howze, Jr. also performed for the Buffalo Sabres at Buffalo Memorial Auditorium.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Tom Girot is a beer vendor who has performed for the Buffalo Bisons as "Conehead" since 1979. The Buffalo Bisons honored him at a July 2018 game, with a beer launched in his likeness called Conehead IPA by Resurgence Brewing Company. Girot has also performed for the Rochester Red Wings at Frontier Field and the Toronto Blue Jays at Sahlen Field.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Buster T. Bison has been the official mascot of the Buffalo Bisons since 1983. He was later joined by his cousin Chip in 1994, and his future wife Belle in 2006.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Tracey B. Wilson was an actress who performed for the Buffalo Bisons as the mime "Loud Mouth" from 1993 to 1999.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Buffalo Bisons games since 2011 have featured the Wing, Cheese & Carrot (WCC) mascot race between costumed representations of various local foods just prior to the sixth-inning.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: "Stampede" has been the official fight song of the Buffalo Bisons since their inaugural season at Sahlen Field in 1988.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: Tina Turner's recording of "The Best" is played after every Buffalo Bisons home victory at Sahlen Field.


title: Buffalo Bisons

text: A parody of the Gary Glitter song "Rock and Roll Part 2" featuring lyrics referencing Irv Weinstein was played at Sahlen Field during the seventh-inning stretch of Buffalo Bisons games in the 1990s.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Watertown is a city in, and the county seat of, Jefferson County, New York, United States. It is approximately south of the Thousand Islands, along the Black River about east of where it flows into Lake Ontario. The city is bordered by the town of Watertown to the south, east, and west, and is served by the Watertown International Airport and the "Watertown Daily Times" newspaper. In the middle of Watertown lies the Public Square Historic District, which was built in 1805 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1984. Watertown is located southwest of the U.S. Army base at Fort Drum; it is the service and shopping destination for personnel there and their families. As of the 2020 United States Census, the city has 24,685 residents.


title: Watertown, New York

text: The area was first surveyed in 1796, and was settled in March 1800 due to the abundant hydropower the Black River provided. The city was designated as the county seat of Jefferson County when it was split off from Oneida County in 1805. Watertown was incorporated as a village in 1816, and became a city in 1869. By then, it was booming as an industrial center for Upstate New York. By the early 20th century the city was said to have more millionaires per capita than any other city in the nation. During the mid 1960s, Chicago attracted many of the younger residents from the area along with their businesses, leading to the demolition of many historic buildings and a steady decline in population. By 2000, the city had lost over 7,000 residents.


title: Watertown, New York

text: The city serves as the commercial and financial center for a large rural area. Located from the Canadian border, shopping by Canadian visitors is important to Watertown's economy. The city also receives numerous tourists and summer residents. Watertown, South Dakota, was named in the city's honor.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Watertown got its name from straddling the Black River. It is unknown which settler chose it, but it is commonly believed to have been a consensus choice in order to attract mills. By 1850, mills manufacturing different products, powered by the Black river, were being built throughout Watertown.


title: Watertown, New York

text: In 1791, New York City resident Alexander Macomb purchased the land of Jefferson, Lewis, St. Lawrence and Oswego county. He sent out multiple surveyors to sell the land to passing settlers. The area of Watertown was first surveyed in 1796 by Benjamin Wright, who was employed by Macomb to survey the northern and central portions of New York State. Wright made the following statement about the land after returning:


title: Watertown, New York

text: In 1798, pioneers Hart Massey, Henry Coffeen, and Zachariah Butterfield built cabins in what is now the Public Square area as part of a large migration into New York from New England after the Revolutionary War. The land was very uneven territory and was leveled out in one of the first landfill projects in the United States. The area was taken from the nearby town of Mexico in 1800.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Coffeen then moved his family into Watertown. He and the other pioneers chose the area due to the Black River, which flowed west into Lake Ontario about away. Their vision was for an industrial center that would draw power from the river. In 1805, settlers cleared the center of town to create Public Square. During the 19th century, several significant buildings were built around it. The area has been designated as a historic district, listed on the . Watertown was designated as the seat of Jefferson County after it was split from Oneida County. At that time, Watertown was one of the least populated places in the county.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Due to its proximity to Lake Ontario, Watertown became a popular location for transporting supplies into Canada, which helped its economy. As industry and businesses flourished, successful residents built substantial retail buildings, churches, and private residences close to the square. After the Embargo Act of 1807 was passed which prohibited trade with Britain and France, which at the time included Canada. The economy suffered as a result and eventually led to smuggling materials into Canada, leading to the War of 1812. During the Civil War, the 35th New York Infantry Regiment began in Watertown.


title: Watertown, New York

text: The Paddock Arcade, built in 1850 according to European and US models, is the oldest continuously operating enclosed mall in the United States. It is also listed on the National Register, as are several mansions and churches, such as the Emma Flower Taylor Mansion and the Trinity Episcopal Church. The drops in the Black at Watertown's location— in the center of town, and over —provided abundant water power for early industry.


title: Watertown, New York

text: By the mid-19th century, entrepreneurs had built paper mills and major industries, including one to manufacture the first portable steam engine in 1847. In the late 1940s Watertown saw an influx in population from Irish migration into the area during the famine. In 1849 a fire began in the public square that destroyed most of the surrounding buildings. In 1851, the city was joined to Albany, Syracuse, and Rochester as well as other major cities of the state with the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad. Other mills were added to the business base, generating revenue to support the city's early public works projects, such as the water system and illuminating gas works in 1853, and a telephone system in 1879.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Watertown claims that Rodman native Frank W. Woolworth conceived the idea of his eponymous mercantile chain while working here in 1878. Woolworth, then employed as a clerk in Moore's Store, set up a successful clearance display of low-priced items. This led to his idea of a store specializing in fixed-price, cut-rate merchandise. Woolworth left Watertown and opened his first store in 1879 in Utica. Among the many manufacturing businesses was the Davis Sewing Machine Company, which originated in Watertown. It was the predecessor to George P. Huffman's Huffy Corporation, now a maker of bicycles and other sporting goods.


title: Watertown, New York

text: In the late 1890s, many new factories and industries were established, increasing the population by over 17,000 in the span of 30 years. The city gained a reputation for gambling and prostitution. Watertown also developed an educated professional class of doctors and lawyers. The economic center of the country kept moving west following the development of the frontier and a shift of population into the Midwest. In 1920, the city adopted a city manager-style of government.


title: Watertown, New York

text: After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, many stores shut down and laid off a considerable amount of their workforce, leading to economic hardships until World War II, when Watertown's industries switched from consumer products to war materiel, revitalizing the economy.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Little Trees were developed in Watertown in 1951; the Car-Freshner Corporation headquarters and manufacturing plant is located in the city. In the 1960s and 1970s, Watertown began a large de-industrialization which destroyed many historic buildings, such as the Hotel Woodruff and old courthouse. Watertown suffered economic and population declines. As Chicago boomed, it attracted many of the younger people from upstate New York for its business and professional opportunities. By the 1980s, unemployment in the area was up 20 percent.


title: Watertown, New York

text: In the 21st century, the city serves as a hub for a large rural area. In 2006, the city began a $7.4 million project that restored multiple buildings as well as fixing roads and walkways. The city completed this project in 2008, although more fixes are planned. In early 2019, Watertown was named "The Least Politically Prejudiced Place in America" by Amanda Ripley.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Watertown is around northwest of Syracuse, south of the Thousand Islands and northwest of New York City. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and (3.45 percent) is water. Before the area was settled, all the land was rough and forested. Elevation was also a problem. The Black River, flowing westward through the city toward Lake Ontario, is a world-renowned kayaking destination. Competition-level kayaking events, such as the Blackwater Challenge, have been held on the river.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Watertown has a humid continental climate or hemiboreal climate(Köppen: "Dfb"), with cold, snowy winters and an atypical autumn maximum precipitation regime, this being far more common in areas on the west coasts of landmasses. Unless otherwise noted, all figures cited below are from the GHCN station located closer to downtown.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Winters can be very cold: temperatures remain at or below the freezing mark on an average of 54 days annually, and fall to or below on an average 20 nights. Moreover, Watertown is located in plant hardiness zone 4b, which means that the temperature is likely to drop below at least once a year.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Summers are mild to warm, and temperatures of or above on average occur on only 3.1 days annually. Record temperatures range from a low of on December 29, 1933, up to highs of on July 20 and 27, 1894, although those at the airport have dropped as low as on January 16, 1994.


title: Watertown, New York

text: Precipitation averages , and is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, with slightly more during autumn and slightly less during spring and late winter. Since Watertown is situated near the eastern edge of Lake Ontario, it receives much lake-effect snow, averaging of snowfall in the winter.


title: Watertown, New York

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 26,705 people, 11,036 households, and 6,500 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 12,450 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 89.13 percent White, 4.95 percent Black or African American, 0.54 percent Native American, 1.16 percent Asian, 0.11 percent Pacific Islander, 1.67 percent from other races, and 2.45 percent from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 3.59 percent of the population.


title: Watertown, New York

text: In 2009, the population was estimated at 27,489. There were 11,036 households, out of which 31.9 percent had residents under the age of 18 living with them, 40.7 percent were married couples living together, 14.2 percent had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.1 percent were non-families. 34.5 percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.99. In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.9 percent under the age of 18, 10.4 percent from 18 to 24, 29.6 percent from 25 to 44, 18.5 percent from 45 to 64, and 15.5 percent who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.1 males.


title: Watertown, New York

text: The median income for a household in the city was $28,429, and the median income for a family was $36,115. Males had a median income of $31,068 versus $21,294 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,354. About 14.4 percent of families and 19.3 percent of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.2 percent of those under age 18 and 11.8 percent of those aged 65 or over.


title: Watertown, New York

text: As of the 2010 US Census, there were 27,023 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the village was 86.25 percent White, 6.04 percent African American, 0.58 percent Native American, 1.83 percent Asian, 0.18 percent Pacific Islander, 1.33 percent from other races, and 3.79 percent from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 5.59 percent of the population.


title: Watertown, New York

text: As of the 2020 US Census, there were 24,685 people with 7.9 percent of residents being under the age of 5, 23.5 percent under 18, and 12.9 percent being over the age of 65, with 49.5 percent of residents being female and 50.5 percent being male. There were 10,867 households with 43.3 percent of the houses being made up of individuals. The population density was 2,996.0 per square mile (4821.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 83.8 percent White, 8.5 percent Black or African American, 1.0 percent Native American, 1.5 percent Asian, 7.8 percent Hispanic or Latino, 0.1 percent Pacific Islander, or 4.4 percent of two or more races.


title: Watertown, New York

text: During the 2020 US Census the median price for owner-occupied housing units was $133,400, with the median income for a household being $40,253. Because the city is located from the Canada–United States border via the Thousand Islands Bridge, shopping by Canadian visitors is an important part of the local economy. In the 1980s, unemployment in the area was up 20 percent, and property values rapidly decreased. After Fort Drum was established, Watertown's industry shifted from industrial to consumer products.


title: Watertown, New York

text: The city contains Factory Square, of factories that were once powered by the Black River. In the 1880s and 1890s, many new factories were established, which began an economic boom. In 1900 3,760 workers were employed in the factories. Immediately adjacent to the factories and river was a prominent saloon district, which became a common location for scams, and the "Watertown Daily Times" often referenced workers being scammed by "tinhorn gamblers and short-card men".


title: Watertown, New York

text: In fall 2019, the city began a revitalization program for Sewall's Island and Factory Square in hopes of attracting new investments, businesses, and identifying transformational projects in the area. The city was awarded a Strategic Planning and Feasibility Studies grant from the New York Department of State to pay for the plan.