title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Kierkegaardian scholars have made several interpretations of how Kierkegaard proceeds with parodying Hegel's dialectic. One of the more popular interpretations argues the aesthetic-ethical-religious stages are the triadic process Kierkegaard was talking about. See section "Spheres of existence" for more information. Another interpretation argues for the world-individual-will triadic process. The dialectic here is either to assert an individual's own desire to be independent and the desire to be part of a community. Instead of reconciliation of the world and the individual where problems between the individual and society are neatly resolved in the Hegelian system, Kierkegaard argues that there's a delicate bond holding the interaction between them together, which needs to be constantly reaffirmed. Jean-Paul Sartre takes this latter view and says the individual is in a constant state of reaffirming his or her own identity, else one falls into bad faith.


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: This process of reconciliation leads to a "both/and" view of life, where both thesis and antithesis are resolved into a synthesis, which negates the importance of personal responsibility and the human choice of either/or. The work "Either/Or" is a response to this aspect of Hegel's philosophy. A passage from that work exemplifies Kierkegaard's contempt for Hegel's philosophy. Note the comparison between "A" and "B" (Judge Vilhelm) in "Either/Or" and "Stages on Life's Way".


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: The whole idea of one generation spending all its time studying past generations and then the next generation spending their time studying past generations and making moral and social comments about preceding generations was called, "The Hegelian cud-chewing process with three-stomachs—first immediacy—then regurgitation—then down again." He said, "Maybe a succeeding master-mind could continue this with four stomachs, etc., down once more and up again. I don't know if the master-mind grasps what I mean."


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: In 1841–1842, Kierkegaard attended the Berlin lectures of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. Schelling was a critic of Georg Hegel and a professor at the University of Berlin. The university started a lecture series given by Schelling in order to espouse a type of positive philosophy which would be diametrically opposed to Hegelianism. Kierkegaard was initially delighted with Schelling. Before he left Copenhagen to attend Schelling's lectures in Berlin, he wrote to his friend Peter Johannes Sprang:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: At Berlin, Kierkegaard gave high praises to Schelling. In a journal entry made sometime around October or November 1841, Kierkegaard wrote this piece about Schelling's second lecture:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: As time went on, however, Kierkegaard, as well as many in Schelling's audience, began to become disillusioned with Schelling. In a particularly insulting letter about Schelling, Kierkegaard wrote to his brother, Peter Kierkegaard:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Kierkegaard became disillusioned with Schelling partly because Schelling shifted his focus on actuality, including a discussion on "quid sit" [what is] and "quod sit" [that is], to a more mythological, psychic-type pseudo-philosophy. Kierkegaard's last writing about Schelling's lectures was on 4 February 1842. He wrote the following in 1844:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Although Schelling had little influence on Kierkegaard's subsequent writings, Kierkegaard's trip to Berlin provided him ample time to work on his masterpiece, "Either/Or". In a reflection about Schelling in 1849, Kierkegaard remarked that Schelling was "like the Rhine at its mouth where it became stagnant water—he was degenerating into a Prussian 'Excellency'." (Journals, January 1849)


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Kierkegaard became acquainted with Arthur Schopenhauer's writings quite late in his life. Kierkegaard felt Schopenhauer was an important writer, but disagreed on almost every point Schopenhauer made. In several journal entries made in 1854, a year before he died, Kierkegaard spoke highly of Schopenhauer:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Kierkegaard believes Schopenhauer's ethical point of view is that the individual succeeds in seeing through the wretchedness of existence and then decides to deaden or mortify the joy of life. As a result of this complete asceticism, one reaches contemplation: the individual does this out of sympathy. He sympathizes with all the misery and the misery of others, which is to exist. Kierkegaard here is probably referring to the pessimistic nature of Schopenhauer's philosophy. One of Kierkegaard's main concerns is a suspicion of his whole philosophy:


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Little else is known about Kierkegaard's attitude to Schopenhauer. On Schopenhauer himself, Kierkegaard felt that Schopenhauer would have been patronizing. "Schopenhauer interests me very much, as does his fate in Germany. If I could talk to him I am sure he would shudder or laugh if I were to show him [my philosophy]." (Journals, 1854)


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Because Kierkegaard read Schopenhauer, and because Schopenhauer was heavily influenced by Eastern philosophy, it would seem that Kierkegaard would have shown an awareness of Eastern philosophy. There is, however, little direct reference to Asian thought in Kierkegaard's writings. Anyone who is familiar with such Asian traditions as Buddhist, Taoist, or Shinto philosophy, will quickly see the philosophical similarities that Kierkegaard shares with these traditions. These similarities perhaps explain the Japanese reception of Kierkegaard and the fact that Japanese awareness and translations of Kierkegaard were appearing at least 30 years before any English translations. There is also extensive Japanese scholarship on Kierkegaard, a scholarship that interprets Kierkegaard's philosophy in terms of Asian thought. This interpretation is understandable when one sees that Kierkegaard's central concerns of subjectivity, anxiety, freedom, despair, and self-deception, are also of central concern to Buddhism and, consequently, that there is nothing exclusively Christian about such concerns. Both Kierkegaard and Zen Buddhism, for example, have seen the predicaments of existence in very similar ways. A specific example of the similarities here can be seen in "Purity of Heart" where Kierkegaard describes the state of awareness that one must enter in order to partake of confession. Kierkegaard's description of this state is similar to the state of meditation described by Buddhist philosophers. It is distinct, however, in that the aim of confession, for Kierkegaard, is "to center itself upon this relation to itself as an individual who is responsible to God" (cf. Kierkegaard, "Purity of Heart"). Kierkegaard aims to claim back the subject from the "crowd" mentality of Christendom (cf. Kierkegaard, "On the Dedication to 'That Single Individual' ") and reaffirm the absolute responsibility to God, which is our telos (cf. Kierkegaard, "Fear and Trembling").


title: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

text: Harald Hoffding (1843–1931) helped introduce Kierkegaard to Western Europe in the early years of the 20th century. He compared Kierkegaard to Eastern philosophy in his 1914 book "The Philosophy Of Religion" in this way:


title: Garbage truck

text: A garbage truck is a truck specially designed to collect municipal solid waste and transport it to a solid waste treatment facility, such as a landfill, recycling center or transfer station. In Australia they are commonly called rubbish trucks, or garbage trucks, while in the U.K. dustbin lorry or bin lorry is commonly used. Other common names for this type of truck include trash truck in the United States, and refuse truck, dustcart, junk truck, bin wagon or bin van elsewhere. Technical names include waste collection vehicle and refuse collection vehicle (RCV). These trucks are a common sight in most urban areas.


title: Garbage truck

text: Wagons and other means had been used for centuries to haul away solid waste. Among the first self-propelled garbage trucks were those ordered by Chiswick District Council from the Thornycroft Steam Wagon and Carriage Company in 1897 described as a steam motor tip-car, a new design of body specific for "the collection of dust and house refuse".


title: Garbage truck

text: The 1920s saw the first open-topped trucks being used, but due to foul odors and waste falling from the back, covered vehicles soon became more common. These covered trucks were first introduced in more densely populated Europe and then in North America, but were soon used worldwide.


title: Garbage truck

text: The main difficulty was that the waste collectors needed to lift the waste to shoulder height. The first technique developed in the late 1920s to solve this problem was to build round compartments with corkscrews that would lift the load and bring it away from the rear. A more efficient model was the development of the hopper in 1929. It used a cable system that could pull waste into the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: In 1937, George Dempster invented the "Dempster-Dumpster" system in which wheeled waste containers were mechanically tipped into the truck. His containers were known as Dumpsters, which led to the word dumpster entering the language.


title: Garbage truck

text: In 1938, the Garwood Load Packer revolutionized the industry when including a compactor in the truck was implemented. The first compactor could double a truck's capacity. This was made possible by use of a hydraulic press which periodically compacted the contents of the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: In 1955 the Dempster Dumpmaster, the first front loader, was introduced. They didn't become common until the 1970s. The 1970s also saw the introduction of smaller dumpsters, often known as wheelie bins, which were also emptied mechanically. Since that time there has been little dramatic change, although there have been various improvements to the compaction mechanisms to improve payload. In the mid-1970s Petersen Industries introduced the first grapple truck for municipal waste collection.


title: Garbage truck

text: In 1969, the city of Scottsdale, Arizona introduced the world's first automated side loader. The new truck could collect 300 gallon containers in 30 second cycles, without the driver exiting the cab.


title: Garbage truck

text: In 1997, Lee Rathbun introduced the "Lightning Rear Steer System". This system includes an elevated, rear-facing cab for both driving the truck and operating the loader. This configuration allows the operator to follow behind haul trucks and load continuously.


title: Garbage truck

text: Front loaders generally service commercial and industrial businesses using large waste containers with lids known as Dumpsters in the US. The truck is equipped with powered forks on the front which the driver carefully aligns with sleeves on the waste container using a joystick or a set of levers. The waste container is then lifted over the truck. Once it gets to the top the container is then flipped upside down and the waste or recyclable material is emptied into the vehicle's hopper. Once the waste is dumped, it is compacted by a hydraulically powered moving wall that oscillates backwards and forwards to push the waste to the rear of the vehicle.


title: Garbage truck

text: Most of the newer packing trucks have "pack-on-the-go hydraulics" which lets the driver pack loads while driving, allowing faster route times. When the body is full, the compaction wall moves all the way to the rear of the body, ejecting it via an open tailgate. There is also a system called the Curotto Can which is an attachment for a front loader that has an automated arm that functions as an automated side loader that allows the driver to dump carts.


title: Garbage truck

text: Rear loaders have an opening into a trough or hopper at the rear that a waste collector can throw waste bags or empty the contents of bins into. Often in many areas they have a lifting mechanism to automatically empty large carts without the operator having to lift the waste by hand.


title: Garbage truck

text: Another popular system for the rear loader is a rear load container specially built to fit a groove in the truck. The truck will have a chain or cable system for upending the container. The waste will then slide into the hopper of the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: The modern rear loader usually compacts the waste using a hydraulically powered mechanism that employs a moving plate or shovel to scoop the waste out from the loading hopper and compress it against a moving wall. In most compactor designs, the plate has a pointed edge (hence giving it the industry standard name "packer blade") which is designed to apply point pressure to the waste to break down bulky items in the hopper before being drawn into the main body of the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: Compactor designs have been many and varied, however the two most popular in use today are the "sweep and slide" system (first pioneered on the Leach 2R Packmaster), where the packer blade pivots on a moving carriage which slides back and forth in large tracks fabricated into the body sides, and the "swing link" system (such as the Dempster Routechief) where the blade literally swings on a "pendulum"-style mechanism consisting of links which control the arc of the blade's movement. The Geesink GPM series uses a pivoting packer blade which swings on an inverted U-shaped frame which lowers the blade into the hopper, where it sweeps the waste out; the frame then retracts back into the body to perform the compaction action. The Heil Colectomatic is a hybrid between the two philosophies- it used a combination of a lifting loading hopper and a pivoting sweeper blade to clear and compact waste in anticipation of the next load.


title: Garbage truck

text: So-called "continuous" compactors were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. The German Shark design (later Rotopress) used a huge rotating drum fitted with spiral shaped paddles to draw waste in, and force it around an auger of decreasing pitch to compress it. SEMAT-Rey of France pioneered the rotating rake system (also used in the British Shelvoke and Drewry Revopak) to simultaneously shred and compress the waste as it is loaded. Other systems used a continuously rotating Archimedes' screw to draw in waste and mutilate it inside the body. A mixture of safety concerns, and higher fuel consumption has seen a decline in the popularity of continuously compacting garbage trucks, with only the Rotopress design remaining in production due to its niche in being able to effectively deal with green waste for composting.


title: Garbage truck

text: A unique rear-loading system involves a rear loader and a front-loading tractor (usually a Caterpillar front loader with a Tink Claw) for yard waste collection (and in some cities, garbage and recycling). The front loader picks up yard waste set in the street, and then loaded into the back of a rear loader. This system is used in several cities, including San Jose.


title: Garbage truck

text: Side loaders are loaded from the side, either manually, or with the assistance of a joystick-controlled robotic arm with a claw, used to automatically lift and tip wheeled bins into the truck's hopper.


title: Garbage truck

text: Manual side loaders (MSLs) feature a hopper in front of the body, similar to front loaders. Unlike front loaders, the actual hopper is very short, and sometimes is lower than the body, in order for the operator to dump the waste into the hopper. This also results in longer times for packing loads compared to rear loaders, although this can be offset by the time bringing waste to the truck. On some (but not all) vehicle models the hopper can be accessed from both sides, allowing two persons to collect waste from both sides of the street simultaneously and increasing vehicle efficiency.


title: Garbage truck

text: Lift-equipped trucks are referred to as automated side loaders (ASLs). Similar to a front-end loader, the waste is compacted by an oscillating packer plate at the front of the loading hopper which forces the waste through an aperture into the main body and is therefore compacted towards the rear of the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: An automated side loader only needs one operator, whereas a traditional rear load garbage truck may require two or three people, and has the additional advantage of reducing on the job injuries due to repetitive heavy lifting. Due to these advantages, ASLs have become more popular than traditional manual collection. Typically an automated side loader uses standardized wheeled carts compatible with the truck's automated lift.


title: Garbage truck

text: As with front loaders, the compaction mechanism comprises a metal pusher plate in the collection hopper which oscillates backwards and forwards under hydraulic pressure, pushing the refuse through an aperture, thus compacting it against the material already loaded. On some ASLs there is also a "folding" crusher plate positioned above the opening in the hopper, that folds down to crush bulky items within reach of the metal pusher plate. Another compactor design is the "paddle packer" which uses a paddle that rotates from side to side, forcing refuse into the body of the truck.


title: Garbage truck

text: Manual/Automated side loaders (M/ASLs), are traditional MSLs equipped with an arm for automated collection, as well as continuously running packers. This allows for functionally identical to that of an ASL, while allowing for manual dumping of waste into hopper in instances where automated collection is not feasible, such as the collection of oversized items. In addition, M/ASLs provide a cheaper upgrade path for those who wish to keep preexisting MSLs for automated collection without paying for newer and more expensive ASLs.


title: Garbage truck

text: Semi-automated side loaders are MSLs that are equipped with an automated mechanism to lift and dump manually aligned waste containers into the hopper. The primary difference between semi-automated side loaders and ASLs is that while they still only need one person to operate, he or she must exit the cab to manually bring and align containers to the loading hopper on the side of the truck and dump them.


title: Garbage truck

text: Pneumatic collection trucks have a crane with a tube and a mouthpiece that fits in a hole, usually hidden under a plate under the street. From here it will suck up waste from an underground installation. The system usually allows the driver to "pick up" the waste, even if the access is blocked by cars, snow or other barriers.


title: Garbage truck

text: Grapple trucks enable the collection of bulk waste. A large percentage of items in the solid waste stream are too large or too heavy to be safely lifted by hand into traditional garbage trucks. These items (furniture, large appliances, branches, logs) are called bulky waste or "oversized." The preferred method for collecting these items is with a grapple truck. Grapple trucks have hydraulic knucklebooms, tipped with a clamshell bucket, and usually include a dump body or trailer.


title: Garbage truck

text: Roll-offs are characterized by a rectangular footprint, utilizing wheels to facilitate rolling the dumpster in place. The container is designed to be transported by special roll-off trucks. They are relatively efficient for bulk loads of waste or extremely heavy loads of construction or demolition debris.


title: Garbage truck

text: A bin tipper is a machine which mechanically lifts and inverts bins for the purpose of emptying them. They are often components of larger machines such as garbage trucks, or can be 'standalone' or mobile units. Bin tippers usually have a steel frame, guarding and cradle, with a motor or crank-handle driving a lifting mechanism, which may be hydraulic or chain operated. Bins are placed into the machine, then lifted and inverted over the destination receptacle, allowing the contents to be emptied by gravity.


title: Garbage truck

text: A side-load bin tipper was fitted to a garbage truck as early as 1929, by the Heil company in America. In the 1950s the Dempster Dumpmaster popularized the front-end loader variant, with bins being tipped over the cab of the truck. Both types of integrated bin tipper are now common on municipal refuse collection trucks. Standalone bin tippers developed later, with the release of a machine called the Simpro Ezi-Dump in 1990.


title: Garbage truck

text: The use of bin tippers and other lifting aids has been stimulated in recent years by research linking heavy manual lifting with musculoskeletal disorders; some government organisations, schools and companies now prohibit emptying bins by hand. Health and safety concerns have also driven the adoption of bin tippers in the manufacturing, food-processing and construction industries.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: Angst (English: "Fear") is a 1983 Austrian horror film directed by Gerald Kargl, who co-wrote the screenplay with cinematographer and editor Zbigniew Rybczyński. It follows a psychopath recently released from prison and is loosely based on real-life mass murderer Werner Kniesek. Though relatively obscure, the film was acclaimed for its camera work, score, and Erwin Leder's performance. It was banned all over Europe for extreme violence in 1983.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: An unnamed serial killer is eager to kill again following his release from prison, driven by a desire to see the fear in the eyes of his victims. He stops by a diner, where he is tempted to attack two girls sitting at the counter but is unable to act on this inclination in public. In a taxi afterwards, he prepares to kill the female driver but is forced to flee when the driver becomes suspicious and stops the car. The killer comes across a house during his escape and breaks in. Inside, he finds an intellectually disabled man who uses a wheelchair. He mistakes the killer for his own father. Soon, the man's mother and sister arrive at the house, and the killer hides before eventually attacking them, taping the daughter to a doorknob and strangling the mother. He ties up the mother before dragging the son to the upstairs bathroom and drowning him in the bathtub.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: The killer then returns downstairs to find that the mother is dead or near death. The daughter pleads with the killer to give her mother her medication; the killer complies, wishing to prevent the mother from dying before what he had planned. His attempts to revive her are futile and he pushes the wheelchair she is in into a wall in a rage.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: The killer finds the daughter attempting to escape and chases her down. He stabs her to death, drinks her blood, and vomits on her (the blood having acted as an emetic). He wakes up on her body the following morning, partially undressed and covered in blood. He decides to leave in the family's car and take the bodies with him in the trunk, intending to show the bodies to his new victims to frighten them (he also brings the family's dog, alive, in the passenger seat). The killer rear-ends another car during his frantic escape, and there are several witnesses to the incident.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: He returns to the diner, the same patrons from earlier there once again, and as he feeds the dog, he is apprehended by the police, who ask for his registration. He then willingly opens the trunk of the car, reveling in the fear the sight of the bodies causes in the onlookers. The film ends as a voice-over of a medical record declares that the killer was driven by a sadistic tendency caused by his unstable childhood.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: In 2012, "Angst" was released on Blu-ray in France under the title of "Schizophrenia". In 2015, American distributor Cult Epics released the film on Blu-ray, DVD, and digitally, as well as giving the film a limited theatrical re-release in the United States.


title: Angst (1983 film)

text: Dennis Schwartz from "Ozus' World Movie Reviews" gave the film a grade of A−, commending the film's cinematography, score, and Leder's performance. Schwartz concluded his review by stating that the film "artfully generates terror and revulsion, as we get into the foul deeds and dark visions of such a repulsive sicko." Nicholas Bell from "IONCINEMA.com" also commended the cinematography, stating that the camera is "either placed in close proximity to Leder as he runs, kills, and gnashes his teeth, or swooping like a bird of prey as it circles architectures and landscapes from dizzying heights and complex pans." Meagan Navarro from Bloody Disgusting praised the film, stating that the film "makes even "" look somewhat tame." Ryan Lambert from "Please Unplug Me" complimented the film's screenplay written from the perspective of Leder's psychopath, stating that the writing makes "the audience complicit in his crimes by placing us inside his mind, hearing a total lack of remorse or rehabilitation."


title: Bhagalpur

text: Bhagalpur is a city in the Indian state of Bihar, situated on the southern banks of the river Ganges. It is the 2nd largest city of Bihar by population and also the headquarters of Bhagalpur district and Bhagalpur division. Known as the Silk City, it is a major educational, commercial, and political center, and listed for development under the Smart City program, a joint venture between Government and industry. The Gangetic plains surrounding the city are very fertile and the main crops include rice, wheat, maize, barley, and oilseeds. The river is home to the Gangetic dolphin, the "National Aquatic Animal of India", and the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary is established near the town. The city holds the largest Manasa Puja and one of the largest processions in Kali Puja, an intangible cultural heritage of the region.


title: Bhagalpur

text: As of the 2011 India census, the Bhagalpur Urban Agglomeration has a population of 410,210, of which 218,284 were males and 191,926 were females. It is the 3rd largest city in Bihar in terms of urban population. the total population in the age group of 0 to 6 years is 55,898. The total number of literates are 286,125, with 160,720 males and 125,405 females. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population is 80.76%, of which while the male literacy rate is 84.95% with women at 75.95%.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Greater adjutant ("Leptoptilos dubius"), a member of the stork family, associated with the mythical bird Garuda, has a Rescue and Rehabilitation Area located in Bhagalpur, the second largest of its kind. Loss of nesting habitat and feeding sites through drainage, pollution and disturbance, together with hunting and egg collection, caused a massive dip in the population of the species. Garuda birds were first spotted nesting and breeding on a silk cotton tree near a village in the Ganga-Diara area in Bhagalpur in 2007. In May 2006, 42 birds were seen by the Mandar Nature Club team for the first time. Prior to this, the species had never been seen in Bihar during its breeding period. Four years after these endangered birds of the stork family started nesting and breeding in Bhagalpur district, their number eventually increased, from 78 to over 500, making Bhagalpur one of only three places to host Garudas; the others being Cambodia and Assam.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The greater adjutant is classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List 2004 of threatened species and listed under Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. This huge stork has a naked pink head, a very thick yellow bill and a low-hanging neck pouch. The neck ruff is white. The bird looks like a vulture. Other than the pale grey edge on each wing, the rest of the greater adjutant's body is dark grey. Younglings have a narrower bill, thicker down on the head and neck, and entirely dark wings. A Garuda bird measures 145–150 cm (about three feet) in length and four to five feet in height.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The strech of 50kms from Sultanganj to Kahalgaon is considered as the abode of Dolphins in Bhagalpur. Gangetic River Dolphin is the National Aquatic Animal of India, and the government has initiated to put up a research centre in the city. In Angika language, locals call it "Souns". The best time to visit and see Dolphins is between September to February.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Kali Puja is one of the most important festivals in and around the region. Several Kali Temples and Puja Mandaps are decked up on Deepawali to worship Kalika. The procession after the Puja is so long that it takes 36 hours to complete one big phase of Murti Bisarjan. Kali Puja holds the cultural significance of the Anga Region. The procession after the Puja is the intangible cultural asset to the city.


title: Bhagalpur

text: In medieval Bengali literature, Mansamangal sings the tale of Mansa and Behula. Mansa is popular known as Bishari and Padma in the Angika-speaking belt. In the period from the thirteenth to the eighteenth century, many works based on this story were made. The religious purpose of these works was to render the importance of Mansa Mansa Devi, but these works are more known for the pious love of Behula (nicknamed Bari) and her husband Lakhander(Lakhindar or Lokhai, nicknamed Bala). This is the story of Bihula-Bishhari from capital of Angdesh Champanogori (Now in Bhagalpur district called as Champanagar). However, this is not just a methological story, the evidence of the metal house or "Loha Bashor Ghor" (The word 'Bashor' in Angika refers to the room where bride and groom spends their first wedding night together) created by lord Bishwakarma on the request of Chandradhar Saudagar for Behula and her husband Lakhender to protect from snake bite is still been seen and reported when there is heavy rain in the region.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Nonetheless, Mansa is the prime deity of the region and is known as the "Adhishthatri Bhagwati of Anga". She is referred as the Goddess who saves from snake bites and poison. Mansa is the daughter of Shiva and is born out of Lotus flower, and thus named "Padma or Paddawati". The five Mansa sisters are named chronologically as Jaya Bishari, Dutila Bhawani, Padma Kumari, Aadi Kusmin and Mayna Bishari". Along with Mansa sisters, Netula Dhobin or Netai Dhubuni is also worshipped in the Puja altar. Netula or Netai is the known to take Behula to the heaven and Dhubri District in Assam still sings the folk of Netula, where she belonged, being the worshipper of Goddess Kamakhaya. Mansa in Mahabharat is named as "Jaratkaru" and is worshipped to the saint of the same name and is thus known as "Jaratkaru Rishing Patni". She is the mother of Astik Muni. The city of Bhagalpur and it's adjoining areas celebrates the largest Mansa Puja in the country. "Bishari mela" or the local fair is arranged from "16th to 19th August" every year on the Singh nakshatra of Shravan Sankranti. In the honour of Behula, locals offer Manjusha Art to the goddess, which is the local art of the region, which has got its GI tag. The Manjusha Art is full fledgedly based on the tales of Behula and Mansa. Apart from this, locals sing "Behula-Bishari folksong" and perform "Jatra or Natak" (drama) to praise the Goddess and narrates the sacrifice of Behula to honor her.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Spread over three acres Budhanath temple is located on the banks of the Uttarvahini Ganga (flowing from south to north) River. Being one of the oldest temples in the region, it witnesses influx of devotees throughout the year. It is about twenty minutes from the main town. Reference of Baba Budhanath can be found in Shiva Purana as Baba Bal Vridheshwarnath. Also, this name has been stated in the first segment of the eighth segments of Shiva Purana. The lingam of this place of worship is self-incarnated nevertheless as to when it came into being is still unknown. Idol of Ma Bhavani can be seen beside the Shivalinga or Lingam.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Champapur is an ancient and historic Teerth Kshetra of Jainism. Champapur is the place where all the five Kalyanaks i.e., Garbha, Janam, Tapa, KevalGyan and Moksha Kalyanak of Bhagwan Vasupujya, the 12th Jain Teerthankar, have taken place.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The Champapur was the capital of ‘Anga Janpada'. The Anga Janpada was one of the 52 Janapada established by Adi Teerthankar Bhagwan Rishabh Deo. Champapur also existed as Mahajanapada among the six Mahajanapadas during the time of Bhagwan Mahavira Swami.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The three Chaturmas of Bhagwan Mahavira Swami during his Dikshakal, religious propagation centre of Anga-Banga-Magadh-Vaishali, test of modesty of Sati Subhadra and Anantmati, Aahardan to Bhagwan Mahaveer Swami by Sati Chandan Bala have taken place in Champapur. Champapur is also related to great stories of 'origin of Harivansha, Shripal-Mainasundari, Shri Dharma Ghosh Muni, King Karna of Mahabharata, King Mudrak and great architect Vishvakarman’.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The main temple of Champapur Siddha Kshetra is quite ancient (about 2500 years). This temple being symbolic of 'Panch Kalyanaka' is adorned with 5 altars, magnificent spire and 2 columns of fame. It is said that there were 4 'Columns of Fame (Keerti Stambha)’ which existed in four corners of the campus of the temple. Later on the 2 out of 4 were destroyed in the earthquake of year 1934 & repair (Jirnoddhar) of other 2 columns was done in 1938. The 'Columns of Fame' are about 2200 years ancient.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Maharshi Mehi Ashram is situated along the river side. Kuppaghat, Bhagalpur has grown into a sacred spiritual spot for thousands as Saint Maharishi spent many years in intense meditation on the inner light and sound at Bhagalpur.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The church with the gothic architecture is located at the heart of the city. It has used the fine architecture and has come up as one of the most popular churches in the region. The interior and exterior design of the church is eternal bliss. During Christmas and Easter, the church and the whole Court area is decked up like a queen.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Founded in 1577 AD, the Khanqah-e-Shahbazia is one of the most revered shrines of Bhagalpur. It houses the grave of Maulana Shahbaz, a saint whose 13th-generation descendants still run the place. Maulana Shahbaz Rahmatullah is considered one of the 40 Sufi saints sent to spread the message of Allah. The "Sajjadah Nasheen" (direct descendant of the saint) is supposed to spend his life within the confines of the Khanqah and take care of its management, lead prayers and offer spiritual services. It is said that they are exempted from appearing in a court of law.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The Mosque was built by Aurangzeb and was frequently visited by him. Every Thursday, visitors assemble at the place to be blessed. Most of the visitors are said to be from the eastern parts of India and Bangladesh. There is a belief that the water in a pond here has medicinal qualities that can cure illness and snake bites. Archeological Survey of India has discovered some ancient manuscripts from the basement of Khanqah e Shahbazia.


title: Bhagalpur

text: The Khanqah is also famous for its library, which has a vast collection of Arabic and Persian theological texts, including a copy of the "Qur’an" transcribed by Murshid Quli Khan, the Nawab of Murshidabad, Bengal.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Print media include the Hindi "Dainik Jagran", "Dainik Bhaskar", "Aaj", "Hindustan" (under "Hindustan Times") and "Prabhat Khabar"; the Urdu "The Inquilab" and "Taasir", while English "Times of India", "The Telegraph" and "Hindustan Times" are also available.


title: Bhagalpur

text: Broadcast media include All India Radio (Frequency 1458 kHz, 1206 kHz) 90.4 FM Radio Active (Bhagalpur), and AIR FM Rainbow India 100.1.M, sadhna plus news channel


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: Sengbe Pieh (18141879), also known as Joseph Cinqué or Cinquez and sometimes referred to mononymously as Cinqué, was a West African man of the Mende people who led a revolt of many Africans on the Spanish slave ship "La Amistad" in July 1839. After the ship was taken into custody by the United States Revenue Cutter Service, Cinqué and his fellow Africans were eventually tried for mutiny and killing officers on the ship, in a case known as "United States v. The Amistad". This reached the U.S. Supreme Court, where Cinqué and his fellow Africans were found to have rightfully defended themselves from being enslaved through the illegal Atlantic slave trade and were released. The US government did not provide any aid to the acquitted Mende People. The United Missionary Society, a black group founded by James W.C. Pennington helped raise money for the return of thirty-five of the survivors to Sierra Leone in 1842.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: Cinqué was born 1814 in what is now Sierra Leone. His exact date of birth remains unknown. He was a rice farmer, and married with three children, when he was sold into slavery to redeem a debt. He was bought by the Vai king Siaka and in 1839 sold to Pedro Blanco, a Spanish slave trader. He was imprisoned on the Portuguese slave ship "Tecora", in violation of treaties prohibiting the international slave trade. Cinqué was taken to Havana, Cuba, where he was sold with 110 others to Spaniards José Ruiz and Pedro Montez.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: The Spaniards arranged to transport the captives on the coastal schooner "Amistad", with the intention of selling them as slaves at ports along the coast of Cuba for work on sugar plantations. On June 30, Cinqué led a revolt, killing the captain and the cook of the ship; two slaves also died, and two sailors escaped. The Africans took Ruiz and Montez, the merchants who had purchased them, as prisoners and demanded that they direct the ship back to Sierra Leone. Instead, at night, they directed the navigator in the opposite direction, toward the Americas, in the hope of attracting the attention of one of their fellow Spaniards who would save their ship and regain control. The ship had an uneven course between the coasts of the United States and Africa. After about two months, "Amistad" reached United States waters near Long Island, New York. Members of the USS "Washington" boarded the vessel. When they discovered what had happened (according to the Spaniards), they charged the Africans with mutiny and murder. The ship and the Mende were taken to New Haven, Connecticut to await trial.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: The two Spaniards claimed that the Africans had been born in Cuba and were already slaves at the time of their purchase, and were therefore legal property. Interpreters from Mende to English were found, who enabled the Africans to tell their story to attorneys and the court. Cinqué served as the group's informal representative.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: After the case was ruled in favor of the Africans in the district and circuit courts, the case was appealed by the Spanish parties, including its government, to the Supreme Court of the United States. In March 1841, the Supreme Court ruled that the Africans mutinied to regain their freedom after being kidnapped and sold illegally. The advocacy of former U.S. President John Quincy Adams, together with Roger Sherman Baldwin, was critical to the Africans' defense. The court ordered the Africans freed and returned to Africa, if they wished. This decision was against the protests of President Martin Van Buren, who worried about relations with Spain and implications for domestic slavery.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: Cinqué and the other Mende reached their homeland in 1842. In Sierra Leone, Cinqué encountered civil war. He and his company maintained contact with the local mission for a while, but Cinqué left to trade along the coast. Little is known of his later life, and rumors circulated. Some maintained that he had moved to Jamaica. Others held that he had become a merchant or a chief, perhaps trading in slaves himself.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: The latter charge derived from oral accounts from Africa cited by the twentieth-century author William A. Owens, who claimed that he had seen letters from AMA missionaries suggesting Cinqué was a slave trader. More recently historians such as Howard Jones in 2000 and Joseph Yannielli in 2009 have argued that, although some of the Africans associated with the Amistad probably did engage in the slave trade upon their return, given the nature of the regional economy at the time, the allegations of Cinqué's involvement seem implausible in view of the lack of evidence, and the unlikelihood of a conspiracy of silence leaving no traces.


title: Joseph Cinqué

text: Samuel Pieh, a great-great-grandson of Sengbe Pieh and language coach for the 1997 "Amistad" film, stated that Cinqué would go on to become a key figure in Sierra Leone, as well as helping to Christianize the country.


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: Michael Bailey Smith (born November 2, 1957) is an American actor. He is best known for his appearances on the television series "Charmed", where he played Belthazor, a Grimlock leader and Shax.


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: Smith was born in Alpena, Michigan, to an Air Force family, which lived in Tehran, Iran, during his last two years of high school. He graduated from Tehran American School. After working for Westinghouse, he joined the United States Army where he served in the 82nd Airborne Division as a paratrooper. He then attended college at Eastern Michigan University, where his athletic talents earned him a spot as a free agent with the Dallas Cowboys in 1985. Smith's football career was cut short by injury and he returned to Eastern Michigan University, where in 1988 he earned a bachelor of science degree in computer aided design.


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: Smith stumbled upon acting when he accompanied a friend to an audition for the 1989 film "". Smith landed the role of Super Freddy. Smith would appear three years later in a small role in "Renegade" playing PJ Butler. In 1994, he appeared in an unreleased Marvel Comics adaptation of "The Fantastic Four" as Ben Grimm. Smith was also cast in "" alongside Malcolm McDowell.


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: Smith appeared in many TV series, such as "", "", "Wings" and "Conan the Adventurer". In 1999, Smith had small roles as guards in Donald Petrie's "My Favorite Martian (film)" and "The X-Files". Smith appeared 18 times in the hit TV show "Charmed", where he played Belthazor, The Source, Grimlock and Shax. Also in 2002, he appeared in the hit sequel "Men in Black II", where he portrayed the character Creepy. In 2003, Smith was brother Bob (Monster Man) in the hit movie "Monster Man". Around that time, he appeared in the TV series "The O.C." and "Desperate Housewives".


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: In 2006, Smith was cast as villain Pluto in the remake of "The Hills Have Eyes". In 2007, he played villain Papa Hades in "The Hills Have Eyes 2". He also starred in the 2010 horror film "Chain Letter", alongside Nikki Reed, and Noah Segan, directed by Deon Taylor.


title: Michael Bailey Smith

text: Smith has also maintained a career outside of acting; he currently works for LEXI as the VP of Global IoT Sales.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Claire Jane Sweeney (born 17 April 1971) is an English actress, singer and television personality, best known for playing the role of Lindsey Corkhill in the Channel 4 soap opera "Brookside" and playing the role of Roxie Hart in the musical "Chicago" in London's West End.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Sweeney was born in Walton, Liverpool, the daughter of a butcher who had a shop in Toxteth. She trained at the Elliott-Clarke Theatre School in Liverpool, and worked at weekends in her father's shop.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Her first singing gig was at the age of 14 in the Montrose Club in Liverpool, for which she was paid £25. She was then educated full-time at the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts in London. In 1987, she was a member of the Southport Summer Youth Theatre Workshop's production of the musical "Hair".


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Sweeney's first major role was as Lindsey Corkhill in the soap opera "Brookside", initially as a recurring character from 1991 and then as a leading character from 1995 until the programme ended in 2003.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2001 Sweeney appeared in the first series of "Celebrity Big Brother" and "Lily Savage's Blankety Blank", and presented ITV's "Challenge of a Lifetime". She was also cast as Roxie Hart in the London revival of the musical "Chicago". In the same year she became a brand promoter for Marks & Spencer, and a brand ambassador for Fashion World and SlimFast.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2002 Sweeney became a forces sweetheart and entertained British Army troops serving in Afghanistan. In the same year she released the album "Claire", featuring a mix of original material and cover versions: it peaked at number 15 in the UK Albums Chart in July 2002. She also co-presented BBC One's "A Song for Europe" with Christopher Price.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2003, Sweeney starred in the world tour of the musical revue "Fosse", and featured on the album "Give Me a Smile" by Carl Davis and the BBC Concert Orchestra.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: She was a regular panellist on the ITV's "Loose Women" from 2003 to 2005, and has appeared as a guest panellist several times since then.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2004, Sweeney appeared as a contestant on series one of "Strictly Come Dancing", being eliminated in week five.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2005 Sweeney presented series four of the Living TV show "I'm Famous and Frightened!". She also hosted BBC One's "Here Comes the Sun" and co-hosted ITV's "Chef v Britain" with Gino D'Acampo. In May 2005 she was among the performers who took part in "A Party to Remember" event commemorating the 60th anniversary of VE Day.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2005 and 2006, Sweeney appeared in pantomime productions of "Snow White" and "Aladdin" at the Theatre Royal, Nottingham. In July 2006, She took on the role of Miss Adelaide in the British production of "Guys and Dolls" at the Piccadilly Theatre in London's West End for an eight-week run, before touring the UK alongside Patrick Swayze in the same production.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2008 she appeared in the ITV documentary "Claire Sweeney's Big Fat Diet", in which she gained in six weeks as part of a medical experiment.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In December 2008 she starred in the pantomime "Snow White" at the Regent Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent. In December 2009 she played Carrion the Wicked Fairy in "Sleeping Beauty" at the Churchill Theatre, Bromley.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2010 she sang with Carl Davis and the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra in the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary concert.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2011 Sweeney played both "The Girl" in a national tour of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical "Tell Me on a Sunday" and Paulette in the first UK tour of "Legally Blonde: The Musical". She also starred as Amanda in the BBC sitcom "Candy Cabs".


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2012, Sweeney appeared in the UK tour of "Educating Rita". From November 2012 to January 2013 she starred in the "White Christmas" musical at the Lowry in Salford Quays.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2013 Sweeney appeared in "Let's Dance for Comic Relief" alongside Natalie Cassidy, Dean Gaffney and Ricky Groves, performing to "You Can't Stop the Beat" from "Hairspray". They came second to Antony Cotton.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In May and June 2014 she appeared in the comedy musical "Sex and the Suburbs", co-written by Sweeney and Mandy Muden, at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In 2019 Sweeney took part in a special episode of Radio 2's "Friday Night Is Music Night" to celebrate Tony Hatch's 80th birthday. She starred as Hayley in the BBC sitcom "Scarborough", alongside Jason Manford, Stephanie Cole, and Catherine Tyldesley. On Christmas Day 2019 she presented a biography of Cilla Black on Radio 2.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: In July 2021, Sweeney performed at G-A-Y alongside drag queen Veronica Green as part of the regular cabaret night “Defying Musicals”.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Sweeney supports Claire House Children's Hospice, and is a patron of Queenie's Christmas Charity and the Children's Liver Disease Foundation.


title: Claire Sweeney

text: Sweeney had a relationship with businessman Tony Hibbard for six years, until 2007. She has a son, Jaxon, with her ex-partner Daniel Reilly.


title: Slipping Through My Fingers

text: "Slipping Through My Fingers" is a song written by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson and recorded by Swedish pop group ABBA from their 1981 album "The Visitors", with lead vocals by Agnetha Fältskog. The song is about a mother's regret at how quickly her daughter is growing up, and the lack of time they have spent together, as the girl goes to school.


title: Slipping Through My Fingers

text: The inspiration for the song was Ulvaeus' and Fältskog's daughter, Linda Ulvaeus, who was seven at the time the song was written.


title: Slipping Through My Fingers

text: The song was only released as a single in Japan (Discomate, 1981), where it was a red vinyl promo single for The Coca-Cola Company with nothing on the B-side except a printed picture of the group. An album with the same name and a similar-looking cover was also released in Japan.


title: Slipping Through My Fingers

text: "Se Me Está Escapando" is the Spanish Language version of "Slipping Through My Fingers", with lyrics by Buddy and Mary McCluskey. The song was released as a single in Spanish-speaking countries in 1982 and also included on the South American versions of the album "The Visitors". The track was first released on CD in 1994 as part of the Polydor US compilation "Más ABBA Oro", and in 1999 included on the expanded re-release of "".


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: The Battle of Gonzales was the first military engagement of the Texas Revolution. It was fought near Gonzales, Texas, on October 2, 1835, between rebellious Texian settlers and a detachment of Mexican army soldiers.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: In 1831, Mexican authorities lent the settlers of Gonzales a small cannon to help protect them from frequent Comanche raids. Over the next four years, the political situation in Mexico deteriorated, and in 1835 several states revolted. As the unrest spread, Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, the commander of all Mexican troops in Texas, felt it unwise to leave the residents of Gonzales with a weapon and requested the return of the cannon.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: When the initial request was refused, Ugartechea sent 100 dragoons to retrieve the cannon. The soldiers neared Gonzales on September 29, but the colonists used a variety of excuses to keep them from the town, while secretly sending messengers to request assistance from nearby communities. Within two days, up to 140 Texians gathered in Gonzales, all determined not to give up the cannon. On October 1, settlers voted to initiate a fight. Mexican soldiers opened fire as Texians approached their camp in the early hours of October 2. After several hours of desultory firing, the Mexican soldiers withdrew.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Although the skirmish had little military significance, it marked a clear break between the colonists and the Mexican government and is considered to have been the start of the Texas Revolution. News of the skirmish spread throughout the United States, where it was often referred to as the "Lexington of Texas". The cannon's fate is disputed. It may have been buried and rediscovered in 1936, or it may have been seized by Mexican troops after the Battle of the Alamo.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: The Mexican Constitution of 1824 liberalized the country's immigration policies, allowing foreign immigrants to settle in border regions such as Mexican Texas, and to bring their slaves with them. In 1825, American Green DeWitt received permission to settle 400 families in Texas near the confluence of the San Marcos and Guadalupe Rivers. The DeWitt Colony quickly became a favorite raiding target of local Karankawa, Tonkawa, and Comanche tribes, and in July 1826 they destroyed the capital city, Gonzales. The town was rebuilt the following year, after DeWitt negotiated peace treaties with the Karankawa and Tonkawa. The Comanche continued to stage periodic raids of the settlement over the next few years. Unable to spare military troops to protect the town, in 1831 the region's political chief instead sent the settlers of Gonzales a six-pounder cannon, described by historian Timothy Todish as "a small bored gun, good for little more than starting horse races".


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: In 1829, Mexico ended slavery and freed the slaves throughout Mexico, but negotiated an exception for the American immigrants in Tejas. In April of 1830, Mexico closed its borders to new immigrants who had not already been authorized to join an existing colony. During the 1830s, the Mexican government wavered between federalist and centralist policies. As the pendulum swung sharply towards centralism in 1835, several Mexican states revolted. In June, a small group of settlers in Texas used the political unrest as an excuse to rebel against customs duties, in an incident known as the Anahuac Disturbances. The federal government responded by sending more troops to Texas.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Public opinion was sharply divided. Some communities supported the rebellion for a variety of reasons. The new policies, the bans of slavery and immigration chief among them, and the increased enforcement of laws and import tariffs, incited many immigrants to revolt. The border region of Mexican Texas was largely populated by immigrants from the United States, some legal but most illegal. Some of these immigrants brought large numbers of slaves with them, so that by 1836, there were about 5,000 enslaved persons in a total non-native population estimated at 38,470. Others, including Gonzales, declared their loyalty to Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna's centralist government. Local leaders began calling for a Consultation to determine whether a majority of settlers favored independence, a return to federalism, or the status quo. Although some leaders worried that Mexican officials would see this type of gathering as a step toward revolution, by the end of August most communities had agreed to send delegates to the Consultation, scheduled for October 15. In the interim, many communities formed Texian Militia companies to protect themselves from a potential attack by military forces.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: On September 10, a Mexican soldier bludgeoned a Gonzales resident, which led to widespread outrage and public protests. Mexican authorities felt it unwise to leave the settlers with a weapon. Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, commander of all Mexican troops in Texas, sent a corporal and five enlisted men to retrieve the cannon that had been given to the colonists. Many of the settlers believed Mexican authorities were manufacturing an excuse to attack the town and eliminate the militia. In a town meeting, three citizens voted to hand over the gun to forestall an attack; the remainder, including "alcalde" Andrew Ponton, voted to stand their ground. According to historian Stephen Hardin, "the cannon became a point of honor and an unlikely rallying symbol. Gonzales citizens had no intention of handing over the weapon at a time of growing tension." The soldiers were escorted from town without the cannon.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: "Old Eighteen" refers to the 18 Texians who delayed Mexican attempts to reclaim the Gonzales cannon until Texian Militia arrived, which instigated the ensuing battle. The phrase is a pastiche of "Old Three Hundred". They are:


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Ponton anticipated that Ugartechea would send more troops to force the handover of the cannon. As soon as the first group of soldiers left Gonzales, Ponton sent a messenger to the closest town, Mina, to request help. Word quickly spread that up to 300 soldiers were expected to march on Gonzales. Stephen F. Austin, one of the most respected men in Texas and the "de facto" leader of the settlers, sent messengers to inform surrounding communities of the situation. Austin cautioned Texians to remain on the defensive, as any unprovoked attacks against Mexican forces could limit the support Texians might receive from the United States if war officially began.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: On September 27, 1835, a detachment of 100 dragoons, led by Francisco de Castañeda, left San Antonio de Béxar, carrying an official order for Ponton to surrender the cannon. Castañeda had been instructed to avoid using force if possible. When the troops neared Gonzales on September 29, they found that the settlers had removed the ferry and all other boats from the Guadalupe River. On the other side of the swiftly moving river waited eighteen Texians. Albert Martin, captain of the Gonzales Texian Militia company, informed the soldiers that Ponton was out of town, and until his return the army must remain on the west side of the river.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: With no easy way to cross the river, Castañeda and his men made camp at the highest ground in the area, about from the river. Three Texians hurried to bury the cannon, while others traveled to nearby communities to ask for assistance. By the end of the day, more than 80 men had arrived from Fayette and Columbus. Texian Militia companies generally elected their own leaders, and the men now gathered in Gonzales invoked their right to choose their own captain rather than report to Martin. John Henry Moore of Fayette was elected leader, with Joseph Washington Elliot Wallace and Edward Burleson, both of Columbus, respectively elected second and third in command.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: On September 30, Castañeda reiterated his request for the cannon and was again rebuffed. Texians insisted on discussing the matter directly with Ugartechea. According to their spokesman, until this was possible "the only answer I can therefore give you is that I cannot now [and] will not deliver to you the cannon". Castañeda reported to Ugartechea that the Texians were stalling, likely to give reinforcements time to gather.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: In San Antonio de Béxar, Ugartechea asked Dr. Launcelot Smither, a Gonzales resident in town on personal business, to help Castañeda convince the settlers to follow orders. When Smither arrived on October 1, he met with militia captain Mathew Caldwell to explain that the soldiers meant no harm if the settlers would peacefully relinquish the cannon. Caldwell instructed Smither to bring Castañeda to the town the following morning to discuss the matter. At roughly the same time, Moore called a war council, which quickly voted to initiate a fight. It is unclear whether the war council was aware that Caldwell had promised Castañeda safe passage to Gonzales the next morning.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Texians dug up the cannon and mounted it on cart wheels. In the absence of cannonballs, they gathered metal scraps to fill the cannon. James C. Neill, who had served in an artillery company during the War of 1812, was given command of the cannon. He gathered several men, including Almaron Dickinson, also a former US Army field artilleryman, together to form the first artillery company of Texians. A local Methodist minister, W. P. Smith, blessed their activities in a sermon which made frequent reference to the American Revolution.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: As the Texians made plans for an attack, Castañeda learned from a Coushatta Indian that about 140 men were gathered in Gonzales, with more expected. The Mexican soldiers began searching for a safe place to cross the river. At nightfall on October 1 they stopped to make camp, upriver from their previous spot.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Texians began crossing the river at about 7 pm. Less than half of the men were mounted, slowing their progress as they tracked the Mexican soldiers. A thick fog rolled in around midnight, further delaying them. At around 3am, Texians reached the new Mexican camp. A dog barked at their approach, alerting the Mexican soldiers, who began to fire. The noise caused one of the Texian horses to panic and throw his rider, who suffered a bloody nose. Moore and his men hid in the thick trees until dawn. As they waited, some of the Texians raided a nearby field and snacked on watermelon.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: With the darkness and fog, Mexican soldiers could not estimate how many men had surrounded them. They withdrew to a nearby bluff. At about 6 am, Texians emerged from the trees and began firing at the Mexican soldiers. Lieutenant Gregorio Pérez counterattacked with 40 mounted soldiers. The Texians fell back to the trees and fired a volley, injuring a Mexican private. According to some accounts, the cannon fell out of the wagon upon the shot. Unable to safely maneuver among the trees, the Mexican horsemen returned to the bluff.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: As the fog lifted, Castañeda sent Smither to request a meeting between the two commanders. Smither was promptly arrested by the Texians, who were suspicious of his presence among the Mexican soldiers. Nevertheless, Moore agreed to meet Castañeda. Moore explained that his followers no longer recognized the centralist government of Santa Anna and instead remained faithful to the Constitution of 1824, which Santa Anna had repudiated. Castañeda revealed that he shared their federalist leanings, but that he was honor-bound to follow orders.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: As Moore returned to camp, the Texians raised a homemade white banner with an image of the cannon painted in black in the center, over the words "Come and Take It". The makeshift flag evoked the American Revolutionary-era slogan "Don't Tread on Me". Texians then fired their cannon at the Mexican camp. Realizing that he was outnumbered and outgunned, Castañeda led his troops back to San Antonio de Béxar. The troops were gone before the Texians finished reloading. In his report to Ugartechea, Castañeda wrote "since the orders from your Lordship were for me to withdraw without compromising the honor of Mexican arms, I did so".


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Two Mexican soldiers were killed in the attack. The only Texian casualty was the bloody nose suffered by the man bucked off his horse. Although the event was, as characterized by Davis, "an inconsequential skirmish in which one side did not try to fight", Texians soon declared it a victory over Mexican troops. Despite its minimal military impact, Hardin asserts that the skirmish's "political significance was immeasurable". A large number of Texians had taken an armed stand against the Mexican army, and they had no intention of returning to their neutral stance towards Santa Anna's government. Two days after the battle, Austin wrote to the San Felipe de Austin Committee of Public Safety, "War is declared—public opinion has proclaimed it against a Military despotism—The campaign has commenced". News of the skirmish, originally called "the fight at Williams' place", spread throughout the United States, encouraging many adventurers to come to Texas and assist in the fight against Mexico. Newspapers referred to the conflict as the "Lexington of Texas"; as the Battles of Lexington and Concord began the American Revolution, the Gonzales skirmish launched the Texas Revolution.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Before fighting had officially erupted, Santa Anna had realized that stronger measures were needed to ensure calm in Texas. He ordered his brother-in-law, General Martín Perfecto de Cos to bring approximately 500 soldiers to Texas. Cos and his men arrived in Goliad on October 2. Three days later, after learning of the events at Gonzales, the soldiers left for San Antonio de Béxar.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Gonzales became a rallying point for Texians opposed to Santa Anna's policies. On October 11, they unanimously elected Austin their commander, despite his lack of military training. The following day, Austin led the men on a march towards San Antonio de Béxar to lay siege to Cos's troops. By the end of the year, the Texians had driven all Mexican troops from Texas.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: The cannon's fate is disputed. According to the memoirs (written in the 1890s) of Gonzales blacksmith Noah Smithwick, the cannon was abandoned after the cart's axles began to smoke during a march to San Antonio de Béxar to assist in Austin's siege. Smithwick reported that the cannon was buried near a creek not far from Gonzales. A small iron cannon was exposed during a June 1936 flood near Gonzales. In 1979, this cannon was purchased by Dr. Patrick Wagner, who believed it matched Smithwick's descriptions of the cannon used in the battle. The Curator of Military History at the Smithsonian Institution verified that Wagner's cannon was a type of small swivel gun used in America through 1836. The Conservation Laboratory at the University of Texas confirmed that Wagner's cannon had been buried in moist ground for an extended time period.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: Writing in the "Handbook of Texas", historian Thomas Ricks Lindley maintains that the Wagner cannon does not match the Smithwick account. The Wagner gun is made of iron and is smaller than a six-pounder. Historians such as Lindley think it more likely that the Gonzales cannon was taken to San Antonio de Béxar, where it was used during the Battle of the Alamo and captured by Mexican troops in March 1836. It was likely melted down with many of the other cannons when the Mexican army retreated.


title: Battle of Gonzales

text: The battle is re-enacted during the Come and Take It celebration in Gonzales every October. In and around Gonzales are nine Texas historical markers which commemorate various locations used in the prelude to the battle.


title: Arauco War

text: The Arauco War was a long-running conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. The conflict began at first as a reaction to the Spanish conquerors attempting to establish cities and force Mapuches into servitude. It subsequently evolved over time into phases comprising drawn-out sieges, slave-hunting expeditions, pillaging raids, punitive expeditions, and renewed Spanish attempts to secure lost territories. Abduction of women and war rape was common on both sides.


title: Arauco War

text: After many initial Spanish successes in penetrating Mapuche territory, the Battle of Curalaba in 1598 and the following destruction of the Seven Cities marked a turning point in the war leading to the establishment of a clear frontier between the Spanish domains and the land of the independent Mapuche. From the 17th to the late 18th century a series of parliaments were held between royal governors and Mapuche lonkos and the war devolved to sporadic pillaging carried out by both sides.


title: Arauco War

text: In the words of Philip II, this conflict cost the largest number of Spanish lives in the New World, which is why it became known as the "Flandes indiano" ("Indian Flanders"), in reference to the Eighty Years' War.


title: Arauco War

text: Initially, the key area of conflict that the Spanish attempted to secure south of Bío Bío River were the valleys around Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. The Spanish designs for this region was to exploit the placer deposits of gold using Mapuche (slave) labor from the densely populated nearby valleys. To serve the Spanish in gold mining was a deadly activity that killed many Mapuches. Lacking a tradition of forced labor like the Andean mita the Mapuches largely refused to serve the Spanish setting the stage for the conflict. It has been conjectured that gold mining was already occurring in Mapuche lands south of the Inca Empire prior to the Spanish arrival and that this would have allowed the Spanish to rapidly identify places with gold.


title: Arauco War

text: On the other hand, the Spanish, in particular those from Castile and Extremadura, came from an extremely violent society. According to Diego de Rosales 17th-century Mapuche chief Lientur would have explained that he preferred to "die warring, than in a bad peace". Analysing the situation in the 1650s the Real Audiencia of Santiago opined that slavery of Mapuches was one of the reasons for constant state of war between the Spanish and the Mapuches.


title: Arauco War

text: Jesuits sought to diminish hostilities and end the war altogether by converting Mapuches to the Christian faith. They temporarily succeeded in enforcing the Defensive War (1612–1626) policy, but their conversions attempts foundered on Mapuche leaders staunch defense of polygamy which was unacceptable in the Catholic faith. This insistence on polygamy has been explained as Mapuche chiefs valuing it as a way to establish more alliances through marriage than monogamous marriage allows. Polygamy may also have been valued as important population strategy in war times when the Mapuche male population was unstable.


title: Arauco War

text: An antecedent of the Arauco War was the Battle of Reynogüelén, which occurred in 1536 between a detachment of Diego de Almagro's expedition and a large group of Mapuches, near the confluence of the Ñuble and Itata rivers. The beginning of the war comes with the campaigns of conquest of Pedro de Valdivia.


title: Arauco War

text: During the early phase of the Conquest of Chile, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Valdivia conducted a nine-year campaign to secure the city of Santiago, which had been destroyed on September 11, 1541 by the Mapochoes under the direction of their chief, Michimalonco. Valdivia hoped to enlarge the territory under his jurisdiction and, despite injuries from a fall from his horse, resolved to take personal command of a land expedition into Araucanía.


title: Arauco War

text: In 1544, a naval expedition was sent, comprising the barks, "San Pedro" and "Santiaguillo", under the command of Juan Bautista Pastene, to reconnoiter the southwestern coast of South America to the Strait of Magellan. The expedition set sail from Valparaíso, entered the bay of San Pedro, and made landings at what is now known as Concepción and at Valdivia, which was later named in honor of the commander. Encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso.


title: Arauco War

text: Valdivia himself set out in 1546, with sixty horsemen plus guides and porters, and crossed the Itata River and were attacked by Mapuche warriors in the Battle of Quilacura near the Bío-Bío River. Realizing that it would be impossible to proceed in such hostile territory with so limited a force, Valdivia elected to return to Santiago after finding a site for a new city at what is now Penco and that would become the first site of Concepción.


title: Arauco War

text: In 1550, a new expedition was launched, consisting of a naval force under Pastene, and a land force of two hundred Spaniards mounted and foot and a number of Mapocho auxiliaries under Valdivia. They planned to reunite on the shores of the Bay of Concepción. The expedition advanced beyond the Itata River and Laja River, to the shores of the Bío-Bío River. Along the way they had several battles with groups of Mapuches as they explored the region, killing many with little loss to themselves. After spending over a week in the area and encountering increasing opposition, the Spanish marched toward the sea through the valleys of the Laja and Bío-Bío rivers, towards the coast at Penco. On the banks of the Andalién River, they camped for two days between the river and a lake, where they were attacked on the second night by a large force of Araucanians under their toqui Ainavillo in the Battle of Andalien. The night attack was defeated in a furious battle, the Spaniards suffered one killed and many wounds to men and especially their mounts. After a day treating their wounds they continued towards their rendezvous at the Bay of Concepción. There Valdivia began building a fort at what is now Penco.


title: Arauco War

text: On February 23, Pastene's fleet anchored in the bay, brought supplies and reinforcements, and provided materials to finish the fort. On March 1 Valdivia founded here the city of Concepción del Nuevo Extremo. On March 3 of that year, the fort was completed and was attacked nine days later by the largest force of Mapuches yet seen in the Battle of Penco. This force was broken and routed despite the small size of the Spanish forces. Despite the resulting submission of the local tribes, Valdivia sent an emissary to the Viceroy of Peru, asking for additional forces; he knew that it would not be possible to complete the conquest of Araucanía with only the forces at his disposal. After reinforcement at Concepción in 1551, he organized another expedition to establish the fort La Imperial on the banks of the Imperial River. He then returned to Concepción to prepare another expedition and await the reinforcements the Viceroy had promised to send by sea.


title: Arauco War

text: Leaving orders that the new troops should disembark on the "Tierras de Valdivia" that Pastene had discovered earlier, Valdivia left with two hundred soldiers in the direction of Fort Imperial. Once he had passed it on his way south, he ordered Jerónimo de Alderete to drive inland and establish a fort, with the goal of securing his eastern flank. To this end, Alderente reached Lake Villarrica and established a fort there. Meanwhile, Valdivia's column advanced southwards and joined the reinforcements sent from Peru, under the command of Francisco de Villagra. There, the city of Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia was established. After garrisoning these new places, Valdivia returned to his base at Concepción in 1552 where rich placer gold mines were found in the Quilacoya River valley.


title: Arauco War

text: With the goal of securing the lines of communication with the southern forts, Valdivia launched a third expedition which established forts at Tucapel, Purén, Confines, and Arauco. The Araucanians didn't offer any resistance to the conquistadors in their fort-building. In October 1553, the Quilacoya gold mine was opened and large numbers of Mapuche were forced to work in it.


title: Arauco War

text: In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which, because of the growth of Spanish forces in their territory, they resolved to make war. They chose as their "toqui" (wartime chief) an extraordinarily strong man called Caupolicán and as his vice toqui Lautaro, because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry; his experiences with the Spanish gave him insight into the best methods for fighting the conquistadors.


title: Arauco War

text: With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at Tucapel. The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized and burned the fort and prepared his army certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake Tucapel. Valdivia, with a reduced force, mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel. This was Pedro de Valdivia's last battle; he was captured and later killed in captivity when he refused to concede defeat.


title: Arauco War

text: After the defeat at Tucapel, the Spanish hurriedly reorganized their forces, reinforcing fort Imperial for its defence and abandoning Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. However, Araucanian tradition dictated a lengthy victory celebration, which kept Lautaro from exploiting the weakness of the Spanish position as he desired. It was only in February 1554 that he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of Francisco de Villagra at the Battle of Marihueñu.


title: Arauco War

text: Despite this new victory, Lautaro was again unable to pursue the opportunity due to the celebrations and beliefs of his people. By the time he arrived at Concepción, it was already abandoned. After burning it, he could not continue the offensive with his remaining forces, and the campaign came to an end as the warriors demobilized.


title: Arauco War

text: In Santiago, Villagra reorganized his forces, and that same year of 1554, he departed again for Arauco and reinforced the strongholds of Imperial and Valdivia, which allowed the garrisons and their Indian friends to make many raids on the surrounding Mapuche settlements, burning houses and fields and killing all they found. Resulting devastation produced a famine and an epidemic among the hostile Mapuche around those cities. Meanwhile, in the north during 1554, news of the victories of Lautauro led to uprisings by the previously subdued Promaucaes in the valley of the Mataquito River and the Picunche in the valley of the Aconcagua River, but these were put down.


title: Arauco War

text: In 1555, the Real Audiencia in Lima ordered Villagra to reconstruct Concepción, which was accomplished by Capitan Alvarado and 75 colonists. When he learned that it was being rebuilt, Lautaro again attacked Concepción with 4,000 warriors. Alvarado attempted to defeat Lautaro's army outside the city, but failed and fled to the city pursued by Lautaro's army. Only 38 Spaniards managed to escape by sea from this second destruction of the city. Following this victory in 1556, the Promauces sent a message to the Mapuche of Arauco promising food to support their army and warriors to join it in a war against the Spanish in Santiago.


title: Arauco War

text: After his victories in the south and the messages promising support from the north, Lautaro planned an assault on Santiago. With the ravages of the recent epidemic and the needs of the campaign against the Spanish still occupying cities within Mapuche territory still going on, he was not able to draw many troops from the main Mapuche army for his campaign to the north. He had to rely on recruiting warriors among the people north of the Bio Bio River among subjugated Mapuche and the Promaucaes north of the Itata River, who were now inspired by the previous successes of Lautaro to revolt again.


title: Arauco War

text: But when he entered the places subject to Santiago, he began taking reprisals against the Promaucaes who refused to join him, doing great damage and depopulating the land. The refugees fled to the city for aid and protection. In October 1556 he reached the Mataquito River in his northward march. There he built a fortified camp near Teno in a place called Peteroa as a base of operations against Santiago. Lautaro ambushed a first probe by a small Spanish force from Santiago. A larger force under Pedro de Villagra later attacked the fortress at Peteroa over several days but were not able to take it and were forced away by flooding. However, with unfavourable losses and more Spaniards coming to Villagra's support, Lautaro retreated towards the Maule River hoping to establish himself there. However, the Spanish cavalry of Juan Godíñez pursued to the Maule River, cutting down stragglers and one of Lautaro's detachments was cut to pieces. Lautaro's army gave them the slip, but was forced to fall back beyond the Itata River. Captain Gudiñez returned victorious from this pursuit and put great fear into the Promaucaes by punishing them with destruction of their herds, fields, and houses and by cutting off some heads, as a lesson not to call upon the Mapuche army or give aid to them.


title: Arauco War

text: In January 1557, Francisco de Villagra advanced southward to aid the remaining cities against the Mapuche army led by Caupolicán. Informed by his allies that the city of Santiago was now relatively unprotected, Lautaro evaded Villagra, letting him pass to the south while he marched again toward Santiago with a new army including allies under Panigualgo. However Lautaro's mistreatment of the intimidated local Indians to extract provisions had created dissension among his allies. His allies separated from him after the army reached the Mataquito River at Lora, after a dispute over his actions with an allied leader named Chillan who accused Lautaro of acting like the Spaniards. He moved his remaining army over a league up river and again established a fortified camp on the Mataquito River amid a carrizal at the foot of a wooded hill. However, its location was betrayed to Francisco de Villagra by local Indians previously abused by Lautaro. Villagra sent word to Juan Godíñez near Santiago to meet him as he hurried north. The Spanish forces met without Lautaro being alerted and made a surprise night march over the hills of Caune, to the hill overlooking Lautaro's camp, on the shore of the Mataquito River. On April 29, at dawn Villagra began the Battle of Mataquito with a surprise attack on the camp in which they killed Lautaro and obtained a decisive victory, destroying his army and dispersing his allies.


title: Arauco War

text: After the death of Jerónimo de Alderete in Panama while returning to Chile, García Hurtado de Mendoza was designated the interim governor of Chile in 1557, and immediately sailed south from Peru, this time with a much stronger force than before: 600 soldiers, 6 pieces of artillery, and 1,000 horses. He landed in La Serena and had the rival contenders for the governorship, Francisco de Villagra and Francisco de Aguirre arrested and sent to Peru and put his own men in control of the province. Sending his cavalry by land he sailed south in winter and landed in early June 1557 on the island of La Quiriquina at the mouth of the Bay of Concepción. He ordered a party to land at Penco and reconstruct the fort of Concepción. A Mapuche army attempted to raze the fort but were defeated by artillery and gunfire. After his cavalry and horses arrived overland from Santiago, Mendoza began his advance to the south of the Bio-Bio and another Mapuche army including Galvarino attempted to stop them in the open field in the Battle of Lagunillas, but again were defeated after hard fighting, and as a result their fortress at Andalicán, the gateway to Arauco, was left undefended and was captured soon after the battle.


title: Arauco War

text: Caupolicán led the Mapuche unsuccessfully resisting the advance of Hurtado de Mendoza by attacking him from ambush in the Battle of Millarapue. After further fighting near the site of the ruined fortress of Tucapel, Mendoza built the fort and city of Cañete de la Frontera and continued to the south. There he established the city of Osorno and explored southward to the Gulf of Ancud. Attempting to throw off the Spanish occupation, Caupolicán attacked the fort of Cañete expecting the gates to be opened by the treachery of a "yanakuna" within, but he was betrayed instead and was badly defeated by Captain Alonso de Reinoso. Although he was able to escape immediately after this last battle when Spanish cavalry did not arrive in time to pursue, he was eventually betrayed and captured in the mountains by Pedro de Avendaño, sentenced to death by Alonso de Reinoso, and executed by impalement in Cañete.


title: Arauco War

text: After the death of Caupolicán, García Hurtado de Mendoza thought that they had subjugated the Mapuche. On the contrary, the manner of the death of Caupolicán inspired the Mapuches to continue the struggle with a guerrilla war in which there was no day that some yanaconas or once in a while some encomendero did not die at the hands of Mapuches. When the number of missing or dead reached 400 yanaconas and 10 Spaniards, the governor was convinced that he had been mistaken. In Quiapo, the Mapuches under their new toqui, Caupolicán the younger, constructed a fort that was to stop the forces of Mendoza from marching into Arauco and rebuilding a fort there. Mendoza advanced from Cañete and crushed another Mapuche army at the Battle of Quiapo. After the battle, Hurtado de Mendoza had most of the captured Mapuche executed, but saved Peteguelén, son of Cuyomanque, an important cacique in the Arauco region. Through his help and that of the grateful father, he was able to contact and bring most of the leaders of Arauco and Tucapel to submit to Spanish rule following the reconstruction of the fort in Arauco. Mendoza also founded the city of San Andrés de Angol or Los Infantes not far from the old fort of Confines.


title: Arauco War

text: In February 1561, Phillip II relieved García Hurtado de Mendoza, replacing him as governor with the victor over Lautaro, Francisco de Villagra. Mendoza left Chile with the belief that he had overcome the Mapuche. He was one of the few governors who obtained a certain degree of success in the War. This success was due to the large numbers of experienced soldiers, equipment, and arms that he brought which were not available to the previous conquerors and because the Mapuche did not have a strategist to equal Lautaro.


title: Arauco War

text: The Mapuches pretended peace, but secretly continued to prepare for a new revolt. Soon after the defeat at Quiapo, the surviving leaders gathered and elected Illangulién as the new toqui. With most of the nations' warriors dead or wounded and the population decimated by the effects of war, starvation, and disease, he decided to retreat into the marshes of Lumaco and there gather their strength and train a new generation of warriors for a future revolt. The Mapuche had learned to work iron, use Spanish weapons (including firearms and cannon), ride horses captured from their conquerors, and learned better strategies and tactics. The defeats inflicted by Mendoza had made the Mapuche a united people and one committed to renewing the war against the Spanish to secure independence.


title: Arauco War

text: Hostilities resumed with the arrival of Francisco de Villagra to replace Mendoza. It began during the brief interim governorship of Rodrigo de Quiroga with the killing of the hated encomendero and corregidor of Cañete Pedro de Avendaño and two other Spaniards in July 1561 in the valley of Puren. Spanish punitive expeditions from Angol and La Imperial drove the insurgents into the refuge of the Lumaco marshes. However, the news of the killing was spread by the Mapuches and it initiated a new general rising greater than the previous ones. With Villagra's arrival also came its first smallpox epidemic that ravaged the native population of Chile.


title: Arauco War

text: The toqui of the Arauco region, Millalelmo, with a local army laid siege to Arauco from May 20 to June 30, 1562. At the end of 1562, the Mapuches under a leader named Meuco, had fortified a pucará in the province of Mareguano, three leagues from the city of Los Infantes. Arias Pardo Maldonado destroyed the pucará but he did not gain a complete victory, since most of the Mapuches escaped. Elsewhere the corregidor of Cañete Juan Lazarte was killed at the gates of Cañete trying to recapture mounts stolen by thirty mapuches.


title: Arauco War

text: The Mapuches reconstructed the pucará near Los Infantes in January 1563, but Pedro de Villagra was sent again to destroy it. Once again the Mapuche rebuilt it, but this time with sections readily accessible to the cavalry. Despite suspicions of veteran Spaniards they attacked the location, and many fell into well-disguised pits. There the governor's son, Pedro de Villagra "el Mozo", and forty two other Spaniards died. This disastrous military defeat forced governor Francisco de Villagra to order the city of Cañete to be abandoned. News of the abandonment of Cañete spread the revolt.


title: Arauco War

text: When Francisco de Villagra heard the news of his son's death he became ill and left for Concepcion leaving his cousin, Pedro de Villagra, in charge of the campaign. The Mapuches, now under Colocolo, attacked on two fronts against the forts of Los Infantes and Arauco investing them, but were unable to take them. Again Petegüelen offered peace to the Spaniards and Villagra accepted, but this peace was deceptive since the Mapuches needed to harvest their fields.


title: Arauco War

text: In April 1563, the Mapuche reestablished the siege of Arauco. This lasted 42 days with the Mapuches losing 500 warriors mostly from dysentery contracted from drinking contaminated water. Finally they chose to retire and to raise the siege. Shortly afterward, Francisco de Villagra died in Concepcion on June 22, 1563, leaving his cousin Pedro de Villagra as interim governor.


title: Arauco War

text: Because he believed he had too few men to hold all the posts in Mapuche territory and still have a field army, the new governor Pedro de Villagra ordered the abandonment of Arauco in July 1563, taking off its artillery and noncombatants by sea while the garrison under Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado marched over the rain soaked mountains and flooded rivers to Angol. The Mapuche destroyed the fort shortly after the garrison left and harassed their march. Regarding the abandonment of Arauco as a victory, it inspired the Mapuche north of the Bío-Bío River to revolt.


title: Arauco War

text: In 1564, Pedro de Villagra took measures to protect all the towns and forts he still held and gathered a field army in Concepción drawn from all these posts. He knew that one of the Mapuche objectives was to surround Concepcion and preparations were made to support a long siege. After a brief fight Loble defeated the troops of captain Francisco de Vaca in the Itata River valley who were coming with reinforcements from Santiago. In addition, Millalelmo ambushed Spanish reinforcements coming from Angol to the south under captain Juan Perez de Zurita, at a crossing of the Andalién River. Both defeats cut off the city and garrison of Concepción from outside aid by land. The defeated survivors had to retreat to Santiago and were in no condition to break through the investment around Concepción. On the other hand, encouraged by these victories in the north, Illangulién resolved to destroy Los Infantes before marching to Concepción.


title: Arauco War

text: At Los Infantes the Mapuche blockade grew tighter as they moved closer and closer to the city, protected in their well-sited pucarás. Its commander, Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado, judged them too well-defended to attack until they started to build their third pucara close to the city. Then in the Battle of Angol, Lorenzo Bernal drove the Mapuche army out of their pucara and pursued them down to the river and pushed them back into it, killing Illangulién and a thousand of his men, with many others wounded or captured and the rest of the army dispersed. Afterward Paillataru was elected as Toqui.


title: Arauco War

text: Meanwhile, the caciques Millalelmu and Loble with 20,000 warriors from the area between the Itata and Bío-Bío rivers, settled down to the Siege of Concepción in February 1564. The Mapuche entered the city, sacking and burning it, crowding all its population within the walls of its fortress with its garrison under Pedro de Villagra. The siege lasted around two months until at the end of March two ships arrived and brought food that would permit the siege to continue for a much longer time. On the other side the Mapuche had used up local sources of food and were finding it difficult to maintain their large force. With the harvest season coming and with the news of their defeat in the Battle of Angol, they were nervous that their families might starve or their undefended homes might be attacked from Angol or Santiago. They raised their siege on April 1, and dispersed to their homes for the winter.


title: Arauco War

text: After the siege was raised, Villagra became aware of an effort to replace him as governor by Martin Ruiz de Gamboa, son-in-law of Rodrigo de Quiroga. Villagra tried to arrest Gamboa who fled overland to Santiago, but Villagra sailed to Valparaíso in a few days with some of his men and arrested him in Santiago when he arrived. Villagra then tried to reorganize the surviving disheartened troops of Vaca and Zurita in Santiago and take them south in October 1564. But he was delayed much longer, spending heavily from the impoverished provincial treasury and contributions exacted from the cities of Chile with difficulty, he slowly refitted and enlarged his army over the winter and spring.


title: Arauco War

text: Villagra left the city in mid-January 1565, with 110 Spaniards and gathered 800 Indian auxiliaries from their repartimientos as he marched south to the Maule River. There he linked up with 30 Spaniards under Pedro Hernández de Córdova who were observing the frontier with the Mapuche after the Mapuche had blocked their prior attempt to reinforce Concepción. During the seven months Villagra was in Santiago, the Mapuche north of the Bío-Bío had built a strong pucara on the Perquilauquén River, blocking the road south to Concepción and in the Second Battle of Reinohuelén Villagra rapidly took it and destroyed the Mapuche army holding it. Soon afterward Villagra ambushed Loble as he was bringing reinforcements, and unaware of the defeat he was surprised, defeated, and captured. Subsequently, Villagra established fort "San Ildefonso" in the region and was able to suppress the Mapuche revolt north of the Bio-Bio.


title: Arauco War

text: Shortly after the end of the campaign Pedro de Villagra was replaced at the order of the Viceroy of Peru by Rodrigo de Quiroga as the temporary governor in 1565. Quiroga launched a new campaign, organized by Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado, who reconstructed Cañete, and repopulated Arauco in 1566. He accomplished the conquest of the island of Chiloé, sending Martín Ruiz de Gamboa to establish the city of Castro there, and pacify its inhabitants, the Cuncos. Quiroga returned to find he was to be replaced by the Real Audiencia of Concepción in August 1567. In September 1567, the king named Melchor Bravo de Saravia y Sotomayor to take over the civil and military government of Chile, with the title of governor and he arrived from Lima in 1568.


title: Arauco War

text: Governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia y Sotomayor arrived from Lima in 1568 and recruited 100 new soldiers and gathered food in Santiago province and marched south to join the army near the mouth of the Tavolevo River in Catirai.


title: Arauco War

text: Governor Alonso de Sotomayor arrived in Chile in 1583 and had to judge accusations against his predecessor, who had become extremely unpopular for the Tasa de Gamboa which had prohibited the payment of taxes by the Indians in the form of labor. Sotomayor later absolved Gamboa entirely but abolished the Tasa de Gamboa and reinstituted the Tasa de Santillán, with new provisions to humanize the old system, in an attempt to avoid the excesses of the encomenderos against the Indians.


title: Arauco War

text: Despite his early successful campaign when he captured Alonso Diaz in 1584, he wanted to extend the conquest of Chile by building a series of forts which would protect each other, the cities, and their surrounding lands. They were also to hem in the Moluche and become the secure bases of future campaigns. In 1584, Sotomayor founded the fort of San Fabián de Conueo in Coelemu securing communications between Santiago and Concepcion. In 1585 he ordered the construction of forts around Catirai, Santo Arbol de la Cruz where the Guaqui River enters the Bio Bio River, Espíritu Santo near the mouth of the Tavolevo River with Santísima Trinidad directly across the Bio Bio River, and in the upper reaches of the Culenco River, fort San Jerónimo de Millapoa. In Purén he also raised another fort, where he placed a small garrison.


title: Arauco War

text: Opposing these moves by Sotomayor was the Toqui Cayancaru who attempted a siege of the fort at Arauco that failed, leading to his abdication of his office in favour of his son Nangoniel in 1585. Nangoniel returned to invest Arauco again, his cavalry (operating with the army for the first time) prevented the Spaniards from supplying the fort and they were forced to evacuate it. He next moved against the Santísima Trinidad but clashed with a division of Spanish troops under Francisco Hernandez, where he was wounded and soon hunted down and killed. Cadeguala was proclaimed Toqui in his place the same day and began operations against Angol, breaking into the city, however he was repulsed by a counterattack. He followed this with a siege of Purén the following year. He drove off a relief force with his cavalry and offered the garrison terms but was refused. He next challenged the commander of the fort, Alonso García de Ramón, to single combat to decide the fate of the fortress. The two leaders fought on horseback with lances, and Cadeguala fell, killed by his opponent. His army raised the siege, but after electing Guanoalca as toqui returned to successfully drive the poorly supplied Spanish from Purén and burned it in 1586.


title: Arauco War

text: Meanwhile, Sotomayor had the distraction of an attack by English pirates under Thomas Cavendish. When they anchored in Quintero on April 9, 1587, he was defeated by the Spanish, losing 10 men and continued up the coast of South America.


title: Arauco War

text: Sotomayor rebuilt Purén in 1589 and built a new fort on the heights of Marihueñu. Guanoalca directed his army against the new Spanish fort, but finding it too strongly held, diverted his attacks against Espíritu Santo and the fort of Santísima Trinidad on the opposite shore of the Bio Bio River.


title: Arauco War

text: In September 1592, Martín García Óñez de Loyola, famous for his capture of Túpac Amaru, was appointed as Captain General directly by Philip II, who thought him the most likely candidate to finish the Arauco War. Loyola insisted in penetrating Mapuche territory with an army of soldiers coming directly from Panama. He established fort Santa Cruz de Oñez on the Rele River near the confluence of the Bio-Bio and Laja Rivers in May 1594. The fort was elevated to the rank of city in 1595 giving it the name of Santa Cruz de Coya. Later, on 21 December 1598, Oñez de Loyola became the second governor of Chile to die in war with the Mapuches, surprised by Pelantaro in the Disaster of Curalaba.