title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Paternalistic conservatism does emphasize the duties of government to entail fairly broad state interventionism to cultivate a good life for all citizens. This leads to a dirigiste path in which the government is envisaged as a benevolent paternal figure setting goals and ensuring fair play and equal opportunity, with a stress on the importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty and support of redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Although accepting of state intervention, paternalist conservatives are not supportive of anything resembling a command economy.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a result of the industrial revolution during the 19th century, which had created social unrest, appalling working conditions and inequality. In Britain, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's one-nation Toryism sought to deal with these effects. In the United Kingdom, there has been a continuation of one-nation conservative governments, such as those of Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill and Harold Macmillan. Additionally during 19th-century in Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck established the first modern welfare state, with the goal of undermining Socialism by gaining working class support. He implemented policies of state-organized compulsory insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity and old age as part of his programme. Leo von Caprivi, another German Chancellor, also promoted a policy called the New Course.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Paternalist conservatism has its origins in the Industrial Revolution, which had caused widespread inequality, poverty and social discontent. In Britain, Tory politicians such as Richard Oastler, Michael Thomas Sadler and Lord Shaftesbury combined their elitist responsibility and a strong humanitarian element with their involvement on the Factory Acts. Critical of individualism and classical economics, they also disliked the 1834 New Poor Law and believed in the role of the state in guaranteeing decent housing, working conditions, wages and treatment of the poor.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: One-nation conservatism was first conceived by Conservative British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who presented his political philosophy in two novels, "Sybil, Or The Two Nations" and "Coningsby", published in 1845 and 1844 respectively. Disraeli's conservatism proposed a paternalistic society with the social classes intact but the working class receiving support from the well off. Disraeli emphasised the importance of social obligation rather than the individualism that pervaded British society. Disraeli warned that Britain would become divided into two nations (of the rich and poor) as a result of increased industrialisation and inequality. Concerned at that division, he supported measures to improve the lives of the people to provide social support and protect the working classes.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Disraeli justified his ideas by his belief in an organic society in which the different classes have natural obligations to one another. He saw society as naturally hierarchical and emphasised the obligations of those at the top to those below. This was a continuation of the feudal concept of "noblesse oblige". which asserted that the aristocracy had an obligation to be generous and honourable. To Disraeli, that implied that government should be paternalistic. One-nation conservatism identifies its approach as pragmatic and non-ideological. There is an acceptance of the need for flexible policies, and one-nation conservatives have often sought compromise with their ideological opponents for the sake of social stability. Disraeli justified his views pragmatically by arguing that should the ruling class become indifferent to the suffering of the people, society would become unstable and social revolution would become a possibility.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: The German conservative Lutheran figure Adolf Stoecker founded the Christian Social Workers' Party in 1878 that aimed to align workers with Protestant Christianity and the German monarchy. Stoecker respected existing social hierarchies, but he also desired a state that would be active in protecting the poor and vulnerable citizens. Stoecker on occasion used antisemitic rhetoric to gain support, although he urged supporters to practice Christian love even towards Jews.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Chancellor Bismarck pursued a state-building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans more loyal to the country, implementing the modern welfare state in Germany during the 1880s. Bismarck was also fearful of a socialist revolution so he was created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist opponents.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: He adopted policies of state-organized compulsory insurance for workers to guard against sickness, accident, incapacity and old age in what has been named State Socialism. The term "State Socialism" was coined by Bismarck's liberal opposition, but it was later accepted by Bismarck. Bismarck was not a socialist and enacted the Anti-Socialist Laws. Bismark's State Socialism was based upon Romantic political thought in which the state was supreme and carried out Bismarck's agenda of supporting "the protest of collectivism against individualism" and of "nationality against cosmopolitanism" and stated that "the duty of the State is to maintain and promote the interests, the well-being of the nation as such". Rather, his actions were designed to offset the growth of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In addition, the policy of railway nationalization was established after the unification of Germany, bringing transportation under the control of the state.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: A red Tory is an adherent of a political philosophy derived from the Tory tradition, predominantly in Canada, but also in the United Kingdom. This philosophy tends to favour communitarian social policies while maintaining a degree of fiscal discipline and a respect of social and political order. In Canada, red Toryism is found in provincial and federal Conservative political parties. The history of red Toryism marks differences in the development of the political cultures of Canada and the United States. Canadian conservatism and American conservatism have been different from each other in fundamental ways, including their stances on social issues and the role of government in society.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Red Tory governments in Canada, such as those of John A. Macdonald, Robert Borden, R. B. Bennett, and John Diefenbaker, were known for supporting an active role for the government in the economy. This included the creation of government-owned and operated Crown Corporations such as the Canadian National Railway, and the development and protection of Canadian industries with programs such as the National Policy.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: In Europe, Catholic political movements emerged in the 19th century as a response to widespread deterioration of social conditions and rising anti-clerical and democratic tendencies amongst artisans and workers. It mixed social commitment, paternalistic social welfare and authoritarian patronage from above with deepening popular piety.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: In France, the influence of these doctrines can be seen in the conservative socialism of Adrien Albert Marie de Mun and François-René de La Tour du Pin Chambly, marquis de La Charce.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: During the post-war Japan, policies led by the right-wing conservaitve Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) became a political model closer to "paternalistic democracy" than westen-style "liberal democracy". In many ways, modern Japan is considered to be a "paternalistic state", including socially conservative elements such as Confucian tradition. In the case of the LDP administration under the 1955 System in Japan, their degree of economic control was stronger than that of Western conservative governments; it was also positioned closer to social democracy at that time. Since the 1970s, the oil crisis has slowed economic growth and increased the resistance of urban citizens to policies that favor farmers. To maintain its dominant position, the LDP sought to expand party supporters by incorporating social security policies and pollution measures advocated by opposition parties. It was also historically closely positioned to corporate statism.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: Founded in 1960, the Democratic Socialist Party (DSP) officially supported social democracy, but because of its nationalist, anti-communist and socially conservative nature, it was politically different from ordinary social democrats and was more politically close to the right-wing LDP. Therefore, it was regarded as a "conservative" political party in Japan at the time. The party was disbanded in 1994, but tradition of the DSP is carried on by the "Minsha kyōkai" (, Democratic Socialist Group) as a faction within the liberal Democratic Party of Japan, Democratic Party and now centre-right Democratic Party for the People.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: In the United States, Theodore Roosevelt has been the main figure identified with progressive conservatism as a political tradition. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand". Roosevelt's ideas such that of New Nationalism, an extension of his earlier philosophy of the Square Deal, have been described as paternalistic and contrasted with the individualistic New Freedom of progressive Democratic Woodrow Wilson. Wilson's program in practice has been described as resembling the more paternalistic ideas of Roosevelt, excluding the notion of reining in judges. The Republican administration of President William Howard Taft was progressive conservative and he described himself as "a believer in progressive conservatism", with Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declaring himself an advocate of "progressive conservatism". The term "Rockefeller Republican" has been used to describe the more paternalistic and moderate members of the Republican Party in contrast to party members of a more ideological nature, such as Barry Goldwater or the New Right more generally.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: "Bourgeois socialism" and "right-wing socialism" are pejorative terms that are used by some free-market conservative and right-libertarian movements and politicians to describe paternalistic conservatism, as they see it supporting paternalism and social solidarity, as opposed to commercialism, individualism and "laissez-faire" economics. They argue that paternalist conservatism supports state promoted social hierarchy and allows certain people and groups to hold higher status in such a hierarchy, which is conservative.


title: Paternalistic conservatism

text: However, although accepting of state intervention, paternalist conservatives usually do not support of anything resembling a command economy or planned economy, or an economy in which there is public control over the means of production, one of the stated goals of socialists. The economy that they support is usually similar to that of social democracy or social market economies.


title: Twinjet

text: A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. A twinjet is able to fly well enough to land with a single working engine, making it safer than a single-engine aircraft in the event of failure of an engine. Fuel efficiency of a twinjet is better than that of aircraft with more engines. These considerations have led to the widespread use of aircraft of all types with twin engines, including airliners, fixed-wing military aircraft, and others.


title: Twinjet

text: There are three common configurations of twinjet aircraft. The first, common on large aircraft such as airliners, has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing.


title: Twinjet

text: The second has one engine mounted on each side of the rear fuselage, close to its empennage, used by many business jets.


title: Twinjet

text: In the third configuration both engines are within the fuselage, side-by-side, used by most fighters since the 1960s. Later fighters using this configuration include the Su-27 'Flanker', the F-15 Eagle, and the F-22 Raptor.


title: Twinjet

text: The first twinjet to fly was the German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, flying in April 1941 with a pair of nacelled Heinkel HeS 8 axial-flow turbojets.


title: Twinjet

text: The twinjet configuration was used for short-range narrow-bodied aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The Airbus A300 was initially not successful when first produced as a short-range widebody, as airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes had to reduce frequencies to try and fill the high-capacity aircraft, and lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. However, thanks to the introduction of ETOPS rules that allowed twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them, Airbus was able to further develop the A300 as a medium- to long-range airliner to increased sales; Boeing launched its widebody twinjet, the Boeing 767, in response.


title: Twinjet

text: In the 1980s the Boeing 727 was discontinued, as its central engine bay would require a prohibitively expensive redesign to accommodate quieter high-bypass turbofans, and it was soon supplanted by twinjets for the narrow-body market; Airbus with the A320, and Boeing with the 757 and updated "classic" variants of the 737. During that decade only McDonnell Douglas continued development of the trijet design with an update to the DC-10, the MD-11, which initially had a range advantage over its closest medium wide-body competitors which were twinjets, the in-production Boeing 767 and Airbus A300/A310. In contrast to McDonnell Douglas sticking with their existing trijet configuration, Airbus (which never produced a trijet aircraft) and Boeing worked on new widebody twinjet designs that would become the Airbus A330 and Boeing 777, respectively. The MD-11's long range advantage was brief as it was soon nullified by the Airbus A330-300 and the extended-range Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 777-200ER.


title: Twinjet

text: The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner. The Boeing 777X is the world's largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant has the world's second longest aircraft range (behind Airbus A350-900 ULR). Other Boeing twinjets include the 767, 757 (out of production but still in commercial service) and 787. Competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350.


title: Twinjet

text: Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines (quad-jets) like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, which are classified as very large aircraft (over 400 seats in mixed-class configurations). Four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters.


title: Twinjet

text: Twin-jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet (three engine) and quad-jet (four engine) aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a high priority, many airlines have been increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets in the twenty-first century. The trijet designs were phased out first, in particular due to the more complicated design and maintenance issues of the middle engine mounted on the stabilizer. Early twinjets were not permitted by ETOPS restrictions to fly long-haul trans-oceanic routes, as it was thought that they were unsafe in the event of failure of one engine, so quad-jets were used. Quad-jets also had higher carrying capacity than comparable earlier twinjets. However, later twinjets such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 have matched or surpassed older quad-jet designs such as the Boeing 747 and Airbus A340 in these aspects, and twinjets have been more successful in terms of sales than quad-jets.


title: Twinjet

text: In 2012, Airbus studied a 470-seat twinjet competitor for the B747-8 with lower operating costs expected between 2023 and 2030, revived after Boeing launched the 777X in November 2013, while then-CEO Fabrice Brégier preferred to focus on product improvement rather than all-new concepts for 10 years.


title: Twinjet

text: It would have a 10-abreast economy like the 777; its 565 m (6,081 sq ft) wing, slightly more than the 747-8, would have an 80 m (262 ft) span, as wide as the A380, for a MTOW compared to for the 777X, with a composite structure for an operating empty weight of , and a range at Mach 0.85.


title: Twinjet

text: When flying far from diversionary airports (so called ETOPS/LROPS flights), the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, as one of the engines is more than powerful enough to keep the aircraft aloft (see below). Mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and (in essence) independently maintained. ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant.


title: Twinjet

text: Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate transatlantic and transpacific flight routes. On a nonstop flight from America to Asia or Europe, the long-range aircraft usually follows a great circle route. Hence, in case of an engine failure in a twinjet (like Boeing 777), the twin-jet could make emergency landing in fields in Canada, Alaska, eastern Russia, Greenland, Iceland, or the British Isles. The Boeing 777 has also been approved by the Federal Aviation Administration for flights between North America and Hawaii, which is the world's longest regular airline route with no diversion airports along the way.


title: Twinjet

text: On large passenger jets, the cost of the engines makes up a significant proportion of the plane's final cost. Each engine also requires separate service, paperwork, and certificates. Thus, having two larger engines as opposed to three or four smaller engines will significantly reduce both the purchase and maintenance costs of a plane.


title: Twinjet

text: Regulations governing the required thrust levels for transport aircraft are typically based upon the requirement that an aircraft be able to continue a takeoff if an engine fails after the takeoff decision speed is reached. Thus, with all engines operating, trijets must be able to produce at least 150% of the minimum thrust required to climb and quad-jets 133%. Conversely, since a twinjet will lose half of its total thrust if an engine fails, they are required to produce 200% of the minimum thrust required to climb when both engines are operating. Because of this, twinjets typically have higher thrust-to-weight ratios than aircraft with more engines, and are thus able to accelerate and climb faster.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Demarcus Dontavian Robinson (September 21, 1994) is an American football wide receiver for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Florida.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Robinson played his collegiate career at Florida from 2013–2015. He played minimally as a freshman in 2013 and finished the season with five receptions for 23 yards in seven games. Robinson was suspended twice during his freshman season after failing multiple tests for marijuana. In 2014, he had his breakout season and started 11 of 12 games. He was suspended for their season-opener, that was eventually canceled due to weather, against Idaho after failing another drug test for marijuana. Robinson made 53 receptions for 810 receiving yards and seven touchdown receptions. He led the Gators as a junior in 2015 with 48 receptions and also had 522 receiving yards and two touchdowns in 13 games and nine starts. On November 28, 2015, head coach Jim McElwain suspended Robinson 75 minutes before their 27–2 loss to Florida State. The suspension was due to a violation of NCAA and team rules. It was reported the violation was due to Robinson's meeting with a marketing official and it marked his fourth suspension in three years with Florida.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: On December 21, 2015, McElwain announced that Robinson and teammate Kelvin Taylor would forgo their senior season and enter the 2016 NFL Draft. When asked about the early departures, McElwain commented, "I really don't get it." Both players were not regarded as first or second round picks and most experts saw their early entries as gambles.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Robinson was one of 43 collegiate wide receivers to attend the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana. He performed all of the required combine drills and finished 26th among wide receivers in the 40-yard dash. On March 22, 2016, Robinson opted to attend Florida's pro day, along with Keanu Neal, Vernon Hargreaves, Jonathan Bullard, Jake McGee, Brian Poole, Kelvin Taylor, Alex McCalister, Antonio Morrison, and six other teammates. He chose to run all of the combine drills again and put up similar numbers from the combine. Scouts and team representatives from all 32 NFL teams attended, including Pittsburgh Steelers' General Manager Kevin Colbert, to scout Robinson as he performed positional drills. During the draft process, Robinson had private meetings and workouts with multiple teams, that Included the Philadelphia Eagles, Kansas City Chiefs, Oakland Raiders, and New York Jets. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, Robinson was projected to be a fifth to seventh round draft pick by NFL draft experts and scouts.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: The Kansas City Chiefs selected Robinson in the fourth round (126th overall) of the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the 14th wide receiver selected in 2016.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: On May 6, 2016, the Kansas City Chiefs signed Robinson to a four-year, $2.85 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $517,172.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Throughout his first training camp, he competed against Seantavius Jones, Mike Williams, Da'Ron Brown, Tyreek Hill, Mitch Mathews, and Kashif Moore for a backup wide receiver role. Head coach Andy Reid named him the fourth wide receiver on the depth chart to start the season, behind Jeremy Maclin, Albert Wilson, and Chris Conley.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: He made his professional regular season debut in the Kansas City Chiefs' season-opening 33–27 victory over the San Diego Chargers. Robinson played in 16 games in 2016, but mainly appeared on special teams and finished without a statistic. After finishing 12–4, the Kansas City Chiefs received a playoff berth after finishing atop the AFC West. On January 15, 2017, Robinson appeared in his first career postseason game as the Chiefs lost 16–18 to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC .


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: The Chiefs opted to release wide receiver Jeremy Maclin during training camp and held an open competition for his vacant starting wide receiver role. Robinson competed against Chris Conley, Tyreek Hill, De'Anthony Thomas, Albert Wilson, and Kenny Cook. He was named the fifth wide receiver on the depth chart behind Conley, Hill, Wilson, and Thomas.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: On September 24, 2017, Robinson caught two passes for nine yards during a 24–10 victory at the Los Angeles Chargers. He made his first career reception on a two-yard pass by quarterback Alex Smith before being tackled by cornerback Desmond King in the third quarter. On October 15, 2017, he earned his first career start after Albert Wilson suffered a knee injury and Chris Conley was placed on injured/reserve with a ruptured achilles. He made one reception for 16 yards in their 13–19 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. The following week, he made his second consecutive start and caught a season-high five passes for 69 yards in the Chiefs’ 31–30 loss at the Oakland Raiders. On December 31, 2017, Robinson made his eighth start of the season, replacing Tyreek Hill who was inactive after suffering a death in his family. Robinson went on to make four receptions for 31 yards in a 27–24 win at the Denver Broncos. He finished the season with 21 receptions for 212 receiving yards in 16 games and eight starts. The Kansas City Chiefs finished first in the AFC West with a 10–6 record. On January 6, 2018, Robinson made his first career postseason start and caught four passes for 57 yards and a touchdown during the Chiefs' 22–21 AFC loss to the Tennessee Titans. He scored the first touchdown of his career on a 14-yard pass by Alex Smith in the second quarter.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: In the 2018 season, Robinson appeared in all 16 regular season games, of which he started five. He recorded 22 receptions for 288 receiving yards and four receiving touchdowns. He scored a receiving touchdown in the last three games. In Week 17, he caught an 89-yard touchdown against the Raiders, which was Patrick Mahomes's 50th touchdown pass of the season.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: In Week 2 against the Oakland Raiders, Robinson caught six passes for 172 yards and two touchdowns as the Chiefs won 28–10. Overall, Robinson finished the 2019 season with 32 receptions for 449 receiving yards and four receiving touchdowns. Robinson won his first championship when the Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers 31–20 in Super Bowl LIV. He contributed on offense and special teams in the game but did not record a target or catch.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: On April 8, 2020, Robinson re-signed with the Chiefs on a one-year contract. Overall, he finished the 2020 season with 45 receptions for 466 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns. He was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on February 1, 2021, and activated on February 5. He played in Super Bowl LV, recording a single 11-yard reception in the 31–9 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: On March 25, 2021, Chiefs re-signed Robinson to a one-year contract. In the 2021 season, Robinson appeared in all 17 games and had 25 receptions for 264 yards and three touchdowns.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Robinson signed with the Baltimore Ravens on August 23, 2022. He scored his first touchdown as a Raven in Week 2 against the Miami Dolphins. In Week 11, against the Carolina Panthers, he had nine receptions for 128 receiving yards in the 13–3 victory.


title: Demarcus Robinson

text: Robinson's uncle is former NFL wide receiver Marcus Robinson who played for the Chicago Bears, Baltimore Ravens,


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: Hubbard was born in the town of Soper, Oklahoma. His family moved to Oak Cliff in southwest Dallas, Texas, in 1954. He attended W. H. Adamson High School with Michael Martin Murphey. Hubbard graduated in 1965 and enrolled in North Texas State University (now the University of North Texas) as an English major. He spent the summers in Red River, New Mexico, playing folk music in hootenannies with a trio known as Three Faces West.


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: During his time in New Mexico, Hubbard wrote "Up Against the Wall, Redneck Mother" first made famous by Jerry Jeff Walker's 1973 recording, and covered by a wide variety of other artists since. Bolstered by the success of the song, he was signed by Warner Bros. Records. Hubbard then assembled a band of friends and locals and, in 1976, released "Ray Wylie Hubbard and the Cowboy Twinkies." Unbeknownst to Hubbard, producer Michael Brovsky had decided to "Nashville-ize" the sound by adding overdub mixes and female backup singers to the recordings. The result was "a botched sound" that Hubbard disapproved of vehemently, but the album was released despite his attempts to block it.


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: Hubbard then recorded albums for various other labels for the next decade, but struggled with the sales of his mix of country, folk and blues. The last album he recorded in the 80s was "Caught in the Act" (1984) on his newly formed "Misery Loves Company" record label.


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: He returned to recording in the early 1990s, and released his album "Lost Train of Thought" in 1992, followed by "Loco Gringo's Lament" in 1994. Eventually a steady following began to re-discover Hubbard's music and he has been recording steadily since.


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: His guitar technique uses a strumming by the left (fretting) hand that is very old, but not frequently seen in double time without changing right hand beat.


title: Ray Wylie Hubbard

text: He describes his 2017 album "Tell the Devil I’m Getting There as Fast as I Can" as rock & roll, though his style has become associated with outlaw country, which he pans in the song "Lucifer and the Fallen Angels" singing, "Why go to Nashville knowing you never, ever gonna be mainstream? It’s better to reign in hell than serve in heaven."


title: Monstercat

text: Monstercat (formerly known as Monstercat Media) is a Canadian independent electronic music record label based in Vancouver, British Columbia. Founded in 2011 by Mike Darlington and Ari Paunonen, the label released music on a tri-weekly basis until 2018, when this was changed to four releases a week. This would later be changed to six releases a week in 2021.


title: Monstercat

text: Beginning with the release of its first compilation album, "Monstercat 001 – Launch Week", the label releases regular compilation albums featuring music from various artists. Until the release of "Monstercat 030 – Finale" in 2017, each compilation was given a name and depicted the story of the aforementioned mascot in the album cover. This preceded a rebranding of the label, with a new series of albums titled "Monstercat Uncaged." In 2018, Monstercat introduced a new brand titled "Instinct". In 2021, Monstercat acquired electronic label Silk Music to form a third brand titled "Monstercat Silk". The compilations ended the same year with the release of "Monstercat Uncaged Vol. 11".


title: Monstercat

text: Monstercat has featured many notable artists, including Pegboard Nerds, Vicetone, and Seven Lions. Monstercat has also released soundtrack albums for various video games, including "Fortnite", "Rocket League" and "Beat Saber".


title: Monstercat

text: The label is best known for the 2016 release of the song "Alone" by American DJ Marshmello, which reached Platinum status in the United States and Canada in 2017 and 2018, respectively. The April Fool's Day release of "Crab Rave" by Irish music producer Noisestorm became an internet meme for months after its release.


title: Monstercat

text: Monstercat Media was founded on 1 July 2011 by Mike Darlington (born 1989) and Ari Paunonen (born 1989/90), two university students from Waterloo, Ontario. The label's YouTube channel, which served as a medium to promote their friends and their music, was created the same day, and began a tri-weekly upload schedule in October. The young students were later responsible for the creation of the label's uniform compilation albums.


title: Monstercat

text: The team moved to their current offices in Vancouver in 2012 after Darlington and Paunonen finished school.


title: Monstercat

text: In July 2014, Monstercat surpassed one million in record sales across the label. When asked about the label's model, Darlington said:People don't need record labels anymore. Artists can do everything on their own. So we either had to do it for them better or provide a platform and marketing tool they can't find on their own. That's where the community concept came for Monstercat. We created a brand that fans can use to discover music and [that] artists can use as a platform for getting their music out there.


title: Monstercat

text: In August 2014, Monstercat published a manifesto calling for the reform of copyright law. In it, they described their desire to allow musicians more freedom in sampling other musicians' recordings.


title: Monstercat

text: In December 2014, Monstercat launched Monstercat FM as part of live-streaming service Twitch's start in music broadcasting. Monstercat FM is a 24/7 radio station-like Twitch stream featuring many of Monstercat's releases from throughout their history as a label. The launch event for the stream was a DJ set by Monstercat artist Stephen Walking. Monstercat FM was eventually added to YouTube and Microsoft-owned live-streaming website Mixer.


title: Monstercat

text: Since 2015, Monstercat has participated in multiple music festivals. One such festival was the Amsterdam Dance Event. "Billboard" described their 2015 show as "a three-hour mixer outing".


title: Monstercat

text: In May 2016, Monstercat signed American producer Marshmello's single, "Alone". Its music video has amassed over 2 billion views combined across YouTube, including a label record 161 million views on Monstercat's YouTube channel These views contributed to the artist earning $21 million the year after the video's release.


title: Monstercat

text: In June 2017, Monstercat partnered with Psyonix to promote the two-year anniversary of the video game "Rocket League" by releasing "Rocket League x Monstercat Vol. 1", an 18-song album from artists who had previously signed songs to Monstercat, including Slushii, Aero Chord and Vicetone. The album was released on 5 July 2017. Monstercat also announced their own television channel, Monstercat TV, on the Pluto TV television platform the same month.


title: Monstercat

text: In July 2017, Monstercat won "DJ Mag"s Best Breakthrough Label, competing against other labels such as Discwoman, Tuskegee Music, Perspectives Digital and Honey Soundsystem. Monstercat has hosted an annual block party near their headquarters, "Monstercat Compound", since 2017.


title: Monstercat

text: In November 2017, Monstercat received the label's first certified platinum record for the 2016 song "Alone" by Marshmello. In an email to "Billboard", Mike Darlington expressed his gratitude towards the collaboration and expressed his praisal for Marshmello's success.


title: Monstercat

text: In December 2017, Monstercat was named one of the five best independent dance labels of 2017 by "Billboard".


title: Monstercat

text: On the week of 1 January 2018, Monstercat announced a split in branding into two distinct themes, "Uncaged" and "Instinct", citing the diversity of their music library. This was accompanied by the creation of a separate channel, named Monstercat: Instinct. The Instinct brand features music that has a prominent focus on melodic aspects, including genres such as house and future bass. The change included a retirement of the tri-weekly release schedule in favour of a release schedule of four times a week and a podcast episode in-between.


title: Monstercat

text: In another first for the label, 9 August saw a collaborative single with Sumerian Records. Called "Kneel Before Me", produced by Slander and Crankdat, and featuring Asking Alexandria, the single was praised across both the electronic and rock music industries.


title: Monstercat

text: In September 2018, two weeks before "Rocket League x Monstercat Vol. 4" released, Gavin Johnson, Head of Gaming for Monstercat, spoke of the collaboration between the label and Psyonix:


title: Monstercat

text: I met Josh Watson (Esports Operations Manager of Psyonix) at one of our Monstercat gaming-driven events during E3 of 2016. Shortly after, Josh introduced me to their Audio Director Mike Ault as he had a vision for how he wanted to approach music in Rocket League which mirrored that of our ethos with Monstercat. During our first call, it was clear that we shared the same desire to build new platforms for exhibiting artists to be on and grow. The groundwork Rocket League x Monstercat Vol. 1 begun immediately afterwards.


title: Monstercat

text: In November 2018, Noisestorm's April Fools' Day single, "Crab Rave", entered "Billboard"s Dance/Electronic Songs chart. The Irish music artist, writing to the magazine, praised its entrance onto the chart, and expressed his approval of its status as an internet meme.


title: Monstercat

text: In 2019, Monstercat partnered with Dutch video game developer Soedesco to compose music for its video game, "Xenon Racer". The game was released on 26 March of that year.


title: Monstercat

text: On 14 March 2019, Czech-based indie studio Beat Games released their first paid Downloadable content (DLC) song pack for their virtual reality rhythm game "Beat Saber" for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. The song pack was released as a partnership with Monstercat, titled "Monstercat Music Pack Vol. 1". It features a collection of 10 tracks from the record label, including songs from Aero Chord, Pegboard Nerds, Muzzy, Stonebank and Kayzo. The song pack was released for $12.99 USD, (or $1.99 per individual track), with Monstercat offering new subscribers a free month of their Gold Subscription. A crossover music pack with "Rocket League" was released in November 2019.


title: Monstercat

text: In July 2019, to coincide with the label's eighth anniversary, Monstercat announced a partnership with Linden Labs to bring live music experiences into the developer's virtual reality game, "Sansar". The collaboration, called the "Monstercat: Call of the Wild Experience", began on 12 July, and hosts a live virtual reality alternative to Monstercat's weekly "Call of the Wild" radio show.


title: Monstercat

text: On 9 February 2021, Monstercat announced that they had acquired progressive house label Silk Music to form a third brand under the Monstercat label, titled "Monstercat Silk". The brand was promoted to focus on the progressive aspect of electronic music, continuing its signature style of progressive house and trance among similar genres. In the deal, Silk Music director Jacob Henry retained his directorial position with the brand. Silk Music's YouTube channel and social media accounts were rebranded to "Monstercat Silk" alongside the announcement (with Monstercat retaining Silk's 24/7 YouTube streams and the "Silk Music Showcase" radio show), while Monstercat also announced that with the acquisition, they would be moving to having 6 releases a week, with each brand having 2 releases a week.


title: Monstercat

text: On 17 September 2021, Monstercat and Westwood Recordings released an eight-track collaborative compilation album titled "Compound 2021", featuring artists such as The Funk Hunters, Kotek, and Defunk. It also coincides with the fourth year of the Monstercat Compound block party after a hiatus in 2020, which took place a day after the release of the compilation.


title: Monstercat

text: Monstercat signs artists on a single-track basis, allowing them to move between labels and brands without an exclusive contract.


title: Monstercat

text: Monstercat has supported prominent artists such as Krewella, Gareth Emery, Knife Party, Modestep, Seven Lions, and Infected Mushroom. Other producers with connections to the label include:


title: Urk

text: Urk is first mentioned in historical records dating to the 10th century, when it was still an island in the Zuiderzee, an inland sea that would become part of the IJsselmeer in the 13th century after a series of incursions by the North Sea. In 1939, a dike from the mainland to Urk ended the town's island status, just as the Afsluitdijk project was changing the salt water Zuiderzee surrounding Urk to the less saline IJsselmeer. Later in the 20th century, seabed areas surrounding Urk were reclaimed from the sea to become the Noordoostpolder.


title: Urk

text: The mainstay of the town's formal economy has always been fishing, and the products of the sea coming in through Urk harbor continue to be exported widely, although today Urk's fishing boats must travel greater distances to gather them than was required in most historical periods.


title: Urk

text: Religious life has traditionally been very important to Urk's inhabitants, with active, conservative congregations of the Dutch Reformed denominations playing key roles in the life of the community.


title: Urk

text: Towards the north, the IJsselmeer is enclosed by an arc of boulder clay high areas of land which formed during an ice age glaciations of the Pleistocene epoch: Texel, Wieringen, Urk, de Voorst, and Gaasterland. To the south of that arc a lake formed as a result of meltwater, which became known as Almere. North of the boulder clay highland of Urk, the Vecht river flowed into the Almere, while the river IJssel with tributaries flowed into the south of Urk. As the climate became warmer during the Middle Ages, the sea level rose whilst the surrounding areas have been slowly steadily sinking because of forebulge effect since the end of the Ice Age. During the 13th century (and especially after a large storm in 1282) the Zuiderzee formed, and the water round Urk suddenly became a tidal sea. Because there was no sea defense, over time large pieces of the island eroded. The southwest side of Urk, which rose perpendicularly out of the sea, was called "het Hoge Klif" ("the High Cliff"). Around 1700 the municipality of Amsterdam donated sea defenses to Urk. The town contains the highest point in the province of Flevoland.


title: Urk

text: The oldest instance of the name "Urk" is a donation certificate of 966 from Holy Roman Emperor Otto I to the Sint Pantaleonsklooster monastery in Cologne. The text reads: "cuiisdam insulae medietatem in Almere, que Urch vocatur" (Latin: "of a certain island in the middle of Almere, which is called Urch"). Until 1475 the High and Low Lordship of Urk and Emmeloord (the most northern village of Schokland) was in the hands of the Van Kuinre family. From 1475 to 1614, the Zoudenbalch family of Utrecht were Lords of Urk and Emmeloord. From 1614 to 1660, Urk and Emmeloord were ruled by the van der Werve from Antwerp. From 1660 to 1792 Urk and Emmeloord belonged to the municipality of Amsterdam, and ruled from 1660 to 1672/1678 by Andries de Graeff. From 1792 to 1950 Urk belonged to the province of North Holland.


title: Urk

text: After World War II, Urk ceased to be an island, and Urk's town expanded into the reclaimed land of the polder. Many Urkers who previously left the town because of overcrowding before the polder reclamation was completed were able to return to Urk. From 1950 to 1986 Urk belonged to the province of Overijssel. Since 1986, Urk has belonged to the province of Flevoland.


title: Urk

text: The Noordoostpolder in its early years had an alternative name "Urker Land," from which Urk's newspaper, "Het Urkerland", gets its name.


title: Urk

text: The important economic pillar of the village remains fishery. After the IJsselmeer was formed, the Urkers moved their fishing operations to the North Sea. Additionally, Urk is focused on making a connection between the existing economy and new activities such as tourism, social care, maritime industry and services. The local council is keen to particularly promote tourism, retail and fisheries. In the past, many lives were lost in storms on the Zuiderzee and North Sea. There is a memorial to lost fishermen on Urk, popularly known as the "Urker vrouw": a statue of a woman looking out to sea, vainly awaiting the return of her husband and sons.


title: Urk

text: "Gemeentebelangen", "Hart voor Urk" and "Krachtig Urk" are local parties. Hart voor Urk was founded by former SGP councillor Jan Koffeman with largely identical party policies to SGP's.


title: Urk

text: A majority coalition of ChristenUnie, SGP and Hart voor Urk are currently in power. The town council is led by (non-elected) mayor Cees van den Bos.


title: Urk

text: None of these parties can be described as either left-wing (socialist) or liberal. National parties such as the VVD (conservative/liberal), D66 (liberal), GroenLinks (green party) and PvdA (labour) are not represented in Urk's town council and support for these parties in national and regional elections remains minimal. However, due to slowly growing support for the VVD, an Urk affiliate of the conservative/liberal party was founded in early 2011 and entered the 2014 local elections. However, the VVD only drew 2.7% of the vote, insufficient for a seat.


title: Urk

text: Urk is one of the most politically conservative areas in the Netherlands. As part of the so-called Dutch "Bible belt", a vast majority of election votes go to the three Christian parties in the Netherlands, SGP, ChristenUnie and CDA. Urk is also known for its high turnout at each election, which is usually considerably higher than the national average (although general turnout percentages have dropped approx. 10% since 2002).


title: Urk

text: Voting patterns used to be relatively stable, with approximately 85-90% of the votes spread out evenly over SGP, ChristenUnie and CDA (each between 25-35%). CDA in Urk usually got more votes in national elections than in local elections, while ChristenUnie's support is sometimes twice locally compared to what it receives from Urk voters in national elections (this is sometimes attributed to the apparent left-wing leanings of the ChristenUnie nationally, while ChristenUnie in Urk tends to be more conservative). SGP's support locally is not much different from its support in national elections.


title: Urk

text: However, in recent years a few changes in voting patterns occurred, such as a growing support for national protest parties such as the LPF or Geert Wilders' PVV Freedom Party. Also, voting patterns these days tend to show bigger swings, as shown in 2010's and 2012's national elections in which CDA lost 11% and 13% respectively, and in 2011's regional elections, in which ChristenUnie lost 18%. In 2012, orthodox-Christian SGP even registered an absolute majority with 51.2% of the vote. (In the European Elections of 2014, the combined ChristenUnie/SGP list even registered 78% of the vote).


title: Urk

text: Support for established left wing parties, such as the Labour Party or the Socialist Party, remains minimal.


title: Urk

text: One of the oldest and most distinctive dialects of Dutch is the language spoken in Urk. Nearly everyone in the village speaks this dialect and uses it in daily life. The dialect deviates considerably from contemporary standard Dutch and has preserved many old characteristics that disappeared from standard Dutch a long time ago. The Urkish dialect also includes elements that are older than standard Dutch and were never part of the standard language. For example, the old word for "father" in the Urkish dialect is . The dialect developed this way because until World War II, Urk was an island and could only be reached by boat. Radio was unknown, and the poor population did not have much money for newspapers and books. Until the modern era primary education for the children typically lasted only two years; afterwards children had to help maintain the family and formal schooling ended.


title: Urk

text: Recent linguistic classifications have assigned the Urk dialect to the "Urkers dialect family", of which it is the only member.


title: Urk

text: The Urkish dialect has more vowel sounds than standard Dutch and each vowel has short and long forms. The pronunciation of vowels deviates from standard Dutch and is closer to English.


title: Urk

text: Because living conditions in Urk in historical times were very poor, young girls (typically about age 11 or 12) would frequently leave the island to become domestic servants, mostly in or around Amsterdam. They often served with Jewish families. After a few years, they would return to Urk to form families of their own. As a result of this practice, the Urkish dialect absorbed some loanwords from the Amsterdam dialect and also from Yiddish. For instance, the Yiddish "Shnur" for "sister-in-law" became the Urkish "Snoar" (identical meaning); the Hebrew "Kallah" () for "bride" became the Urkish "Kalletjen", meaning "girlfriend" (literally "little bride").


title: Urk

text: When Napoleon occupied the Netherlands, many French words were incorporated into both standard Dutch and Urkish. Just as for standard Dutch, French words often changed form when incorporated into Urkish. The Urkish dialect has always been primarily a spoken language, and there are not many old texts written in the dialect. Only in recent years have people begun to write prose and poetry in the Urkish dialect. There are Urkers who have translated Bible books into Urkish, such as the book of Psalms.


title: Urk

text: Urk is no longer an island and exposure to the standard Dutch through the media is widespread. However, the distinctive Urkish dialect is still alive.


title: Urk

text: A famous Urkish folktale is the story parents tell their children when they want to know where the babies come from. The tale involves a large exposed rock which can be seen in the IJsselmeer about from the shore. This stone is known as the ""Ommelebommelestien"". Urkers often tell their children that there are two kinds of people-- "vreemden" (strangers) and "Urkers" (people from Urk). Strangers are usually born from a cabbage, or a stork brings them to their new parents, but Urkers come from a large stone which lies about from the shores of their former island. Nowadays, the stone is usually called "Ommelebommelestien" (Ommel-Bommel Stone), but in former times it was called "Ommelmoerstien": "moer" means "mother's" in the Urkish dialect. In the tale, a stork comes all the way from Egypt to put babies in the stone. When the baby is about to be born, the baby's father is said to have to go to Schokland to pick up the key that gives access to the stone. So when an Urkish man is asked if he has been to Schokland, he is actually being asked if he has children. In the older days, when both Urk and Schokland were still islands in the Zuiderzee, the father had to take the obstetrician in his boat and row from Urk to Schokland to get the key, and then from Schokland to the Ommelebommelestien to get the baby. Nowadays he would be able to go to Schokland by car, but according to the legend he still has to row. The door to the stone is somewhere below sea level, so it is difficult to find. Once the door was found, a small price had to be paid for the baby: traditionally one Dutch guilder for a girl but two for a boy. The mother was said to be kept in bed with a nail through her right foot. There she would celebrate that she had just become a mother.


title: Urk

text: The prolific Dutch writer Albert Cornelis Baantjer was born here. Baantjer is mainly known for his large series of detective novels revolving around police inspector De Cock and his side-kick, sergeant Vledder.


title: Urk

text: Writer Jef Last lived on Urk for several years from 1932 onwards. He wrote several articles about Urk for one of the most progressive Dutch magazines, 'De Groene Amsterdammer'. While living here, he fell in love with a fisherman, and was inspired to write "Zuiderzee". This novel deals with the love between two fishermen living on Urk and was one of the first, if not the first novel in Dutch literature to openly deal with homosexuality.


title: Urk

text: The Dutch writer, painter and resistance hero Willem Arondeus spent some time in Urk from 1920. While residing on Urk, during 1922, he wrote 'Afzijdige Strofen', a collection of twenty homo-erotic poems which were posthumously published in 2001.


title: Urk

text: The birth rate of the municipality of Urk is the highest in the Netherlands as of 2016 (and highest in previous years). But like many other places in the Netherlands this number declined to 18.7% (down from 30.8% in 1988). In 1988 only Zeewolde had a slightly higher birth rate at 31.3%, but the birth rate Urk remained the second highest. The total fertility rate declined to 2.6 (down from 3.9 in 1988).


title: Urk

text: Urk has no railway station but the nearest stations are Kampen, Dronten and Lelystad, each approximately away. This makes Urk one of the most isolated places in the Netherlands as far as railway connections are concerned.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil is the upper layer of soil. It has the highest concentration of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological soil activity occurs.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil is composed of mineral particles and organic matter and usually extends to a depth of 5-10 inches (13–25 cm). Together these make a substrate capable of holding water and air which encourages biological activity.


title: Topsoil

text: There are generally a high concentration of roots in topsoil since this is where plants obtain most of their vital nutrients. It also plays host to significant bacterial, fungal and entomological activity without which soil quality would degrade and become less suitable for plants. Bacteria and fungi can be essential in facilitating nutrient exchange with plants and in breaking down organic matter into a form that roots can absorb. Insects also play important roles in breaking down material and aerating and rotating the soil. Many species directly contribute to the health of the soil resulting in stronger plants. A healthy topsoil layer is a very rich microbiome that hosts a wide array of species.


title: Topsoil

text: Organic matter provides nutrition for living organisms and varies in quantity between different soils with the strength of the soil structure decreasing when more is present. It condenses and settles over time in different ways depending upon conditions such as beneath roadbeds and foundations vs uncovered and exposed to the elements. The structure becomes affected once the soil is dehydrated. Dehydrated topsoil volume substantially decreases and may suffer wind erosion.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil is naturally produced in the process of soil formation or pedogenesis. Natural topsoil is mined and conditioned for human use and makes up the bulk of commercial topsoil available. The current rate of use and erosion outpaces soil generation.


title: Topsoil

text: It is possible to create artificial topsoil which supports some of the engineering or biological uses of topsoil. More traditional examples of artificial plant-growth media include terra preta and potting mix. Manufactured topsoil based on minerals, biosolids, compost and/or paper mill sludge is available commercially. A Victorian open-cut coal mine was rehabilitated with low-quality artificial topsoil made from local materials.


title: Topsoil

text: In soil classification systems, topsoil is known as the O Horizon or A Horizon. Soil horizons are layers parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. The depth of the topsoil layer is measured as the depth of the surface to the first densely packed soil layer, known as subsoil.


title: Topsoil

text: Organisations such as the British Standards Institution (BSI) and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture publish guidelines for soil quality and the desired levels of topsoil nutrients broadly suitable for many plants.


title: Topsoil

text: Two common types of commercial topsoil are Bulk and Bagged Topsoil. The following table illustrates major differences between the two.


title: Topsoil

text: The preceding tables are for a multipurpose grade and certain levels can alter with regard to soil pH.


title: Topsoil

text: Standards also exist for specialist soils suitable for plants with specific needs including acidic or ericaceous soil and calcareous soil. These have different pH levels to typical soil and are meant for growing different plant species. Low fertility, low fertility acidic and low fertility calcareous are other soil classifications designed for plants which thrive in nutrient sparse soil.


title: Topsoil

text: Examples of specialist plants include the Venus flytrap which is found in low nitrogen and phosphorus environments so is less tolerant of highly nutrient rich environments than other plants and less able to compete in them. Whereas blueberries require ericaceous soil to grow well and clover grows well in calcareous soil. Soils must therefore be selected to suit the plants which are intended to be grown and hence standards are required.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil is the primary resource for plants to grow and crops to thrive. The main two parameters for this are carbon and nitrogen. The carbon provides energy and nitrogen is required for plants to build proteins and hence tissues. Plants require them in a range of ratios to enable suitable growth. An optimum figure for topsoil in the UK is a C:N ratio of less than 20:1. A sawdust base typically has a high C:N ratio in the order of 400:1 while an alfalfa hay has a low carbonaceous content and can typically have a C:N ratio around 12:1.


title: Topsoil

text: A variety of soil mixtures are sold commercially as topsoil. Typical uses for this product are improving gardens and lawns or for use in container gardens. Potting soil, compost, manure and peat are also sold for domestic uses with each having specific intended purposes. Topsoil products typically are not as suitable for potting plants or growing fruit and veg as potting soil or compost. Using it for this purpose can also work out prohibitively expensive compared to other alternatives.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil is also used for proper surface grading near residential buildings. In order to protect against flooding the International Residential Code requires a 2% slope () for the first ten feet away from the home.Energy Star requires a rate of .


title: Topsoil

text: Commercially available topsoil (manufactured or naturally occurring) in the United Kingdom must be classified to British Standard BS 3882, with the current version dated 2015. The standard has several classifications of topsoil with the final classification requiring material to meet certain threshold criteria such as nutrient content, extractable phytotoxic elements, particle size distribution, organic matter content, carbon:nitrogen ratio, electrical conductivity, loss on ignition, pH, chemical and physical contamination. The topsoil must be sampled in accordance with the British Standard and European Norm BS EN 12579:2013 Soil improvers and growing media – Sampling.


title: Topsoil

text: Topsoil erosion occurs when the topsoil layer is blown or washed away. The estimated annual costs of public and environmental health losses related to soil erosion in the United States exceed $45 billion. Conventional industrial agriculture practices such as ploughing and spraying high quantities of synthetic liquid fertilisers can degrade the quality of the soil. Intensive farming methods to satisfy high food demands with high crop yields and growing crops in monocultures can deplete the soil nutrients and damage the soil microbiome. These factors can affect the consistency and quality of the soil resulting in increased erosion.


title: Topsoil

text: Surface runoff from farm fields is a type of nonpoint source pollution. Topsoil as well as farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains occur. This can result in polluting waterways and groundwater and may potentially contaminate drinking water sources. Algae blooms can occur when high quantities of nutrients flood rivers, lakes or oceans often as a result of farm runoff or from sewage. These harmful algal blooms can be toxic and have devastating impacts on ecosystems and wildlife. They are often referred to as red tides due to the presence of toxic red algae which can impact human food sources by contaminating seafood.


title: Topsoil

text: Sustainable techniques attempt to slow erosion through the use of cover crops in order to build organic matter in the soil. The United States loses almost 3 tons of topsoil per acre per year. of topsoil can take between 500 and 1,000 years to form naturally, making the rate of topsoil erosion a serious ecological concern. Based on 2014 trends, the world has about 60 years of topsoil left.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: Connor Richard John Roberts (born 23 September 1995) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a right-back for club Burnley and the Wales national team. He helped his nation qualify for the FIFA World Cup in 2022 for the first time since 1958, and was included in the squad for the tournament.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: Born in Neath, Roberts grew up in the nearby village of Crynant and joined Swansea City's Youth Academy at the age of 9. After progressing through the academy, Roberts won the 2014–15 Professional U21 Development League 2 title in his debut professional season and was rewarded with a new two-year contract.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: Roberts signed a new three-year contract with Swansea City in September 2016. Upon returning from Bristol Rovers, Roberts linked up with Swansea City Under-23s and went on to win the 2016–17 Professional U23 Development League 2 title and 2016–17 Premier League Cup.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: On 8 August 2015, Roberts joined League Two club Yeovil Town on a one-month loan deal, and made his debut later that day in a 3–2 defeat against Exeter City. Roberts quickly established himself at Huish Park, and the Glovers extended Roberts' loan contract to the end of the 2015–16 season. Roberts made 54 appearances for Yeovil over the course of the season, missing just one match due to a call-up to the Wales under-21 national team. Roberts received three Player of the Year Awards and was also voted Young Player of the Year.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: In August 2016, Roberts joined League One club Bristol Rovers on a six-month loan deal. Roberts made his debut in a 3–2 victory over Northampton Town on 1 October 2016, and made a further four appearances for the Pirates before returning to Swansea.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: On 14 July 2017, it was announced that Roberts would be joining Championship club Middlesbrough on a season-long loan deal. After making one league appearance his loan spell was terminated in January and he returned to Swansea City.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: Roberts made his debut for Swansea City on 6 January 2018 in the FA Cup third round against Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 29 September, he scored his first goal for the club in a 3–0 win over Queens Park Rangers. On 3 June 2021, Roberts was named Swansea City Player of the Year for the 2020–21 season.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: On 31 August 2021, Roberts joined Premier League side Burnley for an undisclosed fee signing a four-year deal.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: Roberts has been capped at Wales under-19 level. In March 2016, Roberts received his first call-up to the Wales under-21 side for their 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification matches, and made his debut as a second-half substitute in their 2–1 defeat against Romania, on 29 March 2016.


title: Connor Roberts (footballer, born 1995)

text: He was called into the Wales national football team for the first time on 15 March 2018. He made his senior international debut in the China Cup final against Uruguay in March 2018 when he came on as a 59th minute substitute for Declan John. Roberts scored his first goal for the senior team in a 4–1 victory over the Republic of Ireland on 6 September 2018, finishing a half-volley set up by Gareth Bale. In May 2021, he was selected for the Wales squad for the delayed UEFA Euro 2020 tournament. On 16 June, Roberts scored the second goal in a 2–0 win against Turkey, once again assisted by Bale. On 26 June, Roberts' participation in the tournament ended due to a groin injury sustained in the first half, and Wales went on to lose 4–0 to Denmark.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: Florian Maria Georg Christian Graf Henckel von Donnersmarck (; born 2 May 1973) is an Academy Award-winning German and Austrian film director. He is best known for writing and directing the 2006 dramatic thriller "Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others)", the 2010 romantic thriller "The Tourist" starring Angelina Jolie and Johnny Depp, and the 2018 epic drama "Never Look Away".


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: Henckel von Donnersmarck was born in 1973 in Cologne, West Germany, into the aristocratic Roman Catholic Henckel von Donnersmarck family. He grew up in New York City, Brussels, Frankfurt, and West Berlin and is fluent in English, German, French, Russian, and Italian.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: After graduating at the top of his class from the German section of the European School of Brussels I, he studied Russian literature in St. Petersburg for two years and passed the State Exam for Teachers of Russian as a Foreign Language. He holds a Master of Arts degree in Philosophy, politics and economics at New College, Oxford, and a diploma in Film Directing from the University of Television and Film Munich.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: The younger son of Dr. Leo-Ferdinand Graf Henckel von Donnersmarck, a former president of the German division of the Order of Malta, and literary scout Anna Maria von Berg, Henckel von Donnersmarck holds German and Austrian citizenships. His father's only brother, Gregor Henckel Donnersmarck, is the emeritus abbot at Heiligenkreuz Abbey, a Cistercian monastery in the Vienna Woods where Henckel von Donnersmarck spent a month writing the first draft of "The Lives of Others" (German: "Das Leben der Anderen").


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: Henckel von Donnersmarck is married to Christiane Asschenfeldt, the first International Executive Director of Creative Commons. They have three children and currently live in Los Angeles. He stands 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) tall.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: In 1977 (aged 4 or 5), while living as a child in New York, he saw his first movie at the Museum of Modern Art. He expected to see "Doctor Dolittle" but was "exposed instead to" the German melodrama "Varieté". He cites this experience as the start of his interest in film.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: In 1996, he won a directing apprenticeship with Richard Attenborough on "In Love and War", and then went to study at the Fiction Directing Class of the Hochschule für Fernsehen und Film München (University of Television and Film Munich), Germany, alma mater of directors as diverse as Wim Wenders, Roland Emmerich and Maren Ade, who was Donnersmarck's classmate. His first short film, "Dobermann" (which he wrote, produced, directed and edited), broke the school record for the number of awards won by a student production. It became an international festival sensation, and Donnersmarck traveled the festival circuit for over a year.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: His first feature film "Das Leben der Anderen" ("The Lives of Others"), which Donnersmarck spent three years writing, directing and completing, won the European Film Award for Best Film, Best Actor and Best Screenplay in 2006. Donnersmarck won the Los Angeles Film Critics Association's award for Best Foreign Film, was nominated for the Golden Globe (which went to Clint Eastwood instead), and on 25 February 2007 won the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film. In 2007, Donnersmarck was one of 115 new members to be invited to join AMPAS.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: His next film, "The Tourist", was released in 2010. Donnersmarck re-wrote, directed and completed his sophomore work in under eleven months, telling Charlie Rose he had wanted a break from writing a dark screenplay about suicide. "The Tourist" was a thriller starring Angelina Jolie and Johnny Depp, and was nominated for three Golden Globes: Best Musical or Comedy, Depp for Actor Musical or Comedy and Jolie for Actress Musical or Comedy. It also won three Teen Choice Awards nominations (Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Actress) of which it won two. The film opened to middling number, but eventually ended up grossing US$278.3 million at the worldwide box office, prompting "The Hollywood Reporter" belatedly to proclaim it an "international hit".


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: In 2019, his third feature film "Never Look Away" was nominated for the Golden Lion at the 75th Venice International Film Festival, for a Golden Globe by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association and for two Oscars in the Best International Feature Film and Best Cinematography categories at the 91st Academy Awards. This was only the second time in history that a German language film by a German director was nominated for an Oscar in multiple categories, the other film being Wolfgang Petersen's "Das Boot" 36 years prior. It became one of less than two dozen German language features since the end of World War II to surpass one million dollars at the North American box office. Donnersmarck and Christian Petzold are the only directors to have two films in that list. In most international territories, beginning with the Netherlands, "Never Look Away" became the most successful German language film since "The Lives of Others".


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: In a 2010 interview with "The Guardian", director Howard Davies named Donnersmarck as the artist he most admired.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: René Pollesch wrote a play, "L'Affaire Martin!", which poked fun at von Donnersmarck. According to Pollesch, the director's parents attended a performance and came backstage to say they liked it.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: After meeting him at the Davos World Economic Forum, Jay Nordlinger, writing for the "National Review", described Donnersmarck as "one of the most impressive people on the planet".


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: The Europe List, a largest survey on European culture, named Donnersmarck's "The Lives of Others" second on a list of the best films in European culture, after Roberto Benigni's "Life is Beautiful" and followed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet's "Amélie".


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: The "National Review" voted Donnersmarck's "Never Look Away" as the No. 1 Best Film of the Decade 2010–2019, over Denis Villeneuve's "Arrival", which came in second place Terrence Malick's "Tree of Life" which came in third, Alfonso Cuarón's "Gravity" and Spike Jonze's "Her", which rounded out the top 10.


title: Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck

text: In 2011, Donnersmarck was honoured by the University of Oxford, his alma mater, as one of its 100 most distinguished members from 10 centuries. The university named 100 streets in Oxford's historical centre after these graduates, with Upper Oxpens Road renamed for Donnersmarck.


title: An-Nisa

text: An-Nisa' (, ; The Women) is the fourth chapter (sūrah) of the Quran, with 176 verses (āyāt). The title derives from the numerous references to women throughout the chapter, including verse 34 and verses 127-130.


title: An-Nisa

text: This Medinan surah aims at protecting the newly formed Muslim community by outlining acceptable behavior for Muslims. It illustrates the Quran's role as an authoritative legal source and its ability to shape the community. The surah aims to eradicate the earlier practices of pagan, Arab communities that are no longer considered moral in the Muslim society. For example, the section of this surah about dealing fairly with orphan girls (4:2-4) addresses the pre-Islamic Arabic practice of marrying orphan girls to take their property.


title: An-Nisa

text: Shirk (refer 4:48 and 4:116) is held to be the worst form of disbelief, and it is identified in the Quran as the only sin that God will not pardon.


title: An-Nisa

text: Thematically, "an-Nisā" not only addresses concerns about women, but also discusses inheritance, marriage laws, how to deal with children and orphans, legal practices, jihād, relations between Muslim communities and People of the Book, war, and the role of Jesus as a prophet, rather than the son of God as Christians claimed. Furthermore, in discussing war, this surah encourages the Muslim community to fight for the vulnerable in war, as demonstrated by 4:75: "Why should you not fight in God's cause and for those oppressed men, women, and children who cry out, ‘Lord, rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors! By Your grace, give us a protector and give us a helper!’?" The surah addresses a multitude of issues faced by the early Muslim community and responds to the challenges the community faced. The wide variety of issues addressed in the surah and the length of the surah make it difficult to divide into literary structures. However, based on a study of themes present in each section of the Surah, Amīn Ahsan Islāhī divides the surah into three thematically-based sections: social reform, the Islamic community and its opponents, and a conclusion. Mathias Zahniser presents an alternative means of looking at the structure of this surah. He claims that the central theme of this surah is the address to the Christians. He has come to this conclusion based on examination of the structure of the surah based on such devices as parallels, repetition, and ring composition. However, Carl Ernst admits that more works needs to be done in this type of structural analysis to more fully understand the composition of such extensive suras.


title: An-Nisa

text: In "Qur'an and Woman," Amina Wadud places interpretations of the Quran into three categories: traditional, reactive, and holistic. The type of interpretation one applies to surah 4 greatly influences one's perspective on the role of women within Muslim society. Taking the third approach, a holistic approach allows for a feminist reading of the Quran, which is particularly relevant to an-Nisā and can reshape the understanding of this surah.


title: An-Nisa

text: Regarding the timing and contextual background of the believed revelation ("Asbāb al-nuzūl"), it is a Medinan surah as confirmed by Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, who states that the sura must have been revealed after the hijrah based on the subject matter.


title: An-Nisa

text: Although an-Nisā typically appears as the fourth surah, according to the Nöldeke classification of surahs, based on Islamic traditions, "The Women" was approximately revealed as the hundredth surah. Amir-Ali places it as the 94th surah, while Hz. Osman and Ibn`Abbas believe it is the 92nd. Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq places it as the 91st surah revealed. Based on the legislation concerning orphans, the surah was most likely revealed after many Muslims were killed at the Battle of Uhud, leaving numerous dependants in the new Muslim community. The revelation, therefore, began around the year three, according to the Islamic calendar, but was not completed until the year eight. Consequently, parts of this surah, the second-longest in the Quran, were revealed concurrently with portions of "The Examined Woman," sura 60. However, the surah shows some thematic coherence, despite its disjointed and ongoing revelation.


title: An-Nisa

text: Furthermore, as relates to the placement of this surah within the Quran as a whole, Neal Robinson notes what he refers to as the "dovetailing" of surahs. Based on this idea of structure, one surah ends with a topic that is immediately picked up in the next surah. The Family of 'Imran, surah 3, includes a discussion of male and female near the end of the surah (3.195). This theme continues at the beginning of surah 4: "People, be mindful of your Lord, who created you from a single soul, and from it created its mate, and from the pair of them spread countless men and women far and wide; be mindful of God, in whose name you make requests of one another." This dovetailing may indicate a complex editorial process involved in ordering the surahs.


title: An-Nisa

text: A detailed explanation of this verse is given in the 'interpretation' (Tafsir) of Ibn Kathir, a scholar of the Mamluk Sultanate\Mamluk era:


title: An-Nisa

text: In verses 4:15-16 the first, preliminary directives for the punishment for unlawful sexual intercourse are stated. The first verse deals with women. The punishment laid down was to confine them until further directives were revealed. The second verse (i.e. 16) relates to both sexes. The injunction lays down that they should be punished - that is, they should be beaten and publicly reproached. Later, another injunction was revealed see (Surah An-Nour Verse 24:2) which laid down that both the male and female should be given a hundred lashes.


title: An-Nisa

text: Verses 4:22- 23 cover which classes of women within one's family with whom marriage or sexual intercourse would be considered haram.


title: An-Nisa

text: "The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World" terms Verse 4:34 the Quran's least egalitarian verse.


title: An-Nisa

text: Some Muslims, such as Islamic feminist groups, argue that Muslim men use the text as an excuse for domestic violence.


title: An-Nisa

text: Tafsir, Ibn Kathir says, "Verily, Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him (in worship), meaning, He does not forgive a servant if he meets Him while he is associating partners with Him". The "Enlightening Commentary into the Light of the Holy Qur'an" says, "Polytheism is the worst form of sins and it is a barrier against the Divine forgiveness."


title: An-Nisa

text: Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Ibn Majah and Nasa'i narrated a hadith transmitted by Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, that believed by some scholars as the Asbab al-Nuzul (cause of revelation) of the Sura of An Nisa verse 65. However, there are contemporary Fatwa that the revelation of this verse were attributed to az-Zubayr were weak, as the stronger Hadith which attributed to the revelation of this verse were instead attributed to the tradition of Umar, the second Rashidun Caliph


title: An-Nisa

text: Muhammad ibn Sulayman recorded that al-Sadiq relayed to his elderly father, Abu Muhammad ibn Sulayman, concerning the following verse: "And whoever obeys Allah and the Messenger - those will be with the ones upon whom Allah has bestowed favor of the prophets, the steadfast affirmers of truth, the martyrs and the righteous. And excellent are those as companions." (4:69) stating, "The Messenger of Allah in this verse is from "of the prophets", and we (Ahl al-Bayt) in this subject are "the truthful and the martyrs" and you all, (our followers), are the "righteous", so adopt this name."


title: An-Nisa

text: According to Dipak Kutha, "much of the religious justification of violence against nonbelievers (Dar ul Kufr) by the promoters of jihad is based on the Quranic "sword verses" (traditionally Muslims speak of ""the" sword verse", singular, i.e. ).


title: An-Nisa

text: Tafsir Ibn Kathir says, "Therefore, the believers fight in obedience to Allah and to gain His pleasure, while the disbelievers fight in obedience to Shaytan. Allah then encourages the believers to fight His enemies". Islam allows war in self-defense (Quran 22:39), to defend Islam (rather than to spread it), to protect those who have been removed from their homes by force because they are Muslims (Quran 22:40), and to protect the innocent who are being oppressed (Quran 4:75).


title: An-Nisa

text: "Some Muslim thinkers in the past and some radical Muslims today . . . (say about Verse 4:76) . . . the so-called 'sword verses', have "abrogated" (revoked or annulled) the verses that permit warfare only in defense. They used these 'sword verses' to justify war against unbelievers as a tool of spreading Islam"."But the idea of a total and unrestricted conflict is completely unIslamic (as per other verses of the Quran)."


title: An-Nisa

text: Muhammad advises his companions to avoid taking these individuals as helpers or guardians. Al-Awfi reported from Ibn Abbas, if they abandon Hijrah, As-Suddi said that this part of the Ayah means, "If they make their disbelief public take (hold of) them and kill them wherever you find them, and take neither Awliya nor helpers from them". However, Ibn Kathir clarifies that non-combatants, those who are neutral or hesitant about fighting and those who offer you peace are not to be fought against.


title: An-Nisa

text: These verses cover issues associated with female orphans; desertion by the husband and the desirability of marital peace.


title: An-Nisa

text: In Kitab al-Kafi, Ja'far al-Sadiq writes a letter to his companions stressing the importance of obeying Allah, his Messenger, and the "Wali al Amr" (Progeny of Muhammad)- going so far as to say that those who disobey and deny their virtues are "liars and hypocrites". He asserts that these are the individuals described as "hypocrites" in the verse, "Indeed, the hypocrites will be in the lowest depths of the Fire - and never will you find for them a helper."


title: An-Nisa

text: An explanation of the Islamic view of Jesus as a prophet, rather than as the son of God as Christians claim, is given in Tafsir Ibn Kathir.


title: Chris Klieman

text: Christopher Paul Klieman ( ; born September 27, 1967) is an American football coach and former player, and is currently the head coach for Kansas State University in the Big 12 Conference. He took over from the retiring Bill Snyder after leading North Dakota State University to the 2018 Division I FCS championship, marking his fourth national championship in five seasons at NDSU.


title: Chris Klieman

text: Klieman was born on September 27, 1967, in Waterloo, Iowa to Robert "Bob" Klieman and Mary Kay. He was raised in Waterloo and graduated from Columbus Catholic High School in 1986. Through high school he was a star athlete, competing as quarterback and defensive back on the football team. His father Bob, a Hall of Fame official and a long time coach of both golf and football at Columbus Catholic High School, is also a member of the Upper Iowa University Athletic Hall of Fame. Klieman has two siblings, a sister, Sarah, and a brother, Scott.


title: Chris Klieman

text: After high school, Klieman attended the University of Northern Iowa where he played in the defensive secondary for the Panthers football team from 1986 to 1990.


title: Chris Klieman

text: After graduating from Northern Iowa in 1990, Klieman began coaching for the Panthers under then-head coach Terry Allen until 1993. Klieman accepted a position with Western Illinois and stayed there for 3 seasons until 1996. In 1997, he enjoyed a brief season stay with Kansas as a defensive backs coach and one season with Missouri State in 1999. He then spent five seasons at Loras College from 2001 to 2005, serving as defensive coordinator from 2002 to 2004. In 2005, he accepted his first head coaching position, leading the Division III Loras Duhawks to a 3–7 record. In early 2006, he stepped down from his head coaching position at Loras to accept the defensive backs coaching position back at his alma mater Northern Iowa. He became co-defensive coordinator the next year and held that position until leaving for North Dakota State in 2011.


title: Chris Klieman

text: In 2011, Craig Bohl hired Klieman as a defensive backs coach. He became the defensive coordinator the following season in 2012 until being promoted in 2014. After Bohl announced that he was leaving to become the head coach of Wyoming, then athletic director Gene Taylor promoted Klieman to become the 30th head football coach in Bison history in 2014.


title: Chris Klieman

text: After winning three consecutive National Championships and going 43–2 since 2011, the expectations for the 2014 team were not high. The Bison had lost their starting quarterback and a total of 30 seniors that graduated before the season started. But 2014 surprised everyone when he and future 2nd overall NFL draft pick Carson Wentz led the Bison to a 15–1 overall record and a fourth consecutive national championship by beating Illinois State in a close, hard-fought championship game. NDSU became the first Division 1 football program to win four consecutive championships.


title: Chris Klieman

text: In 2015, the Bison continued their winning ways and ended the season 13–2 with a fifth consecutive national championship, the most by any NCAA football program in history.


title: Chris Klieman

text: In 2016, the Bison again won their conference title, but lost in the FCS semi-finals to James Madison, their first playoff loss in 6 years. They ended the year at 12–2, their sixth straight season with double-digit wins. The 2017 season continued the Bison dominance by again going 10–1 and winning their seventh consecutive MVFC title and avenging the previous years loss to James Madison by beating them in the Championship Game 17–13. It was Klieman's third National Championship in four seasons and the Bison's sixth in seven years. They won it all again in 2018.


title: Chris Klieman

text: On December 10, 2018, Kansas State University Athletic Director Gene Taylor announced Klieman had been hired as the program's 35th head coach to replace the recently retired Bill Snyder. Taylor, who promoted Klieman to head coach at NDSU, had recently been named athletic director at Kansas State. Klieman signed a six-year contract worth $16.8 million. Both schools agreed that Klieman would remain at NDSU while the Bison were participating in the FCS playoffs. On December 3, 2022, Kansas State defeated TCU in overtime 31 - 28 to win the Big 12 Championship.


title: Kraftwerk discography

text: The discography of German electronic band Kraftwerk consists of 10 studio albums, two live albums, one remix album and 26 singles. Formed by Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider in Düsseldorf in 1970, Kraftwerk were part of the krautrock scene. However, the group mostly found fame as pioneers of electronic music, showcasing their styles on a series of concept albums.


title: Kraftwerk discography

text: While their initial albums featured mostly German lyrics, in 1975 Kraftwerk began writing lyrics that combined both German and English verses. Beginning with "Trans-Europe Express" (1977), most songs by the group were created as duplicate versions sung in English or German; some French, Japanese, Italian or Spanish versions were made.


title: Kraftwerk discography

text: Since the mid-1970s Kraftwerk have always picked at least two album tracks for release as singles. These accompanying singles were, for many years, created by simply editing down the album recordings, rather than being remixed or otherwise expanded. Since 1991 Kraftwerk have tended to follow the trend for releasing singles in multiple remixed arrangements. A small number of recordings have only been issued as albumless singles, notably those between 1999 and 2000 for the Expo 2000 project.


title: Kraftwerk discography

text: Prior to forming Kraftwerk, Hütter and Schneider were part of a project called Organisation that released the album "Tone Float" in 1969.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Spanish Americans (, hispanoestadounidenses, or hispanonorteamericanos) are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly from Spain. They are the longest-established European American group in the modern United States of America, with a very small group descending from those explorations leaving from Spain and the Viceroyalty of New Spain (modern Mexico), and starting in the early 1500’s, of 42 of the future US states from California to Florida; and beginning a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and New Mexico since 1598.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Many Hispanic and Latino Americans (Hispanos being the oldest group) living in the United States have Spanish ancestral roots due to five centuries of Spanish colonial settlement and large-scale immigration of Hispanic groups after independence. By this criterion, these groups, and especially white Hispanic and Latino Americans 12,579,626 (white alone, 20.3% of all Hispanics) largely overlap with "Spanish Americans", with the caveat that the former groups can also include European ancestries other than Spanish, and often Amerindian or African ancestry.


title: Spanish Americans

text: However, the term "Spanish American" is used mostly to refer to Americans whose self-identified ancestry originates directly from Spain in the 20th century.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of European settlements of Spanish populations in the present-day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement on modern day U.S. soil was San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1521, followed by St. Augustine, Florida (the oldest in the continental United States), in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, and Texas. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate and about 1,000 other Spaniards from the Viceroyalty of New Spain.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California (1602), San Antonio, Texas (1691) and Tucson, Arizona (1699). By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000.


title: Spanish Americans

text: After the establishment of the American colonies, an additional 250,000 immigrants arrived either directly from Spain, the Canary Islands or, after a relatively short sojourn, from present-day central Mexico. These Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the New World. The Canary Islanders settled in bayou areas surrounding New Orleans in Louisiana from 1778 to 1783 and in San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas, in 1731.


title: Spanish Americans

text: The earliest known Spanish settlements in the then northern Mexico were the result of the same forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations. In addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. A smaller percentage of new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts and Spanish Muslim converts.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the civil service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel and residence. Many of them were also wealthy and prosperous merchants, constituting much of the upper class in Spanish colonial society. Another reason for their emigration besides the restrictive inheritance laws in the Basque Country, was the devastation from the Napoleonic Wars in the first half of the nineteenth century, which was followed by defeats in the two Carlist civil wars. (For more information about the Basque, and immigrants to the United States from this region, see Basque Americans.)


title: Spanish Americans

text: Immigration to the United States from Spain was controversially minimal but steady during the first half of the nineteenth century, with an increase during the 1850s and 1860s resulting from the bloody warfare of the Carlist civil wars during the years of 1833–1876. Much larger numbers of Spanish immigrants entered the country in the first quarter of the twentieth century—27,000 in the first decade and 68,000 in the second—due to the same circumstances of rural poverty and urban congestion that led other Europeans to emigrate in that period, as well as unpopular wars-in this first wave of Spanish immigration. The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000, because many immigrants returned to Spain after finishing their farmwork.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Beginning with the coup d'état against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936 and the devastating civil war that ensued, General Francisco Franco established a dictatorship for 40 years. At the time of his takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured a period of autarky, as Franco believed that post-World War II Spain could survive or continue its activities without any European assistance.


title: Spanish Americans

text: In the mid-1960s, 44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States, as part of a second wave of Spanish immigration. In the 1960s and 1970s the economic situation improved in Spain, and Spanish immigration to the United States declined to about 3,000 per year. In the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U.S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, representing only four-tenths of a percent of the total populace. As from the rest of Europe, 21st century immigrants from Spain are few, only 10,000 per year at most.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Much as with French Americans, who are of French descent but mostly by way of Canada, the majority of the 41 million massively strong Spanish-speaking population have come by way of Latin America, especially Mexico, but also Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and other areas that the Spanish themselves colonized. Many of the Hispanic and Latino Americans bring their Spanish-speaking culture into the country.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Spanish-Americans in the United States are found in large concentrations in five major states from 1940 through the early twenty-first century. In 1940, the highest concentration of Spaniards were in New York (primarily New York City), followed by California, Florida, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The 1950 US Census indicated little change—New York with 14,705 residents from Spain and California with 10,890 topped the list. Spaniards spilled into New Jersey with 3,382, followed by Florida (3,382) and Pennsylvania (1,790). By 1990 and 2000, there was relatively little change except in the order of the states and the addition of Texas.


title: Spanish Americans

text: In 1990 Florida ranked first with 78,656 Spanish immigrants followed by: California 74,784, New York (42,309), Texas (32,226), New Jersey (28,666).


title: Spanish Americans

text: The 2000 Census was a significant decline in Spanish-origin immigrants. California now ranked highest (22,459), followed by, Florida (14,110 arriving from Spain), New York (13,017), New Jersey (9,183), Texas (7,202).


title: Spanish Americans

text: Communities in the United States, in keeping with their strong regional identification in Spain, have established ethnic organizations for Basques, Galicians, Asturians, Andalusians, and other such communities.


title: Spanish Americans

text: These figures show that there was never the mass emigration from Iberia that there was from Latin America. It is evident in the figures that Spanish immigration peaked in the 1910s and 1920s. The majority settled in Florida and New York, although there was also a sizable Spanish influx to West Virginia at the turn of the 20th century, mostly from Asturias. These Asturian immigrants worked in the U.S. zinc industry after having worked in the smelters of Real Compañía Asturiana de Minas in Arnao, on the north coast near Avilés.


title: Spanish Americans

text: It is likely that more Spaniards settled in Latin America than in the United States, due to common language, shared religion, and cultural ties.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Some of the first ancestors of Spanish Americans were Spanish Jews who spoke Ladino, a language derived from Castilian Spanish and Hebrew.


title: Spanish Americans

text: In the 1930s and 1940s, Spanish immigration mostly consisted of refugees fleeing from the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and from the Franco military regime in Spain, which lasted until his death in 1975. The majority of these refugees were businessmen and intellectuals, as well as union activists, and held strong liberal anti-authoritarian feelings.


title: Spanish Americans

text: A Californio (Spanish for "Californian") is a Spanish term for a descendant of a person of Castillian ancestry who was born in Alta California. "Alta California" refers to the time of the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the region's cession to the United States of America in 1848.


title: Spanish Americans

text: Since 1945, others sometimes referred to as Californios (many appear in the "Notable Californios" section below) include:


title: Spanish Americans

text: Early Alta California immigrants who settled down and made new lives in the province, regardless of where they were born. This group is distinct from indigenous peoples of California. Descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californios.


title: Spanish Americans

text: The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the thinly-populated presidios, missions, pueblos and ranchos. Until they were secularized in the 1830s, the twenty-one Spanish missions of California, with their thousands of more-or-less captive native converts, controlled the most (about per mission) and best land, had large numbers of workers, grew the most crops and had the most sheep, cattle and horses. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the mission lands into new ranchos and granted them to Mexican citizens (including many Californios) resident in California.


title: Spanish Americans

text: The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, whom Californios called "Sonorans." People from other parts of Latin America (most notably Peru and Chile) did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expeditions of Gaspar de Portolá (1770) and of Juan Bautista de Anza (1775–1776). Children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first true Californios. One genealogist estimated that, in 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios.